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The Politics of Football: Radical Nationalism and Discrimination in the European Football

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The Politics of Football: Radical Nationalism and Discrimination in the European Football MASTERARBEIT Titel der Masterarbeit „The Politics of Football: Radical Nationalism and Discrimination in the European Football. Case Study: Ukraine“ Verfasser Pavlo Klymenko angestrebter akademischer Grad Master (MA) Wien, 2013 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt: A 067 805 Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt: Individuelles Masterstudium: Global Studies – a European Perspective Betreuerin / Betreuer: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Stefan Zahlmann, M.A. MASTERARBEIT / MASTER THESIS Titel der Masterarbeit /Title of the master thesis The Politics of Football: Radical Nationalism and Discrimination in the European Football. Case Study: Ukraine Verfasser /Author Pavlo Klymenko angestrebter akademischer Grad / acadamic degree aspired Master (MA) Wien, 2013 Studienkennzahl : A 067 805 Studienrichtung: Individuelles Masterstudium: Global Studies – a European Perspective Betreuer/Supervisor: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Stefan Zahlmann, M.A. “Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is bound up with hatred, jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing violence: in other words it is war minus the shooting.” George Orwell: ‘The Sporting Spirit’ “Football is only a game. That is the most outrageous nonsense of the lot. Football is a science, it’s an art, it is war, ballet, drama, terror and joy all rolled into one.” Tom Utley Abstract Abstract English The work presents a complex investigation on racism and radical nationalism in the European football. A historical comparative analysis of the issue in Western Europe is complemented by an emblematic for Eastern Europe case study on Ukraine. The author employs social constructivist approach to analyze the roots and causes of the problem, factors contributing to the dominance of radical nationalists in football across Europe and the performance of national identities at the stadiums. The presence of racism in football is traced back to the early beginnings of the game but the author objects the view that football itself is inherently divisive and argues in favor of instrumental approach where the game can either foster competition and enforce divisions or contribute to community building and promoting diversity depending on its use. The author suggests that negative developments in the European football such as racism should not be solely attributed to the minority of hooligans but reflect larger tensions in respective societies. The dominance of radical nationalist groups in Ukrainian football is attributed to the activity of political organizations who recruit members at the football stadiums as well as transfer of practices from fan cultures of the neighboring states and Western Europe. The author suggests, that in order to tackle racism and radical nationalism in the European football the combined efforts from the fans themselves, football clubs and regulatory bodies are necessary. Abstract German Diese Arbeit präsentiert eine komplexe Untersuchung von Rassismus und radikalem Nationalismus im europäischen Fußball. Eine vergleichende historische Analyse dieses Problems in Westeuropa ist ergänzt durch ein emblematisches Fallbeispiel aus der Ukraine. Der Autor verwendet einen sozial konstruktivistischen Ansatz um die Wurzeln und Ursachen des Problems, die Faktoren die zur Dominanz der radikalen Nationalisten im Fußball in ganz Europa beifügen, und die Darstellung nationaler Identitäten in den Stadien zu analysieren. Rassismus im Fußball ist von seiner frühen Entwicklungsphase an festzustellen, aber der Autor wendet ein, dass Fußball an sich entzweiend ist und spricht sich für einen instrumentalen Zugang aus, bei dem das Spiel, je nachdem wie es benutzt wird, entweder Konkurrenz stärkend und spaltend wirkt, oder zur Gemeinschaftsbildung beitragen kann und Diversität fördert. Der Autor schlägt vor, dass negative Entwicklungen im europäischen Fußball wie Rassismus nicht alleine im Zusammenhang mit der Minderheit von Hooligans in Verbindung stehen, sondern größere Spannungen in den jeweiligen Gesellschaften wiederspiegeln. Die Dominanz von radikalen nationalistischen Gruppen im ukrainischen Fußball steht im Zusammenhang sowohl mit den Aktivitäten von politischen Organisationen, die Mitglieder in den Fußballstadien rekrutieren, als auch mit dem Transfer von Praktiken im Bereich von Fan Kultur der Nachbarstaaten und Westeuropa. Der Autor meint, um das Problem von Rassismus und radikalem Nationalismus im europäischen Fußball zu lösen, sind gemeinsame Anstrengungen von Fans, Fußballklubs und regulative Behörden notwendig. Table of contents List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………….i 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 4 1.1. Research Question, Theoretical Base and Methods .......................................................... 8 1.2. Structure ........................................................................................................................ 10 1.3. State of the Art .............................................................................................................. 11 2. The History of Racism and Radical Nationalism in European Football ....................................... 16 2.1. Nature of the Game – Identities at the Extreme ............................................................. 21 2.2. European Football since 1960s: Commercialization, Globalization and Counter- movements .................................................................................................................... 27 2.3. Hooliganism and Racism ................................................................................................ 35 3. Case Study: Radical Nationalism in the Ukrainian Fan Scene ........................................................ 44 3.1. Interethnic Relations and Tolerance in Ukraine. ............................................................. 50 3.2. Radical Nationalism in the State and Society .................................................................. 55 3.3. Racist Incidents and Display of Discriminatory Symbols in Ukrainian Football ............. 62 4. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 72 Appendix 1……………………………………………………………………………………79 Appendix 2……………………………………………………………………………………80 List of Abbreviations DC – Disciplinary Committee FA – Football Association FARE – Football Against Racism in Europe FC – Football Club FFU – Football Federation of Ukraine FIFA – International Federation of Football Associations OUN-UPA – Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists-Ukrainian Insurgent Army UEFA – Union of European Football Associations UN – United Nations UPL – Ukrainian Premier League i 1 Introduction Football is arguably the most popular game in the world attracting more than a billion people worldwide who play it, watch it and support their teams at the stadiums. This statement hardly requires any proofs, but the usual arguments employed include the fact that International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA) has more members than the United Nations1 and the television audience attracted by the FIFA World Cup finals on different accounts equals to around billion people worldwide.2 Most importantly, football is not just a game but the reflection of society, where the relations of race, class, gender, sexuality and national identities are reconstructed and manifested. The global game is closely linked to politics exercised institutionally as well as spontaneously at the football stadiums. From the very beginning of football in Britain and especially since the spread of live television broadcasting, the game of 22 people with a leather football has been increasingly 1 FIFA. FIFA’s Member Associations (2012). United Nations. UN at a glance (2012). 2 FIFA. Almost half the world tuned in at home to watch 2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa. (2011). 4 Introduction transformed from an entertainment into political act. Professional football clubs gathered thousands of loyal supporters who considered their team as an integral part of their identity. National teams’ competitions fostered nationalist feelings among those who watched their fellow countrymen playing against other national team. The major sporting and especially football events were extensively used throughout the last century by various rulers and dictators to consolidate the power and gain international legitimacy and credibility. Currently, football is not only one of the major global sports, media events, entertainments and businesses, but most importantly it is a passion for millions of active supporters who cheer for their teams at the stadiums, at times far too passionately. Contemporary European football is marred by racism and discrimination manifested at the terraces as well as at the pitch and in the governing institutions. Racist chants, banners, banana throwing and other discriminatory abuse may be found all over Europe from the highest professional leagues to the lowest amateur ones. These facts challenge not only the traditional values of sport such as fair competition and fair play but also pose danger to the fundamental human rights. The origins of racism may be found in the European history of colonialism, when the ‘non- white’ peoples were declared to be inferior to the ‘civilized’ Europeans. In the course of the 20th century with the development of the fundamental human rights discourse, racist theories were
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