Plato and Socrates

EUTHYPHRO

THE Dialogue begins with a meeting between Socrates and Euthyphro in the neighbourhood of one of the Courts

of Law. E l has So U. What nove ty happened, hat ou a l t crates, t y h ve ef the walls of the Lyceum and are now pacing the ’ King s Portico You surely have not a lawsuit in the Court which sits there i Euth hro Soc. The Athen ans, yp , do i bu in not call my business a su t, t an dic ent : i l but ri i l tm not a c vi , a c m na ’ process . ‘ EU t’ as . How say you H any one brought an indictment against you For I will never believe that you have ’ u i a r bro ght one aga n t anothe person. ’

r i l . E T 800. No, ce ta n y U. hen another ’

has i i ou so. nd cted y Soc. Even 3 PLATO AND SOCRATES

‘ I s l EU. And who Soc. do not my e f, He Eu h hro l . t yp , exact y know the man seems to me a young man and an igno

s is I i Meletus . rant one. Hi name , th nk, ou He is of the district of Pitthis. Do y happen to know any Meletus of that d ri ha r ist ct, a man with long smooth i , ‘’ i r t EU. I a th n bea d, and a hook nose him r But do not know , Soc ates. what ’ s his i i s ou r s P i nd ctment again t y , Soc ate 800 i . What is it P A very we ghty and

- hi i as s s to . gh p tched one indeed, eem me h s s ul That e, young man as he i , ho d is be master of so great a subject, no m in as s all th g. He knows, he says, in what way the minds of young men are rru th rs s co pted , and who are e pe on who corrupt them. He must be a very wise man ; and looking with displeasure as r r at me, a pe son who, by my e ron eous i s v ews, corrupt young men of his own age, he runs to the City as a boy ru s hi s r l s u n to mothe , and ay an acc i i sat on aga nst me. He seems to me to be the only one of our politicians who 4 PLATO AND SOCRATES

is begins at the right end. It quite right to attend to the improvement of u first to the yo ng men , make them good, as the husbandman considers the young M plants as the most important. eletus first l e us will in the p ac mend , who s s u l s spoil, he say , the e yo ng p ant , and then no doubt afterwards attend to the older men, and so do infinite good to the ’ s tate. We cannot fail to see the indignation that is masked under this ironical r e l as r is E p ais , ca m the manne . uthy phro expresses this feeling more di

ou r I wish it may so turn t, Soc ates but I am afraid that the opposite result will happen. Those who attack you seem to me to begin the destruction of i ri u r s the c ty by tea ng p the hea th tone. ‘ But ll ha sa s ’ te me, w t he y that you do t what he means by corrupting young

‘ It is re ll sur s 800. a y an ab d tory, my fri . He s s I end ay that make new gods, A 2 5 PLATO AND SOCRATES

and do not acknowledge the established ’ ones. E u rs s U. I nde tand, Socrate . He means your Da mon or divine guide ou sa i s that y y accompan e you. And this he makes a point to found his us u i acc ation pon, and br ngs you before u us i o a the Co rt of J t c , knowing th t such accusations produce an eﬁ ect on the

a so i is. l u M ny. And t They a gh at me ls r I r r s a o, wheneve p etend to p ophe y, I l s r s ul and yet a way p ophe y tr y. It is all envy : but we mus t not heed ’ them. We Euth hro : r 800. ll, yp pe haps there r r in i l u is no g eat ha m be ng a ghed at . But it seems to me that though the Athenians are not angry with a man s a for being wi e, they re very angry i ma s r w th any one who ke othe s wise. u If they only la gh at me, as you say ou i s l t they do at y , t may be ea y to e them have their laugh and have done with it : but if they take the matter in PLATO AND SOCRATES

s know what course thing will take, ’ except for a prophet like you. B I r s ar EU. ut hope, Soc ate , no h m a ou will come of it, and th t y will i I h win w n your cause, and s all i ’ m ne. r Euth hro is Soc. And p ay, yp , what your lawsuit Are you defender or r EU I e m ursu r in s pursue . p e a ca e ’ where it may appear insane to pursue. s Soc . What? are you pursuing ome one ’ He is who has wings like a bird? EU . very far from having wings : for he is ’ r old ‘ is a ve y man . 800. And who i ’ wn t EU. h r ur o My fat e . Soc. Yo ’ ‘ ’ ‘ r? EU ve so . fathe . E n 800. And what is the complaint What is the charge ’ EU. i i s Hom c de, Socrate .

Soc . l ss r inl Euth B e me ! Ce ta y, y r ph o, common folks know very little is ri is wro what ght and what ng. For I do not think any common person could have thought such a proceeding right : you must have reached a high ’ i c of is to a p t h w dom see t h t. 7 PLATO AND SOCRATES

EU U u l r r . ndo bted y, Soc ates, a ve y hi i ’ gh p tch. S Bu ur oc. t is it one of yo own family who has been killed by your father 1’ Bu i t I need not ask. It is plain t must

so. Y u be o would not, on behal f of a r r st ange , have brought such an accu

EU. is r s r s It ve y ab urd, Soc ate , that you think it makes any diﬁerence whether the man who is killed is a r r i st anger o a relat ve. You ought to know that all that needs attention is i r l th s, whethe the man that kil ed him was in the right in doing so ; and if he was in ri l h al the ght, to eave im one bu if r s u him t not, to p o ec te even if he

be your nearest friend. For in any case you make yourself equally a par taker of his crime if you do not invoke

the operation of the Law. As for l the man who is kil ed, he was l ur r r a abo e of mine, who wo ked on my farm at Naxos ; and he being in drink in r r and a age with one of ou servants, 8 PLATO AND SOCRATES

l So s ew him. my father bound him and o u m o r hand f ot and p t hi into a c lla , and sent a man hither to inquire of the magistrates what was to be done. And in the mean time took no care of the ri r as su i it p sone , ppos ng that made li r ttle diﬁ erence if a murdere , as he d di was, died : and so he id e. He perished from hunger and cold and conﬁnement before the messenger t returned from the magis rate. And my father and the other ser vants are indignant that I prosecute my r f r i for fathe o hom cide ; , as they say, he di he did not kill the man ; and if d. it w r i u as a matte not worth car ng abo t, the man himself being a murderer : and that it is an impious thing for a son to prosecute his father for homicide. You see, Socrates, they do not know i ’ what is impious and what s pious. The case of homicide is of so miti gated and doubtful a character that there is no great principle of morality involved in the d iscussion of it ; and. 9 PLATO AND SOCRATES

r di ussi s acco dingly, the sc on doe not de u of ri bu pend upon the amo nt c me, t on the general question whether it is con ’ sistent with piety to prosecute one s r as ro i ou fathe ; and then, g w ng t of s r i r i i thi , acco d ng to Soc at c hab ts of is im thought, what piety and what is i Euth hro as see s s u for p ety. yp , we , et p u mat rs and r an authority on s ch te , the e fore is to be brought to a more mod~ ~ erate mood by a course of Socratic eon: versation and the difliculty of finding a tenable definition of Piety is to be made to bear on the accusation of r s f r Soc ate o Impiety. Socrates im di l s hi me ate y make s attack. ’

Soc . But for s s Euth heaven ake, y r ou i ou s ph o, do y th nk y know o exactly u ri r i abo t ght and w ong, and p ety and i i s i mp ety, that the ca e be ng as you s it ou have tated , y have no fear that ou in r s u i ur y , p o ec t ng yo father, may be doing an impious thing

EU. I s ul or li ho d be good f ttle, So r Euth c ates. yphro would be no better 1 0 PLATO AND SOCRATES than another man if I did not know

ll Eu h 800. Then, my exce ent t yphro , the best thing to be done is for me to become your pupil ; and before this i l s l es on I ill l tr a of my e f com , w appea l ll to Meletus, and wil te him that I have always all through my life tried u ri to know abo t ght and wrong, and now that he says I have been too rash and have gone wrong by running after l in u su s I nove ties s ch bject , have be i l ul come your disc p e. I wo d say to l s ou ll Eu h him, 0 Me etu , y a ow that t y phro 1 8 wise in such matters and knows u s ri what 1 8 right, so s ppo e me to be ght too and do not prosecute me : prosecute r r s my master athe than me, who doe is d as u sa I m chief to ol men, ! yo y do to young ones mischief to me in his teaching me wrong, and to own father in condemning and punishing did as r him. And if he not do I e s r s u r quested, and cea e to p o ec te me, o r u ul p osecute yo instead of me, I wo d l l PLATO AND SOCRATES use the same arguments in the court ri of justice on the t al, which I had

B r EU. y my t oth, Socrates, if he were to set about accusing me, I should soon d ou his ﬁn t weak place, and there would be a good deal more to be said about him in the court of justice than about ’ me. r 800. My dea friend. I know that r ll is ve y we , and that why I want to be your pupil ; knowing that both Meletus and other persons see no harm u bu in yo , t look into me so deeply and so sharply that they accuse me of im ’ So for Go s s l piety. now d ake, te l me that which you just now assured me you knew so well : What is pious and is i i us in a what mp o , both c ses of homi cide and in other cases Or is piety a thing which is not in all cases the same Is impiety not always the opposite of piety Is everything which is impious conformable to the same idea ’ EU r inl . Ce ta y, Socrates. 1 2 PLATO AND SOCRATES

Soc us . Tell me then, what is Pio and what is Impious E I i I am U. reply, that is pious wh ch now i in r u i ofi ender do ng, p osec t ng an for i rile r li hom cide or sac ge o the ke, even if he be your father or your r d i i i us mothe , an I say that it s mp o u not to prosec te. ‘ And I will give you a proof that the rul is so nd i ri e , a that th s is ght, not to s r fi end r r For pa e an o e whoeve he be. men hold that Jupiter is supremely ust s good and j among the god , and they say that he p ut his father in use bonds and mutilated him, beca he h lik devoured is children, and the e because I prosecute my father when is d us con he an ofi en er, and th they tradict themselves in what they say ’ u u abo t the gods and abo t me. 800 u Eu h hro . In tr th, t yp , that is the reason why I am here to undergo this prosecution ; that when any one says i such th ngs about the gods, I um 18 PLATO AND SOCRATES

ri e g ev d, and take it ill ; and that is the r i r w ong wh ch they object to on my pa t . Bu ou so ll t now, as y who know we su ar s about ch matters, e of the ame u opinion, we must I s ppose make up our minds to believe these stories : for we have no pretension to know any hi u B ll for t ng abo t them. ut te me, ’ ds i s s ou r l hi frien h p ake, do y eal y t nk that those things happened

EU. Y r rful hi s es, and mo e wonde t ng ll r s i sti , Soc ate , wh ch the common l i ’ peop e know noth ng about. so u hi s 800. And yo t nk that the god really did make war upon one another and that there were among them enmi ﬁ h in s lik su as ties and g t g and the e, ch the poets tell of ; and such as we see in the tapestry which is exhibited at h P n ’ t e a athenian festival. EU r bu as . Not only the e, Socrates, t I us s i I ul u li j t now a d, co d, if yo ked to li l sten, te l you many th1 ugs about the gods which it would astonish you to ’ hear. 1 4 PLATO AND SOCRATES

r bu Soc. I should not wonde ; t you shall te ll me these at some other time

i . But when we have le sure now, if u l s tr to s r u s i yo p ea e, y an we my q e t on n ou more precisely tha y have yet done. u is i ou For I asked yo what P ety , and y replied that it is what you are doing r u i ur r for now, p osec t ng yo fathe homi ’ cide. ’ I s i r r EU. And a d t uly, Soc ates.

Soc. so : but Euth h May be , yp ro, there are other things which are in lu in i re c ded p ety, a there not ’

E i l . U. Certa n y l r Soc. We l then ; emember that I did not request you to name to me one or two of the many things which are i lu in i b ll nc ded p ety , ut to te me in virtue of what essential character i us i a u F r p o th ngs re pio s. o you said that there was a general idea by which i us hin s r i us p o t g we e p o , and impious i s r i i us Or th ng we e mp o . do you not ’ r r —EU I emembe . do. ll ll 800. We now ; te me what this 1 5 i l l dea is, that I may be ab e to ook at i i ri ri ma t : and use t as a c te on, and y r s i i know that what ag ee w th t, done u r r is i s by yo o any othe , p ou , and what ’ does not agree is impious . EU ll r if ou is i I . We , Soc ates, y w h t ’ ll o will te y u that. ’ I c i l i 800. erta n y do wish t. E U. What is pleasing to the gods is pious ; what is unpleasing to them is

800. Excellently well said. Euthy r ust su eﬁni n I ph o, and j ch a d tio as wished for. u r it is ru I B t whethe t e, do not yet r know. Of course you are eady to ’ is ru E prove to me that it t e. U. Cer

Here we have obvious matter for For Eu h hr discussion. t yp o, who now says that piety is what is pleasing to f r asse the gods, had just be o e rted that u r the gods q ar el with one another. Bu rs s u r t when pe on q arrel they diﬁ e , and they quarrel most when they diﬁer 1 6 PLATO AND SOCRATES

u If abo t right and wrong . the gods

u s i is l s abo t uch th ngs . Then what p ea ing to one of them will be displeasing to another ; and so the same thing may i us i i s o Euth be p o and mp ou . And s , y r ph o, you have not answered my ques r tion, which was, the diﬁe ence between

You. in r s u ur r p o ec ting yo fathe , may i is l si u i r be do ng what p ea ng to J p te , i ’ and d spleasing to Saturn and Uranus. Euthyphro says that the gods cannot diﬁ er as to whether a man shoul d be

you ever hear any one say that a man should not be punished who has done anything wrongfully But then they dispute whether the thing was done ron ll w gfu y. And so as men diﬂer

so too. so ll do And te me, my dear Eu h hro ho t yp , w you know certainly t in su cas as are tha ch a e yours, you a 1 7 PLATO AND SOCRATES r Eu h hro ul e ight. t yp says, It wo d b a ’ ‘ ’ ‘ s long tory. Ha, says Socrate s, I see

’ ’ n in Y s s to co v ce them. es, ay Euthy ’ hr if p o, they will hear me. 800. h r u o , they will hea yo , who speak so well. But even if you had proved your i ul case to me ever so well, th s wo d not r s have answe ed my que tion, What is pious and what is impious Let nu i ’ return to that quest on. But they return to the question under a new aspect. The former argument had been derived from the circum stances of the Grecian polytheism ; but the question to which they now proceed belongs to the theology of all times of careful thought about the foundations li is of religion and mora ty, and indeed a question still discussed among theo

I “ logians : it is this : s what is right, is it pleasing to God because it is right ? Instead of right the word is that which 1 8

PLATO AND SOCRATES

But it is you who make my hypotheses If u l t run away. yo had ef them alone, they would not have gone! Socrates Yo l r r replies, u make a c eve e person than Dmdalus himself : and in truth I l r i is i s am c eve n th way aga n t my will. I shoul d like to find doctrines that will s r l us I s tay pe manent y wi th . hould li is u r ke th m ch bette than to have, as I s l e lus eem to have, the c everness of D da ’ d s us a ded to the trea ures of Tantal . Socrates then goes on to accuse his companion of being too delicate and in dolent to pursue these discussions with r iri prope sp t, and propounds to him u s i another q e t on, whether piety is the l ri ss r who e of ghtne , o (to use a more ri r ri r approp ate wo d,) ghteousness, o r h only a pa t of it. Eut yphro at ﬁrst is puzzled by the question ; and Socrates to illustrate it quotes the poet Stasinus : Ju iter l r p , maker of al , who a ranged rl r s us the wo d that su round , B arest thou not to name : for where r is r the e fea there is reverence. 2) PLATO AND SOCRATES

’ s diﬁ r i I, he say , e w th the poet ; for men fear things which they do not re

r nce f r i s . B t I ve e , poverty o n tance u say that where there is reverence there

r r and thence fea to do w ong. Fear r r ssi r is a wide exp e on than everence.

' ' is i r Reverence a k nd of Fear, a1 1 d the e r r s i fore a pa t of Fea , as Odd i a k nd of u r r of he i N mbe , and a pa t t not on of

r. ar Numbe And now, e we to say that where there is Righteousness there is Piety ; or are we rather to say that where there is Piety there is Righteous r r us ness, but that whe e the e is Righteo is s ril i i ness, there not nece sa y P ety, P ety being only a part of Righteousness l u h is i 80 ed, E t yphro assents to th v ew. Socrates points out that the question then arises : What part of Righteous ’ ss is i ll s ‘ ne P ety Te me. he ays, that I may require Meletus not to do me

I have learnt so well from you what i ’ p ety is. a 2 21 PLATO AND SOCRATES

Euthyphro is now able to give a d H efinition to his own satisfaction. e s s i is r i us ss ay , P ety the pa t of R ghteo ne which is concerned about the service of s e r i s the god . The r mainde of R ghteou ness is that which leads to the utility ’ of men. is Th Socrates praises as well said. ’ But s ill s s is s ll t , he ay , there one ma r matte wanting. This service of the s i r s is god , what s it To se ve the god expressed by the same word as to tend rs s s ho e , and dogs, and oxen, and thi tendance is for the benefit of the thing ll is is s r i tended. We then, th e v ce of the gods for the benefit of the gods Do you do the gods any good by your service Of course you did not mean i B u ou mi ll t. ut I asked yo that y ght te me what kind of service of the gods you ’ hr s ers do mean. Euthyp o an w , The ’ service of servants to masters . But this kind of service again is de scribed by the same word as the ofi ce

si i or - il r of the phy c an, the house bu de , PLATO AND SOCRATES

of or the shipwright. Now each these has it for his business to produce some r — l us s i wo k hea th, a ho e, a h p. What a r — l i then is th t wo k, most admirab e t — must be which we can do for the gods ? ’ O s s E h hr e , ay ut yp o , w can do many ’ ’ su r s. But s s r ch wo k , ay Soc ates, what is the best of these works Euthyphro answers with some cir n bu i hi cuml ocutio , t the ma n point of s reply is that we must by prayers and sacrifices make the gods propitious to na our ili s s , fam e , and the tate. Socrates receives this reply with his l l Yo mi usua p ayfulness. u ght have ’ l in s r r s s b to d me a horte fo m, he ay ; ut i s ru I see you do not wish to n t ct me. If ou s r I s ul y had gone a tep furthe , ho d k i I have nown what p ety is . But must ll ou as ll as I Y u sa fo ow y we ay. o y m' then that piety consists m prayers and ' rifi s sacrifi sac ce . Now ce i s giving some i ds r r i th ng to the go , and p aye s asking something from them . Is it not so Eu h hro s s Y t yp ay , ou have well 21 PLATO AND SOCRATES

’ ’ s s s So caught my meaning. That i , ay l r crates, because I am so eager to ea n i ou sa alls from you. Nothing wh ch y y f s ou sa to the ground. And o y y that the service of the gods is giving to them ' ’ — so and asking from them? EU. Even . k ri 800. But then to as a ght we must ask what we need ; and to give aright '— E . we must give what they need. U ’ — i Granted. Soc. Then p ety is a sort of i s — es bargain w th the god EU. Why y , you may call it a bargain if you like to — s do 803 800. I do not like to do o nu i less t be true. But tell me what use can our gifts be to the gods What i as is f r r hi they g ve plain, o eve yt ng i Bu which we have s their gift. t what can they be advantaged by what we give Or have we so much the better r i all of the bargain. that we ece ve good r r f om them, and they get no good f om us

EU. ou i r s Why, do y th nk, Soc ate , that the gods are beneﬁte d by what they receive from us 21 PLATO AND SOCRATES

If ar Soc. they e not, what are these i s urs s i u g ft of o to the god , wh ch yo ‘ have been speaking about 1’

EU. ou su s What can y ppo e, except honour and reverence and gratitude ' S Eu hro 1 s oc. Then, thyp , piety grati tu de to the gods, and not anything ' which 1 s useful or pleasing to them I i t i is in i EU. th nk hat p ety the h gh l ’ est degree p easing to them.

800. And so piety is what is pleasing to the gods ’ E r U. Ce tainly. u Soc. When you speak so, yo cannot wonder that your assertions will not r ﬁx d b . You emain e , ut move away say that I am the Dwdalus who makes but ou are l r r them go away, y a c eve e r i f r e a t st than Daedalus, o you make th m o r u in i ou s g o nd a c rcle. Do y not ee that we are come round to the point that we started from Do you not ll i reco ect that p ety, and that which is l si s r l p ea ng to the god , we e he d by us l not to be the same thing, a little whi e 3 PLATO AND SOCRATES

And now you say they are the i r r r thing. E the we we e w ong ’ r e r —E So o we ar w ong now. U.

ll us i i 800. We then we m t beg n aga n i i for I ill i from the beg nn ng, w not g ve r it up . Now p ay give me your full attention and tell me the truth ; for of sur ou i if s a ety y know t, any one doe . I ill l ou li r us w ho d y , ke P ote , and not e ou o If o l t y g till you tell me. y u had not known quite well what was pious was i i us u ul and what mp o , yo wo d not have undertaken a prosecution against r Y ul your fathe . ou wo d have been withheld by fear of the gods and rever for f ence men. O course you know ’

ask. ll i r what I Te t me the efore. i r EU r . I . Anothe t me, Soc ates have now an engagement which must take ’ me away.

800. las ! are ou A my friend, what y doing You kick me down from the l t su i of y mm t of my hope, and go away. I expected to learn from you what piety so

THE A POLOGY

OR DEFENCE OF SOCRATES

THE A POLOG Y OF SOCRA TES

H n ow you, men of Athens, have bee us rs I n aﬁ ected by my acc e , k ow not ; bu f in lis i I t or my part, ten ng to them, r s i no longe knew my elf, so persuas vely did they speak. And yet there is not

a word of truth in what they have said. But among the false statements which i I they made, there was one at wh ch s l e pecially marvelled, name y, when they warned you to take care that o r e y u we e not led astray by m , inas u m ch as I was a powerful speaker. It did appear to me supremely audacious in su s them to make ch an as ertion, which must immediately afterwards be disproved by the fact ; for you will s i i oon see that I have no sk ll n speaking, 81 PLATO AND SOCRATES unless they call a man a powerful

his I r inl us If they mean t , ce ta y m t allow that I am a speaker of a very r as diﬁ erent kind from them ; fo they, I i r have sa d, have not spoken a wo d of truth ; from me you shall hear the l ru : l h in who e t th and that, not c ot ed and expressions ; you will have from me plain facts expressed in the plainest la u s i ul ng age. Indeed, Athenian , t wo d ill become me at my age to come before ou wi s y th a tudied discourse like a boy. And r is hi i ns the e one t ng, 0 Athen a , which I must beg and entreat of you if I use in my defence the same terms which I have been accustomed to use in - l in s o s the market p ace and the h p , where most of you have heard me talk

‘ in r n r g, do not wonde at that, o take oﬁ en F ce. or this is the fact. I now enter a court of justice for the ﬁrst i h u t me, t o gh I am more than seventy s year old. I am therefore altogether 88 PLATO AND SOCRATES strange to the kind of language used r r us as if here. And the efo e exc e me, s r if s I really were a trange , I peak to you in that tone and in that manner in i u wh ch I have been brought p. I ask ou in i is in r as y a th g wh ch , I th k, e on l ou u ab e, that y take no acco —nt of the manner of my address to you it might tt r it mi rs r s b—e be e , ght be wo e, pe hap but to consider this, to attend to s r sa is ri or thi , whethe I y what ght for is the ir u not ; that v t e of a Judge, as to speak truly is the virtue of an

Advocate. is s n It my busine s the , Athenians, ﬁrst to answer the ﬁrst of the false accusations which have been brought i s us rs aga n t me, and the acc e who have r u b o ght them ; and then, the later r s r s cha ge and the late peakers. For I

have been the object of many charges, ress ou for add ed to y , many years, all false ; and of these I am more afraid An tus his than of y and associates, u are r i l tho gh they fo m dab e enough. 0 w PLATO AND SOCRATES

r rmi l s il But those are mo e fo dab e t l. ud es t ss ssi n 0 J g , who have aken po e o of the minds of most of you from your ﬁlled wi ill boyhood, and have them th in i r i opinions of me, wh ch the e s no truth at all ; to the eﬁ ect that there is r i r s is a ce ta n Soc ate , a w e man, who s u s i s are in t die the th ng that the sky, and explores the things that are under s the earth, and make the worse appear

r r s . s the bette ea on Tho e, 0 Athenians, i ul his i i who have c rc ated t op n on of me, are my formidable accusers ; for those who hear these accusations suppose that the persons to whom they apply

do not believe in the gods. Now those who say such things are accusers who

l i in ri a ong t me, the hea ng of you, r ur some of you f om yo boyhood, some ur il of you from yo ch dhood, and so you

have come to believe it, the accusation being urged without a word of defence r s on the othe ide. And what is very absurd, we cannot know the names of 84

PLATO AND SOCRATES which has been in possession of you su for a long time. I hope I may cceed as for s if it is for your sake, my ake, l for our good, and that I may p ead Bu diﬂ cul successfully. t I know how t Bu l this must be . t et the result he as God pleas es ; I must obey the law and make my defence . us o i Let g back to the beg nning, and consider what this calumny is which u h u r Melot e as taken p, and inco porated his us i it in acc at on. What is this calumny Let us put it in the form of i an ind ctment. criminal curiosi

and teaching others to lik is ﬁ he . is do t e It to th e ect, for you yourselves have seen stuff of this kind in the comedy of Aristo s You phane . have seen there a r i cr tes r r s ce ta n So a ep e ented, who says is air- r lli that he t ave ng, and utters r llies many othe fo , about matters of as PLATO AND SOCRATES

sa his as s isin su small . I y t not de p g ch k l if has i now edge, any one t. Let not Keletoa bring an accusation against u ! Bu me on that acco nt t, men of Athens ! I have nothing to do with such speculations ; and to this I call the greater part of you yourselves as Y u s witnesses. o may tate the facts to r as n one anothe , ma y of you as have

ou . ll r of y have Te one anothe , then, whether you ever heard me telling much or little about such matters ; and from this part of the accusation you may judge of the truth of the rest of B t all his i l the charges. u t s fa se. And if you have heard from any one

i s Leontium like Gorg a of , and Prodicus s i i s lis An of Keo , and H pp a of E . y one 0 u s o i of these, Jdge , can g nto any of 02 37 PLATO AND SOCRATES

i i s so r our c t e , and att act the youth, that though they might have the con versation of their fell ow-citizens for l i u nothing, they eave that, and nd ce them to come to them on condition of i s mak ng large payment , and consider themselves as under an obligation be r is too, that the e another

I was lately with a person who spends more money on these Sophists than all r s r Callias the e t togethe , , the son of s Hipponicus, and I a ked him (he has s s If G lli s two on ) , a a , your sons were s s ul colts or calve , we ho d have been able to ﬁnd and to hire a manager for them who would bring them into good condition and make them good of their kind ; but who can make them good in u l ki their act a nd, good as men and as citizens I suppose that as you have s s ou nsi r on , y have co de ed this question. Is there any such person or no ” rt i l r is s Ce a n y the e , aid; he. And ho is he w and what , and what are his ” ” r s i ? is s i te m of teach ng It , he a d, r n s his Soc ates, Eue u a Parian, and ” r te ms are nve mina . And I thought to myself what a highly favoured E is man this uenus must be , to have th l r il ta ent, and to exe cise it so read y. I should have thought great things of l if bu myse f I had had this talent ; t, s men of Athen , I have it not. But perhaps some one wi ll take me u s But r ur p and ay, , Soc ates, what is yo real case How did these calumnies arise If you had done nothing diﬁer cut r r l f om othe peop e, there would not v u ha e been so m ch talk about you. ll us u r Te what yo eally have done, l - that we may not be eft to guess work. is s s If any one says th , he eem to me to speak reasonably ; and I will try to tell

r un r u i fo t ate ep tat on. Attend then to my account of myself : perhaps some f ou ill i em in o y w th nk I jest, but I assure you it is the exact truth hi ll ou w ch I te y . I got this reputa so PLATO AND SOCRATES

tion in consequence of a certain kind

of wisdom is this It is a human is : is but w dom I have no w dom - the m u t q p h w

) Thos wisdomofP man. e whom I have “ just béen 53m g of are perhaps wiser in some wisdom more than human ; I do not know how to describe i t. I have it not ; and he who pretends l that I have, pretends falsely and ca um niates i s me. And now, Athen an , do i is if s lai not take t am s, I eem to c m something extraordinary ; for I shall not make the claim on my own auth orit bu r u y, t shall refe to an a thority i i which you will all ow to be suﬂ c ent. I shall refer you to the deity who gives r l s l i s i r o ac e at De ph , to te t fy whethe I is wha f ind it have any w dom, and of t

is. You h r h H know C m ep on. e has been my companion from my youth u is H p, and known to most of you . e was ri d ven into exile with you, and was r s r ou u e to ed with y . Yo know the r r a re h cha acte of Ch p on, how earnest 40 PLATO AND SOCRATES

i l i s i he s in al that he g ve h s mind to. He u i ur o , pon a t me, vent ed to g to Delphi and to propound this question r l — O Jud s to the o ac e and, e , do not be — g oﬁ ended l he asked whether any one as is r h as w w e t an I w . The Pythoness ans r a was i r i we ed th t no one w se . H s r r i s re s i b othe , who he , can te t fy this to

o for i s l is . y u, he h m e f dead And pray attend to the object which I have in saying this : I want to show you how the calumnies against me had ir ri i the o g n. I then, when I heard is u us i th , tho ght th with n myself : What God s does the mean, and to what doe he refer For I am not conscious to m r myself of having any wisdo , g eat or small : what then does he mean when he says that I am the wisest of men ls : a ll It cannot be fa e he c nnot te a lie. For a long time I was at a loss what he ul At l s i co d mean. a t w th great hesita i was led is li m uir I t on I to th ne of q y. ' went to one of the men who 1 8 reckoned wise ; thinking that i n that case I shoul d 41 PLATO AND SOCRATES

s r l l sa to it te t the O ac e, and be ab e to y , H r l s s r a am e e at east i a man wi e th n I , and yet you have said that I am the wi s i i is es—t of men. Exam n ng th man then I have no occasion to mention names- he was one of our wise states — i i him i s men exam n ng , 0 Athen an , I is r sul In i i came to th e t. convers ng w th him i r was so , t appea ed to me that he rs s accounted wise by many other pe on , s i ll i s l bu was and e pec a y by h m e f, t not r ll s ea y wise. I then attempted to how him that he thought himself wise but as s odi us w not o . And then I became o im s to h and to many who were pre ent. And then returning into myself I rea soned thus : I am wiser than this man ; for it is tolerably plain that neither of us knows what is right and good ; but i s I he th nk he does know ; , as I do not k now, do not think that I know. I

were reckoned 42

PLATO AND SOCRATES

r st— i poets, and the e that I m ght then at least catch myself in the manifest r case of being mo e ignorant than them. I took them the poems which they had r ull ri s most ca ef y w tten, and I a ked in il t them deta what they meant, tha I might then learn something from am r ll s O them. And I ea y a hamed, i s ll ou s ur Athen an , to te y how thi t ned t us s ru out : bu I m t peak the t th. In l s r s all r r a mo t eve y ca e, the othe pe sons who were present were better able to tell the meaning of that which they s So s had compo ed. I oon came to the conclusion that poets did ot make . g their poems by any Wl sdoinwhich they a sort of inspiration ; like " that oi those who deliver oracles ; for they too utter many a beautiful and r ul thin but k it wonde f g, now not what “ a ) o6 s means. f t8 eemed to me to be in li se the ke ca . And yet I saw that in s u ir s con eq ence of the poem , they were thought to be wiser than other men in r i s u othe th ng , tho gh they were not so . 44 PLATO AND SOCRATES i i h So I left them, th nk ng that I ad the same advantage over them as over the i politic ans.

And at last I went to the artisans. In their department I was conscious l s i that I knew a mo t noth ng, and I knew that I shoul d ﬁnd that they knew many r was beautiful arts . And he e I not dis i s i appointed. They knew th ng wh ch I did r in is s r not know, and we e th waywi e B s ! than I was . ut, 0 men of Athen they seemed to me to have the same defect

w and this conceit of theirs spoilt their is w dom. So I asked myself whether I r r w ss had athe be as I as, not po essing their knowledge and not having their i r or as gno ance, to have both they had. And I answered to myself and to the r l i was r f o ac e, that t bette or me to be as I was. ‘ As r sul is urs i the e t of th co e of nquiry. 45 PLATO AND SOCRATES

O n i urr Athe ians, I have nc ed much and u sub heavy odi m, and have been the lu i s ject of many ca mn e , and have got i F o the name of be ng wise . or all wh are present when I prove a man to be m ignorant, think that I a wise in that B lusi s subject. ut the conc on eems to be s it , 0 men of Athen , that the de y who gave the oracle is reallywise ; and that the oracle means this that human wisdom is worth little or nothing : and r l d that the o ac e di not mean me, So r es in r i ul r bu us c at , pa t c a , t ed my name as an example ; as if it had said : ga g

he has no wisdom

on s i , a k ng, as the racl su s ll s i iz s o e ggest , of a person , c t en an r rs if is u d st ange , any one tho ght to ﬁnd is be wiser, and when I that he not, I add this to the proofs that the oracle is in ri so the ght. And I have been occupied with this inquiry that I have i e had no t me to att nd to any business, 46 PLATO AND SOCRATES

r public o private, and have remained r r as c s u ve y poo , the on eq ence of this kind of divine service. ur r u And f the , the yo ng men who fall s w into my company, and tho e ho have s l r s i ll u mo t eisu e e pec a y, yo ng men of r ar li r s fo tune, e de ghted to hea the e i ni s i i quest o ng of m ne, and often mitate l t i me themse ves, and ry to quest on rs hi r sul is othe . And I t nk the e t that they ﬁnd a great abundance of persons i who th nk that they know something, but r all li l or who e y know tt e nothing. And thereupon those who are ques tioned by them are irritated against me rather than them ; and say that there is a certain wicked Socrates who rru s if co pt the young men. And any one asks them what he does and what s i rru s he teache wh ch co pt them, they r l as can make no ep y, they have no l Bu thing to al ege. t that they may seem to have some ground for what u all they say, they take p these accusa tions which have been cas t against all 47 PLATO AND SOCRATES l i hil who have medd ed w th p osophy, that they search into things under the earth and above the earth, and do not in s believe the god , and make the worse r r s appea the bette rea on. Of course ill assi ru us they w not gn the t e ca e, that they are convicted of to know when

rs s di ni u r s pe on of g ty, n me ou and, urging these charges perseveringly and l usi l l i p a b y, they have for a ong t me filled your ears with these vile calum s nies. And now they have et upon me l An tus l Me etus, and y , and Lycon ; Me e tus r s , urged by the e entment of the s An tus r is s poet , y , by the a t t and the li r rs po ticians, and Lycon by the o ato sai i i l so that as I have d, t w l be wonder ful if I am able in the short time which r is allowed me, to emove a calumny i r i f r wh ch has been g ow ng o so long. is i ru 0 s Th s the t th, men of Athen . I s u li r is peak to yo , not concea ng o disgu i r a or ing anyth ng, g e t small ; though I 48 PLATO AND SOCRATES know that I shall still find the hatred of these persons undiminished ; a proof s ru his that I peak the t th, and that t is the source and cause of the calumny is u find o and th yo will by examinati n, ’ r i ow or at any futu e t me. This lively picture of his character r us ut in u and manne , th p the mo th is r l e of Socrates, p obab y exact, ev n if di s li r i Socrates d not o de ve t. We can readily understand the impatience

r in old- s i u p oduced the fa h o ed, quiet i s he ro s iri Athen an , by t g wing p t of speculation and the spreading habit of cross-questioning ; and we can con ceive the way in which they assigned grounds for their dise of Socrates

by ascribing to . him opinions which as irr li i us they regarded e g o , and which t r he never held . The pic u e of a philo li as r s sophical fe, such Soc ate here do ‘ his s s bes to have been, eem more filly to be written by a philosophical l l disciple ike P ato, than to have been delivered before a court of justice PLATO AND 80CRATES especially considering that it goes back when the Clouds of Aristophanes was s brought upon the Athenian tage. The detailed reference to that play seems to be fitted rather for a literary and philosophical than for a judicial tribu nal ; and seems thus to confirm the ini as s i s op on that, I have a d, thi

indication that the judges who tried the case were of the r democ atic party, who had been exiled s a r by the Thirty. Socrates say , Ch s e w o phon, who as exiled with y u and ’ l i i s returned with you. A ean ng aga n t this democracy was a suspicion under s u which Socrate labo red. We now come to the more forensic portion of the Defence ; which however much the form of a suﬂici I have thus answered, I hope l ent y, my ancient accusers. And now 50

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for it is i ss Y you know, your bus ne . ou u ut it s ms rru have fo nd o , ee , who co pts s r for them and make them wo se, that ou us is what y acc e me of now. Now ll us i out s ud te , and po nt to the e j ges, s r who make them bette . u see Mele e sil Yo , tus, you ar ent and

have nothing to say. And is not this

. ur r a scandal in yo case, and a p oof of ou i what I say, that y have g ven no a ttention to such matters Come : tell me : Who makes be

ask 800. That is not what I , my ex ir ask Of c urs c ellent S , I Who o e he l ’ must begin by knowing the aws. ’

s ud es r s. MEL. The e J g , Soc ate ou M le us Soc. How say y , e t Do these Judges teach our young men and can they make them become better ’ E l M L. Certain y. Soc B r s . ut can they all, o ome of them and not others 52 PLATO AND SOCRATES

’

MEL . A ll .

Soc . B no his is s. y Ju , t good new We have an abundance of persons to aid us in But a ur r this task. wh t f the s rs s di Do the e pe on , the au ence, make r men bette , or no ’

MEL ls . . They a o Soc rs . And the Senato ’ M rs EL. The Senato too. ll l t Soc. And a the peop e who at end li rs the public assemb es, the vote , do they corrupt the young men or do all they make them better M ’ EL. All they.

Soc. rs theu a t e It appea that ll “ h Athenians make

8 00. You make me out to be a pecu l liar y unfortunate person. But answer me. Is the same true of horses Is it ru l t e that al men make them good, and that there is one single person who spoils them Or is it true that only 11 2 53 PLATO AND SOCRATES

or rs s ‘ one man a few men, can make ho e l — good the horse- trainers ; but that the r if greate part of men , they have to rs s s il t use and to be with ho e , po hem Is i ao Meletus i rs s t not , , w th ho e and with all other animals It certainly is u An tus s i , whether yo and y a sert t or ul r deny it. It wo d be a very fo tun for o ate thing ur young men, if one had all man only made them , and rs Bu l rl othe make them good. t c ea y, Meletus o s ou r , y u how that y have neve i Y pa d any attention to young men. ou show that you know nothing about the matters involved in your accusa ’ me. next argument is still more in l Di l u s of the P atonic a og e . s Mel t s r it is Socrates ask e u , whethe not better for every one to live among good men than bad : and thence argues that he could not have willingly tried to make his Athenian neighbours bad men ; and that if he did so uninten ti nall s o y, he ought to be et right by 54 PLATO AND SOCRATES

him r u teaching bette , not by p nish is r u ul ment. Th a g ment wo d not be likely to avail much in the case of such s i a criminal accu at on. We then come to the charge of re i lis di i i s ject ng the estab hed vin t e . ’ Y ser r s is sa ou as t, Soc ate made to y Mel t s rru u to e u , that I co pt the yo th of Athens by teaching them not to believe in the gods in whom the state believes ; li n s and to be eve i others, new god . Is not this the pernicious teaching of i ou us M wh ch y acc e me EL. I de l i ’ cided y accuse you of th s. Soc. Now, M le r s e tus, by the ve y god of whom i urs l r we are speak ng, explain yo e f mo e clearly to me and to the judges. I do not know whether you declare that I deny the gods altogether or that I ll s bu s lis a ow god , t not the e tab hed ’

s MEL. sa god , and teach men ao. I y ’ r that you deny the gods altogethe . 800 0 s r Meletus ! . t ange man, How can you say this Do not I allow the Sun and the Moon to be gods as other PLATO AND SOCRATES

’ M H s ? EL. ud s. e s men do No, J ge ay the sun is s that made of tone, and the ’

r 800. e r Mele us moon of ea th. My d a t , o a usin r s y u re acc g Anaxago a , not me. Do you think that these Judges are so ignorant of literature as not to know s s that the book of Anaxagora , the Clazomenian il s r ar ll ph o ophe , e fu of u bu tenets like these. Yo ng men may y s for r these book a d achma any day, and do you accuse me that they learn such things of me They will laugh at me if I pretend that these doctrines i s i ll i are m ne, e pec a y the doctrines be ng ’ a in s so absurd as they re. But heaven ou sa ao name, do y y that I do not knowledge any God ll ’ MEL. N0, none at a . ‘ u sa is i r i l 800. What yo y nc ed b e, I

M l us urs l . is think, e et , even to yo e f Th rs i man appea to me, Athen ans, to be acting in the unrestrained insolence of s l - i his e f conceit, and to have wr tten t indictment in a ﬁt of youthful imper r tinence. He proposed it as a so t of 56 PLATO AND SOCRATES

i is i : puzzle or trap, w th th not on Will this wi se Socrates perceive that I am making game of him and contradict or s l him in myself, ha l I take , and the other hearers with him For he does i s l in i di t contradict h m e f the n ctmen , as if had s i r which runs he a d, Soc ates guilty of crime in not acknowledging b t in l i s gods, u acknow edg ng god l which is mere foo ery. F r si r i u o con de w th me, J dges, whether this is not what he does say u Mele us ans r and do yo , t , we me. And ou i s as ﬁrs re do y , Athen an , I at t u s u s i r i rru t q e ted yo , ab ta n f om nte p in is s il u g me with no e , wh e I cond ct the ’ examination in my usual way. PLATO AND SOCRATES

i Dwmons or su r i Aga n, the bo d nate i r il r s divin ties we e ch d en of the god , as l l s ir rs i Me etus al ow , the mothe be ng

s or r l . li nymph mo ta women To be eve, in e s li in then, D mon , and not to be eve s ul as sur as li god , wo d be ab d to be eve ’ that mul es are the oﬂ spring of horses asses and et li in rs s and , y notto be eve ho e . These arguments seem ﬁtted rather for the school of the philosopher than r us i fo the court of j t ce . They are re presented as likely to be received with ur urs u i bu m m by the a d ence, t still as being unanswered ; and Socrates closes this part of his Defence by saying that he has disproved the accusation of Mele tus Bu s as s i r . t, he add , I a d befo e, there is a

1 171 8. Envy n mn ill s r ma y good e , and w de t oy many more ; for it is not likely that it will ’ s top at me. 58

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u ri ill r tho avenge thy f end and k Hecto , u s l il di e for s i s tho thy e f w t ; , a d he, Forthwith thy destiny follows the ruin of Hector ; s is his r and he de p ed t dange , and feared still more to live unhonoured with his ri u s s f end navenged ; he ay , r i die Fo thw th, then, may I , provided that I punish him who has r l w onged me, and become not a augh in - g stock, or r i s i s N ema n at my h p , of earth a ﬁ less pro t burden. Do you think that he cared for danger and death

For is ni i ru . so it , 0 Athe ans, n t th ’ i s s Whatever s each man post, cho en l s r ar or by himse f a the bette p t, i his l r r as appo nted by eade , the e, I i us th nk, he m t

‘ ‘ vvould be a s ul if— ul rs hamef deed, when your R e , ou in i whom y appo td to d rect me, had so PLATO AND SOCRATES assigned me my post at Potidwa and i lis l u s at Amph po , and at De i m, I tood r u r l my g o nd whe e they had p aced me, s l like every other o dier, and faced the danger of death ; but when the Deity had assigned me my post, as I think i b i and believe, and made t my us nem lif in ursui i to live a e the p t of w sdom, i s l rs s quest oning my e f and othe , I hould r r r then, f om fea of death o any other ui i r z— thing, q t my appo nted ank that s would, indeed, be a hocking proceed wi r as ri e u th e on b ng m to j dgment,“ a man who does not believe in the s is s h ir r cl s god , who d obey t e o a e , who h s hi s l fears death, and t ink m e f wise when he is not so.

nor for that it is PLATO AND SOCRATES i r i gno ance, to th nk that we know this when we know it not In thi s respect perhaps I diﬁ er from the rest of man m i . a is in t i k nd If I w e any h ng, it is s in thi , that as I know nothing of the s t r s iri ta e of depa ted p ts, so I do not think that I know ; but that to do r is i w ong, and to d obey good gu dance, God or s l whether of man, i an evi and is a d grace, that I know. And never ear g3 m “ f gg I 5 6W 1 1 9; but they merence to evils of which I am sure

il s. that they are ev — And so now if you dismiss me dis regarding Anytus who said at the r r outset, that eithe I ought neve to u or have been brought before yo , hav i r u ll ng been b o ght, not to be a owed to escape with my life ; telling you that if I escape your sons will follow the teaching of Socrates and be perverted - if r s you should now say : O Soc ate , we shall not now comply with the ‘ advice of Anytus ; we dismiss you on Q PLATO AND SOCRATES

s i i ou s ll r thi cond t on, that y ha not pu r s or o sue your accustomed resea che n g . on seeking for wisdom ; and if you are u s ill i so ou s ll die z—i fo nd t do ng , y ha f, sa u ul i his I y, yo sho d dism ss me on t con i i r l O ni ns d t on, I should ep y : Athe a , ou l is us y I ove and cher h, but I m t obey the God rather than you ; and so long i s as I breathe and have my facult e , I i f is cannot des st seeking or w dom, and exhorting you and arguing to those of you who come in my way ; and say ing what I have been accustomed to sa : 0 ll ri ou i y exce ent f end, can y , be ng i n z ﬁrst an Athen a , a citi en of the and most famous of cities for wisdom r l i s il and powe , he p be ng a hamed, wh e ou i im y make r ches your highest a , and r u i i ep tat on and distinction, and g ve no thought nor care to the pursuit of truth and the improvement of your soul And if any one argues with s s s me, and ay that he doe care for s i s s ll not o n the e th ng , I ha g away or. hi b quit my hold of m, ut I shall ex 68 PLATO AND SOCRATES amine him and test him : and if he does not appear to me to have acquired ir u bu nl sa has v t e, t o y to y that he , I shall reproach him as thinking most of the smallest things and least of the r s is us all u g eate t. Th I m t do to , yo ng old in and , who come my way, and to r r i iz i z s st ange and c t en, but to the c ti en s i s rl e mo t, as be ng mo t nea y connect d For his is God with me. t what the

r rs ll . o de me to do, ye we know And I do not think that any greater good can be given to the city than my obedi ence to the God.

n te all other goods, p va and

. r us pu c If to exho t men th , be to us pervert the young, this m t be bad advice : but if any one says that I say i s s is anyth ng but this, he ay what not a s ul o sa true. And o, I ho d g on to y, 64 PLATO AND SOCRATES An 0 men of Athens, Do as ytus bids you or otherwi se ; acquit me or acquit ll o i me not, I sha g on do ng this and

the numerous body who sat as his judges was received with notices z) ! l ur ins Do no c amo aga t me, men of s bu Athen , t as I have before requested lis ui l you, ten q et y to what I have to ill for ur say. It w be yo own good to o r do s . I may say othe things which

For be well assured that if you put am me to death, me who what I have l ou u will so u to d y , yo not do me m ch harm as yourselves. Neither Meletus

perhaps he thinks these are very great i so I evils . I do not th nk . think it a far greater evil to do what he is now — tr ill r doing to y to k a man w ongfully. i s And so, Athen an , I a

use the gift

i u upon the c ty, (to se a comparison hi s ou bu w ch may eem to y odd, t which is r ust li ri r u ve y j ,) ke a de pon a horse, r ul l powe f and of good b ood, but heavy u is in and sl gg h, and need g to be roused “ s by the spur. I eem to be appointed God su ri r this i by the ch a de to c ty, l s ou i i o sitting c o e to y , and exc t ng y u rsu si r r by pe a on and ep oach, all day l i u si u ong w tho t cea ng. S ch another, u ﬁnd I say, yo will not readily ; and if u i yo will take my adv ce, you will not d s r s e t oy me. Perhap you may be like persons who are angry because one s sl awake them when they are eepy, os

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Perhaps it may appear absurd that I go about giving advice to particul ar meddlin i r persons and g w th eve y body, and yet that I do not come forwards be fore you r public assemblies and give my u rs s advice abo t matte of tate . The s is cau e of this , that which I have often ou r said and y have often hea d, that I have a Divine Monitor of which Meletus in his mW es a charge in so r m n r s i ext avagant a a ne . Thi Mon tor — I have had from my boyhood a voice i which warns me, wh ch restrains me constantly from what I am about to

but r ur s . do, neve ge me on to do my Jny you may be well assured that if I had engaged in public business I should ris s long ago have pe hed, and hould have done no good either to you or to s l An oﬁ en ed i my e f. d be not w th me u ru when I tell yo the t th. No man can lo r ou or an ng be safe who, eithe to y to y r s i s l othe democratic body, oppose h m e f 08 r n l sis s r ill f a k y, and re t w ong and egal hi i t ngs being done by the c ty. It is necessary that he who really ﬁghts for is i s what right, if he s to be afe even f r i in ri o a short t me, be a p vate, not

is n r s but i o th ; ot wo d , that wh ch y u s for s is have more re pect , fact . L ten has then to what happened to me, that you may know that I am incapable of yielding in any point to injustice from the fear of death ; and that by not i l i ul is y e d ng, I sho d have per hed . I us ll u i l s ou m t te yo what will d sp ea e y , l i law bu and what invo ves po nts of , t is r what t ue. For s r , men of Athen , I neve had any r u o in s bu othe p blic ﬁ ce the tate, t I l s ri had a p ace in the enate. My t be, i ri the Ant ochian t be, had the presi deney when you had to judge the ten captains who did not save the men who were overboard in the sea- ﬂght of Ar inusw ou os u in g ; y ch e to j dge them, 11 2 09 PLATO AND SOCRATES

lo i s law one t, aga n t the , as at a later ou l all period y al owed. Then I alone

it ; the or atore denounced me and were on the ini i point of jo ng me w th the accused, and when you clamoured in an imperi r u ous manne , I tho ght that I ought run r r rather to any danger, than fo fea of bonds or death to join you in an act

o r of the dem c acy. li r u And when the o ga chy was set p, hir r s s for l the T ty Ty ant ent me, a ong rs - a with four othe , to their council ch m r r us r her, and o de ed to fetch f om

Salamis Leon the Salaminian, that he might be put to death ; according to a i i in pract ce wh ch they then followed. order to involve as many persons as

i s. On ng that occasion too I showed, not in r s bu r wo d t in deed, that I ca ed, if l i I may be al owed a rough express on, 70 PLATO AND SOCRATES not a jot for death but cared mightily i i un t o about do ng noth ng jus r wicked.

four went to Salamis and brought back ou Leon ; I went t and went home. And probably I should have died for that if r act, that gove nment had not soon r r s iss l afte wa d been d o ved . And of these there are many who can bear i ss w tne .

a good of right on all i 0 men of occasions Very far from t, Athens ; neither I nor any other man l a cou d have done o. in urs li I then, all the co e of my fe, o f r s has u li public s a a it been p b c, and in ri e s ma p vat , have been the ame n, never conceding anything that was i rs nor se wrong, ne ther to othe , to tho 71 PLATO AND SOCRATES whom in their charges against me they s as isci l s peak of my d p e . In truth, ’ r r was howeve , I neve any one s teacher but if when I was speaking and doing m own business old or u y , , any one, yo ng, s lis s i cho e to ten to what I a d, I never ru r u i g dged them the oppo t n ty. I do am not talk when I paid, and hold my am tongue when I not. I oﬁ er myself to rich and poor to be questioned ; or if li i r they ke t bette , they answer my u s i s r q e t on and hea what I have to say.

to teach that he has Em anything from me privately which all the world might ll ur not know, be we ass ed that he says is what not true. But why is it that some are pleased to spend much time in my company ‘ You r a r d have hea d l ea y, men of s Athen . I have told you the whole 72 PLATO AND SOCRATES

r ar l truth of the matte . Men e p eased to hear those exposed who think that s ar so : for they are wi e, and e not it i A is an exhibition not unamus ng. nd is s i s th to do th , is my ta k mpo ed by e r l dr s i ll God, by o ac es and eam , and n a s s i r way , like any de t ny of any othe man by which he has his appointed work. 0 ia s is e add This , Athen n , , and i r F0 m ts of easy p oof.

men, and rru r us have co pted others, the e m t be some of them who are now become l r e o de , and who have known that I hav given them bad counsel when they were young ; and they would now come r rs as fo wards as my accuse , and k for if d my punishment. And they di s his s i not choo e to do t , ome of the r. rie s n l i s ir rs f nd a d re at ve , the fathe and l n i brothers, and others be o g ng to r them, would bea in mind latives had been damaged there are many such persons present ﬂ PLATO AND SOCRATES

in r is Ori whom I have my eye. He e to, m ris of y own age, and of my own pa h, ritobulus is the son of C , who also i s S he tios here : Lysan a of p t , the father Es hines is r : An i ho of Z c , who he e t p of hi us r i s Cep s , the fathe of Ep gene ; and s rs s r rs then the e othe , who e b othe were habitually in my company ; Nicostratus s Z o ide r the on of t s, the b other of s us hi s l i Theodotu . Theodot m e f ndeed r s l is dead, and no mo e need the he p h s r r is r of i brothe . And he e Pa s loe the son of Demodocus whose brother r is A Theages was. He e too dimantus ris the son of A to, whose brother is l o ou see r s P at whom y p e ent, and Aian orus s r r is ll r s tod , who e b othe Apo odo u , r ou : who is befo e y and many others, some one of whom Meletus ought to u r ou as have bro ght befo e y a witness. if r it r And he fo got to do befo e, let him ri him rwar s b ng fo d now. I allow him i : let him s if to do t peak, he has su r s. But O ud s i ch p oof , J ge , you w ll

ﬁnd that, on the contrary, all these 74

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u li beca se I do not do the ke, even when

a i s in r r. I m, as t eems, ext eme dange Any one looking at this demeanour of mi i irri i ne m ght be tated, and m ght thereupon give his vote against me in r u s ange . Now if any one of yo has uch li —I li i so a fee ng do not be eve t to be , bu if it s —I ul to t be o, wo d attempt ili him ul sa : oo m conc ate ; I wo d y I t , y

am r rl oak r I not bo n of a gna ed , o rock for r my pa ent, but of human parentage. I have re latives 0 i ns r ; I have, Athen a , th ee s s lr u on ; one a eady a yo th, two who are il r Bu s ll ri ch d en. t I ha not b ng them before you and beseech you to ui Wh acq t me. y will I not do this ot fr ri 0 i s n N om p de, Athen an , or from want of respect for you . Whether I l in or is can ook death the face not, another question : bu t it does not ap r or pea to me to tend to my fair fame, urs r i to yo , o that of the c ty, that at my 70 PLATO AND SOCRATES

r r age and with my cha acte , whether es r or s ul i d e ved not, I ho d do anyth ng is is s l i i of th kind. It a ett ed op n on that Socrates is a man different from were e and s een. when they were brought before a tri n i bu al, behav ng, pu

al mi as if ul of c a ty, and they wo d be i r l if u i s mmo ta yo acqu tted them. Tho e who thus behave appear to me to bring disgrace on the city ; and strangers seeing their conduct might think that i s the most eminent of the Athen an , whom you place in positions of honour

r r a as n. and powe , a e as we k wome u ur i s who S ch behavio , 0 Athen an , we are supposed to be good for anything u r is u u o ght not to p act e, and yo o ght i n r not to perm t. O the contra y you ought to show that you will be much more resolved to condemn those who 77 PLATO AND SOCRATES get up these miserable tragedies and i ridi ul us make the c ty c o , than those r i r uil who eta n a t anq demeanour. And besides the reputation of such thingaﬁt does not seem to me right to d r ss su li i s ud e a d e pp cat on to a J g , and s i in to e cape condemnat on that way, but i c rsu hi For to conv n e and pe ade m. the Judge does not sit in the seat of judgment that he may assign away as ur but us i i ri right a favo , beca e t s ght. has s r And he wo n, not that he will give judgment as a favour according to his but l u liking, that he wil j dge according to l s. is ﬁ th r r the aw It not t e efo e, either that we the accused shoul d ac custom you to violate your oaths or that you should allow yourselves to be so accustomed . Do not then, Athenians, require me do towards you what I l r ur l n ri ho d to be neithe hono ab e, u ght, nor pious ; especially when the accusa tion made against me by Meletus here is r rl f a cha ge of impiety. For clea y i by my supplications I should persuade 78 PLATO AND SOCRATES

ou i l ur s s y to v o ate yo oath , I hould be teaching you that there are no gods ; and while I defend myself against the us i ul ssi u acc at on, I sho d be pa ng j dg i s s l be ment aga n t my e f, that I do not li in s F iff r eve the god . ar d e ent is the a li in as f ct. I be eve the gods none of my accusers does ; and I leave it to Go u rni you, and to d, to j dge conce ng ’ s for f r me as may be be t me and o you. r us l as in all s it ! Eve y one m t fee , age has l r is been fe t, that the e a grand tone of elevation and consistency of

character in thi s manner of defence. But it is also plain that it could hardly il i l i i s irri fa , as he h mse f ant c pate , to u r us tate a body of Judges , n me o , and of course accessible to popular sym athies n s si i r p , a d en t ve to any appea t of respect in the accused per this period of the defence the the Judges were collected u r ra s on the q estion, whethe Soc te was H was l guilty or not guilty. e dec ared i ri guilty by 281 votes. The m no ty was 70 PLATO AND SOCRATES

r w s l ss 275, so that the e a on y an exce of s r six vote to condemn . If th ee of the majority had voted the 0 he woul d have all the adverse inﬂuences him if s against , he had not by hi line of defence voluntarily thrown away he woul d have by ! eno friends would have obtained his ao quittal if he had not thus thwarte d i s their des gn . We have een the motives which he as signed for thinking that ir u s death, in his c c m tances, could not be shunned. We are now to suppose that the votes r he r sul a e given, counted, and t e t de s clared, Socrates i guilty. The next r i n step was to dete m ne the pu ishment . us r has s i his The acc e a d m Indictment, l Bu s The Pena ty , Death. t the law of Athens allowed the convicted person r l r l to p opose an a te native pena ty, and the court decided between the two pro so PLATO AND SOCRATES

osal s o p s. Socrate n w proceeds to ad dress his judges on this point ; still retaining the unbending tone of ap proval of himself and admonition of his hearers which here must be felt as alli us g ng, and m t again have inclined s r r r them to the eve e cou se. ’ We learn from Socrates s remarks that

r suﬁ ra pa t of the ges, he woul d have nne had a heavy to pay.

There are many circumstances, Jud es i g , wh ch contribute to prevent my feeling any strong emotion at this r ul lar es t, of your having dec ed me uil i is it is g ty ; and espec ally th , that r what I expected. I rathe wonder at the numbers on one side and on the i other. I had not thought the d vision so rr would have been na ow. I expected a much larger majority ; for it now appears that if three of the majority had voted the other way I should have s 81 PLATO AND SOCRATES been acquitted. I have escaped so far as Melotue is concerned ; and not only m but it is i escaped hi , ev dent that if Anytus and Lycon had not joined him u ul in acc sing me, he wo d have had to pay a thousand drachma as not having ﬁf h r gained the t pa t of the votes . He then assigns to me the penalty of Bu death. Good. t what penalty shall s i s 0 I propo e n tead, men of Athens. f urs su l O co e ch a pena ty as I deserve. h What, then W at do I deserve to suﬁ er or to pay in consideration of my

r ne lecti object to lea n, g ng what others

- m i r attend to, money ak ng, and the ca e l omces in s of my househo d, and the tate r r u li and in the a my, and othe p b c thinking myself really too honest a man to escape ruin if l engaged in u such ; I, who never entered pon a line ' of conduct m which I could not have ou but done any good to myself or to y , took the course of doing to every one 82 more than he who has conquered in

ri - r l a cha ot ace at the O ympic games. For he only makes you think your s l s r un but e u e ve fo t ate, I t ach yo to be happy ; and he is not in need of such su o ut am. pp rt, b I And thus, if I am

to be

ma hi as s i in y t nk, I a d before speaking ls ur i of appea to yo p ty, that I seem to s u ri how too m ch p de. That, Atheni ans is s but his , not the ca e, the fact is t . a r i ur I m sure that I neve nj ed any one, but I cannot persuade you that it is u r s r i ao, on acco nt of the ve y ho t t me am you allow for hearing me. I per u d if u la i s a ed that yo had the w, wh ch r r prevails in othe states, that a t ial on a matte r of life and death shoul d not be d i in s ul ec ded one day, I ho d have con vinced you ; but it is not easy in so short a time to remove such inveterate c lu i s Bu am a mn e . t as I persuaded that 84 PLATO AND SOCRATES

d us i I never di inj t ce to any one, so I will not do injustice to myself and ap l point a punishment for myse f. What have I to fear which shoul d induce me to do so The penalty assigned by le Me tus, of which I say that I do not know whether it is a good or an evil ll I in l e is s Sha , the p ac of th , choo e something which I know to be an evil 9 Shall I select imprisonment What would be the geod of my living in a ris l o p on, a ways at the memy f ,the ad i is i i m n trat on of the t me Or ﬁne, and imprisonment till I pay it That woul d i f come to the same th ng, or I have no ll s money to pay with . Sha I choo e exile for perhaps you woul d accept ul s r that penalty. It wo d how an ove i l li i s if ween ng ove of fe, Athen an , I were so weak as to think that while

ou ll - iz s i y , my fe ow cit en , could not ab de s r my way and my conve sation, but thought them so odious and intolerable that you take this way of getting rid of them, other people will hear them na ﬁ PLATO AND SOCRATES

asil . r far r i e y Ve y f om t, Athenians ! And li for l i what a fe me to ead, go ng r u ri s to othe co nt e at my age, and ri r i i wande ng f om c ty to c ty, as I was driven from each in turn ! For I well h r r ma o know t at whe eve I y g , the u men ill lis yo ng w ten to my discourse. if s r And I end them away f om me, they will induce their elders to expel me ; if ir and I do not send them away, the fathers and their friends will send me away on their account. r s s ma sa Bu Pe hap ome one y y, t, r s ou r Soc ate , can y not emove into an other state and there hold your tongue it i and live quietly That I cannot, s the hardest thing in the world to con r if ll ou vince you. Fo I te y that to keep silence is for me to disobey the r directions of the God, and therefo e i s l f ou will i mpo sib e or me, y th nk I am

ill li . jesting, and w not be eve me And if I say that the greatest good for i is his — dis wh ch man can live t , to course day by day concerning virtue PLATO AND SOCRATES and the other matters about which you hear me conversing and questioning l rs li i myse f and othe , and that a fe w th out such inquiries is not a life that I n li — ou ill li s ill l ss ca ve, y w be eve me t e . r l ss is so ud Neve the e , the fact , J ges, hard as it may be to believe. I am not wont to judge myself i worthy of any evil . If ndeed I had ul r s su money, I wo d have p opo ed ch a ﬁne as I was able to pay : for I should Bu have lost nothing by that. t as I u l ss i e u have no money, n e nd ed yo choose to ﬁne me such a small sum as

- I ul r s r is I can pay, co d, pe hap , a e a mina of silver ; so I place the penalty a - r 0 t that. But Plato he e, men of Or Critobulus and Athens, and ito and Apollodorus advise me to place the ir i se ff r penalty at th ty m n , and o e to r r be security fo it. So I p opose that sum and you will allow that the n ’ security is suﬁ cie t. The votes are again coll ected respect u is m of ing the penalty, and the p n h ent 87 PLATO AND SOCRATES i death s carried by the majority. So crates then resumes . In consequence of your not being i r s r i willing to wa t a ve y ho t t me, men s ou s r of Athen , y will oon have to bea e l r s is th b ame, f om tho e who w h to s r r i peak ep oachfully of the c ty, of hav ut a r s ing p to de th Soc ate , that wise man ; for those who wish to say harsh hi s ou ill ll i t ng of y w ca me a w se man, u tho gh I am not. If you had waited but li l il his r a tt e wh e, t esult woul d have come of itself ; for you see my age : I am far advanced in life and near r rs the bo de of death. I say not this to all of you : I say it to those who have sentenced me to death ; and to the same persons I say this . Perhaps you i 0 u th nk, men, that I sho ld have failed in gammg your votes from want of r s in if powe of peak g, even I had been willing to do everything to avoid this s Far r entence. f om it. I have failed for b not want of words, ut for want of rw r ss i u fo a dne and mp dence, and be 88 PLATO AND SOCRATES cause I would not utter to you such things as you woul d most willingly r l i s l i s hea , comp a nt and amentat on and i r as other th ngs, unwo thy of me, I say, but such as you have been accustomed B t di to hear from others. u I d not i u f r before th nk that I o ght, o the sake r hi u r of dange , to do anyt ng nwo thy of nor r t a freeman, do I now epent of he way in which I have made my defence r r u r r on the cont a y, I m ch p efe dying li i su i i s F to v ng on ch cond t on . or r in r neithe a cou t of justice nor in war, a I or an use r m , y one, allowed to eve y conceivable art and means to escape : in l it is l i death . No often batt e p a n that a man might escape death by throwing down hi s arms and asking for quarter from his assailants : and r are in many othe ways there , other s s i if case , of e cap ng death, a person has no scruples about doing or saying any hi But r 0 t ng. the g eat object, men, is s bu s not to e cape death, t to e cape base s i ss i ne s and w ckedne . W ckedness runs as PLATO AND SOCRATES

s r a so i fa te than De th, and s more difﬁ

ul sc . I old sl c t to e ape , and ow, am overtaken by the slower of these two ; bu u r ui t my acc se s, q ck and clever as ar are rt they e, ove aken by the quicker i ss of the two, W ckedne . And now I go s Y u hence, entenced by o to receive the penalty of death but they go sentenced by Truth to receive the penalty of wickedness and injustice. I stand to my puni shment : they must stand to

h irs . All is u s i t e th o ght to be a it s. r i is for Eve yth ng the best. 0 o And now, y u who have condemned me ! I wish to deliver a prediction to you ; for I am now in that position in ’ which men s predictions are most re

r i u die. r i ga ded, be ng abo t to I p ed ct to ou 0 ut y , men who have p me to death, that a punishment will soon fall upon u s ! yo , and, by the heaven a much heavier one than that which you have inﬂicted u F r ou pon me. o y have done this deed in the hope of being freed from the call to give an account of N

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i s are r a t on of the entence not yet e dy, and I am not yet taken to the place

us die. r where I m t Stay then he e,

ou for i u s. I beseech y , a few m n te We may still speak of the things which

li . ul ll ou as we be eve I wo d te to y , ri s is ru i to f end , what the t e mport

a has l ‘ of wh t now taken p ace. To me 0 ud es— ou ll ll then, —J g y I may we ca Judges a wonderful thing has hap us pened. The acc tomed sign of my i r hi hi r o h mon to , w ch the t as always stopped me even on the smallest oc i s if was u i n cas on , I abo t to fall nto a y calamity ; now that there has happened ul r i ril to me, as any one wo d o d na y r s l i i s — judge, the g eate t of ca am t e the sign of my monitor never restrained r to bar me, neithe when I went the of r i d the court, no at any po nt of my a s u it has r s i dres , tho gh often e tra ned s me when speaking on other occasion . l his r It has in the who e of t p oceeding, never opposed me either in act or in words. What then do I deem to be the a PLATO AND SOCRATES

his ill ll o import of t I w te y u. It good thing for me ; and that all we is l who think that death an evi , do not l f is hi judge right y. O th , I t nk it is a great proof : for the accustomed signal ail r woul d not have f ed to wa n me, if r not is I we e on my way to what good. And let us consider that there is a strong reason to hope that this death F r us is a good. o death m t be one of i i r it us two th ngs. E the m t be that the a are hi r de d not ng, and have no pe cep tion of anything : or according to the common tradition it must be a change and a migration of the soul from its l r l p ace here to some othe p ace . Now if r s s i —if b the e be no en at on death—e like a sleep without even a dream it must be an immense gain : for I sup pose that if any one were to pick out a night in which he slept so soundly as si l r not to have a ng e d eam, and were to compare it with the other nights his lif and days of e, and say how many as PLATO AND SOCRATES of his days and nights were better and

ri rs any p vate pe on, and even the Great hi s l ul ﬁ d King m e f, wo d n that the days and nights which were thus superior to i r sil that n ght we e ea y counted . If then his r death be t , I eckon it a gain : for the whole time which it occupies is as Bu if one night. t death he a p assage

r l - if r hence to anothe p ace, the o din ar i i s are ru y trad t on t e, that in that l are all r i — p ace who have eve d ed, what r 0 ud greate good, J ges, can there be than this If any one going to the r iri s i Place of Depa ted Sp t , and leav ng are r ll Jud e those who he e ca ed g s, will ﬁ d r s are r ll ud es n the e tho e who ea y J g , and who administer justice there E Minos and Rhadamanthus, and acus and ri l us r T pto em , and the othe demi s r us in ir li i god who we e j t the fet me, is this a change to be lamented? What woul d any one of you give to join the society of Orpheus and Musmus and Hesiod and Homer I woul d die many ﬂ PLATO AND SOCRATES

s if his ru ul r time , t be t e. I sho d ejoice beyond measure in the company of l Pa amedes and Ajax Telamon, and any other of the ancients who were put to s u death by unju t j dgment. To com pare what has befallen me with their lot n e r l would, I thi k, h very ag eeab e l s i in and most of al , to pend my t me questioning and scrutinising the per s s r rs s er on the e, as I have done pe on h e, hi is is i s s w ch of them w e, and wh ch eem so bu is l to be , t not. What wou d any i 0 ud es i se one g ve, J g , to exam ne tho who led that great army to Troy, ss us o is r r Ody e , r S yphus, o the othe s it thou ands of men and women, whom would be an inexpressible pleasure to rs u s i For conve e with, and to q e t on there at least men are not put to death for r w that. As they are happie than e are in r s so re his othe thing , a they in t ; a i r l if s i that they re mmo ta , what be a d i r s t ue . ud e s ur You then, 0 my J g s, houl d no ish good hope on the subject of death. U PLATO AND SOCRATES and remain ﬁrmly convinced of this one thing : that for a good man no event il r li or di s v can be ev , whethe he ves e , seeing that his concerns are never dis N regarded by the gods . or does what now happens to me happen without purpose on their part ; for I am per suaded that it is better for me to di e and to have done with the things of i rl And i th s wo d. therefore it s that the sign never warned me nor turned r urs l me f om my co e, and that I fee no anger either towards those who have o us rs condemned me r towards my acc e . Though certainly they did not condemn i u i i me with that intent on, b t th nk ng to harm me ; and for this I may justly blame them. One thing more only will I request of s s r u ur you ; when my on g ow p , do yo worst to them in the way of torment ing them as I have tormented you is if s r for that , they eem to ca e money r ir u or anything else more than fo v t e, and if they pretend to be anything N PLATO AND SOCRATES

are i r r when they noth ng, ep oach them, r r ou as I have ep oached y , that they do not attend to that which alone deserves i s l s attention, and th nk them e ve good for something when they are really for ou is good nothing. If y do th , both I and my sons shall have had our de s erts. And now it is time that we separate die ou r i li : I go to , y ema n to ve but which of us is going the better G nl ’ od o y knows.

CRITO

are ou so s Ori ? Soc. Why y come oon, to — ’ — r l R. is So Is it not ve y ear y C It . o. ’ ‘ — i s r a How early? CB . Day s carce b e k ’ — msur ri r in Soc. a s ail g. I p edthatthe j e ’ - u in B . H all owed yo to come . C e is be us o isi s r come acc t med to my v t , Soc ates si s h i and be de , he as rece ved beneﬁts ’ r —Soo Ar u ust or f om me. . e yo j come u rn — have yo been here lo g CB . I have ’ s i —8 0 was been here ome t me. 0 . How d d but sa it that you i not wake me, t — God for in silence by my side CB . bid that I should do that ! I shoul d be very sorry to be waked when in such But sorrowful case. I have been ad ou i s undl miring y , see ng how o y you ur s l s i sleep. I p po e y ab ta ned from ou waking y , that what time you have u before you, yo may pass as lightly e 2 1 01 PLATO AND SOCRATES

be s as may . Often in the previou course of your life I have admired ur r bu r s u yo happy tempe , t neve o m ch as in ur r s l i now yo p e ent ca am ty, to see how quietly and cheerfuﬂy you ’ — r it Soc . ri it ul bea . Why, O to, wo d r u r s l be ve y n ea onab e, at my age, to ’ us d — be vexed beca e one must i e. CB . rs r s ll i Othe , Soc ate , at your age, fa nto the same misfortunes but their age does not prevent their being angry ’ i ir lot -800 Bu w ththe . . That 1 s true. t ‘ are ou so rl ’ — why y come ea y 1 CB . I ri ou r s b ng y , Soc ate , bad news ; not ou as it s s b bad to y , eem , ut to me and s your friends bad and most distres ing. ul i As for me, I co d have no heav er ’ r — o i sorrow to bea . S o. What is th s s Is s i arri r l s new the h p ved f om De o , s rri l d — on who e a va I must ie Cu. It is not yet arrived : but it is probable that i d t will arrive to ay, from what some say who have arrived from the pro

r i thence. F om their account it s plain 1 03

PLATO AND SOCRATES

- C l i as it rs Bu n. Too p a n , appea . t, r s er my good Soc ate , even now be p s r l F suaded by me, and ave you se f. or if ou die r is accum to me, y , the e an u lation of calamities. Besides being ri o ri a dep ved of y u, a f end such s I ﬁn shall never d again, I shall be thought of by many who know me as i l sa and you, hav ng been ab e to ve o if ul s fo y u, I wo d have pent money r u i the p rpose, and hav ng omitted to do rs so . And yet what wo e opinion can ’ a man suﬂer than this that he esteems his money as of more value than his F li friends. or the many will not be eve that you would not escape from this ’ i u i place when we ncited yo to do t. Bu Ori s ul 800. t why, my good to, ho d

‘ we care so much for the opinion of the i many Reasonable people, whose ep n i r ti ill ions most deserve cons de a on, w suppose that things took place as they ’ really did take place.

CR. B t u s it is u yo ee, Socrates, that necessary also to take account of the 1 04 PLATO AND SOCRATES

i n ur op nio of the many. Yo present i i if i l s s pos t on, noth ng e se, how that these many are able to inﬂict upon men li l ut no ght evi s, b the greatest of evils, ’ u i if any one is cal mn ated to them. 800 s Ori . I wi h, to, the many could inﬂict the greatest evils that they might also be able to confer the great

ll. Bu est good. That woul d be we t they can do neither the one nor the other : for they cannot make a man

' r u is either wise o nw e . They do what ’ r ever comes uppe most. ‘ b l is CB . Be it so : ut tel me th , s Are ou ul for me Socrate , y not caref s if ou and your other friend , that y s ll e make your escape, we ha be attack d sories to it ; and shall be compelled either to lose the whole of our property, l r su s s ll i or at least a ge m , and ha ncur other inconveniences For if you are

u u ﬁ it from yo r tho ghts. It is t that rd r s r ou s ul i ur we, in o e to e ve y , ho d nc 1 N PLATO AND SOCRATES

i r r is th s dange , and g eater than th . So ’

rsu as bid ou . be pe aded, and do I y r ul u s ma 800. I am ca ef abo t the e t ’

rs rs. te , Orito, and many othe

su rs. For CB . Have no ch fea the for i r i sum is not great, wh ch ce ta n persons will save you and convey you l away from this p ace. And then as to i ou see the nformers, do y not how cheap they are We should not need s u to pend m ch money on them. There is r un ur s r i my fo t e at yo e v ce, and that,

i ill suﬁice. if I th nk, w And you think that I ought not to spend all that I are ri s r r r have, here f end f om othe pa ts e r that will supply the money. H e is one who has brought a large sum here r Simmias for this very pu pose ; , the s is r a Theban. And Cebe e dy to do the s t rs . So as s ame, and many o he , I aid, ru l s r us do not on such sc p e , ef e to save urs r u l r yo elf. And do not t o b e you self l about what you said at the tria , that if you were els ewhere you would not l know what to do with yourse f. For 100

PLATO AND SOCRATES make virtue your study throughout ur lif are rs st yo e, exactly the pe on mo bound to act with vigour and thought u s is is fulness. And the p hot of th , that fo ou f r na I am ashamed both r y , and o your friends ; but the whole conduct of your concerns should seem to be trans acted in a cowardly way on our part both your coming before the judges —' " i h u i r a t e co rt, wh ch ought neve to of the trial and at last this present absurd conclusion s r hi ill s to the to y, w ch w eem to have come to pass by a want of vigour on r did s ou nor our pa t, who not ave y , make you save yourself ; which we might and ought to have done if we

r for i . So r s we e good anyth ng , Soc ate , you have to take care lest not only calamity but di sgrace also fall upon ou u u si r y and pon s. Con de , then, the right course ; or rather there is now no time to consider ; act as if you had si r re l con de ed. And the is on y one we PLATO AND soomms . right course ; for in the approaching i hi us u n ght everyt ng m t be exec ted . i r s i l If we wa t longe , e cape w l no l r i B onge be poss ble y all means, r s rsu then, Soc ate , be pe aded, and do bi ’ as I d you . Ori ur ri n l 800. My dear to, yo f e d y l is r lu l if i sis zea ve y va ab e, t be con tent i i u bu if r w th rect t de ; t not, the mo e r i is r us ea nest t , the mo e dangero . We must then consider whether this is a hi or F r t ng to be done, not. o I have l s am r s l fol a way been, and , e o ved to low i i no pr nciple except reason, mak ng out as well as I can what reason dic s al tate . The reasons which I have ways followed during my whole life u I cannot deviate from now, beca se f l of what has be al en me. These ' reasonings do not appear to me to l r s i be a te ed. The ame wh ch were er ul i r ssi pow f and mp e ve then, are l ss ﬁn so still. Un e I can d something r o r s u be bette to g by at p e ent, yo may assured that I shall not be persuaded me PLATO AHD SOCRATES

u u r by yo , tho gh the powe of the many threaten us with more formidable bug bears than those which now menace us ; chains and death and loss of ’ goods. h s CR. And how can we examine t i subject most properly u firs si r Soc. We m st t con de what you say about opinions ; whether it was well said on former occasions that we must attend to some Opinions and not to others or whether it was well to say this before I was condemned to die ; but that now it becomes plain that this was said for the sake of s i in riflin ay ng it, and was fact, t g and ’ mi is child s play. I wish to exa ne th , ri in i ou r O to, conjo tly w th y , whethe my judgment of it be difierent now m in his si uati or r that I a t —t on ; whethe it be the same whether we are to

i r re it. renounce this v ew, o to adhe to as s i r It w , I think, often a d on othe si u r o t o occa ons. by those who nde to k s s aid speak seriou ly, a I have now s 1 1 0

PLATO AND SOCRATES — — Opinion the praise or blame of any or l r i ul r one, on y of a pa t c a person, the master of gymnastic or the doctor of — m ’ di i CR. Of hi l me c ne a one. After the examples which we have lr i u i had a eady of the nd ct on of Socrate s, the reader will easily anticipate the in i i is manner wh ch th s applied. In s dis i li the ca e of the c p ne of the body, our exercises and our diet are to be r rdi i i di ected acco ng to the op n on, not n but of the ma y, of the Maste r alone s is if who know what best. And we ns r ss is dir i s is tra g e h ect on , the pun h ment which falls upon us is the ruin or if e evil condition of the body. And w

s rui - r us thu n the body, that pa t of which is made better by health and dis s li is l worse by ea e, fe no onger in in u i life. And like manner j dg ng of ri ur ght and wrong, good and bad, hono l is us ir c ab e and d honourable, we m t d e t urs l i i o e ves, not by the op n on of the bu ud e many, t by that of the true J g of u ll s ch matters. And if we do not fo ow 1 1 2 PLATO AND SOCRATES his direction we shall injure that past of us which is made better by doing right and worse by doing wrong : and this is the soul ; that part of us which is more essential to true life than the

f r l l . body 1 8 , and ar mo e va uab e And thus we must not consider what sa us but the many will y of , that one judge of right and wrong and Truth us Ori o u herself. And th , t , yo were ' mistaken 1 n referring me to the opinion of the many about these points of right l and good and honourab e. Bu h t some one may say, These, t e

' many, have it in their power to put us f i nd but still we to death. True, my r e , i whid i come back to the same po nt, to 1 we haVe often come before . Do 79 still hold to our principle that the i i s lifts but lin ma n po nt i , not to , to ’ - well ? OB . We hold to that. ‘ l 800. And to ive well is to live

f— ’ stand ? Cn. That stands. ‘ 800. And must we not then, . i11 1 18 PLATO AND SOCRATES

a t s i accord nce wi h what we have a d, consider whether it is right that I ul r i u l sho d depa t hence, w tho t the eave or ri if of the Athenians , not ght And i is i l it appear that t r ght, et us attempt ut if let us le it l Bu it, b not, ave a one; t as for the considerations about loss of i i r money, and op n on, and the b inging our ildr see h er up of ch en, w eth these are not rathori considerations for those who would lightly put us to

ul ri us li i i co d, b ng to fe aga n, w th . no real grounds for either : see whether f u r i i i s or s, acco d ng to the pr nc ple of

‘ — be Enot that which we were just now speak ng of ; whether we shall do i ’ what 1 s right . 1 n . giving moneya nd in curring an obligation to those wh o are

to take me hence, and in ourselves ' taking our share m the act, or whether truthg a s hall -d a wnong by Joining " in such act ; and if it

1 1 4

PLATO AND SOCRATES

r ur l as to any neve good and hono ab e, we have often agreed upon former as us occasions, and we have j t been saying Or are all those former agreements of ours within these few is Is it ru ri days van hed away t e, O to, our l i r that then, at age, ta k ng togethe u s s ri us ss re with the tmo t e o ne , we we after all no better than boys Or is what we said then still indisputably r r i true, whethe the many ag ee to t or s ill l it ru not Do we t ho d t e, that whether we are to suﬁ er worse evils suff r than we have e ed or not, still to do wrong is an evil and a disgrace to ’ - r the wrong doe . ’ so l CB . We ho d. are r to r 800. Then we neve do w ong — ’ B . r i l to any C No, ce ta n y. re r r r f r 800. We a not to ende w ong o as i for wrong, the many th nk : we are ’ — ’ r So it s s. never to do w ong. CB . eem Soc . And how—then May we do l CR. evi to any one We may not,

1 1 6 PLATO AHD SOCRATES

S r r il for i is i oc. To ende ev ev l. t as i or — right, the many th nk, not Cn. ’ s By no mean . ‘ r il o is Soc. Fo to do ev t any the ’— ‘ ’ r CB . ru same as to do w ong. T e. S u r oc . We m st not then do w ong r il r o do ev to any man, whateve we suffer from men. And take care, Ori il ou ss is ou to, that wh e y confe th , y do not make a confession contrary to ur r l i For yo ea Op nion . I know that few do think this and few will think it s i is se And tho e who th nk th , and tho iﬁ l t e who think d erent y, cannot ak common counsel ; each party must r i at ir despise the othe , look ng the s i u si r ent ments. Do yo then con de ll r u s in is we whethe yo as ent th , and agree in my opinion ; whether we may take that as a principle to start from, that to do wrong and return wrorg is r all l nor to any one neve owab e, to ’ protect one 8 self from wrong by do ing wrong or whether you break of from me here, and do not accept my 3 2 1 1 7 PLATO AND SOCRATES

l is still l . But ago he d, and what I ho d f diff r i i sa i you are of a e ent op n on, y r i Bu ou adh r so and delive t. t if y e e o i l ri i l li t th s our o d p nc p e, sten to what ’ — r re follows. CB . I adhe e to it and ag e

o o r r ask 800. I g on then, r athe , I Whether what one has promised to another is to be done or not to be ’ — B is done C . It to be done.

If we escape from hence contrary to mn the will of the State, do we w g those to whom . we ought leas t o f all n r to wro g, o do we not Do we keep ’ our just promises or not ? Grito perceiving that Socrates is merely preparing for the further

o ra s f r I cannot answer y u, Soc te , o I do ’ l u u not ful y nderstand yo . r us : 800. Consider the matte th If when we are on the point of running r r u away, o whateve yo call it , the 1 1 8

PLATO AND SOCRATES

upon between you and us or was it that you should stand by the legal judgments which the State should pronounce And if we appeared sur ris is r ss of i p ed, at th add e the rs, r s ul sa r pe hap they wo d y, Soc ates, do r a sa bu not wonde at wh t we y, t answer u s i s si ou our q e t on , nce y are so fond of l question and answer. What comp aint have you to make against us and the t u S ate, that yo endeavour to destroy us n ﬁrst l r I the p ace, we e not we i the m of your being It was through us that your father married r i ou your mothe and gave b rth to y . Say then : do you complain of those of us Laws which refer to marriage do you think they are bad I should

l i . ll : but se say, I comp a n not We tho Laws which refer to the nurture and il r education of ch d en, according to which you were brought up and educated Did not the Laws upon u di l h that s bject rect we l, when t ey sujoined your father to have you 1 2 ) PLATO AND SOCRATES taught music and gymnastic They l s sa did wel , I hould y . Good : and ou r r when y had been bo n, and b ought u u can ou p and ed cated, y pretend to sa ou r our oﬁ s rin y that y we e not p g, ou ur r our servant, y and yo fo efathers so ou i And if this be , do y th nk that you stand upon an equal footing with ri s us as to ght , and that what we o ou attempt to do to y u, y may attempt to retaliate upon us Do you not reﬂect, that even towards your father u l ri s n r you had not eq a ght , o towards s r if ou your ma te , y happened to have so h ou i r one, t at to them y m ght eturn l l r ili for r ili evi for evi , or a ng a ng blows for blows n such a course of proceedingMs llowa towards your Country and us the Laws so if tr s r ou i that we y to de t oy y , deem ng so ou ls it just to do , y a o may endeavour to the utmost of your power to destroy r ur sa na in et n , and y that you are doing right in doing this - you who really make virtue your study Does 1 21

PLATO AND SOCRATES

i in r l s of the c ty gene a , we ay that he has ipso facto promised to us that he ill r w do whateve we command. And if rs s su i our a , pe on doe not bm t to r rs sa o de , we y that he commits a threefold wrong ; refusing obedience us r u him i to who b o ght nto being, ur ur him who n t ed to manhood, and to r is d whom he p om ed obe ience. And yet we do not deal imperiously with him b r s , ut p opo e to him the alterna i i h r r r or t ve e t e to do what we o de , to change our resolution ; and he does

And this is the blame that falls upon u r if ou u ou yo , Soc ates, y exec te what y are meditating ; and upon you more especially than upon any other of the ” i s if r as Athen an . And I we e to k, ul r s Why they wo d pe hap say, and us l d is r mis j t y, that I have ma e th p o e more expressly than any other of the t i s for ul sa r A hen an ; , they wo d y, He e, r s is s r i t we Soc ate , t ong ev dence, hat ,

d i ou. an the c ty, are approved by y 1 24 PLATO AND SOCRATES

You live in the city more constantly r i iz Yo than any othe c t en . u never out i see si went of the c ty to ghts. s i except once to the I thm an games, nor on any other journey except i r You r w th the a my. neve went on a voyage as is the custom of other men ; never were seized with a desire s i r i i s r of ee ng othe c t e and othe laws. s our u r We the Law of co nt y, and our i sufi ced ou l c ty, y . So comp etely were ou satisfied it u y w h us, and ndertook o t be governed by our government. And further : you became the father il r in is i as ur r of ch d en th c ty, a f the evidence that you were satisfied with it r in ri l i s l . And furthe , the t a t e f, you might have proposed exile as your u ishmen us i p n t, and th have done w th the permission of the State what you are i i s i r rs B now do ng aga n t ts o de . ut i ou at that t me y made fine speeches, professing that you had no fear of You s as u death. cho e, yo said, death r r il athe than ex e. And have you no 1 ” PLATO AND SOCRATES shame now looking at those profes i s ar for us s s on , and no c e the Law , that you try to destroy us You act as s r l ss sl ul the mo t wo th e ave wo d act, attempting to make your escape in violation of promises and covenants i ou r r by wh ch y ag eed to be gove ned. s r : sa rul First then an we do we y t y, that you engaged to be governed by in us fact, not in profession merely Is it not true ‘ ul i What co d we say to th s, Orito, except confess that it is true ’ us so r s CB . We m t do , Soc ate . 0 ul sa Are ou 8 0. Then they wo d y, y doing anything els e than violating your covenants and promises to us promises which you had made under i u i no compuls on, nder no dece t ; and for ur is ut not hurried yo dec ion, b n i in having seve ty years to make t , during which time you might have gone elsewhere if you were dissatisfied i us u r e w th , and tho ght the ag e ment unreasonable But you did not prefer us

ou i sus i i r r in ou as y w th p c on, ega d g y a es ro r L And d t ye of the aws. so you will us if s te ur ud es j t y the en nce of yo j g , and they will be deemed to have condemned u ri For yo ghtly. he who unsettles the Laws may well be deemed a corrupter of un h l ss yo g and thoug t e persons. Will you then avoid well governed cities and men who are friends of or r if o i i r de and y u do th s, is t wo th your while to live and if you consort wi ill ou So th them, w y have the face, to i urs s crates, go on w th the disco e which you have been in the habit of holding here ; that Virtue and Right usness are he s r i us hi s eo t mo t p ec o of t ng , and lawful dealings and Laws Do you not think that the course of action of Socrates will be judged bad and dis c ul Y u hink so gra ef ou m st t . ‘ “ Or will you pass by these cities and go to Thessaly to the friends of Orito f h r or t ere, the e 1 8 abundance of disorder

and license. There perhaps they will 1 8 PLATO AND SOCRATES

be delighted to hear how cleverly you: ur s fr made yo e cape om prison, assum ing some di sguise ; clothing yourself ’ in s s i an animal kin , or practis ng some r ri fu i othe t ck of git ve prisoners. And will ask ou u nobody y how yo , an old but li l l man, who have a tt e of life eft, li came to be so greedy of fe, as to vio late the most sacred Laws Nobody r unl ss ou oﬁ end s pe haps, e y ome one. Bu if ou r s ou ill t y do, Soc ate , y w hear u ou ill li m ch that y w not ke to hear. You will have to live looked down upon a ri i all by ll, c ng ng to . And what will you employ yourself about Will you make feasting your i l if ou n bus ness in Thessa y, as y had go e to Thessaly to dine And what will become of your discourse about right eousness and temperance and all the virtues But perhaps you wish to live on ao ur s ou ri count of yo boy , that y may b ng them up and teach them. How Will you take them to Thessaly and bring 1 1” PLATO AND SOCRATES n h i them up a d teach t emthere, mak ng may have this last beneﬁt at your ill u i h hands Or w yo avo d t is, and shall they be brought up here while li ls r ill ir ed you ve e ewhe e, and w the u cation go on the better that you are absent But your friends will take

ak r if u ss l t e ca e of them yo go to The a y, and will they not take care of them if you go into the other world Certam

o Us N , Socrates, obey the voice of who nurtured you ; and do not think

hi ls is r lu anyt ng e e, of mo e va e than oin ri : is ou d g ght do th , that when y m i r u co e nto the other wo ld, yo may make this defence of yourself to the Ju r F r is dges the e. o if you do what ro sed i ill i r p po , t w do you no good e the ere or r out h the e. Now you depart of

‘ 800. Then so be it, 0rito : and let us act in the way in which the Gods thus THE PHJEDO

DE THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL

he drank the poison and died ; but no ’ one could tell us anything more. P H. Have you not heard then about the trial and what passed on that oc casion E Y s r on. e , the e was some one who told us of that ; and we were surprised that the sentence was not executed till some considerable time after it was

ss . was in pa ed What the mean g of that, m do

PH u r . A partic la incident, Echestra u t s. It so happened that the day before he s li r t sentence wa de ve ed, the ship which the Athenians send on a relig i s issi l s l i ou m on to De o , comp eted ts

’ r its s ga lands hung to tern. i s r is Eon. What k nd of ob e vance that is s r s i s OH. Th i the ve y h p, a the i s in i s Athen an say, wh ch The eus, in r r i s r i fo me t me , went to C ete, tak ng thither the seven youths and seven maidens whom the Athenians were 1 38 PLATO AND SOCRATES bound to send every ninth year to be devoured by the Minotaur ; on which occasion he saved his own life and n rescued his compa ions. They had s is if made a vow, as the tory , that they s r i ul e caped dest uct on, they wo d every year make a solemn procession to Delos ;

i every year from that time to th s. And i si i as soon as th s proces on beg ns, the rule is that the city must be kept pure from blood during the whole continu ance of it ; and that no one must be put to death by public execution till the vessel has been to Delos and has

sacred period is when the priest of Apollo hangs a garland on the stem

as I was saying, the day previous to the sentence. And thus it was that Socrates was so long a time in prison

1 97 Eon. u i And what of that exec t on, m do was What done, and what was said and who of his friends were present Or did the magistrates not ll him ri s i a ow to have f end w th him, and had he to meet his fate alone ‘ B H PH. y no means. e had friends

m . si wi th hi Indeed, a con derable num

r u l E01 1 . P ay take the tro b e to tell me all about this as particularly as u ss u yo can, unl e yo have some engage ’ i r ment wh ch p events you. am ui l is PH. I q te at e ure, and I will try to tell you the whole tale ; for I have no greater pleasure than to have my mind occupied with the recollection r s i r s i hi of Soc ate , e the by peak ng of m myself or by hearing others speak of ’ him.

Eon. ur r rs t d Yo hea e , o, have the li ll same fee ngs. Well : te the story as ’ r i l rl as u pa t cu a y yo can. PB . I experienced peculiar emotions on that occasion. I did not feel com 1 ”

PLATO AND SOCRATES

’ Of urs Eon. co e I do. ll : w PH. We he as entirely possessed su i s by ch emot on , and I myself was u r u l in s i i m ch t o b ed p r t, as were also ’ the others.

Eon. r t do And p ay, , who were present Of our ll - i iz s PH. fe ow c t en there were

Apollodorus, of whom I have jus t s Critobu ri poken : and l us, and O to his fat r si s r s he ; and be de , He mogene , and i s E schines is Ep gene , and , and Ant s r r ls si u thone . The e we e a o Cte pp s of is ri Paianis Menex n the d t ct of , and e us, s r ni s l and ome othe Athe an . P ato, I ’

as ill. believe, w ‘ Eon. And we re any st range rs

Yes mmias h PH. Si t e ; Theban. and s P ondas Oebe , and hwd , and from ’ Megara Euclides and Terpsion E ll r ris i on. Te me : We e A t ppus and Cleombrotus there

PH. r r No, they we e not. They we e E in ’ said to be in g a. 1 40 PLATO AHD soom 'ms

W r Eon. as any othe present

PH. I think I have mentioned those

The persons here mentioned were all is i l s r s d c p e of Soc ate , of whom we have accounts from Plato himself or from r ri is in to othe w ters . It interest g see his solicitude to explain his own ah

a ri p ny, O to, who the day before had oﬁ d r ere to Soc ates the means of escape. The conversation is mainly held with

Echestratus then asks Well : and what was the discourse

‘ PH I il r ll m h . w l t y to tell you a fro t e i i beg nning. We had made a hab t of i r i go ng to Soc ates daily for some t me. I and others ; assembling very early in r i in the mo n ng, the hall in which the r l had l for i t ia been he d, t was near to r the prison. The e we waited till the ris r doors of the p on we e opened, con

1 41 r we e not opened very early. As soon as r mi we we e ad tted, we went in to r s Soc ate , and spent the greater part of the day with him. On this day we had met earlier than usual ; for the evening ef r as n ut b o e, we we t o of the prison, we had heard that the vessel was ar rived from Delos ; so we agreed with each other to come very early to the

accustomed place. The jailer who usu ll mi u us a y ad tte d us, came o t to , and t l us us i r o d we m t wa t, and not ente ” il ir F s e unt he d ected us ; or, aid h , l — ha i I'k ecu ioners the E even t t s, the t ’ —are in oﬂ s s of the Law, tak g Socrate i u h cha ns, and anno ncing to im that he ” - r li l must die to day. And afte a tt e ‘

l us o in. while, he came and to d to g r 0 When we ente ed, we found 8 r his rs crates just f eed from fette , and

i is il r close to him, hold ng one of h ch d en A s as she saw us she in her arms. s oon , n are began to wail and lament, as wome r are ur wont to do : O Soc ates, here yo 1 42

PLATO AND SOCRATES in le i u i my g when the cha n bo nd t, and ” s l ur ll n now come p eas e fo owi g the pain. s u is s i am l Cebe pon th a d, I g ad, So r s ou r i c ate , that y have em nded me of what I intended to ask you ; about the the hymn to Apollo which you have

Euenus l l s , ate y, have a ked me what the intention was with which you set u su l abo t ch emp oyments, when you were put in this place ; having never a hi i done nyt ng of the k nd before. So if you wish me to be able to answer Euenus s s s , when he a k me the ame — question again as I well know he will — ” tell me what I must say. “ B s ll him— y all means, Cebe , te what — is the truth that I did not do this in any hope of rivalling him and his diﬁ cult poems. I know how that d d i r i s would be. I i t, t y ng to pell out the meaning of some dreams which I as to them ; dreams which have ofte n 1 44 PLATO AND SOCRATE

urr r occ ed at p evious periods of my life, in i un : cr g the same nj ction So ates, thought that this was merely an one couragement to me to go on doing what i I was doing, as men cheer racers w th ir u u the sho ts. I tho ght that the dream encouraged me to go on pursuing philo» s i r ophy, that be ng the highest p ovince

But si s s nce the entence wa given, and the festival of the God deferred the i if th t me of my death, I thought that e

‘ dream really meant that I was to cultiw s s vate the Muses in the popular en e,

l r c n before my end came, to c ea my o

r w ote a hymn to Apollo, whose festival was the occasion of the delay. Ami n ll o the , reco ecting that a post, t be h really a poet, oug t to write on a bads of ﬁc on s lf o e n ti , and I my e n t b i g a

145 PLATO AND SOCRATES

the ﬂrst that occnrred to me, and turned he in rs t m to ve e. f‘ is h This, Cebes, w at you may tell to Euenus ; and give him my best wishes ; and ll him if is te , that he wise, he will ll F i s s fo ow me. or t eem I must depart ” - So i to day. the Athen ans command. On is Simmi l i th as exc a med, Is not h s r n ss cr s i h t at a t a ge me age, So ate , whc you send to Euenus I have often met the man and from the judgment which r d him is all li l I fo me of , he not at ke y ” ur i llin to take yo adv ce wi gly. ” “ so s i h how ? a d e, Is not Euenus a philosopher ” i 1 8 I conce ve that he , said Simmias. ” s i he Euenus Then, a d , , and any ' l rul hil ill one e se who 1 s t y a p osopher, w be ready to do what I say. Yet not that s ul i l hi : he ho d do v o ence to mself that, ” is l they say, not awful . s i his se his l s And ay ng t , he t down eg r hi f om the bed, and placed s feet on the r u s o g o nd, and so sat during the re t f

1 48

h rs a i is n with us, and by ot e , th t t ot so B lawful to do . ut I never heard any

” l ar s i b r Do not ose he t, a d e, pe s ar r s B hap you may yet he a ea on. ut perhaps you think it strange that in rul is u i this cas e alone, the e not n versal ; that we say that it is for some persons e for s r better to di , and ome bette to live and you may wonder that those for whom it is better to die are not allowed s l s his omo to do them e ve t good e, but must wait till it comes from some ” other hand. Ou is s ui l smili i th Cebe , q et y ng, sa d, ” God s in his b he know , The an way. ” “ ru s i r i In t th, a d Soc ates, t may ap pear strange ; and yet perhaps there is i some reason in t. I will not rely upon in the Orphic Mysteries ; that we are s like sentinels on a po t, and that a man us u u ris or i m t not, na tho ed, desert g ve u his os a p p t. This is deep and obscure sa i . Bu i y ng t th s, Cebes, appears to me 1 48 PLATO AND soom 'rm to be well said : that the Gods are our rs ir s r maste and men the e vants. Do ” i is rt i l you not think t so Ce a n y, s i ur a d Cebes. And if any one of yo ur r s ul ill servants, yo p operty, ho d k himself without any authority from o ul ou r i him y u, wo d y not be ang y w th , and punish him if you could punish ” inl s i he him Certa y, a d . r a s r is li rea Well, pe h p the e the ke son why no man should put himself to

i s of dy ng, as he now doe upon me. ” s i s ar That, a d Cebe , does not appe u li l Bu u s i us n ke y. t what yo a d j t now, that philosophers woul d be the most illi s r n if h t w ng to die, seems t a ge, w a u we have been now saying is tr e, that o G d takes care of men, and that we are his servants and property ; for it is very reasonable that the wisest men should be sorry to go out of this pro »

s u r i s the be t g a d an , take care of them. No such one canthink that he can take 3 2 1 49 PLATO AND SOCRATES

e r r l b tte ca e of himse f, when he is left l su a one without ch guardianship. A foolish man might perhaps think that it was a good thing to escape from a ur master. It might not occ to him that it is is s i m s r w e to tay w th a good a te , and most unwise to run away from s him. A sen ible man would desire by all means to be under the guardianship is r of one w e than himself. And thus ou see r s ul ul y , Soc ate , that the res t wo d be the opposite of what you were say in . s g The wi e would be sorry to die, ” th e lis foo h would be glad. A is r t hearing th , Socrates appea ed to me to be pleased with the acuteness of “ i s Cebes, and looking at us, he sa d : Cebe s s i ri sa always ﬁnd ometh ng o ginal to y, and is not easily led to follow other l ” peop e. And Simmias hereupon replied : But r ll r s r is ea y, Soc ate , I too think the e a

what grounds should wise men run

1 50

PLATO AND SOCRATES conﬁdent his i is of t . And hence t , that l s rr but um ll I do not fee o ow, fu of hope, that those who have left this life are in i in still be ng, and the good a better ” condition than the bad. ” Bu r s s i Si t, Soc ate , a d mmias, do you intend to leave life with this convic i in ur i l or t on yo own m nd on y, will you also impart it to us For it would be a lu l ss ssi u ll as va ab e po e on to s, as we to u yo . And if you convey to us this con viction ou , y have made a successful defence . ”

ll ill tr s i he. B ﬁ We , I w y, a d ut rst let us hear what it is that Orito has long been wishing to say ; for I see there is ” something. ” i l s i Ori r It s on y, a d to, that the pe son who is to give you the poison has s in r been ay g to me mo e than once, that you ought to speak and converse as little as si He s s in rs pos ble. ay that conve in is g, people grow warm, and that th interferes with the eﬁ ect of the poison so in su as s has that ch c e , he to give 1 53 PLATO AND SOCRATES them two or even three successive ” doses. “ ‘ ” him his urs s i h Let take co e, a d e ; let him prepare his potion as if he had ” to dminis r i i or ri a te t tw ce, even th ce. ” “ i Ori u I knew, sa d to , what yo would say : but he has been importun ea ing me for some time. L ve him ” l i e a one, sa d h . But to ou ud es is now y , my J g , I w h to r r ns man ende my reaso , why a who has really employed his life about philo s ophy, may be of good cheer when he is i of at the po nt of death, and may be good h0pe that after death he will be

. 0 Simmi happy And my reasons, as s a is r and Cebe , re these. It not gene ll r oll as i to be a y ec ected, t ought , that those who really apply themselves to hil s r l s u i p o ophy, are ea ly t dy ng only e how to di , and how to be ready for the s a r B if i r t te afte death. ut th s is eally so i is s sur r w din , t a mo t ab d p o e g that men who have been all their lives study PLATO AND SOCRATES

hi l for s i d for w ch they ooked and tud e , ” s ul s d ho d be tartle and grieved. On is immias i l s i th S , w th a augh, a d, I r r s ou n t uth, Soc ate , y have made me laugh when I had little disposition to la i r r ugh. I th nk that the greate pa t of persons would agree in your result : and especially my countrymen the i i Thebans . W th the r dislike to phil s hers ul o op , they wo d say that the philosophers are right in seeking death, and have made the discovery a e that they re worthy to di . l sa immias And they wou d y truly, S , is r except that they have not d cove ed, either in what way true phil osophers or in seek death, what way they are

di e r a i h. worthy to , o by wh t k nd of deat But let na leave these persons to them

” e referenc to them. i i Now death is someth ng, is t not l ” Certain y, replied Cebes. Is it anything else than the separa tion of the soul from the body Is not 154

PLATO AND SOCRATES

i is ni s u th s the case, the mea ng come o t l rl rdi more simmy and c ea y, acco ng to ur i s n li r l o not on , whe de ve ed direct y without interruption. The reader must suppose Simmias to give his assent at hil r s due intervals, w e Soc ate proceeds

The true philosopher does not care for the things of the body : as far as he s s his ti fr it can he ab tract atten on om ,

ur s his s ul. B r h and t n to o e, mo e t an r s s othe men, remove the oul from the inﬂuence is s of the body. Th he doe , although the greater part of men value i but l sur s noth ng the p ea e of the body, o r s a l for in ut them. And ea on b y ; the l is acquirement of know edge, the body r r l a hinderance athe than a he p. The sight and the hearing cannot discover to us truth : as the poets are wont to ll u rl r te s, The wo d of eye and ea de ” lusions all . And if these senses are r s s ill ss rs not to be t u ted, t le are othe .

When, then, does the soul apprehend 1 50 PLATO AND SOCRATES

i n s r it i truth, s nce the body ca not e ve n s i r s i if such a ta k Is t not by ea on ng, r l ru is ni s at all, that ea t th made ma fe t s And does not the mind reason be t, when it is not drawn aside by the ear l ur or i or the eye, by p eas e pa n ; when i f r i s s ra t acts o t elf and, ab t cted from il i s ims a s lu ru bod y agenc e , a at b o te T th P i i Then it s, that the m nd of the philo sopher feels itself superior to and inde ’ pendent of the body. This strain of speculation has a

rs thoughtful pe ons, familiar with ex l s ru s su as the amp e of abstract t th , ch ru i ru h t ths of Geometry. The k nd of t t r l ru r s next eferred to , Mora T th, pe hap has not the same distinctness ; but l i h P ato always assumes that t as , or u o ght to have, the same reality. 80 crates goes on Is there such a thing as Rightneu or Justico Is there such a thing as Honour or Go odness Yet who has ever seen these things with his 1 81 PLATO AND SOCRATES

or r eyes, app ehended them by any other bodily sense And the same may be said of innumerable other

i s. i u r l th ng Magn t de, St ength, Hea th, i and all abstract th ngs. Do we see their true nature by means of our bodily senses No : we must conceive i s in ir s r r these th ng the ab t act fo m, as u u rs di the tr e way of nde tan ng them. He aid u l who, by the of tho ght a one, freed from the di sturbing inﬂuences of s rs eye and ea , and the like, can get l s i ho d of the e concept ons, he obtains

l ru . r rea T th And thus, t ue philo sophers will be led to say to one an other : We must pursue our inquiries and follow our Reason along a bye diﬁ e nt hi path, re from the ghway which n i l ma k nd 1 n genera travel. 80 long as we are entangled and Oppressed by the s ll r rri body, we ha neve a ve at the point hi aim a l w ch we t ; name y, at Truth. The body is a constant impediment to Th us. e necessity of providing for its s d want , an the diseases which ! Ml upon 158

i ri l hil are in th ng ght y w e we th—e body, one of two things must be true either s ll r i r we ha neve know anyth ng, o we shall have true knowledge after our : for ill death then, and not t then, will i the soul act ndependently of the body. uri li s ll And d ng fe, we ha then come to ru l d if nearest t e know e ge, we have as ssi l as little po b e to do wi th the body, — which is not absolutely necessary z if we do not allow its nature to dominate over na, but keep ourselves from its ill taint, t God himself shall liberate na i i from t. And then, puriﬁed from ts i absurd ties, we shall be in the com as rus rs are in pany, I t t, of othe who the same condition, and shall know the i s pure essence of th ng ; that is, as I

ru . But s are judge, the T th tho e who not themselves pure cannot attain to

i l im This is the k nd of anguage, as I i r il s rs us l ag ne, which t ueph o ophe m tho d r i so to one anothe . Do you not th nk

Simmias of course assents to this, as 1 00 PLATO AND SOCRATES to the previous interrogations of Se s s s sa crate . The age goe on to y if s ri And thi be true, my f end, may I not have good hope that when I have performed the journey on which I um ll now setting out, I sha , if ever, obtain that object to which my efi orts have been directed during the whole of my past life The journey now appointed f r is ull si it r o me f of hope, nce p omises the purification of the soul - that puri fication which consists in its separation r f om the corruption of the body, its liberation from the bonds of the body. his i is li r i is a T separat on, th be at on, wh t is li r i n men call Death. And th be at o those most desire who are true philo s i li r ophers. This separat on and be a tion are the peculiar aim and study of il s rs is it ph o ophe . And not then, as s i firs ri I a d at t, dicul ous, that a man who has exercised himself all his life li if s ul to ve as he were dead, ho d be grieved when death itself comes And thus the true philosopher studies how

1 . 161 to die, and death is to him least of all l men formidable. If he abours under the load of the body, and seeks to have li ro i i his soul berated f m t, would t not be very absurd that he should not will ine go thither where he will attain

e ar fri s Many on th death of de end ,

n r s ing to e counte Death, and to de cend

s l there tho e they oved, and of being c s in their ompany. And hall a man r ll l l who ea y oves know edge, and who is ﬁrmly persuaded that he shall never

angry and sorry to have to die, and alone he can hnd what he wants Is not such a fear of Death the greatest of absurdities f And therefore when you see a man ri g eved and alarmed at having to die,

PLATO AND socau ss ance to be the slaves of pleasure ; but

l u they conquer other p eas res : and so, re as I have said, they a temperate from But is i intemperance. th k nd of barter, my excellent Simmias. is not the true

h r nl c ange fo a large coin. The o y ui or hi gen ne wealth, f w ch we ought to i r is g ve away all othe , true Know ledge . All must really be bought and

ance and Justice. Virtue resides with l true Know edge, whether Pleasures

a s are absent. When they re eparated from l l know edge, and mere y exchanged i s r aga n t one anothe , they make a irtu i is r r V e wh ch a me e mocke y, a s u o nd or true. Real V irtue is a puri ﬁcation of such passions ; a nd Temper 104 PLATO AND SOCRATES

i o ur ance, and Just c , and Co age, and l s l r Know edge it elf, are on y esults of the purity of the Soul. Those who instituted the Mysteries did not frame their doctrines without ni au mea ng, when they t ght that he who descends to Hades uninitiated in s ri s un urified the My te e , p according s —s ll to their rite , ha be plunged in mire ; but those who have been initi ated and purified shall live with the s But as s i s i god . the my t c ay ng runs, i ri b Many beg n the tes, ut few are ull urified s r s f y p tho e who a e o, are in my opinion, those who have truly

ursu il s . his p ed ph o ophy T I have, li l r s through my fe, honest y and ea ne tly ri tried to do. Whether I t ed in the ri i su s ght way, and w th what cces , I shall know certainly when I arrive there if it l s Go d as it s , p ea e , and eems, r l befo e ong. his Simmias T then, and Cebes, is my

. his is r s defence T the ea on why, now that I have to leave you and the Divine

1 . 2 1 05 hi l r Rulers of t s wor d, I am not t oubled r an r rus i t s l o g y ; t t ng tha I ha l have, r rs there as he e, good rule and good ill friends. The many w not assent to these views : but if my defence to you has been more successful than that r ss i which I add e ed to the Athenians , t ” is well . s When Socrates had said thi , Cebes replied 0 es ou Socrat , the rest of what y s i rs ll s i have a d appea to me to be we a d, ou sa u e ul but to what y y abo t th So , i r il the many w ll not ead y assent. They apprehend that when the Soul is parted it r : from the body, may be nowhe e that on the very day in which the man ul ma str dies, the so y be de oyed and extinguished ; that it goes forth and r or s is dissipated, like a b eath a moke, e u if it and ceases to b . No do bt, con in is r i s l t ue to ex t, and be gathe ed to t e f,

ri i have desc bed, there m ght be a good h o r sul ope f the happy e t, which yo u. 1 “

PLATO ARD SOCRATm — h if v hit er from thence. And it be so —if the living are derived from the dad it must be that our souls are them after death. For if they were not s ul omewhere, they co d not come into lif i e aga n. And if it can be made clear

a is so de d, th will be a proof that our uxh is r c n s ex t afte death. If we a not how ” s thi , we must seek some other proof. Socrates then enters upon a series of

It must be touching to every thoughtful rs pe on, to see the human mind, then when its powers of self- contemplation and reasoning were ﬁrst fully unfolded as was the case in the Platonic school; exerting itself to prove that powetls and faculties so wonderful and or» quisito coul d never be extinguished. Something more than mere reasoning was needed to give to men the m a» c i B t i s an e of an eternal li a , u the h gh

- est . eﬁ orts of human r eason on this subject have always : been looked “ at 1 “ PLATO AND SOCRATES

B r s i es convincing. y p e ent ng th e argue ments in an abridged and continuous d r the . r li fo m, instead of p o x ialogue in i which Plato g ves them, we shall be r l s i bette a b e to e t mate their force. The ﬁrst argument is the one which — has just been announced z That life grows out of death as death grows out s of life, because oppo ites everywhere

li Wrong ; Fair imp es its opposite Foul. Things grow greater from having been

r r o r ui er greate , weake from str nge q ck from slower ; worse from better ; more ri us righteous from more un ghteo . And the act of transition is an intermediate process : Gr eater and Less are ex.

’ s changed by Increa e and Diminution.

. c Things are onjoined and separated. l warmed and coo ed. And as to sleep PLATO AND SOCRATES

‘ di ’ ‘ l ’ to e. And as to fall as eep has again ‘ ’ ‘ ’ its opposite to awake ; so to die has li ’ also its opposite to ve again. And men spring from dead things and dead s men. As we allow that oppo ites im l ir s s p y the opposites in other ca e , we must not leave nature lame in this one u r r r m q a te . As the dead are derived f o li i so e li eri d the v ng, are th ving d ve r s i f om the dead. And thus, as we a d,

i intermed ate place, whence they can ret urn to life. Cebes assents to this reasoning and r s r s c nﬁrm i Soc ate p oceed to o t further,

He says : If things did not thus go rou in l s r si nd cyc e , f om oppo te to

si - ii t e ri o r oppo te , hey w nt ght nwa ds in s a traight course, proceeding from i i si u r one cond t on to the oppo te, b t neve i a ﬁr n com ng b ck to the st , or be ding ' r u 1 n urs o nd their co e, all things would “170 tions of the Greek philosophers, and in

or l ss r s n a a ent at the p e e t time. I will s r r pa s on to othe a guments . The ne xt is 9 i l i ri on , nvo v ng a doct ne on which l lls i P ato often dwe w th complacency. Cebes suggests it as a conﬁrmation of r di r u the p ece ng a g ment. He says ‘ And l r this too fo lows, Socrates, f om that doctrine which you have often in is merely recollected knowledge ; and re r a that the fo e, on th t account, we us r i us s a m t in some p ev o tate, have c quired what we recover the recollection is u of in this. And th wo l d be impos s l if ur s uls ib e, o o had not been some where before they were in this human r us in is fo m. And th , th way too, we have evidence that the Soul is of an

This proof that all acquisition of knowledge implies a previous posses sion of knowledge had been presented 1 72 PLATO AND SOCRATES

il in r i in deta , a ve y dramat c form, in is d b the Meno, where a boy ma e, y rr a series of inte ogations, to prove l s r was geometrica theorem . The p oof evidently regarded by the School of ri i ls Plato as weighty and st k ng, and a o i s s as novel. Hence S mmia doe not at once recollect the nature of this H s f rs it. e proof, when Cebe re e to

What proof is it that you speak of, Cebes ? Put me in mind of it I do not

’ s i I will give you one instance, a d Cc ‘ bes . en , and that a very good one Wh men are asked questions in a suitable ri way, they discover the truth, and b ng it s kn w out. Now if they had not ome o

they could not do this . By presenting e ri l ia r ms and t to th m geomet ca d g a , h li ou r rl h ke, y may p ove very clea y t at ’ the fact is so.

done inf the course of the Mono. 1 73 And if you are not satisﬁed by what ’ is i r se s n he saying, nte po d Socrate , co sider whether this does not satisfy you.

’ r si n i i s i It is not that I e st co v ct on, a d t us i d Simmias, bu I m t have t me to o

— ll si e about to reco ect. And, in fact, nc s s ro l Cebe began to peak of it, I do co am n erthe lect and convinced. But, ev s ul less, I ho d be glad if you would go on ’ i ou r sa w th what y we e beginning to y. ‘ ’ a was i i ro Wh t I beg nn ng to say, p ‘ ceeded Socra s is this We are r w , . ag eed.

I think , that when a person recollects h us anything, e m t have known it be B t is l fore. u there a so a particular

it implies recollection ; and this way

He then goes on to deliver an argu ment very much like that given in the ' Themte i tu . c s, in wh h it is shown that 1 74 si s i de this, we th nk of a real equality. i — We know what t is. Now where do we acquire this knowledge Not from s i s s s i the t ck and tone wh ch we see, for ll they are not rea y equal . It is some r thing different f om them. For two s s s ticks, or two tone appear, sometimes u l s un bu r eq a , and ometimes equal ; t eal

li is i u li . h equa ty never neq a ty And t us , u li is l i eq a ty not the same as equa th ngs . But yet from seeing equal things we i u li th nk of eq a ty. And thus, as we i is r i th nk of th othe th ng, which we do see r us not , the e m t be recollection. u l i s Now these eq a th ng which we see, s i s li are t ck and the ke, not exactly la i equal . They ck someth ng of perfect tr l equality. They y to be equa but are u l re not eq a . Now when we gard things as thus trying to be something which are us i us they not, we m t have a prev o knowledge of that thing which they try il re to be and fa of being. And therefo us l u li we m t have a know edge of eq a ty, before that time when we ﬁrst saw 1 78 PLATO AND SOCRATES

i s i i th ng and perce ved tha—t they a med at equality and missed it Now in this life we could acquire this knowledge l s in r u hi or s on y by ee g o to c ng, ome s Bu other sen e. t all the objects of sense are defective in the point in

i l i . quest on, and on y aimat t And hence, before we began to see and hear and use the rest of our senses, we must have obtained somewhere the know l r l u li i edge of that ea eq a ty, to wh ch we r f r all i s s as see e e th ng , o to that they u li bu i i tend to eq a ty t do not atta n t. Now we began to see and hear and

li i l . the ke, mmediate y at our birth And therefore we must have received the knowledge of equality at some previous ri l of pe od. And not the know edge equality alone : for we judge also of r li n g eater, of less, and the ke. And ot l bu is ri of these on y, t of what ght, and us ll ure good, and j t, and exce ent, and p ; as sa of all se in i and. I y, tho th gs wh ch we call realities, in our questions and in our answers when we conduct our 1 1 1 77 r . if before we were bo n And , having thus received them, we had not for~ s ul gotten them, we ho d know them for to know is only to have knowledge l r and not to have ost it. To fo get is to l lose the know edge which we had. B t l u if, having had this know edge r r l befo e we we e born, we ost it at our ir e b th ; andthen, wh n we came to use our s r sense , ecovered the portions of know i is ledge which we had before, t plain “ ” l l r that what we ca l to ea n, is, to re cover our own previous knowledge : and

i rl ll . th s 1 8 prope y to reco ect And thus, one of two things must be true ; either

d r u our li s o an have it th o gh ve , r we re cover the knowledge when we say we

Simmias assents : but Socrates further demands which side of the alternative ak he t es. Have we our knowledge 1 78

PLATO AND SOCRATm

’ i s l us G d That suppos tion is till eft . oo . ’ s Bu in my friend. says Socrate . t that case when did we lose this knowledge Did we lose it in the very moment when we received it or can you men tion any other time when that might ’ s s Simmias er happen No, ay ; I p ’ s s ceive I was talking non en e. ’ cr s su s u the Then, So ate now m p ar u us s r. If g ment, th tands the matte there be such realities as we constantly t l - i s G s the a k of R ghtnes , oodnes , and r s and if r e e t, we constantly refe th objects of our senses to these realities, ﬁnd in l s as ir which we ourse ve , to the r our s us s tanda d, then oul s m t have existed before we were born. If it

s u ils. Bu is not o, our arg ment fa t if r ll ur s t hose Ideas ea y exist, o ouls must is l s r ll r have ex ted no es ea y, befo e we ’ were born. Simmias expresses his assent to the c onclusion and his satisfaction at the ri He s s r doct ne. ay , The necessa y con ectio n n appears to me quite evident. 1 3 ) PLATO AND SOCRATES

The soul must be as real as those r li i s ea t e . And I know nothing which appears to me more evident than such realities ; Rightness and Goodness and the li ke. I am satisﬁed with the de ’ r monst ation . Though this argument no longer huds general acceptancc in the exact form r ll d si r he e fo owe , yet the con de ations which are thus presented to the dis ciples of Socrates have still no small inﬂuence on the convictions of thought fu l e - s uls men. Th pre existence of o , i is r l ndeed, a doctrine now ha d y con tended for by any ; and any argument which depends on this doctrine would Bu is in general be rejected. t the ex t s s not ence of Innate Idea , of Idea derived from the senses but from some r r s in othe s ource, has many adhe ent modern times ; and those who hold this doctrine hold also that the soul is there by shown to be so far independent of PLATO AND SOCRATES do not allow any Ideas to be properly

ul s ul r wi Connate Fac tie , Fac ties bo n th us , by which Ideas are formed such as could not be derived from the senses l r s in i a one ; and pe son , too, ﬁnd th s doctrine a ground for believing that l the sou is independent of the body, ill s ri and w urvive the body. The doct ne i of the mmortality of the soul , when

si s i l us on wh ch P ato here presents to . When Simmias has thus expressed tion which Socrates has delivered of i of th the mmortality e soul, we have a little Dialogue which relieves the r u d a g ment, an fixes our attention on the further explanationwhich the dying is sage gives of his belief and h hope. Simmias is satisfied : But how is it ’ with ks ‘ W mus Cebes ? Socrates as . e t ’ convince Cebes too. Simmias at firet

PLATO AND SOCRATES

r our soul existed before we were bo n. It must be proved also that when we s ul il is as u are dead, the o w l ex t m ch if th r is as it did before birth, e p oof to l ’ be comp ete d.

Socrates meets this doubt very calmly. ri The proof has been given, my f ends, ll u o r is r if you wi p t t gethe th p oof, and the doctrine which we agreed to before r we came to this ; namely, that eve y

if ul ir h For the so exist before our b t , and if when it passes into life it cannot come from any other quarter than from s it is death and the tate of the dead, inevitable that it must exist after we sin i is in i are dead, ce t aga to come nto ou life. And so I have al ready given y o k for the proof which y u as . But you and Simmias seem as if you would willingly have the proof a little further explained. You seem to be ri as il r are f ghte ned, ch d en , that when s s the oul passe out of the body, the

184 PLATO AND SOCRATES

i l i ll if r perse t entire y, espec a y the e be strong breezes stirring when the man

l s i At this Cebes aughed, and a d s u are Well, Socrate , s ppose that we frightened ; and do you encourage and u Or r r su s comfort s. athe , ppo e, not ar ri but r that we e f ghte ned, that the e i i u is so us s a child with n s who . Let r rsua him r t y to pe de not to fea death, as i u ar or li a k nd of b gbe hobgob n. ” es s i s to hi Y , a d Socrate and do t s, us use s r we m t ome cha m, that we can si er him ill in ng ov day by day, t the ” cantation has quite dispelled his fears. Bu r s ll t alas, Socrates, whe e ha we ﬁnd any one who is master of such a s ll sin u s li l im pe ; ce yo , the mo t ke y to r it us are in l pa t to , on the po t of eaving na Socrates replies : Greece is a wide s place, Cebe ; and there are in it many er si good men. And th e are, be des, a r s ari s m ny ace of barb an , all of whom are to be explored in search of some 1 85 PLATO AND soonu ns one who can perform such a charm as we have spoken ot z and we must spare nor s in s f no pains expen e the earch, or on what better object could we expend r o money or labou . And y u must too for perhaps you will not easily ﬁnd any has is r or ou one who th powe , m e than y ’ have. is in u i s s er Th j nct on, to eek ome teach who can raise men above the fear of l Gr s bu death, not on y among the eek , t s among other nation al so, cannot but s ri us su t ke , who know that ch teachers have proceeded from a nation of whom r probably Plato neve heard. The Heb rew is i l s far r er r d c p e of a g eat teache , referred to other proofs than such as r u s s Socrates he e expo nd . Yet ome of t e ul rsus did is i h m, as Pa of Ta , not d da n to illustrate the subject by references to speculations of the Greeks; and in addressing the Athenians four hundred rs r r nvic yea afte Plato, eferred to co ti s re on of natural ligion, such as So 1 83

PLATO AND SOCRATES

If i us ris has not, t cannot th pe h. It no component parts of which it is u i hi i dis made p, and nto w ch t can be s ul is si le solved. Now that the o mp , we have evidence in thought and con sciousness : for thought and conscious ness are the acts of a simple principle s i s e which thinks and is con c ou . Henc s ul ris as o the o cannot pe h, the b dy

r s. It does, by being dissolved into pa t is si l u i le mp e, and therefore indestr ct b i and mmortal. hi s is in r m s T the way we, mode n ti e , r s often see the a gument pre ented. l r r is The atte pa t of th argument, which proves the simple and indestruc tible nature of the soul from its acts ns i us s is s m of thought and co c o nes , o e ’ what different from Plato s argument here for he proves the immortal nature of the soul from its being con cerned with nualterable and eternal ’ as B s ul s Ide . ut the evidence that the o operations do not result from the com. bin i r is at on of pa ts, resumed in a later 188 PLATO AND SOCRATES

r s r argument of Soc ate , whe e he dis cusses the doctrine of the soul being r r s F r r s a ha mony of pa t . o the p e ent, we will briefly expound his argument from the composite nature of the body : i as usu l his r r ss to wh ch, a , hea e s a ent r i f om po nt to point. us ask firs in We m t t, what k d of l l lo things are most iab e to this t, the being dispersed ; for what things we re s r sul may most app hend uch a e t, and f r us o what, not ; and we m t then con si er i l ss s ul belon s and d to wh ch c a the o g , es r l pitch our hop o fears according y. Now it is things compounded ofparts — — composite things that are liable to separation into the parts of which r they are compounded. If the e be any — thing which is uncompounded incom osite if i us b p , that, anyth ng, m t e r su lo exempt f om ch a t. Now those things which are always the same and in e st ar li l the sam ate , e most ke y to be the uncompounded things : and those which are constantly changing and l a) r s neve con tant to the same state, are li l u i ke y to be the compo nded th ngs. Now the Ideas which we spoke of a little while ago ; the realities to which r r in o r i si s we efe u d scus on , absolute u li s lu e G ss s u Eq a ty, ab o t oodne , ab ol te u lik s are Bea ty, and the e ; the e always the same : they admit of no change they are simple and uniform and do fi er not sn the smallest alteration. r s thin s i u Whe ea g of any k nd, bea ti ful i s for i s th ng , n tance, beautiful men, u iful rs s u bea t ho e , bea tiful garments, and the like ; are they always the same, or do they not constantly difl er in ir — r r ‘ the state, neve emain the same 1 These you may touch or see or appro hend by other senses ; but the constant and permanent essences of them you can only apprehend by an act 01 thought. They cannot be seen by the s eye . Now let us take two classes of exist the invisible always the same ; the 1 00

PLATO AND SOCRATES

Now which ofthe two kinds of exist n or ris le e ces, the permanent the pe hab , does the soul seem more to resemble r wi r s si r and ag ee th, f om the e con de ations rs is So Cebes answe , There no one, s so s i as sa crate , tup d not to y, when his ul re led by t method, that the So sembles permanent more than transi r hi s is ure to y t ng , while the body of nat ’ si tran tory and not permanent. r s is so ll Soc ate , though Cebes we satisﬁed s ill nﬁrm his , t proceeds to co i conv ction by another argument. ’

s r us s s he . Con ider the matte th , ay d The Soul and the Body are joine , and

‘ work together by nature but the same nature directs the latter to serve and

r r . obey, the forme to rule and gove n And in this aspect which of them ap pears to you more like the divine nature and which more like the mortal Is it not an attribute of divinity to rule and ir r r s be d ect, and of mo tal creatu e to rul ed and directed To which then of 1 92 PLATO AND: SOCRATES soul is of a divina the body of a mortal

00n is it not evident that the soul is

’ s r ? dear Cebe , o is it so ‘ ’ It is so .

s s is no l ss ino poots of the oul, which e

he l i s t c a m of Virtue. ’ r s i i Well but, Soc ates ays, th s be ng

h - ' ' ao, t e body is appointed to be soon dissolved, and the soul to ba in coms PLATO AHD SOCBATm

i all c e ich wh ch we c his orps , wh is up pointed to be dissolved, to fall to dust, r s ill oes imm di to evapo ate, t d not e ats

much alteration for a considerable time; -e specially if the body be in good con l dition and the season favourab e. And

indeed if the body be embalmed. as is

out perishing a wonderful length of

. s r time And ome pa ts of the body, “ s the bone , even when the rest decaya. r i l st for r ema n a mo eve . The soul then,

the immaterial part, which goes t o a

xal e in n ur na l Hade and e t d at e, me y—to s. h . to t e good and wise God whither.

if God l . p ease, my s oul must very soon

o - s u sa i g the o l, I y, be ng of a nature so superior to the body as we have s n can it as s i i ee , , oon as t s separated r f om thebody, he dispersed into nothing and ris r n pe h, as the majo ity of manki d hold 0 far r othe wise, my dear Cebes and Simmias ! Bather will this ba ths 1 94

fr th But if the s oul depart om e body,

ing allowed itself to be bewitched byit and its desires and pleastn'es ; so that nothing appeared to be real which was be touched and seen and eaten—and drunk and used for enjoyment 3 0“ having always hated and feared and

eeive that such a soul can be pure in

No : it is swathed in . the encumbrance

constant intercourse and too close union ’ have rendered part of its nature. And is i i to a hence, it mplied; t cannot go re io i n g n of pur ty and happiness. A d

the belief in ghosts, common then as 1 “ r to in su wa now, is eferred ch a y as to

The covering which such souls retain n s su after death, we must eed ppose to

r i l by the fea of that invis b e region,

Hades. And thus these souls are led to wander among the tombs and monu ments of the dead ; where such phan n toms have ofte been seen. These are the appearances of soul s which have been dismissed from the body in a state r of impurity. They partake of the co

l i s es but are ab e t i , Ceb ; these the but souls, not of good men, of bad men ; which are thus compelled to wander

e And thus th y wander, until. by the

1 97 poreal element which thus clings to r i e s them, they a e aga n nclo ed in a body. And are l se in o as they enc o d a b dy, u i may be s pposed, corresponding n its

lu had been addicted to g tto ny, to in i h temperanc e, to lust, those wh ch ad

r i l to ty anny and v o ence, pass into the bodies of wolves and h awks and vul o

ures. so the t And of . rest, each goes

c rish which they had he ed. How should it be otherwise s th i And tho e are e happ est, and go s r i into the best place , who had p act sed those social and public virtues which men call temperance and j ustice - prac u tised them by habit and nature, witho t il ph osophy and without reﬂection. And what course does t heir happiness take

They will not run counter to philosophy and her teaching g- they aim at the

i ll r she l ads. g ves, and fo ow whe e e ‘ You ask how they do this ? I will l r ll u te l you. Those who ea y love tr th know how philosophy beneﬁts the soul. pletely bound up in and fastened to the o ll l r thin b dy compe ed to ook at eve y g, dir l bu r not ect y, t as it we e, through lls ris us con the wa of a p on ; and th . emn d ed to darkness, and feeling that the strength of its prison consists in its o wn s the strength of de ires, and

i i e kn t ilo own capt v ty. Th y ow tha . ph hus l osophy receives the soul t entang ed, ting it ; by showing it that perception by the eyes and by the ears is full of deceit ; by persuading it to trust those li s ll i as ttle as po sible, and to co ect tself o i s l its int t e f, and to trust own peculiar realities : to ascribe no reality to what all such things are the object only of er l ense and isi b t ext na s v on, u the things which fit sees directly and by itself are soul et a real . lover of truth does not oppose i tself to this oﬁer of liberation; desires and griefs and fears -with all its power ; for it considers that when ta man is under the sway of strong joy or '

e fear or grief or dea re.. the evils which thus move him are not s o great as he

~ of evils . he suﬁers With out regarding it s l i th isible name y, the bel ef at v

griefs, are the clearest and strongest of realities, and t he feonsequent subju pleasure and every grief furnishes rl

and like the body rjudging of things ﬂ B ’ s e the body judges. y sharing 1 n the erc i s and i the o of he p ept on n j ys t body, it acqmres the habits and character of the body and thus cannot pan away pure to the other world, but departs still loaded with the body ; and hence grows again like a seed that is sown ; and thus has no share in the inter course with the divine and p ure and simple essence which is its zproper

eWe may at present refuse to assent to the doctrine, here as els ewhere as

of the study of abstract truths, which is what he calls philosophy : but to seek

sc li s ' on in heme of fe. Socrates goe the

is on un s es It them acco t , 0 Ceb , that

u ma happiness of the virt ous n, and consequent calmness in the presence of

il h r u r in a heathen ph osop e . B t howeve n il r much a ma may be a ph osophe , r i it l us death, when nea and nev ab e, m t be a solemn thing : and Socrates is not i represented as regarding it otherw se. is or After this sﬁ usion, he f a time il u s ent. If his eloq ence is touching, his sil is s ill r so as s in ence t mo e , how g how deeply he felt the solemnity of his position ; and such is the M pres his fri r sion made on ends. The nar a tive thus proceeds : r When Soc ates had said this, there was silence for a considerable time ; he himself being occupied in dwelling upon the thoughts to which he had given u t r so far as ul u t e ance, one co d j dge, as us r most of also we e . Cebes and Simmias r , howeve , began to talk to r gethe a little. And Socrates perceiv m4 PLATO AND ; SOCRATES

“ in t s a g hi , as ked them : What re you ta lking oi ? Have I left anything un explained No doubt there are still

l " s t . r u su i o go th o gh the who e bject . If

I have ‘ nothing to say but if you are

occupied with doubts upon our subject, do not be afraid to utter and' dis cuss in like and them, any way you , take i h u if u i me w t yo , yo th nk I can give ” ou y any help. Simmias answered : ell S cr e wm ll ou W , o at s, I te y the truth.

and each of us urges the othersto pro s u wit po e them to you, whose j dgment is u hesi fron1 w h to bear ; b t we tate, ths

‘ r of i ou cu in fea disturb ng y , and oc py g you in that which may be disagreeabi s o n to y u, i the position in which ou ” y r now a e. ‘ U on this Socrates said with a uit p , , q t “ s ile l Simmias ! ca m , A ack, I n hardly

' ‘ expect to persuade ; other persons thdt you ; when you are afraid that I am now more irritable than I have been

f im » at on ner t es. You will not even all e eri a s an th ow m the m t of w ; ey, u know are said s n most yo , to i g sweetly when they know that they are going to die ; t hey rejoice that they are to go

i Men, ndeed, fearing death themselves

lam nt ir death ref re s i e the , and the o ng l he ' nsi their oudest. T y do not co det

that birds . do not sing when they are

nor sw ll nor nightingal e, the a ow, the

of these is a lamentation expressing I for i pain. , my part, do not th nk that i si ro i either these b rds ng f m pa n, or i s ' thi that dy ng swan do. I nk that, these the clodng moments of his life, be

ments which were brought against his opinion ; and do this with a calmneu

‘ I think O Socrates as ou robab , , y p b think on such matters : that to know

any rate very diﬂ cult : but yet that we i l ini s must exam ne al op on , and subject

is them to the bottom, want of energy

and perseverance. We must come to — one of two results either we must learn what is the truth : or if we cannot

most plausible of the doctrines oﬁ ered ur to us, and take o chance upon this. as f over life ; unless we can ﬁnd some

‘ 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 0130m I will not. 11 001153 130 put

say to you what wearin my mind For looking at what has zbeen said u my

3 ’ Well. Socrates seidﬂ perhaps you are

body and the soul. One might say that l r And ‘thus erson m ab e characte . ap “ might say that if he were to break “

' l r and se v r the strin s the harm y e e g , bny its ris l strin s wer ro en ul pe hab e g e b k , co d no longer exist ; bub that the barium ; which zis of a nature !agreeing with $0 ce se to ? f a be. And thus he might wy vive the instrument ? and that wh en

r Fo , Socrates, I c onceive you must allow that the soul is connected with the body!

si n i nd ld by oppo te age c es, hot a co and r and our - is d y wet, soul a mixture llnd

el e r sul in . d em nts, e t g from their ue a nd we can agree with them g aud it not o ell as we can then reply to them. B t ,

” ll u s i ebes. I will te yo , a d C

soul existed before it came into its h l and if resum to ave ab y, I might p e

i s d soul w ll ubsist after we are dea ,

I do not however agree with the objec is tiou ot Simmias. I think the s oul much more strong and permanent than

u ‘ s u ' you do bt When a man die , yo see

use i ' of an mage, as Siminias has done. as PLATO AHD SOCRATES

' To me it seems that what has been

i n - d ed, o e were t o s ay the same were i i to ma nta n that he was not dead. but still exists somewhere or other ; and as ro hi u p of of t s, were to prod ce the gan

h . r meht which e had woven and wo n, and were to s how that it is still there and whole ; and -were to ask which is

rm s iall w in urse ga ent, e pec y hen the co of wear : and when the answer was

made , that the man is m uch the more

ur l sh ul ur e is ' rod d ab e, o d g th as a p that the man must be atill in a stats of

is -l in ill 2 r less ast g, is st the e.

. Sim But yet that does not follow, mias ; for I woul d have you also attend

! s ch r . see that u an a gument is absurd.

many such garnich ts in succession: and I then he went u to udecay after those PLATO u ni soomm

And the same is the case with the ﬁodl

that the . Soul wears out smany Bodies;

if the Body is in a econstant state of

Soul weaves itself a new garment ‘ es

have now no e solid reason to believe

““ And even if one should grant more ’ th an -this to the asserter l of: the Boul s ‘ immortalityh ifc ohevs hould allow that the Soul ~ not only zanisted before we into trouble and doubt ; not only doubt

s s as if w urged afterward . It eemed e on the question ; or as if the subject

ou for su e li For r y ch a f e ng. at the hea ur ing of yo account, the same thought occurs to me : What arguments are we

s st ates which eemed so convincing, is, s r s it appear , not to be t u ted. In truth, b I am much struck, and have often een ti so before, by this no on, that the Soul

vi s s the ew i put into word , I recollect that I have often thought the same. d as u An I am now in need, m ch as at he i i s ne t beg nn ng, of ome w proof that the ul e So does not die with th Body. Socrates resumed the discussion : and whether. : he too was , as you say you er v n l r h r w e, e ide t y troubled, o whet e he steacﬁly . resumed his arguments ; and

’ - tory ' or - ! not ? Tell me everything as

‘ d E h ten PB . Indee , c ecrates, I had of

' him so much as I did then. That h e s l to r l was hould be ab e make a ep y, admired was especially this : how received the objeetions of those young men ; and then how quiekly he per

made upon us ; and then how . he no oovered us from our depression ; how he rallied o ur broken ranks and en couraged ne o amd lod u s back to the dis ’ ussio — as d e c n. Eon. How W that on ‘ will ou. I was i n PH. I tell y s tti g on his right upon a low seat by the side of s e s his hed, o that h wa a good deal 31 7 hi r h h ghe thaa as. Se e dropped is — my hair which lay upon n y mech h he s i t do I su o ou? intend to a d, , pp se y

si e i as a gn of S t seems, ” not Socrates, I replied. Do do it ” “ s i h than, a d e, if you will take my ad ” vice. What do you mean9 said I . You must cut your looks and put your s l in ur i -da and =I us e f mo n ng to y, m t do

' if in If I were u and if h l e aga . yo , t is

a h d l o t , as the Argives di , never to et

overcome the arguinents of Simmias and ” ” s Bu i I ooovdin Cebe . t, sa d , a g to the ul s is proverb, even Herc e not a match ” ” fo ll s i he m r two. We , a d , take e for us nio your Iola , the compa n of ia it shmm gzm m ' And it i. ph in that it oomes of a man

man' this respect e men. If a assent as ru wi hou kn to an argument t e, t t ow ing how to reasom and then shortly

it is en when ao, sometimes wh it is not ; and so of another and another ; ' you know that he comes to mistrust all r u e a g m nt. Especially th ose who are

s of u stions r side q e , you know that at

h hi k th n e u i last t ey t n ey are v ry w se,

and can see, what others cannot see;

ri us t at hi i t Eu p , and h not ng s perms » ” ” ent s l . You sa e ni l and tab e y v ry t y,

i I. ul it then sa d Wo d not ﬁ said he, “ be lam l t i i a entab e h ng, i , when an

i lo ers ho g b , a p on w had been e ngaged ‘ﬂ PLATO AND SOCRATES

l i leave no stab e convict on, and had thus become sceptical a bout the sound n l h l argume t, should b ame, not imse f his bad r s s bu Red and own ea oning , t son! itself ; and shoul d take to speaking i t nd hus los the neﬁ ill of , a t e be t of truth and knowledge A. lamentable ” ”

i s i I. ~ t said thing ndeed, a d hen, ‘ h : i let us are av id is rr e, take c to o th e or ;

‘ and nb t admit the: belief into our minds that t here is nothing sound and certain ounzminds are n ot sound; and let us my manfully to make them so - you and

and rIgbecause I um soon to die : that I s oso h may behave a becomes a phil p er, and not like mere disputatious talket h

' h i u s v They in t eir d sp te do not ca e . ou i si ru li s but wh ch de the t th e , mou ly try to persuade the bystanders to adopt

M s them. y main purpose d , not that m s sec ar b ct but a I a a ond y o je , th t m y

rin s i “ my doct e i true, t is well to know it ; and even if after death th ere i I s ll s ill id ar be noth ng, ha t avo we ying my companions with my lamentations rr r while I live. And my e o will not last long : there will soon be an end oi

i and s m as Cebe , I come to the argument

l i li l u r wil th nk tt e abo t Soc ates, but a

s ms r e it u but what ee to be t u, take p ,

the arguments of Simmias and Cebes is somewhat prolix ; and yet the last

PLATO AND Esocm ns — of them They said they rejecte d And ’ some and accepted others. what, said he, do you say of that doctrine in

it was in the body ’ I s c rin , said Cebe , accepted that do t e for i r ai h and L s il be e w th pe fect f t , t l hold to it as ﬁrmly as one . can hold

‘ ’ I too. said of the same mind ; and I should be much s urprised ii ' I ever came to think otherwise ’ ‘ 1 id S r e s m ’ Yet, sa oc at , y good l heban

o l e wise, if y u ho d to the opinion that col nposition of the body and the ! relan tions, of its elements“ For you will not

the parts were put togetherl PLATO AND SOCRATES

if ou reﬂect ou ill And yet, y , y w see is w that you do say th , hen you say that the soul exists before that it i u r comes nto a h man fo m, and yet that the soul is the Harmony of the parts r is li o f the body. A ha mony not ke ul l r ri s the so in this. The y e, the st ng , the sounds, must be there ﬁrst ; and the l harmony comes ast of all . Your two ’ s i r doctrine do not ch me togethe at all.

s i ies . They do not, say S mm ‘And yet if anydoctrines should chime ’ r it 1 s s u togethe , doctrine abo t harmony. ’ s i ies They hould, says S mm .

But at present they do not. Take i your choice then. Wh ch of the two

’ I r r r must prefe the fo me , Socrates, i e r sa d h . The latte I took up without

. ro r r l f r i p of on me e p obabi ity, o ts pret i as t ness, other persons do. But I know by experience how fallacious such prob in geometry. But the doctrine abou t learning and recollecting is demon s u I strated on o nd principles. t wa s proved that the soul is something as anterior to the Body, the Idea is s erve and call after the name of th e — Idea as the Idea of Goodness is ri r our s r i thi s ante o to —ob e vat on of ng that are good ; as the Idea of space i s anterior to our observation of thing s in s ace such as ﬂ ur This as I p , g es. , am rsu is ri l l l pe aded, ght y and comp ete y r r or t sa p oved ; and the ef e I canno y , nor ll rs sa a ow othe to y, that the Soul ’ is a Harmony. conﬁrm him in is u To th j dgment, So cr es r s r u s ill fur r at p oceed to ef te t the , the doctrine that the Soul is a B ar His r u are mony. a g ments these. Harmony is the agreement of parts and the parts which comprise the har mony may agree more or less ; and acc r i l e ( o d ng y as th y do, there is more r less r But o ha mony. we cannot say no

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e r his too u st m B a t , heart ; tho ha ho e

ou i r Do y th nk that Home , when he ro is u s ul was w te th , tho ght that the o a Harmony Did he not think it i u i r n r someth ng of a m ch h ghe atu e, in which there is a ruling principle and shall ra i di in — we cont d ct the v e poet Simmias assents to these argu ments . The arguments against the soul being a mere Harmony of the parts of the are r ll i i a u Body, ea y ngen ous, and c tely put ; and we can assent to the con viction which they are represented

’ la s ri Pre- i s P to doct ne of ex stent Idea , i as s i is r l wh ch, I have a d, ep aced among the modem s by the doctrine of Innate s in us i ri Idea . And hav g th v cto ous rs disposed of one of the objecto , he turns somewhat triumphantly to the r i l u othe , w th an a l sion to the two founders of the city to which Simmias s l d and Cebe be onge , whom mythology m PLATO AND SOCRATES

as r i spoke of Ha mon a and Cadmus . We have found Harmony propitious ’ us s s let us i to , he ay , now prop tiate Cadmus perhaps implying that he ’ would make Cebes s arguments destroy ’ r as Cadmus s r - or one anothe , ea th b n l i so d ers did. is h l s r Th , t e a t of the a guments for the Immortality of the Soul which the r s li dying Soc ate de vers, we shoul d be especially desirous of presenting in an i lli i l rsu si nte g b e and pe a ve form . It is however very difi cult to do se ; for ’ though he begins by re- stating Cebes s difi l his r s i s l cu ty, ea on ng do not app y ’ l s ss C bes s b with any c o ene to e view, ut rather fall bac k upon the most general u s s r ss r q e tions, and eem add e ed to othe r arguments rathe than that of Cebes. In order to preserve unity in this Dia s ll in tr sl i i logue, I ha , an at ng th s part ri of it, ab dge some portions so as to rr the r u r i ca y on a g ment mo e d rectly. s i u Cebe sa d, I do not do bt but that have answered that of Simmi es abou t in i r l m harmony, a way ncompa ab y ore si l complete than I thought pos b e. He was defeated at the first onset. The l li t m " same wi l very kely happen o e. ” “ ri s i t s let n My f end, a d Socra e , a s i for r v ma havenoboa t ng, fea that en y y r damage our discourse befo ehand. We are in the hands of God ; but let us go

i si s. on s de by de, as Homer say ‘ “ The sum of whatyou say is this : you wish to have the soul proved to be inde structible i r l ers and mmo ta , that a p on has li r who ved as a philosophe , when s die s he come to , may have rea on to ill trust that he w be happy after death. You are not satisﬁed that the soul s l r l l hou d be ve y durab e on y. If we r it i m r l w cannot p ove to be m o ta , e objections on purpose that nothing may a o hi escape us. H ve y u anyt ng to add or ” o n s s to take away N thi g, ay Cebes : ” ou s i ri l y have tated my mean ng ght y. r s i i Then Soc ate , hav ng been s lent for m

PLATO AND SOCRATES

uir ﬁ q e xity, they become knowl edge. l i h And in the same way, ook ng at t e us s s ru i d o ca e of de t ct on, an at the phen n an e s me a of the earth d the h aven , at last I appeared to myself to be as st upid s rs as i is ssi l to at the e matte , t po b e be.

And I will give you a proof of this . I so r l got pe p exed, that what I had s d to ll r eeme know we before, I no longe n Fo k ew. r instance : how it is that a

out his es of food ﬂ h is added to ﬂesh,

! e it and bone to bone, and to ach organ s su u appropriate bstance, and th s a small s l r an body become a a ge one, d a little man a great one. Does not this seem ” to ou r l r y easonab e Ce tainly, said ’ Cebes. He then goes on to explainhow these

r su l i s by mo e bt e speculat on . We must PLATO AND SOCRATES he refers had obtained a considerable hold upon the minds of men at that i na t me, though to now they appear su l pueril e and barren bt eties. The questions discussed were of this kind What is the cause why ten is more than eight Is it the two that are added to the eight When one added is the to one makes two, cause of its ﬁrs one or being two the t , the second i i i r one, or the add t on If ne the of the did ones was two, how they become two by being put together If one is s i isi divided into two, doe d v on make i i did r two here, as add t on befo e We need not wonder that Socrates was dissatisﬁed with such inquiries as u he s s for s e these. He so ght, ay , om ul i other line of spec at on. And he happened to hear someone read from a book of Anaxagoras that Mind or In, telligence was what had ordered every

was the aus r i . th1 ng, and c e of eve yth ng was li With this notion he de ghted. He thought it was a promising doctrine. ﬂ ~ d it is best that they should be. An ul l r the us therefore, if we wo d ea n ca e

that it should exist or do or suﬁ er : and s u e thus, man would need no t dy, xcept in the study of What is Best. Know g is would know ll ‘ so I th , he a . And was the teacher of causation whom I had for sought . I thought tha t he would tell me r r is ﬂ rou whethe the ea th at or nd, by showing which of the two it was better that it should be that if he said it was i dl uni in the m d e of the verse, he would show that it was better that it should be in the middle. And if he could show his s ul me t , I ho d not want, I conceived, an r us And so u y othe ca e. abo t the sun, and s s the moon, and the tar , their rates f i ir s in o mov ng, the path the sky, and 2“

PLATO AND SOCRATES for i s s r s L i n tance, by De ca te , and by e b i z Bu a l s il d to n t . t they h ve a way fa e bear a close examination ; and it does not appear that such knowledge is i u w r with n the reach of the h man po e s. Hence those who cannot be satisfi ed without such systems are always lia ble to the disappointment which Socra tes s ri es b i ll him de c b as av ng befa en . ’ ‘ was s s s I da hed down, he ay , fr om s l s as e ou the e ofty hope when, I w nt , I found that my author made no use of his ” i nor r err i as s M nd, ef ed to t the ou rce of the arrangements of the world ; but i as us s airs and ass gned ca e , ethers, and li se fluids and the ke. It emed to me as if r s i any one, afte ay ng that Socrates does all that he does in virtue of his ” i e r e i M nd, and th n p oce d ng to assign us am si i r s the ca e why I tt ng he e, houl d is s say, that my body compo ed of bones us l s a s are s and m c e ; th t the bone olid, s ra u l and epa te , and that the m sc es can r be cont acted and extended, and are all enclosed in the flesh and skin ; and 2m PLATO AND SOCRATES i i n that the bones, be ng jo nted, ca be ra us l s d wn by the m c e , and so I can move my legs as you see ; and that this is the reason why I am sitting here. And as if again he were to assign the li for the am ke causes —fact that I now talking with you r making the causes i h to be air and vo ce and hearing, and t e like ; and were not to mention the true s — i u i cau e, that the Athen ans tho ght t s n a d u be t to condem me, n that I tho ght it s r ai er sufi r be t to em n h e, and to e the

sentence which they have pronounced. For most assuredly these bones and muscles would long ago h ave carried r r B b me to Mega a o to teotia, moved y if my opinion of what was best, I ha d not thought it more right , and honour able to submit to the sentence pro noun w ced by the State, than to run a ay

us s “ from it . To call such things ca e is sur o r s ab d . If indeed any ne we e to ay that with out having bones and muscled and the like I coul d not do what I wish. he would say truly : but that I do what PLATO AND SOCRATES

I do because of these, and not because of i is my cho ce of what best, woul d be r ss us of la u a g o ab e ng age. For there is a great diﬁ erence be t i is us ween that wh ch the ca e, and that without which the cause would not pro

u its eﬁ t. m n d ce ec And yet many e , r i in r i r g op ng the da k, as t we e, call ' t is i 8 re i us h , wh ch 1 a me cond tion, a ca e. And hence one man surrounds the earth with a vortex which revolves while the earth is at rest ; another pu ts a large bowl over the air : but they never attempt to show that it is best it should be so z they do not place their i u is s r u un verse pon th , the t ongest fo n a i l Gr s bu d t on, name y, the eate t Good ; t se for s las str r s ill ek ome At onge t , to ’ it u u h s s u bear p pon i ho lders. As i u s I have sa d, a s o nd sy tem of the si l u i rs u u phy ca n ve e, fo nded pon the ri r G i doct ne of the G eatest ood, s per s r m Bu h ssi l fo an. t t e hap not po b e — belief that the m—oral world that man and his destinies are directed for the as

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r i s to elate, and wh ch Cebe expresses a r His a great desire to hea . ccount is that he was then led to look at things s : in s led themselve and, hort, to the s i doctrine of Idea , wh ch he afterwards so constantly insisted upon ; that u G dn ss Gr s Bea ty, and oo e , and eatne s , r r li i and the like, we e ea t es, by partak

good, and great : that the real cause why anything was beautiful was the presence of beauty : that greatness was he us hi s r a r t ca e why t ng were g e te , and ll ss sma ne , why they were less. One man cannot be greater than another by

aus . Fo the head, as a c e r then the second would be less than the ﬁrst by the

l u s Wh is Cebes a gh . en one added to is r u i one, two p od ced, not by add tion,

This is assented to as a very clear and Cebes in the Dialogue ; and by Echecrates lis the tener, and t do the 240 PLATO AND SOCRATES

n rr r 1 n is a ato , th repetition of it . And upon this 1 s founded a chain of reasons ing of some considerable length and l i u comp ex ty, of which the res lt is declared to be that the Soul is im

I ha ve already said we are naturally desirous of seeing this last argument of Socrates in an intelligible and pen su si r is diﬂi ul a ve fo m. It c t to give it su h bu c a form, t the general purport of it may be stated to be thia The

ss c a l e en e, re rea ly their causes ; and

s . And in si the e these Ideas , be des tho u l a ri u t f ndamenta tt b te, we have of en s u ss ome accessory attrib te , nece arily combined with it : thus with the Idea of three is necessarily combined the of u Idea odd n mber. Now the Soul is he ri i l f t P nc p e o Life ; and as such, our Idea of it is Opposite to Death : ! and thus by its Essence it is Immortal: And with the Idea of Immortal it Q 941 necessarily connected th e Idea o f In

r l aus s as h of any exte na c e, uch t e physical circumstances of death. Whm m n his rtal r death comes to a a , mo pa t i s ar li s t d e , the immorta l p t ve ; and hus

rem ning ; though with some remain adds ro su e , f m the greatness of the bj ct.

’ is ri he from this doctrine. It ght, says, ‘ to bear in mind this : that if the soul l i r ur be immorta , t equires o care, not n only duri g the time that we call life, but for all time ; and great is our if l danger we neg ect it. If death were all i the end of , t would be a gain for the wicked to get rid of their body and of their wickedness at the same time; when their soul departs But sinct the s ul is i l is el o mmorta , there no h p tor it except to make it good and wise : 348

PLATO AND socns 'ms

r ads to a s stated periods. The o H de l ui are many and comp ex, and a g de

ll - r ere is needed. The good and we o d d soul foll ows the guiding angel gladl y ; lin s the od but the carnal soul c g to b y, hl u s and lingers about its eart y ha nt , im and can hardly be led away. The s ll u i il s is pure oul , po ted w th ev deed , shunned by other souls and wanders long in mi sery : the pure and well conducted soul ﬁnds its appointed

He then proceeds to describe the Uni rs r i i ss ve e, and the eg ons of happ ne and misery which exist in it ; and here ’ we see many traces of Plato s own He speculations on these subjects. makes Socrates say that he is con vinced that the earth is in many respects different from the account m l i i r co mon y g ven of t. I am pe ’ suad d s s if it is ir r e , he ay , that c cula and placed in the middl e of the s i r i r sur heaven , t equires ne the the roun air nor any other machinery 244 PLATO AND SOCRATES to prevent its falling : it will preserve its l and i s r ba ance t cent ality. lac it is r l r In the next p e, ve y a ge. r a i i s The pa t th t we nhab t, from Pha is in u i ill rs ul the E x ne to the P a of Herc es, is s ll r ssi in hi li a ma dep e on, w ch we ve li r s o ke f og r ants round a pool . There are many other such hollows of various collected all th e water and vapour and air ; but the earth; where it rises s r ssi is r above the e dep e ons, a pure r i n i in eg o , be ng there the ether which is bove a the air, and in which the stars a are re. We in the mere sediment of

. Uni a re the verse. We think we a on ‘ the s urface of the earth ; but t hat is

o . an of the cean, d s eeing the sun and the s rs t r u h s u ta h o g the water, ho ld ink t w th hat the water as the sky. 80 ink we th the a ir is the sky ». If we ul ris a co d e above the ir into the other, the change would be as great as t or su ose s or rise t the pp d pectat to , ou of Q2 26 PLATO AHD SOCRATES

ul the ocean into the air. He wo d then

hi is ri r t ng b ght and pure. He e every thing is dimmed and corroded as things in the sea are by the salt water. As the m d i il sea is full of u and d rt, wh e the objects on the earth are brighter ﬁ e and ner, so the objects in the eth real region are brighter and clearer far than ha i l w t we have here. The earth s a ba l like one of the balls which are made

l rs l co ou , of which the brightest co ours used . by painters are faint shadows u one part is purple of exquisite h e. an r l hi n othe go den, another w ter tha alabaster or snow ; and other colours

The objects which are produced here. in s l r i rs in the e ower pa ts, mme ed water colours ; but the trees and the fruits hi r u r en w ch are p od ced the e, and ev m u s e the o ntains and the stone , hav n

PLATO AHD SOCRATES

see sun and th with them. They the e i all moon as they are. And w th them is happiness. This is the condition of the u pper : and ur r r are in i earth f the , the e t cavities which run much deeper than i An the holl ow which we inhab t. d these subterraneous cavities all com r r u municate with one anothe . Th o gh these communications run subterrane us ri rs s l s o ve , ome of co d, ome of hot r s fir s mud li wate ; ome of e, ome of , ke the streams of lava and of mud which flow in Sicily ; and these are all kept flowing by a kind of see- saw inside the

s ill i is us ro u ed. earth. The o c at on th p d c in r he One of the chasms the ea th, t r s i r ir l r u g eate t of all , s bo ed ent e y th o gh — the earth the one of which Homer a s spe k , Far down the deepest gulf that yawns

r and he and othe poets call it Tartarus . his ul ﬂo all ri Into t g f w the vers, and out it i of aga n : and the cause is this. as PLATO AND SOCRATES

The gulf has no bottom ; and the fluid which falls into it oscillates up and ir down, and the a and the vapour follows it both when it moves to that side of the earth and to this : and thus r is i li r i the e a mot on ke b eath ng, by which the waters and the winds go in u us rs and go o t. And th the wate come forth and make rivers and lakes and run in i seas, and then aga n, by courses ri us l s ll of va o ength , and fa back into Tartarus ; some at points much lower ir s ur l than the o ce, some on y a little lower ; but all somewhat lower ; and s s si as ir s ur ome on the ame de the o ce, others on the opposite side ; for some l ir l in ir u make a who e c c e the co rse, or even wind round the earth several times like a snake : and thus they fall n s i i at ome lower po nt, which may be as low as r down the cent e on each side, but cannot be lower ; for after that i ul r po nt, they wo d have to eascend. s ri rs r Among the e ve , the e are four pecially noticeable : Oceanus which 249 PLATO AND SOCRATES runs round the whole ; Acheron which ru s n O si ir i n o is n i the ppo te d ect o t th , and ends in the lake Acherusias ; where the soul s of the dead arrive and s tay i i l r or s r r an appo nted t me, onge ho te , i li i i s till they aga n enter v ng bod e . The r is ri l h third rive Py ph egethon, a ery river which makes a lake of boiling water and mud and fire larger than our sea fl s r un r ; and ow o d the ea th, and touches the Acherusian lake but mixes not with it : of which we see fier s r s r r u ur r y t eam b eak th o gh o ea th. The fourth river makes the Stygian la zur hue i ke, of a e , wh ch sinks into r cur s r u the ea th, ve o nd opposite to he ri hl and l t Py p egethon, fa ls into the Acherusian l ake on the opposite side, i ar rus : his is and nto T ta t the Cocytus. his i st T be ng the ate of the region, the angel takes each departed soul first l r u is to the p ace whe e j dgment passed, as to who have lived well and holily

and who have not. Those who have li iu lif ved a med m e, not quite good and W)

PLATO AND SOCRATES they have obtained the forgiveness of i r the nju ed persons. But those who have lived in eminent

u r i s pper eg on of the earth. Tho e who have been duly puriﬁed by philosophy and arrive at even more glorious i i s hi i r hab tat on , w ch we have ne the i nor r But t me powe to describe. even for the sake of those which I have thing we camto be good and wise in is is hi is th life. The prize gh, the hope e gr at.

r is as I have described, is not the pa t s l But his or of a ensib e man. that t , i someth ng like this, is the destiny of our i r l s uls rs to mmo ta o , appea me a l li — li on hi reasonab e be ef, a be ef w ch ’ l F r one may fair y rest one s hopes. o the risk is overbalanced by the gain ’ and it is well to ﬁnd a charm for one s 5 2 PLATO AND SOCRATES fears ; and on this account it is that I l l him thus pro ong my ta e. Let then take courage as to the destiny of his ul has uri li isr r So , who , d ng fe, d ega ded bodily pleasures and worldly adorn as i s s r rs him ments, th ng t ange to and leading rather to evil ; and who has adorned his soul with the true graces hi l it us i w ch do be ong to , j t ce and courage and freedom and truth ; and who then awaits his passage to the r rl hi i s ll othe wo d, when s t me ha come. ’ ou s i he Simmias And y , a d , and Cebes , and the rest will each have to make s ur i im thi voyage at yo appo nted t e. r i ul sa s i But as a t aged an wo d y, De t ny calls me now : and it is almost time to go to the bath ; for it seems better to bathe before I drink the poison than to leave the women the trouble of ’ washing a corpse. h sai is ri r r W en he d th , O to ema ked i s r ir i s Be t o, Soc ates but what d ect on have you to give to me or to your ur il r other friends about yo ch dren, o 253 any other matter which we can do to gratify you What I have always ” s i r li hi been ay ng, he ep ed : not ng new. That if you take good care of your

i s if ou m ne mo t, even y made me no promise now : and that if you neglect r l ll your own ea good, and do not fo ow faithfully the course of life which I have urged both now and on former si s u ill in occa on , yo w not do anyth g to ur s u any p po e, however much yo may ” ”

r is . his w now p om e T , said e, we wi all our Bu in will do th hearts. t what way shall we bury thee Even as you ” f ou will, said he, i y catch me, and I do ” ili not give you the slip. And then sm ng

r ri ri s cannot pe suade O to, my f end , that it is I who am now talking with you, r H and dete mining what to say. e thinks that I am that dead body which ill s s s he w soon ee here, and a k me how s ll And ll is l he ha bury me. a th ong ing to you and most agreeable to the laws. ‘ As said his he r s and se he t , o e pas d i n r r nto an in e chambe , to take the bath, and Orito followed him ; but us he

r u suﬂ r r d we e abo t to e we we e, we sai , to be fatherless for the rest of our

had two small boys and one great one — his mil and the women of fa y came, and he had talked with them in the

r th tions, he o dered e women and the

himself came to us. ‘ no r u s for It was w nea s n et, he had stayed a long time within. And coming he sat an di to us after his bath , , d d r i not say much afte th s. And the PLATO AND SOCRATES

ef r him d r s s ll b o e , and sai , Soc ate , I ha not have to complain of you as I have r i of many, that they are ang y w th me, and curse me when I announce to as u s r es them, my d ty to the magi t at re uir s us rink he q e me, that they m t d t is ll r i s po on. Ou a forme occas on I have found you the most generous and gentle and best of all who ever came here ; and now I know that you do not blame me ; for you know who are the u i ou i l ca se of t, and y g ve the b ame to — them. And now for you know what nn u — I have come to a o nce, be of good t r ou cheer, and ry to bea as best y may ” us h m . so s i what m t be o e And ay ng, he wept and turned away. r l i him s i And Soc ates, ook ng at , a d u And do tho , too, be of good cheer. h ” We will do what t ou sayest. And ” to us Ho r us s i h then , w cou teo , a d e, “ is the man ! During the time I have r in i been he e, he has been the hab t of i l in i com ng to me and ta k g w th me, and was the best of men . And now a 1m PLATO AND SOCRATES

l s f r B how kind y he weep o me. ut ” s i he le us s come, Orito, a d , t do a he is bids. Let some one bring the po on u l if it 1 8 gro nd ; and if not, et the man " ri it. Ori o s i hi g nd And t a d, I t nk, sun is u Socrates, the still pon the has se mountains, and not yet t . I have known persons who have drank the poison late in the evening ; who

su ll r n ll them, pped we and d a k we , and enjoyed the society of their dearest in friends. Do not act haste . There t ” is ye time. l s i c s Probab y, a d So rate , thosewho u did as you say, tho ght that it was

for i good reasons not do ng so. I shall

l l r a litt e ate , except to make myself us s l if ridiculo to my e f, as I were so fond of life that I would cling to it ” it is sli i But o when pp ng away. g , he ” i as sa i sa d ; do I y, and no otherw se. ‘ On this Cri o mad to , t e a sign the $8

PLATO AND SOCRATES from hence to that place may be happy. ”

T is r s it be. as h I p ay, and o may And s i is u his li s he a d th , he put the c p to p ’ and drank it oil with the utmost s r ni s ss e e ty and weetne . Up to this time the greater part of us were able to restrain our tears ; but when we saw him drink the potion and his li c ul take the cup from ps, we o d r r i l F rt in ef a n no onger. or my pa , s i s l rs ﬂowed so p te of my e f, my tea abundantly that I drew my mantle r s l not ove my head and wept to my e f, ri vi for for g e ng Socrates, but my own l ss su o of ch a friend. And Crito had risen up and gone l i u r s r i away a ready, be ng nable to e t a n his rs. r tea Apollodorus, even befo e his i t , had been constantly weep ng ; and i il now burst into a passion of gr ef, wa in s i a r was g and obb ng, so th t eve y one l moved to tears except Socrates himse f . “ are And he said : 0 my friends , what

e I s nt the women away, that they mo PLATO AND SOCRATES might not behave so unwisely : for I have heard that we ought to die with r s in Be sile good wo d our ears. nt then ”

ra . ari his and be b ve And we, at he ng t , r s a d r i our we e a h med, an efra ned s l s r i al i e ve f om weep ng . And he w k ng i i l s l about, when he sa d h s eg fe t heavy, lay down on his back ; for so the man him directed. And the man who gave i r the po son came near him, and afte a i his nd l s t me examined feet a eg , and s u i l s him q eezing h s foot strong y, a ked if he felt anything ; and he said he did l his l s so not. And then he fe t eg , and upwards ; and showed u s that they r iﬁ And li we e cold and st . fee ng them a h l himself, he said th t w en the co d r his r ul r . eached hea t, he wo d depa t And now the lower part of the body w l u ri as already co d, and he ncove ng his or had r it sai face, f he cove ed , d ” h r s Ori t e last wo d that he spoke to, s i h E scul a ius a d e, we owe a cock to p ” i r i l i d scha ge t and do not neg ect t. It ” s i — hal l be done, sa d Orito . To this he PLATO AND SOCRATES made no reply ; but after a little time there was a movement in the body ; and he man u him his t ncovered , and es ey were set. And hereupon Orito l his c osed mouth and his eyes. Thi s was E h r es ur ri the end, c ec at , of o f end all of the men whom we have known , ’ s the i the be t, w sest, and the most just.