The concept of Ananke in Greek Literature before 400 BCE Submitted by Alison Clare Green to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Classics, February 2012. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signed............................................................................................ 1 Abstract This study seeks to explore the concept of ἀνάγκη (and the related terms ἀναγκαίος and ἀναγκαίως) in Greek literature written before 400 BCE. All passages containing these words from the time period were located, translated and analysed according to specific criteria concerning the usage and interpretation of the term. The resulting exploration was then split into five main sections: physical compulsion, moral compulsion, cosmology, circumstantial compulsion and the personification of compulsion. These sections were then examined according to both context and subtle differences in the meaning of ἀνάγκη terms within these contexts. The vast majority concerned some form of violence, physical force or fear of violent repercussions. Although the focus was on the interpretation of texts dating to before 400 BCE, owing to their fragmentary nature but considerable importance, the cosmological texts had to be examined in conjunction with later texts in order to shed more light on the meaning of ἀνάγκη in this context. Statistical analysis was performed on the 466 texts located and they were further analysed to track variations across time and genre-specific usages. Several types of usage were seen to develop only towards the end of the fifth century after 450 BCE including the notion of relative compulsions; the necessity for revenge and compelled alliances were seen to develop at this time. Recommendations were made with regards to the best and most appropriate translations; the majority of passages would require either the translation of coercion, constraint or compulsion for ἀνάγκη with the exception of the adjectival ἀναγκαίος which can mean blood relatives or similarly obligated individuals. The translation of necessity, although generally the given interpretation of ἀνάγκη was seldom appropriate since it did not grasp the entire meaning of the term in context. 2 Table of Contents Title Page 1 Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 1. Introduction 7 (i) Acknowledgements 7 (ii) Literature review 8 (iii) Why is ἀνάγκη important? 9 (iv) What is the etymology for ἀνάγκη? 9 (v) What are the primary questions to be asked about the concept of ἀνάγκη? 9 (vi) Methodology and rationale 10 (vii) Schema for the subdivisions in the database 11 (a) Primary categories 11 (b) Secondary categories 15 (c) Tertiary categories 17 (d) The author database 17 (e) The works database 18 (f) Other related databases 18 (viii) Practical implementation of the database in the thesis 18 (ix) Possible translations for ἀνάγκη 19 2. Textual Commentary (i) Interpersonal physical ἀνάγκη 21 (a) Simple interpersonal coercion 21 (b) Violent conquest 27 (c) ἀνάγκη as the threat or promise of violence 29 i) Use of ἀνάγκη to force alliances, treaties and oaths 29 ii) Threat of violence 32 (d) Use of ἀνάγκη as torture of slave witnesses in legal cases 33 (e) The use of ἀνάγκη as a supernatural coercive force 35 (f) Slavery 39 (ii) Phusis and physical necessity 49 (a) Physiological necessity 49 i) Necessity within the process of giving birth 49 3 ii) Erotic necessity 50 iii) Necessity that children are nursed correctly 56 iv) Eating and Drinking 56 v) Other biological necessities 58 vi) Poverty and other deficiencies 61 vii) The inevitability of Death 65 (b) Necessity and phusis of the natural world 66 (c) Prophecy 70 (iii) Interpersonal moral ἀνάγκη 71 (a) Kinship 71 i) Kinship and duty of care to the living 71 ii) Duty of Obedience 72 iii) Blood relations who have duties and obligations 74 iv) Constraints and coercion concerning marriage 76 (b) Gender 80 (c) Despotic or Tyrannical dictates rulership – necessity of obedience 81 i) Rulership 87 (d) Cultural taboos and Religious Customs 91 i) Burial Rituals and the duty of care 94 ii) Supplication 97 (e) Necessity of the law 99 (f) Oaths and Treaties as Binding Necessities 104 (g) Prophecy and divine dictates 108 i) Necessity that prophecies are fulfilled 108 ii) Necessity of fate and divine dictates 111 (iv) Circumstance, expediency and personal necessity 120 (a) Inevitability of certain events and behaviour 120 (b) The desire to preserve life and ward off death 122 i) The necessity to survive in certain circumstances 122 (c) Necessities of circumstance in the lawcourt 127 (d) Rhetorical and Historical Necessity 129 (e) The necessity of poetic composition 136 (f) The necessity of personal intention and revenge 137 (v) Cosmology 142 4 (a) Necessity as a goddess of Cosmic Order in Orphic Theogony 142 (b) ἀνάγκη in Philolaus and early Pythagoreanism 146 (c) The function of Necessity in the Derveni cosmogony 150 (d) Ἀνάγκη in Parmenides 153 i) Analysis of Parmenides’ texts 153 ii) The location of necessity in Parmenides 157 iii) Personified Necessity in the fragments of Parmenides 157 iv) Possible conclusions for Parmenidean ἀνάγκη 159 (e) Necessity in the Atomist world view 162 i) Leukippos Fragment 2 – The philological debate 163 ii) Demokritos Fragment 144 165 iii) Aristotle 167 iv) Diogenes Laertius 168 v) Other sources 169 vi) The form of Atomist ἀνάγκη 172 vii) The debate concerning whether Atomist ἀνάγκη is 173 extraneous or immanent? viii) The function of Atomist ἀνάγκη 174 ix) Is Atomist Necessity Supernatural or Scientific? 176 (f) Non-personified reification in biological and cosmological passages 177 (g) ‘Logical’ Necessity in Cosmology and Pseudocosmology 178 (vi) Eschatology 183 (a) ἀνάγκη and other underworld deities 183 (b) Vase paintings of ἀνάγκη 184 (c) ἀνάγκη in Pindar's Olympian Ode II 187 (d) Empedokles 189 i) Empedoklean ἀνάγκη and its relationship to eschatological 194 and theological belief in Magna Graecia (vii) Non-cosmological personification of necessity 197 (a) Non-divine personified and reified necessity 197 (b) Necessity and the notion of fate or destiny 199 (c) Divine personified necessity 201 3. Conclusions i) How should ἀνάγκη be translated? 212 5 (a) Interpersonal physical necessity 213 (b) Biological necessity 213 (c) Moral necessity 213 (d) Circumstantial necessity 214 (e) Fate, destiny and divine dictates 214 (f) Cosmological, eschatological and logical necessity 215 (g) Treaties and military expediency 215 (h) Personification 216 (ii) Does the use of ἀνάγκη change across time? 216 (a) Coercion 216 i) Compulsion 217 ii) Constraint 220 (iii) Necessity as a relative concept 224 (iv) Does a sense of personal or individual necessity develop over the time 226 period? (v) Overall observations 229 4. Index of passages 230 5. Bibliography 241 6 (1) Introduction (i) Acknowledgements This thesis has been long in the writing and there are a great many people who it is a necessity to thank. First and foremost is my supervisor Richard Seaford who must have thought this thesis would never be completed. Through many challenging personal circumstances, he has been a constant support and inspiration, correcting any mistranslations, urging me to ‘unpack’ undeveloped points and to cut overly ‘wordy’ sections that drift off topic. My parents and extended family have not only supported me financially, but also encouraged me to carry on when it all seemed unachievable. My partner David Symons has inspired me with his total faith in my ability to do this and has tolerated numerous books, papers and associated bad moods during the final stages of writing up. Many friends have helped along the way with cups of tea, accommodation, useful conversations and assistance with the manuscript: these include Sharon Heard, Dr Tony Curtis, Mandy Burns, Dr Paul Curtis, Penny Anderson, Stephen Terry, Dr Angela Hawker, Adam Carr, Megan Symons, Sinead Kerr, Dr Georgia Petridou, Dr Paul Scade, jill Holyoake, Pete Soanes, Sarah Taylor, Iain Taylor, Sim Wood and Alison Stephens (who is sadly no longer with us). The staff in the Classics Department and the School of Humanities at Exeter University have always been very kind, helpful and efficient throughout the administration of numerous interruptions and other enquiries. My employers, Plymouth College, my colleagues and students there have been a constant encouragement and their understanding of the stresses and strains experienced in writing a postgraduate thesis has been very much appreciated. Heartfelt thanks goes out to all of you (and those who have been forgotten); this could never have been achieved without you. 7 (ii) Literature review It is many years since a reasonably comprehensive study on the concept of Necessity (ἀνάγκη) has been undertaken. The most recent, that of Schreckenberg (Ananke: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Wortgebrauchs 1964) was wide-ranging, in that it encompassed mentions of ἀνάγκη from Homer right through to the late Roman period. Schreckenberg’s study was also undertaken before technology allowed a thorough identification and analysis of ancient texts and focuses on a limited range of major authors from the canon. It also took a somewhat haphazard approach in that passages from wildly different time periods were compared. Since this time, Keyne Cheshire (1998) has deciphered a difference in usage between ἀνάγκη and ἀνάγκαιη, Rosaria Munson has explored ἀνάγκη in Herodotus (2001) and Martin Ostwald has produced a monograph on ἀνάγκη in Thucydides (1988) but a multi-genre study of ananke from this period has not been undertaken. Indeed Ostwald in his monograph (p.7) reports ‘A fresh systematic treatment of ananke remains a desideratum, especially since its most recent full discussion in H.