The Japanese Attempt to Solve the Mongol Question in Manchuria, 1931-1945

Brigham Young University BYU ScholarsArchive

Theses and Dissertations

1966-08-01

Richard D. S. Kwak Brigham Young University - Provo

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BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Kwak, Richard D. S., "The Japanese Attempt to Solve the Mongol Question in Manchuria, 1931-1945" (1966). Theses and Dissertations. 4861. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/4861

This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. JAPANESE ATTEMPT SOLVE

MONGOL QUESTION MANCHURIA 9 193119451931 1945

thesis presented department history brigham young university

partial fulfillment requirements degree master arts

richard D kwak august 1966 acknowledgementsACKNOWLEDGE MENTS

author wishes express sincere gratitude adviser dr paul V hyer chairman asian studies program brigham young university guidance help inspiration

appreciation extended dr lee W farnsworth professor russell N horiuchi helpful suggestions assisting work translationtranslationsst appreciation extended professor hocHorhoriuchiiuchituchiluchi tatsui sato japanese portion conrad kramer german warm appreciation extended kerstin kramer typing thesis final form wife mildred encouragement kind assistance many hours spent preparation thesis author extends deepest appreciation errors interpretation representation facts may found work author alone responsible

illlii TABLE CONTENTS acknowledgementsACKNOWLEDGE MENTS illiiilii LIST TABLES illustration v

CHAPTER

I1 introduction 1 II11 historical background 5 manchu mongol relations chinese mongol relations colonializationcolonializafcion nationalisnrationalismvationalism autonomous movement manchurian incident creation manchukuomanchulcuoManchukuo motive objective central government provincial local administrative units conclusion iliIII111 EXTERNAL PROBLEMS RELATED MONGOL QUESTION 35 panyepan lemongollongolismmongolismism border incidents hanchulimanchuliHanMan chullchuli conference ling sheng incident manhan battle

IV INTERNAL PROBLEMS RELATEDTRELATED tretrieTHIE MONGOL QUESTION 58 creation II1 sinan provinces office hsinanhainan affairs provincial administrationtkb4ii1striitionletonaitionneton banner administration japanese monrolmoncol program lamaism education concordia association economy industry

V SUMMARY conclusion 89 bibliography 949 appendices 102

1vIVav LIST TABLES illustration

page

1 government manchukuoManchukuo 30

2 map monhannomonhan wartgarsgacswargargac 1939 & 51

3 comparison forces 0 & 0 0 0 0 0 0 && 0 0 55

4 administrative structure hsinfanhsinganmsingan provinces 0 0 62

5 banner administration 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 68

v CHAPTER I1 introduction

1930s1930ts 1940s19401st essentially three mongollasMonmongogollaslas outer mongoliaMongo ilasilagliag inner mongolia eastern mongolia soviet russiasdussiasRussias preeminencepre eminence outer Mongolmongolialatlas cainaschinas inner mongolia japans eastern mongolia clarity area barga hsinfanhslnganhsingan region referred eastern mongolia western manchuria people referred manchurianManchurlan mongelsmongolsMongols eastern mongelsmongolsMongols hsinfanhslnganhsingan mongolsmongelsmongolstMongMonolstoistgolsgois distinguished western inner mongelsmongols inner mongolia outer mongelsmongols outer mongolia following successful manchurianManc hurlan incident september 18 1931t1931

japanese kwantungKwantung army commenced sustained drive north northwestern manchuria early part following year japanese found themselves occupying vast expanse eastern Monmongoliagoliat principally inhabited indigenous eastern mongelsmongolsMon gols covered 200000 square miles compared 3600000 square miles whole manchuria according lattimore 5000000 mongelsmongols three mongollasmongoliasmongolianMongollasgolias 2 estimates number 1500000 mongelsmongols eastern mongolia

ino reference made bulyatburyat mongolsmongels siberia mongelsmongols within soviet russiarussians sphere influence except those outer mongolia since do occupy significant role study 5 boven2ovenowen Lattilattimoretlatfclmoremoret studies frontier history londonLondontdoni oxford uni- versityversity 1962 p 327 lattimore reliable figures mongol population 2

evidently japanese intervention 1932 eastern mongolia boosted morale eastern western mongol nationalist leaders example soviet chinese exploitation mongol lands suppression pan mongolismmongol ism provided japanese problem resolved self 3 determination undoubtedly deep seated mongol aspiration 1932 then creation hsinfanhsingan province attempt solve important phase mongol question although appearance japanese troops eastern mongolia disturbing factor soviet russia china encouraging ones far mongelsmongols concerned analysis situation including significance hsinfanhsingan province given lattimore recognition regional mongol interest creation hsinfanhsingan province important means instead two nationnationssl each treating mongol subjects auxiliaries victims seemed expedient three nations now bidding power turn means mon gols longer disposed arbitrarily must courted thus once become certain extent agents own destiny until year ago choice extinction under chinese rule drastic social revolution under outer mongolia affiliated soviet russia now least mar- gin bargaining power concerted action even action minority profoundly effect policies strategic positions russia china japan 4 effort promote pan mongolismmongol ism japanese soon learn soviet russia major obstacle past pan mongolismmongol ism neither positive russian nor chinese policy japanese earlier attempts

3 3sincesince fall manchu dynasty 1911 subsequent rise chinese republic mongelsmongolsMongols whole imbued idea independence japanese evidently aware intended capitalize deep seated national spirit 4 lattimore op cit p 329 3 direction made japanese militaristsmilitarisms buddhist scholars name pan buddhism tsarist soviet russian intervention ended scheme shall discussed later reality ideal pan mongolian state realized long soviet power left unchallenged outer mongolia chinaschanaschinals power inner mongolia both japan soviet russia ambitiously m- obilized respective mongol forces including own troops within spheres influence japanese soviet confrontation along outer mongolian border 1935 demonstrated japanese promotion aspiration pan mongol movement dream monhannomonhan war 1939 proved inner mongolia however japanese succeeded establishing inner mongol autonomous government counterpart autonomous hsinfanhsingan provinces fulfillment mongol dream pan mongolian state internally japanese tried solve many facets mongol question mere possession eastern mongolia did simply solve mongol question neither did establishment autonomous region therefore japanese noted pragmatism realized perhaps people steeped tradition influenced growing nationalism hardly useful tools promotion japanese alms asia therefore institution reforms areas lamailamalsmlamaismLamal sm educationnedicaleducation nedleal services economy etc became expediency like government manchukuoManchu kuo hsinfanhsingan provinces staffed mainly local people ordinarily leaders assigned various key positions japanese advisors holding secondary positions again like manchukuoManchukuo autonomous hsinfanhsingan provincial administrations merely facades japanese imperialism 4

purpose paper then study evaluate japanese program relative mongol question questions consider what relationship between hsinfanhsingan provinces manchukuoManchukuo government why what specific mongol programs did japanese promote why what results how did mongelsmongols react what designs did japanese outer mongolia inner mongolia relative key position eastern mongolia why how did china russia react japans plans what results how did mongol react three asiatic powers period overall view what successes failures japanese attempt solve mongol question CHAPTER II11

historical background

brief study manchu mongol chinese mongol relations including mongol autonomous movement manchurian incident establishment manchukuoManchukuo should helpheiphellyheliy reader comprehend mongol question japanese confrontconfrontededtedg particularly l930s1930s l940s1940s very fact japanese chosen former manchu monarch emperor manchukuoManchukuo mongelsmongols hsinfanhsingan suggested japanese knowledge manchu mongol relations shall soon observe reader reminded references manchu mongol relations

generally applicable both eastern western mongelsmongolsMongols perhaps exception bagordagor mongelsmongols nonni river vaiValvalleyleyo latter group did hereditary nobility priesthood common among western eastern mongelsmongolsMongols chinese mongol relations unlike those manchu mongol record bitter experiences chinese colonization policy suppression mongol aspiration self government large part responsible rise mongol question 1 therefore following manchuria incident creation manchukuoManchukuo vasveswes significant move 1644 danchusmanchus conquered china aid mongelsmongols

1aaa regional handbook inner mongolia region compiled far eastern russian institute university washington seattle new haven HRAF 19519566 t p 10

5 6 manchuria manchu sovereignty mongolsmongels accomplished concessions alliances made various tribal groups manchuria retain loyalty mongolsmongels manchu dynasty extended privileges example mongol princes given manchu princesses wives result princes tended increasingly take manchu dynastic rather mongol tribal point view aspired inevitably same kind career position appealed 2 rich highly born manchu however danchusmanchus took precaution- ary measures thing although steps taken preserve mongol tribal system 3 danchusmanchus did hesitate prevent resur- gence tribal leadership call semblance racial national unity being case mongol princes nobles therefore barred political civil careers within china restricted military administrative careers within own regions frontier given important honors subsi- dies career mongol became too creative power among mongelsmongols too constructive promoted supervisory position peking kept him contact court away main current tribal affairs heirs grew social ideas peking danchusmanchusManchus growth coordination among mongelsmongols inhibited 4 although dynasty mainly interested securing mongol loyal- ties centrally left problem autonomy local level largely 5 hands nobility regard chinese policy during republic generally same except creating separate provinces

bowen2owenowen lattimore monaolsmongelsmongols manchurian london george allenalienailen union 1934 pop 69 baiso3aisoaiso during japanese occupation 193119451931 1945 mongol tribal system generally preserved

4lattimorejlattimore 012017op cit DO 707170 71

aa 1 5a regional landbookhandbook1 Tand book tho inner mongolia autonomous region op siteiteltcit p 3 7 inhibit political integration japanese policy 19308 1940s somewhat line selfseif seeking policy manchu dynasty went step further granted mongolsmongels autonomous governments however primary objective manchu policy directed against political coalition between mongelsmongols chinese between mon gols themselves during peak manchu dynasty period chinese prevented mingling mongelsmongols steppes de- clining years dynasty danchusmanchus able control m- igration chinese colonists especially western manchuria fact dynasty undertook encourage I1 despite earlier edict outlawed transfer mongol land titles chinese manchu edict 1801 forbidding intermarriage became dead letter since local differences became problem soon territorial ties assumed great importance given area disparate groups join together cause league become powerful political unit situation imperial government weaken league 6 become suprisuprasupralocalri local organization however important exceptions manchu mongol relations 7 generally mutual relations perhaps reason japanese desired manchu emperor received mongelsmongols overlord chinese monmongolcrolgrol relationsrelafcrelafo i ons during chinese period trend primarily offset likelihood secessionist movement assimilate mongelsmongols econoacono

bibid6ibidid appp 343 4 bowen7owenowen latelLattilattimorellatfcimoremorelmores studies frontier history london oxford university press 1962 p 334 mically culturally politically however failure chinese republic satisfy mongolian aspiration autonomy led movements barga region western manchuria inner mongolia mongelsmongols manchuria jurisdictionally under chinese provincial governments mongelsmongols inner mongolia 1928 partitioned chinese provinces ningshiaNingshia suiyuansulyuanSuiSulsulymanyuan chahar therefore made difficultfordifficult mongelsmongols organize themselves unified political group nonetheless set gave provincial governments headed chinese warlordswarlords power nanking government liked them besides made lot mongelsmongols unbearable under unscrupulous provincial governors during peak chinese colonization 192919301929 1930 railroad development increased misery mongolsmongels manchuria thus further

intensifyingC mongelsmongolsMongols hatred chinese overlords

colonization attitude republic toward right claim mongol territories expressed lattimore tendency assert definite principle sub- ordination mongol chinese interestsinterestsbeganbegan appear early 1914 1915 chinese authorities established precedents theory mongol land belonged neither mongol prince nor mongol tribe chinese nation theory applied meant mongelsmongols allowed divide own tribal land settle down private ownership fanfarmersners 8 however beset internal external strifesstristrafesfes unstable chinese government unable control exploitation mongol lands among unscrupulous government officials warlordswarlords land speculators merchants

ven80wenwen Lattilattimoremorelmocelmorer mongol destiny manchoukuo asia XXIV april 1934 210 9 collaborating mongol nobles two land booms increased demand mongelsmongols land thereby aggravated manchurianManchurlan mongelsmongolsmongols1Mongoisgols plight those 1916181916 18 1926281926 28 first land boom need manchurian foodstuffs warring nations world war I1 pastoral lands con- verted farmlands second land boom order counteract competitive economic position russia japan manchuria republic undertook reclamation mongol lands 9 twenties complexion toward chinese colcoieolcolonialontal penetration took modern character belated adoption railway construction western powers chinese able penetrate further mongol lands indubitably mongelsmongolsMon gols accustomed primitive ways helpless moreover expropriation mongol lands facilitated con- ststruction railways influx chinese farmers western manchuria effect

0 construction peking mukden railway manchuria pekinspeking suiyuansulyuansulyman railway western inner mongolia followed immediately swarms chinese farmers stakeestakedstakeo lands within jurisdiction mongol leagues north chinese eastern railway crossed hsinfanhsingan mountains areas occupied barga tribes line pushing northwestward tao nan well chengC chia tunt1untaun line thrust land jerimgerim league further colonization chinese launched great hsinfanhsingan reclamation project 1929 employing reclamation army spearhead extend line raovaoao nan solun eventually way southern hsinfanhsingan mountains link chinese eastern railway hailar fall 1931 forty miles railway built japanese seizure manchuria brought end project 10 thus during period larlargeladgelangege scale migration newly constructed railway pressed mongol frontier almost hsinfanhsingan

91bidbid pop 210 10 regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous region op citowcitopcitcic p 44 10 mountains formerly mongol perimeter extended central plain far Hs inkinginkling ssupingkai part deholjehol however barga west hsinfanhsingan range escaped full impact chinese colonization remoteness russian interests chinese eastern railway relative less number railway lines running through region brief then chinese railway construction colonization project became alienating factors mongol chinese relations probably never suitable time japanese imperialism capitalize situation did 1931 nationalism mongol nationalism budding political factor even before establishment chinese republic 1911 however essential roots found mongol self identity mongelsmongols thought themselves world conquerors great warriors bril- liant organizers short superior people 11 usually spoke 12 11yood terms Cgood1 old days chingchingghisghis khan great leader extended power influence far gates vienna twelfth century robert rupen memory chingghisChingghis khan continues political factor throughout mongolia represents glorious past mongolia unified mongolian influence spread through world day captured imagination mongelsmongolsMongols many westerners well name continually reappears mongolian nationalist movements mongolian areas represents truly

ilpaulaul E eckel far east since 1500 new york harcourt brace 1947 p 319 y 120weni owen lattimore studies frontier history london oxford university 1962 p 336 11

1 0 universal mongolian symbol 13 peter hume comments idealization chingghisChingghis khan hsinfanhsingan mongelsmongols 1931 remind them past glory hope another still idea uniting themselves becomngbecomingbecom ng once great nation you see enormous number mongelsmongols wearing buttons genghis ehaskhaskhants head them symbol fond belief day attain those thirteenth centurycen&urycenti ury heights again 14 concepts political nationalism uneducated mongol vague however during 1930s1930ts under japanese educational program exposure them made available him 153 tho chinese government hand undertook far ambitious educational program probably encourage development mongolian nationalism acceptable present regime 16 ironically prior 1931 deterrents mongol nationalism came largely ruling mongol high lamas preferred luxurious life high chinese officials nomadic life compatriots life made easy collaborating warlordswar lords during period chinese colonization example lattimore cites de- plorableplorable situation twenties power passed princes manipulated tribaitrimaitribal 0ownershipwnershipenship land chinese officials controlled railways powerful these officials became regular barons general controlled strip railway corps troops do liked mongol hinterland best even relatively strong prince help prevent tribesmen organizing

13 roberh13robertrobert rupen knonkMonmongelsmongolskmongolszolszoisgols twentieth CentcenturyurXurz part I1 bloomington indiana university 1964 p 86 14peterteter bumehumerume mongelsmongols under new orders journal royal central asian society XXVIIIXXVITI july 1941 249

15a regional Handhandbookboolbooi inner mongolia autonomous Repregiondonjon 020op sitgitcitelbeib p 342 16jbidibid 12

rebelling though did always succeed receive chinese backing commission land deals rest mongelsmongols got nothing herded together diminished part t sir tribal territory condition worse american indians reservations i17 profit then aristocratic class slow collusion provincial leaders speculators arrangement difficult mongolian aristocracy vanguard mongol nationalist movement everything gain protesting vested interests 18 reason lesser nobility deprived former power privileges face chinese exploitation provided leadership early rebellions western manchuria however these rebellions characterized lack concerted movement ended abortively result mongelsmongols treated severely warlordswar lords lands subjected further expropriation outburst local rebellions really nationalistic though pro mongolian almost impossible determine whether these rebel leaders those mongelsmongols followed them re- bellion motivated aspirations mongolian political unity incidents sunsupsuppliedpliedpiled foundation later development nationalism19nationalnationalism ism 3919 however manchurian incident positive action toward mongol autonomy became stronger japanese promoted mongol nationalism order counteract chinese national aspirations manchuria russian imperialism outer mongolia moreover japanese sponsored mongol

170wenowen latlattimoretiroref phantom mengkukuo pacific affairs X december 1937 42021420 21 18during181 0during manchu dynasty practice regime solicit support ruling princes administration mongol affairs enforcement imperial decrees return ruling princes subsidized territorial hegemony guaranteed government object prevent national unity see regional handbook inner mongoliaMontmoncfolia autonomous region op cit p 342 19ibidibid 13 nationalism foster pan mongolianmongolisnmongol ism device extend japanese hegemony asian continent chinese colonialism major factor alienation mongelsmongolsMongols bred deep animosity between chinese mongelsmongolsMongols numerous local rebellions expressions animosity course oppression unjustice collusions unscrupulous profit seekers com- pounded problem essentially lack positive chinese policy alleviate mongol plight made necessary mongelsmongols turn japanese support inability nanking government restrain exploitations provincial authorities further worsened chinese mongol relations simply china failed solve realistically mongol problem attempt guarantee MongomongoljmongoldlJ immunity further colonization too late 20 besides provincial authorities object strongly generous policy toward mongelsmongolsMongols 21 essential stress juncture many years japanese familiar mongolianmon ollan social life developing national aspirations lattimore asserts japanese policy toward mongelsmongols influenced y small body japanese experts them military officers travelled lived among mongelsmongols years knew language knew tribal divisions leading personalities minutely informed cross influences tribal religious politics among mongelsmongolsMon gols provincial central government politics among chinese prevented theoretical mongol nationalism cohering 222 Cgenuine national movement having thus understood mongol aspirations japanese militaristsmilitarisms

200 o monpgo J 20lattimorelattimore nionmonamion olsois1 vnchuriaVncinclhuriachuriachurla op cit p 30 21 ibid 22 1 op lattimore studies frontier history cit 9 t0 418 14 ready promote pan mongol movement discussed next section autonomous movement before fall manchu dynasty 1911 growing feeling self determination felt among segments mongolian leadership although inner mongolia genesis mongol unrest against chinese sovereigntyC outer mongolia independence movement sprouted inner mongolia movement autonomy barga region eastern mongolia circumstance related follows since 1906 chinese troops gradually introduceintroduceddt new taxes customs dues instituted land set aside settlement chinese general provincial system administrative divisions post taotaitao taital introduced lastly 1911 decided institute number schools bargutsbarguss taught chinese september barbutbargut national congress chinese withdraw troops stop colonizacolonize called 0 3 tion recognize local autautonomyauslonomyconomy 23 thus january 2 1912 spurred chinese takeover manchu dynasty barga mongelsmongols revolted resulted removal chinese officials soldiers holunbierHolunbier barga joining barga new autonomous government urga rebellions barga inner mongolia ended abortively unconcerted planning leadership besides russian japanese self interests frustrated bar gut plans pan mongol movement outer mongolia 1912 tsarist russia concluded secret agreement japan reaffirming formers ex 24 elusive sphere influence outer mongolia latlatteriatterlattersbattersters manchuria

roberc23robert23robert rupen mongelsmongols twentieth century part I1 bloomington indiana university 196tl1964 op 727372 73 24 gerard M friters euterouter mongoliapron14on olia international position baltimore johns honkinshopkins 199 p0 21821321 3 15

meridian set peking line demarcation corresponding vaguely outer mongol hsinfanhsinganHs ingan border become bone contention 19303 following fall nanchumanchu empire 1911 jebtsundamba xhutukhtukhutukhtu politico religious leader khalkha mongelsmongols outer mongolia appointed sheng fu barbutbargut leader emissary hallar 2595 however russia inclined support union between barga autonomous government urga tsarist russialrussiasrussiatsRus siasslassiatsslatsslays opposition barga mongelsmongols decided solicit japanese intervention 1915 babojabBabojab respected inner mongolian prince told russia uncertain terms refusal support mongolian aspiration inner mongolia barga union urga make necessary him seek japans aid 26 show strength babojab 7900 well armed men before end october babojab barga ten japanese meantime tasa shebushubu lieuten ants sent tokyo negotiate armed assistance 27 moreover russian vice consul altattalb hailar conjectured babojab together princes aiming revolt tin apparently japanese participateparticiparticaparticipate28pate 28 november 1915 china regained influence baradarabargadarga mon gols russia treaty concluded china awarded barga central government republic apparent russia desired exercise sovereignty chinese eastern railway

25 04 72 rupen apppop citt I1 p 26 261bidibidt i 271bidibid 280 friters op citcit p 225 16 tereststeresta north mlanYlanmianmanchuriachurla babojab relentless opposing chinese death 1916 separatist movement continued ultimately merged 29 japanese sponsored semenov neisse gegen pan mongol movement like tsarist russia soviet russiarussiasdussiasRussiasslas aimsalms 1920 frus- trate kind pan mongol movement particularly japans japan ese backing semenov ambitious white russian leader made matchullmanchullmanchuliManchullchuli near border outer mongolia base operations launched drive chita february 1918 driven back bolshevik offensive meanwhile shevchenkozhevchenko semenovfsSemenosemenovssemenovavs deputy sent japan successful negotiation support military arms 30 then newnow offensive april setSeiseirenovsemonovrenov able proclaim may 31 provisional Coverngoverngovernmentment transbaikaltransbalkal territory near chita Semenosemenovssemenovavs special manchurian detachment officered mainly russians com- prised inner mongelsmongolsMongols bargutsbargussBarguts burcatsburyatsbunBurburyattsBuryyatsattsactsachs scattered nationality groups april 1918 detachment strength 2000 men Includedincludedi3included3232 officers 350 cossacks 350 russians 300 serbsgerbs 250 burcatsburyats 50 mongelsmongols 600 chinese 50 koreans 50 semenov vanguard japanese hoped fulfill pan mongolian aspiration throuthroughh senteSensesemenovnov japanese broached appeal

29rupen29rupen op cit 30 rupen op cit p 132 311bidibid 32 ibid 17

mongelsmongols thought win mongolian groups effectively sepalseparateaceate burcatsburyats russia simultaneously furthering larger japanese aimsalms influence asian mainland pan mongoliamon olielloliall became slogan movement crystallized dauria conference february 1919 JJ33 february 25 1919 preparatory meeting chita siberia semenov japanese major suzuki six burcatsburyatsBuryats five bargutsbargussBarguts three inner mongelsmongolsMongols attendanceattendance3434 then february 28 great mongolian state proposed embrace mongol territories baikal tibet manchuria eastern turkestanTurkestan 35 state nominally headed neisse gegan influential khutukhtu inner mongolia hailarhallarballar barga capital movement end failure admiral kolchak anti bolshevik assumed leadership siberia refused support Semenosemenovvs idea pan mongolian state moreover kolchak symp- athetic toward autonomous movement burcatsburyats russian occupied bulyatburyat mongolia however december 1919 two leading buryatbulyat buddhists did support him opposing national revolutionary socialist movement

E f 5 7 among burcatsburyatsBuryats 36 earlier adrilapril dauria government 37 through delegation paris peace conference appealed international recognition accordance principle self determination people however kolchak protested strenouslystrenuously characterizing movement japanese inspired led instrument japanese aggression

331bidibid 34ibid 351bid351 bidhid 36 ibid 37 rupen does indicate geographic location dauriaidauriall nor reason appellation dauria government see ibid appp 1329132 135 160 479 18

1 apropo east asia I kolchaksKol chaks agentsC parisparts managedC1 sidetrackside track propo sal 380 result dauria government recognized besides jebtsundamba khutukhtu panchen lama perhaps suspicious sem enoisenovs motive dared support dauria government eventually japanese seeing futility movement withdrew support reper- cussionscussions following japanese nonsupportnon support given rupen failure gain international recognition versailles failure obtain substantial indeindigenousindegenousgenous support due outer mongoliasmongolianMongolias participationnonparticipationnon led japanese dis- avow connection neisse gegen those surrounding him claim japanese army officers sem enoisenovs forces undertaken whole thing own initiative without knowledge superlosuperkosuperiors japanese government withdrawal japanese support caused barely suppressed opposing tendencies within movement quickly break violence inner mongelsmongols burcatsburyats fought openly manchu leader Fusenfusenggegge murdered whole affair ended ominouslyignignominouslyignominiously chinese garrison maimaichengMaimai cheng captured special manchurian detachment OMO01410 january 1920 chinese immediately shot neisse gegen twelve brigade commanders sent 200 prisoners urga do forced labor semenov himself escaped 397 barga too 1920 troubled chinese government cancelled autonomy barga moved jurisdiction heilungkianghellungkiang province

coerced bargutsbarguss requesting 1 incorporation chinese provincial system 404 august 19281923 young barga party yearning revive barga autonomy probably another attempt affiliate mongolian peoplespeopled party past revolted against chinese suzerainty however revolt soon suppressed better equipped chinese troops 1921 japanese lost prestige promoters pan mongolisinmongol ism inner asia japan among foreign powers demonstrated

381bid381bidibid p 132 391bid391bidibid p 136 40 regional handbook innerylongollainner mongolia autonomous region odop liteitsitcit p 47 19L intterestberestinterestInI mongol autonomy before inner mongol barga mongol leaders turned urga base pan mongolismmongol ism russiaRus slatssiats intervention shattered dream then too china traditional obstacle form mongol autonomy saw mongelsmongols turning japan hope 1920s active mongol affiliates kuomintang looked forward kuomintang guided regional racial autonomy under principles laid down san min chu I1 even hope failed 41 until manchurian incident another opportunity mongol autonomous rule favorably con- sisidered manchurimanchuriaManmanchurianchurichurl incident victory russorusgo japanese war 1904051904 05 secured japans entry manchuria relegated russiasdussiasRussias sphere influence barga region moreover japans foothold south manchuria established sino japanese treaty may 25 1915 treaty extended japan leased territory liaoningLiaoning peninsula ninety nine year lease finalized possession south manchurian railway well aftungantung mukden railways addition sino japanese commercial treaties granted japanese subjects rights residence trade treaty ports manchuria china itself short japan given advantages military administration jurisdictional rights south manchuria therefore secure position south manchuria japanese military launch attack thus threaten cainaschinas russiasdussiasRus sias interest north manchuria taking advantage confused politico military situation tokyo kwantungKwan tung army without consent

41lattimore studies frontier history op cit p 417 20 civilian government instigated incidentncidentff mukden night september 18 1931 resulted immediate invasion northkorth manchuria 1932 vestige chinese forces overcome doubt factors chinese nationalist attempt incorporate manchuria integral part china prompted I1 KwkwantnakwantungKwanantnatengtung army act moreover economic conditions worsened japan nationalistsultraultranationalists found receptive audience grandiose plans conquest promised prestige wealth power 101 r empire 424 brief incident itself reflected schismatic character japanese government fear uncertainty paralysis gripped top branches government cabinet helpless prevent initiation independent foreign policy small overseas clique aided various forces home exhorted counseled high officials surrounding throne given moral support emperor himself cabinet still find solution 434 thus under conditions kwantungKwantung army came prominence dominant force external internal affairs manchuria creation manchukuoManchukuo motivemotiyemoriye aru j0016objective basic reasons creation government manchukuoManchukuo traced period before manchurian incident fundamentally manchuria considered important sphere interest first manchuria vital interest rich natural resources essential japans survival world power since taking Rusrussiarussiatsrussiansslatssiats position south manchuria 1905 japan lost time exploiting resources

42r hugh borton japansja2ansjapansjaoans modernmiod ern centumcentury new york ronald press 1955 p 321 43robert scalapino democracy party movement prewar japan berkeley university california press 1953 p 240 21 area by19311931 considerable headway made heavy industrindustryy 44 thusriasriusalasylas accelerating japarsjapardjapants threat another world power second manchuria strategic area commanded vast perimeter confronting siberia outer mongolia inner mongolia thus serving ideally natural barrier against possible invasion doubt regard manchuria serve excellent buffer russia growing stronger month month japanese militaristsmilitarisms felt japan lack adequate security unless 45 completely dominated ManchurmanchuriaLall finally tremendous loss lives wealth manchurian soisoilll11 result sino japanese war 1894051894 05 even russo japanese taritarrecrenwarwactrecItren 19040519041904051051 perhaps aroused false assumption japan right ofmanchuriamanchuria blood treasure region cost them 46 since manchurian incident vast region soon become in- creasinglycreasingly vital concern japanese militaristsmilitarisms acquisition

hsinfanhsinloanHsinhsinganHs insaninganloancoan easternmongoliaeasterneastorn mongolia here another opportunity renew effort another attempt pan mongolismmongol ism hsinfanhsingan base operations politico military significance region discussed later however important state japan recognized sovietized outer mongmongoliaotlaotiaolla menace newly acquired sphere

influence hsinfanhsingan stumblingc11 block territorial 47 aims inner asia moreover japan apprehensive communism possible shut off outer mongolia bulwark russian communism

44 david N rowe modern china negnenee 7 jersey D van nostrand 1959 p 50 45 ben dorman manchurianmanclwrian incident 1931 11 harpers CLXICLXT september 1934 450 461bidibid

47 T M aziz janantsjapan colonialismcoloni aliail sm indonesia hague 1 1 1955 p 30 martinue1 artiartlanti nue niehoffnijhoffnnijhoff 1955t 22 asia having thus forcefully acquired manchuria kwantungKwan tung army chose retain possession therefore facade independence movement soon undertaken under auspices kwantungKwantung army headquarters self government guiding board following occupation mukden set foster independence movement headed yu chunghanchungchanChun ghan chinese board members comprising japanese officials actually directed activities board 48 soon japanese able get foothold throughout manchuria local boards established provinces february 161716 17 conference mukden attended chi mo te salsai mu peipelpet lo kuefukuehu mongol princes representing barga mongelsmongols jerimgerim legganleggau respectively 49 present pro japanese governors three northeastern provinces mayor mukden 50 Apparentapparentlylytlys support mongelsmongols important creation independent manchukuoManchu kuo february 18 1932 convention chenchlatungchenchiatung telteiteikatontelkatonTeiTel katon representatives eastern mongolian banners met time general expression autonomous rule 51 stage mongol leaders hoped japanese unlike chinese grant them autonomy february 18 northeastern supreme council organized meeting mukden issued declara 52 tion independence china next day agreed establish republic changchun later renamed inkinghsinkingheinkingHs new capital

48f C jones manchuria since 1931 london royal institute international affairs 1949 p 21 49Q lbldtibid appp 21 63 moko taikantalkanbalkan tokyo kalzoshaKalzosha 1938 p 241 50jones op cit p 21 51 moko taikantalkanbalkan op cit 52 jones 02op cit 23

pu yi manchu emperor chief executive following customary initial refusalrefusaltsalssais plupu yi residing port arthur time accepted Itheheaditheadtedtadtedg new state 53 inauguration atupuptu yi chief executive republic

march 111 1932 timed coincide exact anniversary 54 establishment manchu dynasty peking 16443115445411544 9 however two years later same month day kwantungKwan tung army elevated chief executive pu yi status emperor W G woodhead comments theneitthere little doubt con- siderablesiderable numbers mongelsmongolsMon gols especially barga region favored reinstatement pu yi merely chief executive butas emperor 55 formal precedent legal aspect demonstrated 1635 time mongelsmongols living south gobi desert accepted suzerainty manchu ruler gave him state seal former yuan mongol emperors act recognized him legitimate heir overlordship genghis khan 56 overthrow ming dynasty 1644 accomplished principally through alliance danchusmanchus mongelsmongols western manchuria reason latter never considered themselves inferiors mutual partners owen lattimore comments traditional manchu mongol mutual relations danchusmanchus mongelsmongolsMongols equal status lineage obvious leaders right

531bidibid abide541ibidebid ppo 40 55 H G woodhead visit manchuria shanghaishanghaisShanghais mercury press 1932 p 89 56jones op cit 24

birth ailealieAlleallegiancebianceglance alliance under manchu emperor solve problem under manchu empire mon gols never regarded themselves conquered subject people allies true danchusmanchus made impossible rise independent mongol power yet granted mongol privileges honors degree tribal autonomy made them own estimation peers danchusmanchus superior chinese 57 charles bells interview prince te wang mongol leader inner mongolia gives different view regarding pu yl emperor bell writes

I1 asked him whether welcome emperor manchoukuomanchoukub emperor mongelsmongolsMongols maybe somewhat shadowy sovereign interfere programs self government de wang replied good Empeemperoremperorsrort emperor should mongol connected very closely danchusmanchusManchus tf588 however following reinstatement emperor manchukuoManchukuo pu yi kept touch mongol princes resultsresultresuit many them sent tributes letters expressing devotion loyalty him 59 proclamation manchukuoManchu kuo manchu empire march 1 1934t1934 pu yi emperor kang testetev undertaken kwantungKwantung army experts keen awareness east asian historical experience instead adopting korean experience japan forcefully implemented annexation korea kwantungKwan tung army realized dynastic form government preferable acceptable danchusmanchus mongelsmongols manchuria historical orientation toward monarchism elucidating dynastic form decreed manchukuoManchukuo demise dynasty lattimore makes observation

57c 57lattimorelattimore studies frontier historytorzstorystorzy op citcl t appp 334335334 335 KQ 58charles bell struggle mongolia reprinted journal royal central asian societsochetsociety XXIV january 193701937 54 59hsiao hsin chen developmentthedevelopment transition public administration inner mongoliamong ia kengchiangmengchiangmengchlangMeng chiengchiang 1930 1945 masters thesis bridribrighamahamgham young university 1966 p 58 25

careful resurrection imperial forms modeled old dynastic ideas china turn closely related ideas empire dynasty japan indicates deliberate genuine intention follow korean precedent korea time annexation japan necessity deal fact genuine korean dynasty already existence long survived focus resistance against japanese policy 606 thustthussthus kwantungKwantung army endeavored conceal true design manchukuoManchukuo order accomplish dream extension japanese empire

wan&taotyangtaowangtaoWangtao imperial way device designed encourage manchurianmanchurianmongolsmongelsmongolsMongolsgois chinese minority groups rendering allegiance loyalty manchu emperor kang te pyupluP yi thereby bet- tering manchukuo japan relations concept tImpgimpimperialtimperialerial way ex- tracted confucian classics

0 represents confucian ideal upright sage rules force persuasive effect gra- cious benevolence within realm way rightrighto contrasted pa taoyao way might 61 transference principle confirm fl imperialflimperial waywayt status emperor kang te t1thetothe virtuous ruler governs accordance fr heaven f v62 suited grand design kwantungKwantung army obvious reasons kwantungKwantung army never attempted reveal facet confucian political philosophy cenciusmencius theory right revolt virtually empowered subjects prerogative overthrow tyrannical ruler political philosophy foreign japanese dynastic concept undoubtedly challenge therefore threaten kwantungKwantung ardysarmys dream expansionism

ovenowen600wen lattlattimoreimaretimoret cradle conflict rev ed new york macmillan 1933 p 307 61 T bisson japan china new york macmillan 1938 p 372 621bidibid 26

concordia association kyowanyowa kaikatkal unofficial propaganda organ government whose primary role ease execution governments plans smoothing relations among several racestfracesraees 636 promoted program imperial way central government two protocols effected machinery government least outward appearance first march lt1 1932 second september 15 1932 firstsfirst japan recognized manchukuoManchukuo independent state organized accordance free 64 Inhabitantinhabitantsst reciprocation manchukuoManchu kuo recognized japanese interests rights within jurisdiction second protocol m- utual agreement national defense stipulation japanese forces may necessary purpose shall stationed man choulcuochoukuolf 6503 thus position power japan able extend influence continent transition manchukuoManchu kuo republic prototype japanese imperial system intended stabilize government enhance japans hegemony analysis seen examine nature governmental structure under organic law manchu empire 193491934 state completely centralized throne 66 manchu emperoremperors entourage aides imperial household committee imperial house

631bid63ibid 64 64quotedquoted aziz 02cp citotciteiteltcidot ppo 32 65quoted65 quoted hugh byas rift war clouds asiatasiasasiaasla XXXIV september 1934 521 66southsouth manchurian railway sixth report progress manchuria 1939 tokyo herald press 1939 p 8 27

hold law office privy seal office aidesaldes ddecampde ecamcamp privy council ministers ofthesethese officers invariably non japanese officials emperors vested powers executiveexecutives legislative judicial like emperor japan did nothing without advice ministers turn controlled japanese vice ministers 67 kwantungKwantung army made certain manchu emperor serve usefulness puppet addition emperor entourage state council legislative council courts Justjusticeiceticey su- pervisorypervisory council state council virtually cabinet charge administrative afaffairsfairst headed prime minister controlled ministerstheministers following nine departments civil affairs foreign affairs defense finance industry communications justice education department mongolian affairs 68 1937 complete reorganization national administrative organ effected 696 four independent branches state council executive council courts justice supervisory council latter eliminated leaving three then too number nine departments reduced six theserhese public peace peoples welfare industry finance commerce communications justice however department industry abolished june 1940 same time department agricultural development established 1937 offices foreign affairs hsinfanhsingan affairs created latter replaced department mongolian affairs created coordicoorde

67 aziz 02OP cit P 31 68 manchoukuo year book 1942 inkinghsinkingheinkingHs manchoukuo year book 1942t1942 appp 156157156 157 69 ibid p 157 28

nate matters concerning administration mongelsmongolsMongols 70 purpose reorganization july 1937 follows 1 subject political administration under supervision prime minister 2 merge abolish administrative departments order consolidate administrative structure 3 unify military police organizations order improve public peace order 4 facilitate communication between central local governments 5 expand consolidate functions local governments 6 eradicate evils standardization 7 facilitate plans economic industrial development 8 improve plans attaining racial harmonyharmony7171 study operation government respect authority control revealing surveillance nature japanese officials without question masters exampleexamples director generalgenerals key administrator general affairs board under state councileCouncicouncilcouncilqlq invariably held japanese then too heads respective bureau heads under general affairs board japanese officials 72 reality director general real director policy controller governmental activities appointed dismissed officialofficials prepared budget constituted what japanese officer kwantungKwantung ardysarmys general staff termed steel frameframoframp holding together whole regime general affairs board stronghold japanese internal control manchukuoManchukuo government make assurance doubly sure each ministries departments japanese vice minister each own general affairs bureau

70 ibid p 159 71ib1dbid 72jones72 jones obe080020op cit pop 25 29

secretariat controlling personnel including bureaux heads Japanesejapanese7373 thus observed unquestionable administrative authority hands director general general affairs board theory responsible prime minister japanese puppet practice responsible kwantungKwanxwantungtungcung army department heads ministers invariably chinese governed respective japanese advisers vice ministers plupu yi former role puppet emperor gave testimony before tokyo war crimes regard what already said paper order fool people world manchukuoManchukuo made look like independent state fact administered kwantungKwan tung army nominally ministers vice ministers charge various departments government practically every vice ministers japanese ministers chinese surface chinese put charge underneath japanese ran show fourth section kwantungKwantung army control manchurian affairs ordinances enactments preferred vice minister japanese then approved kwantungKwan tung army74admayarrayacray 74 foregoing testimony indicates 1 distinction minister exercised chinese official facade government manchukuoManchukuo itself 2 subordinating office vice minister held Japanjapaneseoseseseooseo policypolicymakingmaking administrative control 3 kwantungKwantung army decision maker inasmuch policies created vice ministers subjected approval chapter IV shall observe what ordinarily case under manchukuoManchukuo administration conclusions enumerated above likewise said hsinfanhsingan provinces under japanese administra

73ibid 74 quoted I1 n azizaciz 02op cit p 45 GOVERIgovernmentTZIENT CF MANCHUKUO

unofficialunofflcialfalcial transkonTranskonshonzhon imperial household dept I1 LI1 Ddeptpt pubxpubpubs advisers peacepescepesca bur imu 0 G ninialal sastaflslafl7 committee oriorloni imperial house law aurelibureliburellBu rellreLi mili y affairsff rs office t1tat r- Zz privy s-saisealgealal bjr&iu pocpuc alaffairsfaisfai 0 e ai de cadcodcon jp L d acurcu n cu l ii j aniluiniluinL tiueilu culunbulun r- cid dedeptpt 0 reachczachkzachkeach pyi y courcucourcyc11 aq PCPCGpeopegpecpspecesG Ys sq ebrntearnt vclfare bureaubereau fducuduc ionlonddnidn 1 bureaudureauB ireaubireau sccioscci0cc 1 aftafiaffairsafis bureaudureaudereau buicpulcpuicpu lj FI laihluihruihkuth i E j audit health equipreauequipsn rtntr t dptaptprpt Q c dcoraccoradad1 c iici3 cc ccnialcunial eou1oc3l obrieobrve ry 0 cf embassyemoassy 11 ja3njaanjayn I1 2 gcmanygomany social trdard 0 la gcrinany bureaudureau asncul uraiural rs mu- r consulsconzulsus aff cos dralD- D bieuB le u cf pis g- bleu c2ca of hj sry eu u cf cc yidir idiidlajijji ris CK G ai r37cfpoc epics c 1 ans r 7 cc 0 I i rt C T vc n eoicscon niuceneucetc e bi li T 11 i pro c al i cuicio icil finpin t il irom i I pover cuicilCu hsehhyclhychT 0 eliiecliecflecbieccclrisitsiij coicorortlonsrtlon poixhlfoiw hl t i bureau govngoanPoix cej ffare antP nt ro staftpstp e cc cil biubludiu nntr gcicral barlbnrl au cfjaccaaccc comiconimitnimitittceiticeice en denteprcpr general monopcy 0 cs 003kesces afaii5 cultureC rd fliancealiance ni I1 bcrscr taint bolij B Eeducationoc 0 1 1 btofpcnnl commerce bleauiu 01 conrcucu aff rs rueaujueauU caa stastai5tc3 revenueConr poirepolce p T duleau Hlilircauureume U oi l13 3 i r D dureaubureau fina i ce brdardcard coran citalC ital corcn dureaubureaudereau cf supplies d repairs gvnoral postal adnwstraiiji cornccooncn c- sc 03 dureaubureau uon bureau T tidainold accnyaccoy Ddeptcpt iin r re r i t coancomnn r iunijuni scietrit bureau P icviyvvayveyays3 jr 1 canions suliiesuliinI c scientincScien tinc research cations 1 I1 llurcbureaulu 0 3 bureau 0 f1 vl 110 Z oicaoicc01co iiollo i Screanscreanatrc n tn affairs cf ant screaiscrealscreak t dureaubureau p j dept cf bu sprntruisirvisi bureau civil affairsairscirs justicejus liceilce 1 CY buaizbuaiutauvau 0 ciiininl afiaff 0 iani affairs 1 1 1 ikni bureaudureau1 seelzeel 1 11 pea a- u raticaraticnration

C 1 I lccrlccy os 0 c south manchurian railway sixth rekortre2ortreportraport progress manchuria 1939 tokyo herald press 1939 31 tion provincial local administrative units thorough program reorganization provincial local administrative units local administrative research commission appointed february 1934 subdivided three provinces liaoningLiaoning kirin hellunachiangheilungchiang fourteen new provinces number increased nineteen five added during years 1937451937 45 nineteen four autonomous mongol provinces east hsinfanhsinganHs ingan west hsinfanhsinganHs ingan north msinganingan south hsinfanhsinaanhsinganHsiHs ingannaan 75 technically underlying principle reorganization ensure complete ordinationssubordinationssub local 76 governmental bodies central government inkingheinkinghsinklnghsinkingHs provincial government theoretically administered affairs province highest administrative unit state each province subdividedsub divided hsien districtsdistricts7777 turn subdivided chu counties turn tsun villages dis- tricts essence fundamental local units nation counties villages lower administrative units differences leadership composition provincial administration evidently based population development ethnic status provinces each well populated developed provinces governor vice governor secretariat following boards police affairs public welfare industry public works

75a75 discussion these provinces especially east hsinfanhsinganHs ingan discussed chapter IV 76 76jonesjones 02op cit p 26 77 however hsinfanhsingan provinces banner system retained banner roughly equivalent chinese hsien 32

lasttwotvodvotwo named boards eliminated less developed provinces felhoheihohelho province sparsely populated northern frontier special administrative system general affairs police public welfare sections well hsien district offices serving branches provincial government 787 according lattimore highest officials hsinfanhsihsinganngan provinces given favored position terms communication dealt directly privy council inkinghsinkingheinkingHs bypassingpassing ministries privilege extended provinces 797 hsinfanhsingan provinces under direct controlcontr01 office hsinfanhsingan affairs department civil affairs case others readily understood since hsinfanhsingan provinces strategi- cally vital far japanese militaristsmilitarisms concerned judi- ciously extending certain amount privileges mongelsmongolsMongols japanese hoped eventually penetrate inner mongolia same time undermine therussianrussianrusslan position outer mongolia then promote plans territorial expansion asian continent provinces including hsinfanHsinhsinganhsingantHs ingangantgans troops finance ju- diciary controlled central government example man chukuochukuro troops posted provinces under jurisdiction manchukuoManchutmanchukuollkuo national army whose commanding officers appointees central government revenue officials assigned provinces collected taxes administrative expenditures defrayed inkingheinkinghsinkinghsinlcingHs government treasury lifelifetimetime appointees central government judges heldheidholdhoid prerogative exercise judicial office

78jones78jones op elteitcitacito p 27 797 79lattimorelattimore cradle conflictC onfrionf1i c t 02op cit appp 14142141 42 33

80 provinces

aside tche nineteen provinces two special minici palitiespolitiespali ties capital city Hs inking harbin each having mayor appointed etheeche government city council hand picked since both municipalities under control central government independent provincial jurisdiction however july 1 1937 special municipality harbin abolished harbin assimilated unit special municipality inkinghsinkingheinkingHs 81 latter under jurisdiction prime minister hand ordinary municipality under supervision provincial governor turn responsible prime minister municipal system affected fourteen cities outside hsinfanhsingan perimeter since mongelsmongols vereyere given autonomous status apart chinese local administrative system councilor system later established local governments0governmentst82governments 0 describing system japanese writer 1938 said state manchouluomanchouruo politically divided many local administrative units called counties banners every office thobhebho county magistrate banner chief attached japanese councillor whose duty give counsel manchu unit administrator render assistance every possible way83 conclusion short establishment government manchoukuo

80OA jones 2op cit p 27 pi 81s Mmo roR 0top citfcitcief p 0 6 fiornonno 82 reirelregionalonalonai handbook northeast china compiled farferfecredrecpar eastern russian institute university washington seattle new havenhaventhavens HRAF 1956f1956 p 328 83 83mdibid P 338 34 merely facade although nominally constitutional monarchy following short period experimentation representative government real manipulators behind scenes men kwantungKwantung army switch monarchical system suited japanese design winning collaboration danchusmanchus mongelsmongolsMongols since both historical orientation toward chinese monarchism actual practice central provincial local powers hands authorized japanese officials act regardless how insignificant considered valid without countersignaturecounter signature appropriate japanese adviser 84

841bidogibid appp 33638336 38 CHAPTERCHIAPTER litittIII111

EXTERNALEKTERNAL PROBLEMS RELATED MONGOLMONIGOL QUESTION

1930s1930ts 1940s19401s power perhaps directly frustrated humiliated japans imperialistic aims inner asia soviet russia china impotent militarily stem tide japanese aggression inner mongolia soviet russia did along outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border thus japans attempt solve mongol question military confrontation soviet russia serious mistake pan mongolismmongol ism apparently japanese cognizant advantages pramotpromot ing pan mongol movement tanaka memorandum 1915 although considered forgery japanese statements sino japanese agreement same year illustrates japanese attempt use mongelsmongols basis frustratinfrustrationfrustrating chinese russian aims asia 1 dismissing possibility concerted japanese effort toward pan mongol movement however japanese officers felt pan mongolian state supported japan effect exclusion bolshevism outer Mongoliamongolianmongolia22 according chamberlain japanese military authorities gone far willing consent detachment manchouganchouManchou

1franzfranz H michaeimichaellillii111 chael george E taylor far east modemmodern world new york henry holt 1956 p 312 2 william 11 chamberlain japan asia boston little brown 1939 p 61

35 36

kuo oftheodthe mongolian provinces lying west hsinfanhsingan mountains provided course japanese influence new state Emonemongolljtmongoljgoilgoll assured unchallenged 3 nonetheless 1931 japanese favorable position use mongelsmongols allies against future confrontation china soviet russia perhaps takeover manchuria september 18 1931 sub-

sequent occupation eastern mongolia following year givenC militaristsmilitarisms another opportunity fulfill dream pan mongolian state thus extend continental power beyond manchukuoManchu kuo obviously japanese policy limit japans hegemony mongelsmongols eastern mongolia itself aim include mongolia give them japanese enormous leverage policy toward either russia china 4 very fact japanese established autonomous mongol provinces eastern mongolia suggestive idea pan mongolian state under japanese control policy antithesis russian aims besides china condone move however possible japanese willingness surrender eastern mongolia pan mongolian state reported fisher 1936 writer related heard near borders inner mongolia rumors japanese agents riding among mongol tribes urging princes declare inner mongolia independent fell project according tho rumors japanese sponsored state manchu kuo ready make them handsome gift form nearly fourth own territory entire western province Hs ingan where many mongelsmongols already live under japanese domination tokyo official cunnamedrunCunurmanameduimauimameismeiSmetsmees did much merely confirm rumorumor 5t

certainly 11manchukuo1anchulcuoManchu kuo stands readyreadly time hand

31bidbid appp 616261 62 40wenowen lattimore mongelsmongolsiongolsIon rolsroisgols manchuria london george allenalienailen union 1934 p 139

lgerard5gerardgerard M friters outer mongolia international position baltimore johns hopkins 1949 p 234 37

hsinfanhsingan independent mongolia affirmed ob-

serve government alonmlonmongolC ol drovincesDroprovincesvinces never made inteintegralrairal part government manchukuoManchu kuo administration quite separatteseparate under mongol prince conveniently painlessly detached necessary time independent mongolian state ought include much inner mongolia should come outer mongoliac bulyatburyat republic siberia those Mmongol populations must inevitably drawn ma- gnetism independent regime inner mongolia liberated mongelsmongols now living manchukuoManchu kuo 6 lattimore asserts Jaojapanesejadanese created mengkukuo independent mongol nation made eastern mongolia chinese inner mongolia established mengkukuomlengkukuo training ground pan mongol movement aiming conquest outer mongolia 7 however

kwantungKwantung army overran inner mongolia 1937 did unite region hsinfanhsingan area form mengkukuo basis pan mongol empire mongelsmongols dreamed instead separate

1180 kengchiangmengchiangMeng chiang inner Monlamongolianollan regime established inner mongelsmongols soon learn counterparts hsinfanhsingan autonomous government very much within terms japanese policy short found merely puppets real power hands japanese 9 result situation course did encourage favorable image japanese charles bell gives reaction mongelsmongols disillusionment matter mongol position know high au- thoritythority gave me orinionopinion mongelsmongols manchoukuo

ah6hH E fisher russia faces jadanjapan vast asian front new york times april 5 1936 p 5 70wenovenowen lattimore studies frontier history collected paberspapers 1928 1958 london oxford university press 1962 p 404 p af8fF C jones mancliurmanchurialiallaria since 1931 london royal institute international Affaaffairsirsil 1949 p 66 bibid9ibidbid 38

better off under japanese1 under tthe chinese receiving japanese what led believe receive opinion puts position nutshell 10 nonetheless dream pan mongolian state part japanese militaristsmilitarisms failed materialize japanese policy itself shortsighted failed comprehend aspirations mongolsmongelsMongols administration paternalistic bound arbitrary besides following occurrences hampered seriously realization pan mongolian statestates 1 serious border incidents between soviet outer mongelsmongols japanese hsinfanhsingan mongolsmongels along outer mongolian border 193519361935 1936 2 japanese invasion north china 1937 3 monhannomonhan battle between soviet russia japan 4 demise kwantungKwantung army 1945 border incidents japanese eastern mongolia following occupa74occupation manchuria 1931 became vitally important strategicC 3 area

past occupyingC vast mongol domain western manchuria eastern mongolia favorably facilitate japanese imperialistic aims inner asia first japanese kwantungKwantung army conveniently mili- tarize rallarhailarhallar eastern mongolia 100 miles outer mongolian border second prelude pan mongolian state japanese mili tariststarista now establish autonomous mongol region eastern mongolia exception siberia eastern mongolia probably aid deterring soviet threat important japanese industrial military installations south manchuria early 1930s19301s indicative military unreadiness soviet russia did challenge kwartunkwantungkwantunKwanewanKwantuntung armyfsargysarmys sweeping drive north

10 charles bell struggleI1 mongolia reprinted journal royal central asian society XXIV january 1937 59 39

manchuria followingJ incident mukden moreover 1935 sale chinese eastern railway japanese puppet regime man chukuochukuro soviet russia abandoned north manchuria sphere influence 11 sovietized outer mongolia russia determined defend interests following occupation eastern mongolia 1932 occasional minor incidents along outer mongol border became serious problem 1935 result november 27 1934 gentlemangentlemantsgentlemants agreement concluded between soviet russia mongolian peoples republic amounted politically military alliance 12 again march 12 1936 increased border incidents soviet russia outer mongolia concluded protocol mutual assistance both agreeing event military attack contracting parties render each every assistance including military assistance 131 0 unmistakably meant soviet russia contrast previous retreating position north manchuria longer tolerate actions jeopardize interests outer mongolia 1936 noticeable indications rapid mobilization military installations outer mongolia eastern mongolia 1936 T steele correspondent hailar made observation hailar brief become mammoth military base least division japanese broonstroons quartered highly mechanized prepared short notice move against adjacent frontiers where occurred sanguinary border incidents hivehcyverve source unending

ilthisinthis done without securing consent china CER partner 1217 friters op cit p 143 131biibid1id 40

friction between manchoukuo neighbors 14

1936 edgarzlal snow made following report while kwantungKwantung army extends roads railways telegraphs frontier hailar builds immense base suitable mongolian operations leaders ulan bator quiescent 0 mongol red armyarmy15 said well armed well equipped fully equal asiatic troops motor roads extended frontiers telegraphic radio communication bean much developed fortifications erected probably largely russian flown mongol air force rumored comprise three hundred planes based several modern airdairdromesromes 16 moreover increase soviet outer mongol troops estimated between 60000 ioosloos100110000000017 military installations indicated gravity soviet japanese relations 193519193519361935 193619 36 january 1935 lake bulduldui nor located fringe oi1 outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border central area dispute question border demarcation claim each party follows japanese considered lake bulduidul nor part manchukuoManchukuo khalkha river natural boundary be- f tween ttwo0 o countries outer mongolian maps ap- parentlyparently soviet napsmaps howeverhoxhovraverrcver included khalkha

14 T steele mongol border asia XXVI august 1936 495 15 1930 former mongolian peopledPeoplets revolutionary army renamed red army 1 see peter 11 tang russian soviet policy 19111 1 manchuria outer mongolia 2 igi191191119311931 durham duke university press 1959 p 395 16 edgar snow japan gates red mongolia asia XXXVI january 1936 13 17 ibid correspondent sterling fisher gives overall comparison soviet japanese military preparedness asia russia unquestionably larger trained land forces abundant supplied resources equipment stronger fortifications side standing army 1300000 against japans 230000 air force 3500 planes japans 1446 far easlsastdasesase said 250000 troops siberian manchukuoan frontier protected elaborate network small concrete forts like maginot1 line guarding france germany likewise 600 700 tanks 800 900 airplanes east 1 1 lake baikal japan hand opposite fanchukuomanchukuoManchuil kuo less 90000 japanese soldiers smaller number relatively raw na- tive troops few tanks airplanes border forts fisher op cit 41

river lake dutbuiduidul nor within territory mongolian peoples republic 18 short tche japanesejapanese insisted area dispute within tche hsinfanhsingan perimeter russians arcarguedYaedued otherwise early border encounter january 1935 snow reports first serious clash occurred january ja panese led Manmanchuchullchurlchurr troops encountered red mongol patrol near lake doir west bargaC district Mancmanchuriahurias hsinfanhsinganHs ingan mongolI1 comicommandernander soldier killed while slight casualties inflicted manchukuoManchukuo side 190 mutual protestsdroorotests exchanged number clashes 1935 alone reported sterling fisher amounted 106 serious ones first three months 1936 twenty two 20 several these seems apparent occasional skirmishes between cuterouter mongelsmongols hsinfanhsingan mongelsmongolsMongols dispatch secretary state january 23 1936 tokyo ambassador joseph grew reported alleged involvement hundred outer mongolsmongels 21 manchurian mongelsmongols border clashes january 8 15 16 17 encounters between mongol troops outer mongol hsinfanhsingan11singan mongol tended create animosity among blood brothers grew makes rele- vant observation cause these clashes clear apparent neither outer mongelsmongolsmionlgols nor manchurian mongelsmongols hsinfanhsingan province each whom confident support soviets tche Janjenjepjapaneseanese respectively present willing show sign weaknessveakness williwillinanesswillingnessnaness cormcompromisepromise 22

18i p friters op cit p 235 191 snow op cit p 11 20 fishetfisherfishery OP cit 21 foreign relations united states 1936 vol IVTV washin-washington government printing office 1956195 6 p 123 22 ibid 4 2

perhaps peculiar situation take con- sideration similar relationship existed between north koreans south koreans following korean varwar 1950 even between north south american civil war sum border incidents symptomatic japanese territorial ambition overconfidentconfident initial victories north manchuria deholjehol japanese military january 1935 thought perhaps provocation soviet outer mongol troops lake bairbuir nor perimeter might cause russia makeinakesnakemaremarq concessions them stiff russo cuterouter mongol troop resistance however gave thenthedthem afterthoughtsthoughts closer coordination between russians outer mongolsmongels border defenses result addition 1936 chinese government preferred russian occupation outer mongolia japanese takeover offered protest regarding influxin-flux russian troops country 239 moreover border incidents reflected russiansRus siasslas determination defend preeminentpre eminent position outer mongolia siberia past tolerated japans intrusions far chinese soil manchuliManchuli conference june 3 1935 result mounting seriousness border incidents conference held matchullmanchulimanchullManchulichull north lisilshsinfanhsinganlisinganingan province near outer conlmonlmongoloi1 border soviet objective conference settle immediately question boundary demarcation along outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border japanese desired primarily establish foothold outer mongoliaMlong oliaoila means gaining concessions russians leadleadingn delegate amonsamong hsinfanfsinganhsingan mongol officials

23 lawrence K Rosingrosingfrrosingerfr others state asia new york knopf 1953 p 10loilot101t 43 ling sheng governor north hsinfanhsingan province japanese delegates kanki saitosalto sakurai kwantungkwanfcungKwan tung army leading outer mongol entourage sambolasambowaSambowa vice minister war accompanied russian officials 24 should emphasized here appearance outer mongol hsinfanhsingan mongol delegates merely facade actual men behind

scenes respective russian japanese officials william H chamberlain observer during manchuliyjanchullManchulichull conference sessions makes following comment

I1 present short time during these con- ferenferencesces carried away impression diplomatic puppet show tokyo MOSCOW vigorously pulling strings controlled manchoukuo outer mongolian delegates delegates lived railway cars surrounded watchful Russirussianzinfin advisers inaccessible un- communicative grand lama tibet japanese dip- lomat attached manchoukuo foreign office moving spirit manchoukuo delegation 25 boundary delimitation concerning questionable vaguely marked

outer mongolC hsinhsinfanhsinganD border urgent1 issue far japanese concerned japanese primarily interested open door policy 1 open diplomatic relations between outer mongolia manchu kuo 2 maintain manchukuoManchukuo military mission ulan bator 3 267 f construct telegraph line between outer0ouneralterulter mongolia manchukuoManchu kuo obviously JajapaneseDanese intention gaingalgaz n foothold ulan bator far setting espionage activities concerned however soviet outer mongolian refusal complyalyolyotynly vith jnanosetnnnnesevnanose proposal frustrated latlatteriatterlattersbattersters aims outer mongolia

24f f snow 22OP cit p 1111 see steele 02op cit p 494 25 chamberlachamberlain5n op citc i t p 63

26 1 snow 2nop cit p J122 4441-1

indicative teheie futile attempts reconciliation manchuliManchuli

follofollowingwinIg lussorusso outer nlmongol1 iol comunicomuniquescoirriuniquescommuniquesques recent events prove manchukuoManchu kuo wishes avoid peaceful settlement border incidents prepare way further occupation our territory 27 japanese militarisemilitarizemilitmilitariamariseariam undertakes mozemormozmorge risky adventures may happen however reckless investigators these adventures break 28f necks neenewN ew yorkY ork timesT i lreirelne responsible spokesmanspokesinnan japanese foreign office did conceal fact japanese government approved efforts t open outer 1mongolia rI1 e repeated manchukuoManchukuo now knockingknock ins outer MonmongoliasmongolianmongoliansMongomengogoliaslians door japans door 1858 implying same result in- evitable 29 reviewing issues led cessation manchuliManchuli conference close 1935 ve find june ard3rd session soviet outer ulonMionmongelsmongolsmionryolsryols priprimarilyarilyairily interested settlement boundary dispute delimiting bordsrbordarborder however japanese evidently trying evade question demanding matters mutual interest should discussed 30 referred course japanese open door policy outer mongolia october 2 open door policy again became issue 31 personal interview edgarsogarzogar snow chashichashlchaehi japanese vice inisterminister nanchumanchukuoManchumanclhukluokuo foriforafor1foreignn officeficecfficq stated candidly border

27nevnew N L 7 7 new york timesernesmrnes july 1935 jy19.19 p 28 quoted T dissonbissonB asonsson jajananannaninnann cainachina new york macmillan 1936 p 230 29 1 new york times october1zeoberctober 22 1935 responsible spokesman 1 1 4 kanki official japanese nistryministry1 1 bistry foreign affairs see david J dallin sovietovi ot russR assiayssiai 7farir eastzastgas t nevnovnewnow haven yale university press 1981948 0r 25 30 nevneww york times june 15 9351935 Dp 6 31 bisson citc i t p 231 45 question incidental issue wider implication regarded

manchuliManchuli conference tas merely preliminary determined attempt pry open mongolia benefit world enforce open door 32 country much con-coinconcoinmonanon our empire stubborn soviet eulercuterouter mongol resistance border revealed futility japanese efforts conference table besides 1936 pointed earlier substantial soviet outer mongol military buildupbuild cuterouter mongolia kvantung4wantungkwanKvan1 tungcung army experts aware 33 provocation war time unlikely each side recognized among reasons potential might shortshort manchuliManchuli conference november 1935 ended stalemate neither solution question delimitation

frontier nor russo outer mongol1 acquiescence japanese flodenflopenopen door proposals adjournment july conference matchullmanchulimanchullMan chulichull terethene alleged rumor referring bitter exchange words between outer mongol hsinfanhsingan11singan mongol delegates eutercuterouter mongelsmongols bitterly denounced hsinhsinfanhsingan mongol delegates japaneseJapanGsa puppets T latter re

5 plied calling thetthellr relative reded slaves 34 perhaps plausible consider charges counter charges north south koreans conference table panmoniompanmonjom ling sheng incident

april 193611935 consequence matchullmanchullmanchuliMan chullchuli conference kwantungKwanK wantunptung army arrested arnceprnceP ce lingL-I n sheng mongol governor north

32 snowlsnowssnow 01op13 citCLtat9 p 12 33 new york timestimosT es january 27 1935 p 8 34 snow OP cit 46 hsinfanhsingan province several high 111321opimongol officials alleged charges Ivlidliviottingplottingivlotting subversive movements against manclmancimanchukuoManchuiukuoyukuokuo w1wavithj glgivingelney mili 35 tary information soviet russia governor ling srengstiens entouragentourage among whom monmongol01ol ardysargysarmysarmyvs chief 0 J staff chief police

sent hailar inkingsinking11sinkingHs11 capital manchukuoManchulanc riukuoriukuo tried court martial shortly thereafter accused including governor armysarnrysaremys chief staff chief police brought trial found guilty md executed 360

noted governorlingygovernor linglinsyLingy sheng chief Ihsinfanhsingan11sinlaanoan delegate manchuliManchuli conference capacity assumed occasional conversations russian outer mongol1vonleonavon ol delegates might looked upon much suspicion Jacjacvocjapanesejapanosejapavocnosemosewegwog respect japanese 37 considered relations relsontreasonU reason gbravestgravestravest forms among chargesC plotting secession barga japanese further declared ling sheng established connectionsconnextions USSR 1929 soviet troops invarinvadedledbed hailar punitive ex- 1 peditionpedi tion againstainstainestchanschang chan hseh llangliang11 tizrizrig always secretly workingC russians while professing loyalty irltry111manchukuoanchuzluollManchukuohuobuo 38 russians hovehowehowevervcr flflatlyitly ioniclonicclonic having affiliation ling sheng 3039

T steele met ling sheng acknowledges him man integrity does dismiss possibility played

35 new york times april 13 1936 p 4 36 david dallinda 1 lintin soviet russiarusrms siaslaqia far east new haven yale university press 19481943 p 350360 ionesjones op cit p 67 37 steelellsteeleStee lellleslleyl op cit p 494 303 jones 00oo ctcit nndpoapo 5756765767 56 39aq3q ibid9ibid p 68610 47 both sides however what terms steele does venture say notwithstanding steele comments character mongol opportunism opportunism though reprehensible occidental standards phenomenon tene mongoliasmongolianmlongoliasMonMlongoliasgolias where ruling princes papalspawnsLs international intrigue since collapse mighty empire erected genghis khan I1 lustzustjust completed journey through hsinfanhsingan province chinese inner mongolia hailarhallar northwestern manchouganchou kuo sulsuiyuansuiyunnsuiyungSui yuanyunn northwestern china everywhere I1 found mongol leaders much same mood 40 japanese military alleged ling sheng motivated desire insure security himselfhirishinis elfeif ane people event war between outer mongoliaMon yolla manchoukuomanchoulkuo powerful allies 41 interview japanese generals tokyo 1963 dr paul V hyer student mongolian affairs asserts possibility japanese officers kempertkempeitkempeitaiKempeitaial secret military police ambitious promotion always suspicious monoolsmongelsmongolsMonoolsgolsgois sought use ling sheng scapegoat related byerbyor111 1iyer russian agents concealed weapons way give appearance ling sheng plotted coup whether ling sheng actually framed difficult ascertain execution

outer mongol leaders shortshoreshortly1 y lreafterthereafterch ulan bator charges

1 F having plotted bhehilebile hsinfanhsingan1s enols1 onols11onolsoisols pan mongol movement tends absolve ling shensheng 42 reaction incident steelesheele makes folfoifollowinglowina conclusion

turning point ilskishsinfanhsinganwisinganwis ingan mongol1oro1 JacatanesejatanesejaraneseTaneseranese relations

tidingsidaldaidl ngs tilc event verevorevenevonewore soon every mongol tongue execlexecution1fonaon1on 070 fofoutfour mongelsmongolsmtongols high rank political fonsetenseoffense againstdinstninst manchoukuomanchoulcuo government may bolster r rna mongol respect 0 o d rairn1 cledclod japanese guide

40ibid 41 1ibidb d 429 personal intervieiinterview wihvithviehwl h dr paul V hyer july 19 1966 48

destinies young scarcely calculated stimulate mongol affection 433 unusual reaction natural human chara- cteristicte group people side own kind face foreign occupation whether motives justified however incident itself did generate serious anti japanese reaction terms revolt particularly opportunity later defeat

monhannomonhan war made possible regard F C jones points commentators took event ling sheng in- dicationdi cation failure japans mongol policy assuminassuming rather too muchch hostilities nomon han 1939 culminated severe japanese defeat hands soviet forces might opportunity large scale revolt manchurian mongelsmongolsMon gols however did occur 44w battledattledattieba ttieatie monhannomonhan period 193119391931 1939 Rusrussianssiasslas position northeast asia vas primarily defensive although able withhold japanese attacks

1 along outer mongoliviivl hsinfanhsingan border 193519361935 1936 embarrass japanese changkufeng 1937 annihilate japanese forces monhannomonhan

10 1 193919391 policy merely 1- o defend outer mongolia future buffer prevent possible japanese invasion soviet union further- more russia anxiousamKious extend perimeter influence mecne borders china nor newly japanese acquired hsinfanhsinganHs ingan satis- fied having inner Mlongnyongmyongmongoliaolia buffer against developing chinese nationalism japanese militaristmilitaristsmilitarisms hand plans own

43 raibid 44jones44jones op cit 49

remembered abortive attempt greater mongolian statestace two decades ago soviet russia stumbling block then doubt mind militaristsmilitarisms extension japanese empire exten- pan ded asian continent throupthroughh mongolJ strategy without first crushing soviets dominant position outer mongolia recounted earlier mutual assistance pact signed between russia mongolian peoplespeopled republic 1936 though bi- lateral agreement simply indicated uncertain terms russia come defense outer mongolia event attack kwan tung army took hint result fewer border incidents thereafter 45 however 1937 japanese forces invading china russia undergoing internal crisis great purge engineered stalin denuding soviet nation leading military leaders marshal tukachevesky same year severe japanese attack amur river encounter russians evacuated russian held islands near juncture soviet korean border following year russians defeated japanese forces led settlement calling withdrawal troops both sides 46 relative difference between russiansDlusIus siasslas retreat 1937 victory 1938 attributed rather disappointing japanese drive china opening full scale offensive against china first source worry russians japanese failed overrun adversaries reds considerably heartened 47

45 dallin 02op cit p 27 46meribeth cameron others china japan powers new york ronald press 1952 p 407 47 cameron op cit 50 spite set back japanese making preparations major thrust outer mongolia without question japanese years preparing thrust direct railway line connecting inkinghsinkingheinkingHs halunarshanHalunarshan traversing hsinfanhsingan mountain range completed 1936 course facilitate deployment troops proximityinproximityunproximity monhannomonhan 48 moreover july 1938 japanese general staff made preliminary plans invasion outer mongolia soviet baikal irkutsk ul- timate goal 49 result japanese 23rd infantry division northern kyushu transferred rallarhailarhallar 100 mile distance north monhannomonhan 50 past practice both sides post border guards along disputed area disputed monhannomonhan area located few miles southeast lake duir nor disputed area 193519361935 1936 east khalkha river russians insisted outer mongolian border included area east khalkha river whereas japanese thought otherwise 51 reality disputed area vital significance visible fortifications alongatsaionalonalonggAts peripheriaperipheric ex 52 captcept numerous border outposts however map sem- iofficial japanese publication 1932 revealed disputed oasis area

48 jones op cit p 111 49testimony49testimony ataman semenov cited larry moses battle nomonhan khalkhinkhalithinkhallkhailKhalithinchin golgoigot unpublished manuscript indianapolis indiana university 1966 p 44 50 cited moses op cit saburo hayashi alvin D coxscox kogunbogunxogun japanese army pacipaclpaelpacificfic war virginia marine corps association 1959 51 mosessmoses op cit p 42 52 ibid9ibid p 43 51

NOMONHAN wartwarsWAR 1939

ilairailk

0 IA

david joJ dalllndallinoballino soviet russia far east new haven yale university press 19491948 52 tween monhannomonhan easteastbankbank khalkha within border mongolian peoplespletsPeo republic 53 moreover mongol patrols both sides taken liberty patrol oasis respective comrades posts observing routine 54 unusualyunusually outer mongol 55 border guards patrol area sizeable numbers may 11 1939 japanese hsinfanhsinganlisingan calvary unit 200 men crossed oasis attacked 50 man outer mongol patrol near khalkha eastsideeastside result outer mongelsmongols killed however attackers soon retreated first large scale penetration border 56 japanese actually intended test import soviet outer mongol mutual pact 1936 great disappointment may 22 lieutenant rykov platoon orders crossed khalkha soon repulsed japanese hsinfanhsingan cavalry 57 latter consequently occupied easteastbankbank violation border limitation set forth outer mongolia soviet russia mo- ment challenge set forth soviet union keep promise according mutual agreement russo outer mongol forces retaliated few days later may 31 direct warning japanese molotov made following declaration before supromesovietsupreme soviet

I1 give warning borders mongolian peoplespeopled republic virtue mutual assistance treaty concluded betweenbecsrmonmmon us defended USSR vigor

53citedcited ibidibidogabidog Tp 42 japans rights manchuria japan todaxhodaxT od ay tomorrowT omorrow 19311932193119 31 1932 osaka osaka malaichimalnichimainichlMal nichi publishing 1932 54 54testlmonytestimony rippel ogiseogisu tedinciterincitedincitedci moses 02op cit 55moses55moses apop cit 561bidtibid p 45

57testimony57testimony major E bykov cited imiteimfte mosessmoses 0opP cittcitaitt p 46 53

cp ouslybously shall defend our won borders 58 skirmishes may 11 22 soon developed full scale modern war battle line extending fifty sixty kilo 59 meters depth twenty twentyfivetwenty five kilometerkilometersst much crucial battles centered Momonhan perimeter briefly battle monhan characterized these terms initial drive until july 6 large scale offensive generally japanese favorsfavor thereafter japanese began feelfeetfeol growing strength soviet outer mongol forces finally latter part august soviet outer mongol forces began tremendous drive 60 whichcompletelycompletely routed japanese manchuruoanmanchukuoan forces besides use ground forces including tanks artillery both sides did shy aerial duels june combat overhead took major part action 61 june 17 japanese admitted 62f outer mongolian russian planes beganc3ca series raids manchukuoManchukuo each side reported incredible victories butic difficult rely source what acknowledged howhoweverevertevers both sides able test efficiency latest models 65636 5 doubt soviet planes probably attempted bomb heavily fortified ballarhallarhailar dispatch hailarhallar however discloses bombing raids did occur vicinity hailarhallar through day soviet aircraft

58 dallin 02op citpcifacifccipp p 39 59 claude buss far east new york macmillanMacMil lantlang 1955 p 335 60moses60moses op cit p 41 611bid461 ibid pop 48 nev62newnew york times june 25 1939t1939 p 28 63 63mosesmoses 2jpop cit p 48 54 ranged eastward bombing communications centers near hallarhailar least four fresh bomb eaterscreatorscr thirty five miles south hailar five others near changmiaoChangmiao 640 reason russians unlike japanese trained outer mongelsmongols pilots long before monhannomonhan incident japanese knew outer mongolsmongels russian sponsored air force 65 august 22

Hs11 inkingsinking dispatch disclosed forty outer mongol planes shot down three battles border five halunarshanHalunarshan sixty miles ff border august 21 66 first week august japanese beginning getgotgeu des- perate reinforcements hurriedly deployed front composition reinforcements follows 23rd division part ath7th division whole manchurian mixed brigade koreans inner mongelsmongolsMongols manchuriansManchurians three hsinfanhsingan regiments three heavy artillery regi- ment entire antitankanti tank batteries ist infantry division 6707 time soviet forces far superior modern weaponry chart 2 august 20 russians opened tremendous drive ended defeat japanese forces august 31 68 according moses superb russian military stratestrategysy tactics including support su

64new york times july 14 1939 p 9 65 tanglivans OP cit p 397 66 new york T imestimes august 22 1991939 p 6 67 67testimonytestimony rippelrippeirimpei ogiseogisu IMFTE11 tuteTTTE cites moses 02op cit p 52 68according tokyo thatho japanese suffered 18000 casualties entire war russian casualties although unknown probably less dallin 22op cit p 39 55

CHART 2

comparison FORCES

Jjapanesepane e manchukuo sovietsovi et mongol infantry battalion 25 35 cavalry squadrons 17 20 light medium machine guns 1283 2255

guns 75 ranmmman above 135 266

guns 45 mm below 142 286 motors 60 40 tanks 120 498 armored cars data 346 attack planes 311 light bombers 181 heavy bombers 23 total planes 303 515

source N F kuzmankuisKuss nian na surazhesuraghenuraghe mltnogomirnogo truda 192119401921 1940 cited moses op cit p 53 56 periorperipecipedi armored vehicles air power instrumental defeat 69 1 japanese forces generallyCD verevorevocewore employing world war I tactics news shocking kwantungKwantung armyarmyo time japanese retreat late august soviet non agressionegression pact signed august 23rd moreover perhaps thought having face onslaught soviet offensive manchukuoManchu kuo became ever depressing however moscow truce signed september 15 togo molotov thus ending

monhan war following day perhaps welcomed news both sides japan soviet russia saw extending war advantage despite aggressionnonaggressionnon pact germany still apprehensive having fight two front war logistics same problem spite victory monhannomonhan japan too effect fighting two front war nomon han china logistics distance involved difficult task come learn soon japan realized blunder militaristsmilitarisms made humiliating defeat forces monhannomonhan convinced necessity negotiate signing truce conclusion monhannomonhan far mongelsmongols concerned dimmed hope mongolia mongolsmongelsMon gols ended image japan patron promoter mongol pan mongolismmongol ism japan able

recapture spirit greater mongolia14onlaonraon olia crushing defeat kwantung1twantungKwantung army 1945 ended japans dreamereamream greater mongolian state further extension japanese empire asian continent soviet russia monhannomonhan succeeded keepingweeping outer mongolia isolated

69 moses op cit p 59 57 divided chinese inner mongolia manchurian mongolia 70 moreover authors opinion monhannomonhan revealed outer mongolia way

11Hs insaningan longer pathway japanese expansion thus relegating kwantungKwantung army secondary position far future japanese strategy war concerned finally monhan made possible border demarcation settlement along outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border move japanese militaristsmilitarisms long delayed after preliminary meetings elsewhere mixed border demarcation met harbin october 1941 question boundary dispute settled 71 however ratification agreement took place moscow may 1942 72

7cioreovermoreover granting outer mongolia status independent state yalta agreement 1945 made ever impracticable hope pan mongol movement take place sovietzedsovietizedSoviet zed outer mongolia never condone 71in preliminary meetings august 1941 chita followingC leading hsinfanhsingan11singanC mongolC japanese officials present nobusadenobusadaNobu sade shimomura director political affairs bureau foreign office manchukuoManchukuo po yen man tu councillor hsinfanhsingan office later became governor east hsinfanhsingan11singan1 province manchoukuo year book1942book 19421942 Hs inking 1933 p 366 72 72rupenrupen 02op cit1citciccitacity p 266 CHAPTER IV

INTERNAL PROBLEMS RELATED MONGOL QUESTION

unlike previous experience under chinese even russian administration eastern mongelsmongols granted autonomy under modern foreign power japanese realized order extend japans influence power mongol regions inner outer mongolia collaboration facade mongol autonomy under beneficence advantage creation esinhsinhsinfanhsingan provinces office hsinfanhsingan affairs following february 1932 meeting banner leaders chen chiachiatungtung telteiteikatontelkatonTeiTel katonkacon calling mongol autonomy japanese established hsinfanhsingan bureau march 9 1932 1 hsingkingHsingking made responsible state council manchukuoManchu kuo government same year august 3 bureau renamed hsinfanhsingan general office change 0 name organization 2 takeover north manchuria 1932 japanese created hsinfanhsingan province named hsinfanhsingan rangedrange3rangecange eastern mongolia shortly thereafter subdivided north south east provinces 4

laokolmokomoko talkantaikanbalkan compiled zenrinkyokalzonrinkyokai chosabuchosaku tokyo raizralzkaizoshaxalzoshaKaiz osha 1938 p 241 21bid21 bid 0 awalter3walterkaiterwalter issigheissigbeissig derper mongolischeMongo lische culturalkulturalKul tural den hsinganprovinzen mandschukuos unpublished doctoraldissertationdoctoral dissertation der universitat wien 1941 p 1 4 F C jones manchuria since 1931 london royal institute in- terternationalnational affairs 1954 p 64 58 59

then invasion deholjehol 193319331 y japanese sought integrate heavily populated mongol region northern deholjehol within hsinfanhsingan periperimeterperlmeterpeclpeninetermeter therefore 1934 program reorganization northernnorthern deholjehol detached renamed west hsinfanhsingan province 5 generally eastern mongolia subdivided north hsinfanhsingan occupying barga region east hsinfanhsinganHs ingan nonninoiminormi valley south esinHsinhsinfanhsinganhsingantHs ingangantganygeny jerimgerim league vestwestgest hsinfanhsinganHs ingan jo oda league 6 short uncolonized mongol areas set apart constitute hsinfanhsingan provinces according beissigheissigheissigvissig borders these provinces did follow historical spreading mon golsbutgoisgols followed natural population borders dating 1932 1934 7 fact nominal parts mongol areas jerimgerim jo oda josatojosoto leagues stayed outside hsinfanhsingan11singan perimeter areas chinese population outnumbered mongelsmongols141ongols included however mongelsmongols chose remain interests protected local tofficesofftoff ices mongol affairs 8 although mongelsmongols given limited autonomy status province suggested japanese did intend mongolsmongels should enjoy selfseifitself determination fact time did japanese form independent mongol government jurisdictionally inkinghsinkingheinkingHs seat central government served mongol capital however hsinfanhsingan provinces given greater freedom internal affairs 9 chineseChi neset provinces spite japanese ran state

51bid9151 bid p 327 6heissigbeissigheissigissig op cit see owen Lattilattiraorelattimoreomoresmoreomoceoraoremmore mongelsmongols manchuria alienallenailenailon unwin 1934 p 142 7heissigbeissigheissigissig op cit 8 altimoreattimorelatfcimoreLattimore 02op citci t ppo 21 9 bidibid 60

affairs end 1934 hsinfanhsingan general office changed department mongolian affairs 10 jurisdiction extended banner areas outside confines regular mongol provinces hsinfanhsinganHs ingan 111 objectives change 1 improve administration mongelsmongols manchuria 2 improve develop cultural economic needs mongelsmongolsMongols 3 promote national harmony cooperation among mongelsmongolsMongols lz12 1937 part general reorgani rationalzationalzat ional program central government department mongolian affairs replaced office hsinfanhsingan affairs departments office theoretically directly responsible prime minister manchukuoManchukuo operated through office state council additional responsibilities new office concerning mongolian affairs

1 oversee management banner public finances 2 oversee management tax system 3 effect measures regard lamaist affairs reform 4 deal matters regarding nobility 5 facilitate better system control communication among various organs provincial government 1311

Proprovinciprovinceprovincialvinci al administrationadminis craticratl provincial government office highest local administrative organ each four hsinfanhsingan provinces level authority follows highest official course emperor manchu

10south manchurian railway sixth report progress manchuria 1939 tokyo herald press 1939 pn 3 11 mokomono taikantalkanbalkan op cit p 242 12 ibid 13 ibid 61 kuo directly below him authority premier chinese state council manchukuoManchu kuo through state council office hsinfanhsingan affairs supervised directed mongol affairs consequently jurisdiction hsinfanhsingan provinces administrator office hsinfanhsingan affairs member thestatethche stateeState council 14 mongol held title minister equivalent rank prestige rest ministers government manchukuoManchukuo like others too japanese advisoradvis ort 15t provincial gover- nor mongol likewise japanese advisor 16 equal rank vice governors non mongol provinces japanese advisor councillor theoretitheoretictheoreticallyoreti callyeallyeaily assisted governor matters concerning proprieties important matters provincial administration 17 1938 north hsinfanhsinganHs ingan south hsinfanhsinganHs ingan west hsinfanhsingan provinces operated three cho department seven ka bureau system departments police affairs civil administration general affairs seven bureaus special affairs education police industry local affairs accounting general affairs see chart 3

typical 11 heads11heads these bureaus mongelsmongols assisted respective japanese advisors thesethose bureaus though shown chart divided divisions subdivided 18 provincial officers appointed governor well government

14a T steele mongol border asia XVIXXVIX august 1936 p 495 15 ibid 16 david F aberle chahar damor mongol bureaucratic admini- trastrationtion 191219451912 1945 2r2n edod now haven HRAF 1962 p 92 17vokomoko zalkan op cit p 247 i 0 18aberle op cit 62

administrative STRUCTURE

HSINGAN PROVINCES

prime minister

office hsinfanhsingan affairs hsinanheinanhsinganHs inan provincial governor councillor

department department department police affairs civil adminis 1 general trationaration affairs

J bureau bureau bureau bureau bureau education police general affairs industry accounting affairs bureau special local affairs dereaubureaudeneau

agency police ProcuraProprocuratorfprocuratorsprocuratorycuratorstort prefectural B annerannen municipal torf bannerbannendannen managementvianavLana gement headquartersv1va carlcaviCari quarters office headquarterheadquarters pleadheadquartersquarters moko taikantaikanltaigan op cit p 272.7247 63

19 manchukuoManchukuo case east hsinfanhsingan province two cho six ka system used principal three bureaus civil administration minselMinseisel police affairs reirelhelmukelmukei mu general affairs komusonesoeysomusony east hsinfanhsingan province without services police affairs bureau prescribed others time civil administration bureau handling 7020 functions police affairs dureaubureauBlubyureau however police affairs bureau added later 2171 1941 mongol governors four hsinfanhsingan provinces po yen man tu east shou mingaming south ne la ko erh ch pu west eh lu chin pa tuh north province 2277

banner administration obvious reasons early period occupation japanese careful disrupt traditional banner system mongelsmongolsMongols during manchu dynasty banner basic political administrative unit verninggoverning authority hands of11the hereditary mongol nobility appointed functionariesfunctionaries 23 however

unlike mongelsmongols othrrothar hsinfanlsinganhsinganfi provinces dagoc mongelsmongols east hsinfanhsinganHs ingan nobility reason alternative

19 ibid 20 moko talktaiktaiwan op cit 212 aberle op cit 22 manchoukuo year book 1942 Hs inking manchoukuo year book 1942 p 164 director general affairs state council pa ta ma la pu tan 23 regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous relaelregionrecgllonhionbion compiled far eastern russian institute university washington seattle new hahavenven HRAF 1956 p 370 64

given aberle fealty danchusmanchusManchus dagorsdagons nobility received seven high ranks civil statuses patents nobility called siraakasiranka jangincangin inherited leader men received these titles transmitted them eldest sons process continued until end manchu empire stipend attached title 24 generally meritorious services dynasty granted pasture lands mongol banners moreoveroverlovery mongol banners wereancorporatedincorporated within manchu army 25 following fall dynasty 1911 banner sys 26 temterntermtemm loan degenerated oppression warlordswar lords unlike chinese japanese granted mongelsmongols manchuria rights privileges self government 272 7 next province banner important administrative unit during japanese occupation whole banner made 28apnp 1 area 2 inhabitants 3 power govern itself attempt change boundary reasons administration financefinances judicatory reasons decided imperial decree manchukuoManchukuo government 29 theoretically banner administrative judicial powers 30 banner headquarter responsible hsinfanhslnganhsingan provincial governor chief banner headquarters example equal

24aberlelaberle op cit pT 74 25manchoukuomanchoukuo year book 1942 02op cit p 153 ibid261bidIbibjdJd p 153 271bid21ibid p 382

28tokoloko taikTalktaikantalkzintaiganzinainaln op cit Dp 247 29tbid29ibid 301bidibid p 248 65 rank 31 ehe heads agencies curatorsProprocuratorsprocuratory office police headquarters 32 total oftwentytwenty nine banners manchuria twentyfivetwenty five them within hsinfanhsingan provinces

193219351932 1935 19 banners like provinces held measure power thereafter mongolsmongels began sense increased curtail nentment power 33 discussion banner administration author depend upon aberlesaberley brief study dagorbagor banner administration east hsinfanhsinganHs ingan gleaned mainly orgunge onon mongol informant 34 four banners east hsinfanhsingan province bayen aroon 35 litawamolitawaMo morin dawadadawaa botahaaBotahaa leader each these banners usually appointed provincial governor confirmed cen trai government tf36 since japanese anxious build mongol bureaucracy immediately necessary mongol start bottom order rise position banner leader however education basic criterion selection typical banner leader usually middle aged chinese educated although position carried prestige honour salary offered sufficient sustain

31 ibid p 247 32 manchoukuoylanchoukuo year boobook 194211942 op cit appp 155156155 156 33 aberle op cit p 93 Q 34 eaderreader cautioned what might true case east hsinfanhsingan province might same vestwestwesc north south mongol provinces however pattern administration generally similar 35 ibid 36 aberle 02op cit 66 man family banner leaders received formal training occasional indoctrination lectures given provincial meetings fj37 banner headquarters never removed upon re- ramag lease banner leader neither tamatamag 9 seal office ever retained him kept provincial headquarters level authority banner leader subjected whims japanese councillor although theoretically calling councillor presumably advise banner leader technically authority above latter restricted authority ban- nernor leader relationship advisor explained aberle japanese advisor veto action leader withholding own seal official papers advisor initiate independent action lines communication rigidly bureaucratic banner leader communicate province manchukuoManchu kuo govern- 38 ment 0 unlike attitude toward former chinese officials mongelsmongols regarded banner leader provincial governor due respect then too people obviously ease mongol officials chinese whom feared perhaps chief reasons caused dagorsdagons generally known being excessively docile lacking proper nationalist spirit

incite minor insurrection algainstagainst chinese during period 39 disorder imediatelymediatelyimmediatelyediaedlately prior japanese occupation adeaarealtareaavealt banner office like provincial level divided three bureaus general affairs civil affairs police affairs latter perhaps incorporated sometime 1938 apparently each

37aberle37aberle op cit p 93 38 38ibidibid appp 939493 94 39 ibid p 90go 67 these bureaus responsible respective offices chalan tun 40 provincial headquarters provincial level each these bureaus divided heads bureaus mongelsmongols nearly officials five banner offices staffed mongelsmongolsMongols general banner offices dealt matters concerning education public peace tax collection work levies banner offices hand assisting administration japanese sponsored edu- cationalcat ional system outlined mongelsmongolsMongols program part nationally financed 41 banner level police court level authority below notognonog okonsonons banner fiveve r105riosnotogs hotopnotopnotog refers territory within nomadic unit 5 pastures moves camps 42 notognonog leader chosen prominent citizens notas confirmed banner selection usually based local prestige office located hotopnotopnotog capital centrally situated larger village unit although nocor given considerable authority little lattilattitudetude action officially received orders above transmitted them lower elhelelhelonsechelonsons matters concerning draft registration collection taxes etc unofficially act spokesman villagers certain matters whenever japanese demands became too onerous next unit authority below notognonog macan nature gacadgacaa given aberle understand gacadgacaa must recall nature bagordagor settlements effective kinship administrative

40 manchoukuo year book 1942 op cit p 156 41 ibidtibid p 94 42 personal communication lattimore aberle aberle op liteltsiteitcitelt p 96 68

BANNER administration

banner

councillor

chief

bureau police bureau civil bureau affairs affairs general affairs

education taxation administraAdminis tra section tion section section

public special police accounting general peace affairs affairs section affairs section section section section moko taitalkanbalkanTaltalkanjranskanjmans 2opT cit p 249 69

unit bokonmokon give residential cluster appeared single village subareas often series bokonmokon set contiguous bokonmokon constituted gacadgacaa each subdivision constituted ayi particular village included unit part gacadgacaa 443 gacadgacaa ayi duties leader similar theal1 leader below him however extent differences clearly ascertained aberleaberlesaberley informant

axiPYayi1 leader invariably young man perhaps thirty appointed bv notognonogog leader unlike superiors received salary rank low much work expected him gacadgacaa many functions sylsyiayi leader

responsible 1 keeping census draft purposes 2 sending draft registrations papers notognonog 3 collecting taxes grain fur etc tax apportioned local national functions 4 controlling travel permits latter perhaps technique political control 44 moreover among above responsibilities syiayi leader levied labor railroad work supervised confiscation certain types arms 45 distributed rationed goods enrolled children school etc spite many functions eziexllylayi leader neither office space nor seal however call village meeting communicate notognonog under certain conditions banner logging principal industry came under japanese control goods subject rationing war time conditions aillsayllsayi

43 ibid p 97 44 ibid POp 98 45 since hunting livelihood many dagorsdagons people onos area permitted retain guns 70 responsibility increased commensurately under conditions Mayi1 leader perhaps transmit japanese demands people dared protest least considered antiandiandl japanese 46 lamaismlama ism before delving japanese attempts fostering pan buddhism necessary note briefly historical background lamaism relationship tibet manchu dynasty chinese republic soviet russia context japanese attempted pan buddhist movement unlike japanese notmanchunoc manchu nor chinese nor russian policy further cause lamaism among mongelsmongolsMongols japanese context useful japanese purposes promote pan buddhism movement conform japanese imperialism lamaism first introduced mongolia urga during sixteenth century tibet mecca lamaism perhaps reason charles bell prefers call lamaism mongoliasmongollasmongolianMongoliasgollas fltibetanfltibetan buddhismBuddhIsTWI mongol buddhism asserts mongelsmongolsMongols like tibetansTibetans probably resent use termt1term lamaism implying reli 47 gion buddhism study however shall use term lamaism reference tibetan buddhism mongol buddhism seventeenth century danchusmanchus considered mongelsmongols allies joint conquest china aware great

46 ibid pop 99 7 47 charles bell struggle mongolia reprint journal royal central asian society XXIV january 1937 p 51 71 ness yuan dynasty under mongelsmongolsMon gols therefore restrict possibility rise mongol power danchusmanchus supported power great lamas against princes order split mongelsmongols 11488 factions 0 like danchusmanchusManchus chinese russian actions toward lamaism exploitation during republic chinese officials collusion lamaist monasteries exploited ballandstritrltriballandstribal lands just princes frequently sacrifice interests special privileges fixed revenues monasteries preserve corporate existence privileges hierarchy tend show influence side chinese theland passes under chinese administration 49 outer mongolia monasteries since beginning soviet takeover 1921 subjected severe soviet oppression restrictions lamaism institution de popularized divested power social political economic force 50 early 1930s soviet political purges destruction monasteries forced collectivization hundreds mongol refugees including religious political leaders fled eastern mongolia inner mongolia 51 1935 thirteenth dalai lama made following statement present time five kinds degenera- tion countries worst class manner

workingCD among red communist people do allow search made new incarnation grand lama urga seized taken away sacred ob

48ftlattimore inner mongolia chinese japanese mongol pacific affairs X march 1937 65 49lattimore manchuria cradle conflict new york macmillan 1932 p 127 50 gerard M friters outer monrmoncmongolia7 olla international positpositionionlon baltimore johns hopkins 1949 appp 299301299 301 51 robert rupen mongelsmongolsmon olsois twentieth century part I1 bloomington indiana university press 1964 appp 227228227 228 72

jectsejects che monasteries made monks work soldiers broken religion even name remains 52 therefore soviet well chinese blunder invitation japanese militaristsmilitarisms implement positive approach mongolian rereligiousI1 I1 gi ous questionques ti japanese idea pan buddhism did begin occupation eastern mongolia during russo japanesewarjapanese varwar 1904051904 05 japanese associated lamas monasteries war bhe japanese invited thirty high lamas dignitaries japan discuss priests hlgashihonghigashi hongwanjibanjiwanji buddhist leaders concerning ques tion pan buddhism 53 since lamaist buddhism japanese buddhism mahanayanaMahanayana school compatibility areas possible hoped 1918 attendance seventeen lamas buddhist association mongolia japan hichichiMonichimichicomichimoMi mo Bukkbukkyokaibuklcyokaizokalyokai organized then 1919 association changed buddhist association asia founding mukden agency promotion education between japanese mongol students 54 190219211902 1921 kudo tetsusaburoTetsusaburo ventured far chinghaiChinghalghaighaly western inner mongolia audience living buddha labrang monastery objective collect funds purpose financing troops restoring world days ching manchu dynastydynasty55553 during 1930s 1940s japan considered communism menace

52 ibid quoted 53 reglregiregionalal handbook inner mongolia autonomous regloregioregion 02 cit p 288 54ibid 55ibidtibid appp 288289288 289 73

imperialistic aims therefore Lamaislamaismmt properly exploited aid japanese combating communism ideologically during advance inner mongolia 1937 japanese spread propaganda renaissance buddhism tried organize actively na- tionalistictionalistic church including declaration holy war against communism 11565 1930s1930ts japanese terms reform took steps solve religious question lamaism education important facet japajapanesenesenose imperialistic policy geared 1 raise standard lamaist clergy respectable leveltlevellevei even risk relegating thou- sands monksmonths status laymen 2 eradicate lamaism shamanistic elements 3 perfect lamaism efficient corporate structure 4 effecteffectseffecta harmony ethics philosophy between lamaist buddhism japanese buddhism 57 however attempt reform lamaist religion eastern mongolia simple since seventeenth century custom having young boys join celibate priesthood attributed removal 50 male population reproduction 58 alsotalsosaiso promiscuousness among lower 59 monks especially spread syphilis became scourge 50 during japanese occupation medical relief parties time time sent 60 mongolianNonmongolian areas assist controlling epidemic doctors make

5upentdupentrugenrupen pj02 cit P 227 571bide571ibidbidebida ppo 228 58beissigheissigissig p 59 59 59ibidibid see lattimore inneririnnerifinner mongolia chinese japanese monmongolol sodjopsop cit 65 lamas never worry vow celi- bacy want women frequently find them many places worst agencies spreading syphilis serious factor low mongol birth rate high rateofrathofrate child mortality 60 anchoukuoanchou1janchoukuokuo year book 1942 opOT cit p 686 74

61 shift hospitals assisted treating mongol patients depopulation decline traditional mongol aggressiveness generally attributed these factors years many abuses corruption shamanistic practices within lamaist institution made unpopular especially among princes young intellectuals desired reform religion shiro yoda 1936 vice minister mongolian administration having jurisdiction mongelsmongols manchukuoManchukuo indicated superstitious political nonreligiousnon religious elements monasteries devitalized mongolian people time interview T steele yoda explained japanese attempt purify vital- iseize lamaistLamaisfc institution limited number mongolsmongels permitted enter priesthood those do required maintain high standards learning line purification process sent ten mongol lamas japan where studying japanese buddhism churches lamaistic 62 trend others follow them 0 reform lamaist religion eastern mongolia difficult 63AI task 1936 example verewore 17876 monks 283 monasteries since each family contributed two boys monkhood moreover since people tere bound lamaist religion consolidated effort implement reform futile reason among others may 22 1938 department welfare hsingkingHsing11singkingking called meeting japanese buddhist representatives manchoukuo lama priests 64 counsel advice ft result buddhist national union organized included lama priesthood four hsinfanhsingan11singan provinces

61 ileissiglleissigfleissigllelietletieIle issig op cit p 65 62mej steele 02op cit p 496 beissig63heissigheissigissig cmop cittctaitt p 80 64ibid 75

augustauvustwust 1630915301516 30930 1938 seventy young lamaist monks sent Hs inking indoctrination later sent japan same 65 purpose earlier 1934 japanese already sent thirty young manchurian mongol lamas japan two year course study perhaps indoctrination suitable term 1936 seven vere

sent these monimonks those inner mongolia11ronvon olia between ages twenty 66 thirty according japanese intelligence reports young men 67 age group selected favored reform thus acceptable japanese under program indoctrination expenses thochebhebho students paid japanese government aq&q salary given them 68 1939 exchange progprogramramyramg fifty japanese 69 buddhist scholars sent monasteries remote mongolian areas another japanese objective bring lamaist liturgy closer japanese buddhist liturgy prior march 1939 japanese militaristsmilitarisms unlike mongol laymen made serious attempt conscript lama monicsmonies military service during confrontation soviet outer mongol 1935- 1936 plans invasion outer mongolia 1939 japanese

militaristsmilitarisms might often though draw monasteries potenipoteni tiai manpowerman power available dilemma whether take action found lamaist beliefs four hsinfanhsingan11singan provinces possible exception those tungusic tribes northern part gan

651bid65 ibid 66 bell op cit p 58 67 paul V hyer lamaist buddhism japanese policy mongolia unpublished M thesis university california 1953 p 68 deildelibell op cit 69reissigissig op cit p 81 76 river killing animals even insects taboo 70 reason shamanistic beliefs japanese hesitant call conscription lamaist clergy result conscription until march 1 1939 official agreement reached february meeting between representatives manchukuoManchukuo government living buddha including ten subordinates representing lamas according japaneseJapaneset agreed lamas re- pented attitude evading conscription done here- tofore evil doctrine custom l71177171 primary objective japanese pan buddhism promote education lamaist clereierelecclergycy particularly young therefore

Igovernment1 I1 sponsorship lamaist students japan trek japanese scholars monasteries eastern mongolia inner mongolia 1 teach promote reform 2 set ground work lamaist national church whose doctrines bo purified conform much possible japanese buddhist theology rut program hampered japanese attempt simultaneously secularize many lamas 71 moreover japanese pan lelonyelonmongolgoigol movement japanese defeat monhan 1939 decisive defeat 1945 kwantungKwan tung army ended japanese dream successfully exploiting buddhism even though many

monks might resentment japanese attempts purify religion subject them military conscription them especiaspeci ally higher hierarchy regarded japanese protectors lamaism 73

70 beissigheissigissig 02op cit appp 798079 80 71 lyerayer1 yf1yer OP cit p 88 72 regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous region op eltgitsit p 274 73 73ruponRuponrupen op citcit91 p 228 77 education japanese militaristsmilitarisms promoted secular education order imclementplementimplement japanese imperialistic aimsalms japanese attempts re educate lamaist monks respect religion step direction hoping develop mongol military talent japanese established ithe hsinfanrsinganhsingan military academy wangyehmiao july 1934 74 cap- able mongol leaders recruited trained military discipline arts 75 backbone army graduates later serve mongolian corps manchukuoManchukuo army 76 effort educate mongelsmongols order raise socio- economic status expressed shiro yoda mongolian administration department inkinghsinkingheinkingHs 1936 iletle trying convert mongelsmongols nomadic settled way life 6 making old feudal system government ruling princes being replaced qualified young magistrates princes prove themselves unfit hold office under manchoukuosmanchoukuots stringent civil requirements 77 1936 314 schools hsinfanhsingan provinces mo- ngolianolian established taught official language accordance japanese tradition strict attendance enforced 7078 lamas trained japan literate elders wore selected teachers edu 79 cation mongol pupils

74rapenupen op cit p 227 manchoukuo year book 1942 op cit pop 3383380 75 moko taikantalkanbalkanI1 02op cit p 267 761bidibid 77 77steelesteele 02op cit p 496 78aaft7ft regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous region op litciteideld p 275 79ibid 78

following japanese source shows number mongol school children primary schools each hsinfanhsingan provinces 1938 west hsinfanhsinganHs ingan 114341 south hsinfanhsingannslnglanHs ingan 30312 east hsinfanhsinganllsinganHs insaningan 4735 80 north hsinfanhsinganHs ingan 4891 normal schools established south hsinfanhsingan east hsinfanhsinganHs ingan agriculture schools 81pi provinces 1941 sanesame year south hsinfanhsingan girls higher national school established likewise provinces except north hsinfanhsinganlisilsinganIls ingan boys vocational school south hsinfanhsingan11singan girls vocational school founded 82 what do above figures indicate mongolsmongels first time opportunity mass education though extensive freely given boast chinese republic never made lifted fron illiteracy given opportunity education mongol11 pupils according yoda quoting steele inter 83OQ viewer taken education vim enthusiastic reaction similarly noted haslund lads dressed sort cadet uniform faces convince myself really mongelsmongols soon lesson hlungflung themselves upon me stream eager11 questions similarly interview bulyatburyat mongol officer hailar 1935 charles bell quotes officers favorable comment our condition under japan splendid hitherto our people lain darkness now foot

8 0manchoukuomanchoukuo year book 1942 op citjcitcitacity ppo 655 kiblekibldibid p 659 821bid821bidibid p 660 3301 steele 02op cit p 496 84quoted regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous region op citcitojcigoj p 275 79

staircase beginning climb proper schools established learn taught first read write our own language well arithmetic etc then those clever taught japanese manchouganchou language well chinese english 85 early phase japanese occupation definite problem japanese bureaucrats find educated mongelsmongols fill national provincial posts among educated though few number those east south hsinhsinfanhsingan Droprovincevince north west hsinfanhsingan provinces problem illiteracy acute since chinese edu- cationalcat ional system inadequate therefore beginning chinese scribes employed work official documents east

Hsinhsintanhsinfanhsingantanlan province administrative posts wereheldheld 86 educated dagorbagordag 11fontonllonilonllongolszolszoisgolsolsois few by low ranking chinese officials until 1941 civil service mongol officials apparently begun 87 however under japanese educational system mongelsmongols hada 00 range opportunities opened unknown since 1911 88 result effective establishment schools 1932 1945 many trained younyoung men well older men job opportunities seen

1 1 japanese sponsoredsponsoreciocloci inner mongolian1 lontongolian autonomous government especially among ambitious ones went japan receive university training impact japanese sponsoredsponsorec education without doubt disrupted traditional mongol society same time gave young mongolsmongels new hope success

85bellbell op cit p 58 86 aberle op cit p 929392 93 0787 ibid p 92 88tbidibid p 100 80

spite japanese imperialistic ambitions important con- tributributivetive factor helping japanese relations educational policy mongol people perhaps too mongelsmongols understood clearly depredations former undisciplined chinese masters contrasted somewhat policies japanese concordia association following successful overthrow oftheodtheche manchu dynasty 1911 new chinese republic inaugurated five striped flag symbolizing union five races mongelsmongolsmongolstMonMongolstoistbolsgols manchusjanchusManmanchusschusschus tibetansTibe tans moslems chi tqaq nese 89 howeverhovHowevert chinese nationalist party during peak power 192719311927 1931 discarded five barred flag symbolizing union racettracestraces undertook impose chinese standards mongelsmongolsmongolstMonMongolstoistgolsgois tibetansTibe tans moslems under control within reach propaganda intention transforming them alltallsalisali whether liked chinese speaking chinese thinking chinese 090 again profiting chinese lack insight japanese masterroaster planned concordia association aptjptjp kyowakaiKyowakai ch kung ho hulhuihut 1932 symbolizing same chinese aim 1911 overall objective integrate harmony five races chinesetChichineseneset danchusmanchusManchus mongelsmongolsMongols japanese koreans gain loyalty races principles yangtaowangtao kodo relation manchukuoManchukuo japan respectively 91 special arm government manchukuoManchukuo concordia association actively reorganized 1936 naoki roshHoshhoshinoinotinos following

89 lattimore monglsmongolsmonges manchuria 020op citppcitecitocitooppeoppaoppe loo1001011001001010loiloielole1010101 901bid901goiibidbid p 103 91 manchoukuo year book 1942 op cit p 759 81

japanese german anti comintern pact year then 92 director general general affairs board manchukuoManchu kuo nature organization explained charles spinks single state controlled political party state employees must belong party members wear military like uniform salute each drill generally carry fashion nazi party 933 besides alminaaidingaldingaimingad4d create racialracialharmonyhardonyharmony amongC races through colcorconcor dia association kwantungKwantung army sought maintain political party rather several concordia association body strives in- vest powers political parties parliamentary gov- ernernmentsments attack administrative politics government 94 then almaimeimelm concordia association bring racial groups harmony political policy central government concordia association nearly segments population persuaded join 95nf located capital city

Hs11 inkingsinking affiliated headquarters found each hsien prefecture district banner equivalent chinese hsien city 96

92 charies92charlescharles nelson spinks man behind I1 n japan asia americasamerlameriamori cascag XLIII april 1943 p 218 capacity hoshino poli tico economic boss state superior being commander kwantungKwan tung arnyarmy 930 ibid11111111.ylli appp 218219218 219 john stewart gives impression use uniform those join arc entitled wear uniform great many do result manchuria swarms people military uniform just ordinary khaki distinguishing11 stinrsteinr ui shin marks buttons gives impression people newly comecomo place overrun soldiers overrun people find concordia association uniform much cheaper ordinary chinese clothes doesdocs way distindistinguishulsh them fellows extremely econ- omical saves ood dealdeaioealclealcleai time 11 see john stewart manchuria 1 logaytodayloday2 intelinternationalnational affairs XX january 1944 70 94 N anchoukuoanchoukuo year sooksoohbookdookjooktl 1942 02op cit p 763 95johnjohn stewart manchuria1114anchuria today international affairs 02op cit 961nianchoukuomanchoukuo yearyoaccar dook 194211942 op cit p 759 82

among tht e concordia Associationassociationsts various educational functions important youth tralnintraynintraining program 1942 seventy yoyouthuth training schools 7000 graduates according japanese 97 limit training instruction purpose given ffollows these schools students during period three months live under guidance teachers sent central headquarters receive roupscoupgroup spiritual military trainingC well academic instruction may develop useful citizens OP70 another youth program training camps established 1937 since then prior 1942 total fifty training camps organized 30000 completing program 997 object program graduates these camps return towns villages civic leadersloaders nightmight promote aimsalms concordia association loo100 example japanese effort among mongelsmongols experience masanorimasamori aradahatadaharadaII japanese civilian manchuria brief assignment eiteltwitwiththewitlithelithe concordia association central headquarters

Hsli inkingsinking september 16 1931939 laradalaradeI1 laradvaaeraaeva informed december 20

newnow assignment lintunlincundinLinlinhungtunhunhungtungy west Hsai1i siningantyancyan remote region near inner mongolian border uhen arrived Linlintunglindungtung verevecevocewore thirty japanese later hundred youth training center vicinity banner headquarters called naga- matsu head administrator following day reported con

971bidibid p 759 98 ibid 99 ibid p 764 loo100 manchoulroVl anchou 0 o year bookook p 76476 83 cordia association banner headquarters replaced general ishihara 101 transferred csinkhsinkKs inkingY loi haradaHaradasradesnades triTrlprimarymary responsibility organize youth training program young mongelsmongolsMongols well chinese koreans area helped train fifty yotyoungyox nr men them mongelsmongolsMongols Ha radas assignment organize youth groups taught how raise level food production eeliveilwell how purge villages criminal elements besides work youth training program harada took time between trainintraining sessions travel outlying villages help organize youth groups methods irrigation raising crops planting trees 102 despite imperialistic aims cordiasconcordialconcordiasCon proprogramgramt monaolsmongelsmongols saw tangibletanc ibleibie efforts foreign power striving better standard living even risk disrupting traditional way life 1941 however exigencies war disrupted whatever further progress japanese i made experimentation better mlonrolsfmongolsmongelsMongolsgois lot economy industry during occupation japanese 1930s1930ts economy

longolsLon11ongolseonmon solssoisgols manchuria basically pastoral semipastoralsemi pastoral pastoral steppe economy common livelihood those mongol tribes lived vast steppestoope land barga region these barga mongelsmongolsMongols nixedmixed group burcatsburyatsBuryats dadagorsdagonsors well eastern western mongelsmongols mainly nomadic herdersgerders lived very aichalchmichmuch like forefathers

101 7 loi 171 111 masanoriasanormor laredakaredaharada eagawagaaa kanmorannomanno nikki1711 71 ki tokyo FrinanselshaxinkinseishaKinAnseishaelshaseisha 1962 p 61 1021bid1021bieblebidibid np 62 848 raisindalsinraising breebreedincbreedingdinc cattle sheepsheepy horses cows camels 1 03 livelihood 103 importance steppe nomadic life 1ionaolsmongelsmongols shown follows sheep provide meat milk skins wool steppes deserts camelscanellscanelas hair used clothing combined wool nakomakemabemabomaho felt burtsyurts monmongolol dwellings mares milk important part 0 F 1mongol diet fer- mented used makemahe arakalarakhl mild alcoholic beverage distilled1 potent forms horse essential 11mongelsmongolsMonlonkongoisgolsolsois ilfelife herd animals hunt fight go anywhere illlif longest shortest distance mongol111ongol rides horseback horse gave Iiongolsmongelsmongols mobility necessary pastoral nomad life made possible military calvary units organized these horsemen steppe wealth power mongol society estimated size animal herds es- peciallypeci ally number horses much greater economic military use required loraloda1011 hand bagordagor mongelsmongolsllonlgols nonni river area east great 111hsinfanhsingan1singan1 mountains semipastoralsemi pastoral economy based farming supplemented logging hunting herding small amount fishing 105

since beginning twentieth century I1 discussed earlier destructive effects chinese colonization railway con- structionst affected adversely mongolI economy particularly steppe nomadic area norther boholjohol besides encroachinlencroaching upon mongelsmongolsMongols self sufficiency chinese trictriedcried force mongelsmonpolsmongols becomebacome farmers 06uo lattimoreLatti moro assertsassorts chinese farmers tradition

103 rejRefreflonalreflogalregionallonalionallonai handbook inner monmongoliaoliaoltaoita autonomous resireslreziregion0 opOT cit PT ioslos10110 32 ioaloa10410 franz II11 Yllnichaelmichaelchael aneano george E taylor far east modern orldoridtatorld mowmewnowcw york henry holt 1956 appp 575857 58

loo105 1 1 reregionallo10na 1 Jhandbookandibandia 0 ol01 ehe1lneaheinq1he inner mongolia autonomous region op cit9citcita p 10 106log chariescharlos106charlescharles buss tho far tasteastpastE new york macmillan 1955 p 473 8535 aptitude livestock raising 107 typify unwise chinese exploitation mongol14ongol lands lattimore relates first rate pasture land sloughedploughedploughed under crops exhausted within few years blowing away top soilsoll unproductive either farming rqaq pasture 103i although first japanese promised mongelsmongols lands protected future chinese colonization japanese themselves soon infringe upon self sufficiency mongelsmongolsMongols T japanese saw possibilities increasing improving breeds mongolian livestock therefore made ambititious plans them kwantungKwantung arnyarmy especially interested procuring ample supply good horses mules military purposes 109log however japanese sanesame time realizing livestock source wealth did neglect provide mongelsmongols assistance pastoral industry means improving flocks herds iloiio110 tongolmongol areas barga region west hsinfanhsingan province provided mongolianlonTongolian cattle holunbierholunblerHolunblerbier district chief supplier horses accordinaccordiaaccording manchoukuo year book 1942 1800000 horses Mlanmanchuriachuriachurla included those non mongol areas too number substantial comcomparedared 1448481 horses raised japan thich little half size manchuria lililiIII111 number goatsoats raised manchuriainnanchuria leading province deholjehol fol

107 lattimore 111ongolsmongelsmongols manchuriaManchurlachuria 02op cit p 22 ioblob100 ibiblciI1 e 109tont109log 0jonesTOnt op cit p 18 iloiio110

liimianchoukuovanchoukuo year book 1942 02op cit pT 452 86

I1 1 ovedowed west hsihsinanhainanngan province4 orthnorthnorehocth alidano hestvest170 t bisinbasinhsinfanhsingang pprovincesrov nc w r chief producers camel less scale south nsinganhslngan deholjehol provinces however 12800 camels number

ne moopoo Igradually1 radually decreasing soaesone 19659001965 900 head sheep chiefly raised four hsinfanhsingan provinces 112119 since wool mongolian sheep inferior quality japanese made attempts improve breed

experimenting imported 11merino corriedale superior strains 113 object sufficiently supply japanese woolen industry mongolianoti iol wool instead australian apparently venture proved chimericalchimeri calicall ilg114 hith introduction brodermrodermodernn scientific methods including work veterinary institutes combat animal diseasesdeseasesdes eases experimental work sheep farms 514714iionolongoiongos pastoralistspastora lists received benefit

I1 endeavors however1lovevervaverwever teach new improved techniques people accustomed conservative time proven methods easy task tynis tact persuasion necessary tact patiencetience wardistowards peoples whom position dominate qualities chicwhic few japanese apt exhibit 115 forested area east IITssinaningan japanese interest procurement woodbooctooc deecneecneecedneededcd especially railway ties telephone telegraphic poles did henderbendergenderongenderengenderen favornblfnvornbq1 daordzitordzigor jajapanesepanes e relations daorsdagorsdagons diddiodloelidolid prolprotproduceliccalicc surplus foor depended sale furs lorestforest products t1ta livelihood eith incursion japanese

112bidl1121I1 bid 11311 11lanchojanchochoir ttotiouo year 1500do ok 1942 OT cit p 45555 jones cit9citcita tp 67067 15 ibid1 b i d 8737 lozlogloggingins enterprises losinglogging became dominant economic factor sustenance ilg116

corporation boodjoodwood procurement head office Hs11 inkingsinking controlled wood cutting wood prices through banner procedure result losslosinglogg intiny enterprise administered banner office experience aberlesaberley mongol informant follows

go ury order loggingQ Z 171131 necessary Cget license banner inform corporation how many people 0goingolnoin nartiparticularcular lologging0cac inf party leader party then recereceivedivelivolivos noneymoneymoncy least important clothes matcmatchesmajc 1 es cicigarettesirettes hard getgot war- time toolsattool sat low regulated price logs once cutcuc brought dodonddomndonndownnn river raft counted corporationCorDoration office then taltastakenbakenbaheniconloenloon tsitsihartsitsilharTsitsihar two months iaterlater payment governmentally regulated rate given loginlologgingg party led individual family means transoorttranstransportdortoort fecifeelfeed tiletiie1 workers7 during lologging10 ng season profits wont alflaifhalf1 tic organizeranizeragnizer andhalf loggers official rate paynayay logsC low compared vithW L i black market rate tleliareelicrearoqro always black ma- keting117rketing 117 exploitation possible mineral deposits sig nigicant japanese accomplishment although japanese plan called possible development resources reported john stewart tin118IIPtip 1940 lib doubtfulcoubtfful hechezheadwayrid1w ty made

notwithstandinnotwithstanding exploitationel mongol livestock logging industry further own ends japanese unlike chinese tried

make compensation mongol111on1 ol losses lands example achieve permanent settlement tinctine veringveningvexingve ing conflicts land between chinese mongelsmongolsylongolsMongoisgols Japajapanesenesonoso evacuated dagorsdagons east batahabatada east nonnikonni river west however dolndoindoing japanese

ilg116 aberle enaop cit P0 95 amslmsl 11ito110131 ll john R steartstcartstclStcart7artaart manchoukuo announces lionilontionmongolol program far Z eastern surveyy IX1.1 february 28 1940 5605 60 88 compensated them loss lands 119 another example 194011940 f-riction between mongolsmongels chinese special mongolmon ol areas deholjehol anclanci chine h ow moreover rapid influx chinese settlers due railway construction expansion coal mining made necessary japaneseTa danesepanese liquidate mongolsmongelsimiongols lands began 120 januaryT 1 1940 japanesejavanese plans compensate mongelsmongols com- mented john stewart

where pressure 1orionmongolsmongelsbor oisols resulted opening land public use 15 mongolmion ol princes eight bantbarkbankbannersbarknersbarknessnetsners receive bonds annual sub- sidisidies1leslossos compensation loss privileges report already paid 1160000001 receive additional m2480000m294301100 121 sum notwithstanding japanese efforts compensate mongol losses improve economyeconomyl2222 anti japanese sentiment gradually rose japanese economic demands became firmer 123 however never i f f seemed grown serious proportion 124

ilgII11 Q aberle op cit pep 90 120 stewart manchoukuoivianchoulcuo announces mongol procprogramyram op cit 59- 60 121 121bid1 bid p 60 122 ibiotajtbj 1 12 aberle3aberlegaberleabcrle 0 cit p 109 ir 12 jones 00ooop cit p 60 CHAPTER V

SUMMARYSUMIMARY conclusion

order reader better understand mongol question during japanese period 193119451931 1945 author showed historical precedents infinfluencediuenluenluencenluencedced japanese expansion asian continent recounted following russo japanese war 1904- 1905 ambitious buddhist priests militant cherennicherenNi sect made contacts eastern western mongolsmongels toward pan buddhist idea fall manchu dynasty 1911 self determination became obsession eastern western outer mongol nationalist leaders taking advantage situation russian chinese suppression mongol autonomous aspirations japanese through semenov atteattemptedmoted establish pan mongolian state 1919 however movement unsuccessful mainly nonsupportnon support kolchaskonchaskolchakskoiKol chaschaks white russian regime urga government jebtsundamba khutukhtu 1920s1920 unwise russian chinese policies alienated mongelsmongolsMon gols religious political purges forced collectivization forth outer mongolia111ongolia under soviet rule led number refugees flee inner eastern mongolia chinese aggrandizement mongol lands economy system innermlongoliainner mongolia furthered mongol animosity against chinese result mongolian desire autonomy became intensified courselcourseycourse rebellious course never ever tolerated either 89 90

russians chinese until 1932 following manchurian incident mongol aspirations seriouslyitseriously considered japanese realized formation fl autonomousautonomously mongol region eastern mongolia advantage therefore 1932 japanese created hsinfanhsingan province eastern mongolia later subdivided north hsinhsinfanhsinganHs insaningan south hsinfanhsinganHs ingan west hsinfanhsinganHs ingan east hsinfanhsingan provinces governors these provinces appointed manchukuoManchu kuo gov- ernernmentment theoretically responsible emperor through office hsinfanhsingan affairs government manchukuoManchu kuo office hsinfanhsingan affairs headed11headee mongol directed mongol affairs hsinfanhsingan provinces mongol banners outside jurisdiction provinces office served liaison between hsinfanhsingan11singan provinces central government key positions central provincial banner governments mongol heads advised japanese councillor actual administration hands latter early period japanese occupation eastern mongolia JajapaneseDanese careful nakemake drastic changes traditional mongolmon oiloli001011oll society voldvoidavoidavold losing support mongelsmongolsmlongolsMonMlongmaongaoisgoisgolsolsois japanese permitted limlimitediteIleeileel autonomy manchu dynasty traditionally done whole japanese success bagor mongelsmongols nonni river vaileyvalley those barga region former eceere educated reasonsteasonreason bhet1talie japanese depended latter rulifullruilfiill administrative posts thoehe nc 71yly created mongol provinces sisignificancenificance che J establishment manchukuoManchu kuo

republic 1932 constitutiolconstitutionconst titionaitionti tion n1 l monarchy 1934 solicit

7 support 01L eastern Yaongmongelsmongolsyaongolsolsois whose traditional allegiance man 91 chu emperors known ideologically japanese patterned political philosophy central governiriqntgovernrment conform concepts waniyangtaowangtaovitao kodo advocated tradition loyalty emperor stumbling blocks japanese promotion pan mongolismmongol ism soviet russia formidable power china weak nevertheless threat although sovetsoviet russia forced retreat sphere influence north mianchurmanchuria military drive kwantungKwantung army early 1930s determined relin- quish preeminentpre eminent position outer mongolia far soviet russia

concerned cuterouter mongolia111on goilagolia buffer protect eastern frontier japanese attack serve buffer against towingrowinggrowing nationalism china 11oreovermoreover communized outer mongolia base operations soviets future make power influence feltfeitfoil northeast asia far japanese wore concerned eastern mongolia base operations basically important politically militarily japanese agents penetrate inner mongolia outer mongolia creation hsinfanhsingan mongol cavalry 1932 establishment

hsinfanhsingan mongol academy 1934 suPsurestsupestivesuc CY estiveve future expansion 1936 hailar key military base mindful japanese military buildupbuild soviet russia too mobilized soviet mongol forces expanded combat readiness outer mongol air force

probing enemy defenses along17 outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border early 1930s japanese soon faced soviet outer mongol borderhorder patrols lnuinolnumerousrouswous ninonminor skirmishes between japanese hsinfanhsingan mongol soviet cuter mongol troops along outer mongolia border common occurrence 1935 conference held menchManchmanchulimanchlullManlullquilqulichulichull border 92 town eastern mongolia settle dispute question border demarcation since japanese russians differed objectives

conference ended abortively duringC conference hsinfanhsinganC mongol delegates puppets tho japanese outer mongol delegates russians few months matchullmanchullmanchulinanManchulichull conference kwantungKwan tung army ar-

1 rested prominent fingansinganhsingan1 mongol high officials alleged charges conspiracy turn barga region russians noted although full details execution iga19119366 mongolian governor ling sheng compatriots cannot ascertained time indications ling sheng framed result incident commentators speculated possibility soon stir anti japanese movement alalthough mounting anti japanese feeling defeat japanese monhannomonhannoroonhan did result insurrections

unlieunileunlike retreating11 defensive attitude early middle 1930101301s soviet policy 1939 counteroffensivecounter offensive battle

monhannomonhannnomonhanNNo year superior soviet strategy tactics modern weaponry overwhelmed japanese forces moreover soviet german aggressionnonaggressionnon pact 1939 peak soviet offensive nomon han shocked japanese thereafter japan position pro- voke USSR russianstusZus siansslans although overjoyed defeat japanese datedaredarodazo continue offensive possibility having fight teotwo frontfronc war europe asia great distance moscow eastern asia serious logistic probproblemlern russians besides stalin concerned consolidating power within russia 1939 until surrender japanese 93 forces 1945 general condition along outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border stalemate 1937 emergence autonomous government kengchiangmengchiangmengehlanoMengchiang inner mongolia indicative furthering japanese expansion western Imongolia these objectives 1 propagandize mongol ideal

1 pan monmongololismholismism 2 use lengehiangkengchiangmengchiangMengneng1yaylengehiangchiang base future japanese expansion outer mongoliabiorlonionior yoli

essentially 71asterneastern inner mongelsmongols111ongols1 merely puppets japanese policy without doubt ongolsmongolsmongoldgoisgols resented realized real power hands japanese however mongelsmongolsMongols noted earlier did instigate concerted anti japanese demonstrations rebellions during defeat japanese monhannomonhan

C1 army n 1939 even before annihilation kwantungKwantungI 1945 although japanese rule became increasingly demanding harsh exigencies war made japanese control restrictions apparent mon gols general felt better off under japanese rule under chinese rule likely felt under soviet regime japanese attempt modernize traditional mongol society intended aid japanese program expansion terms exploiting mongolmon ol questionqueston extend japans hegemony asian continent attempt ended miserable failure however conclusion author modemmodern foreign power given

taken less monvlsmonvlemongelsmongols 0toran7nranjnrsnjaranmoran mongelsmongols manchuria during japanese period bibliography books regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous regloregion compiled far eastern russian institute university washington seattle new haven HRAF 1956 regional handbook northeast china compiled farferfecpar eastern russian institute university washington seattle new haven hrafjhranjHRAF 1956 aberle david F chahar dapordagorbagor mongol bureaucratic administrationadinini strati 191219451912 19451945.1945 2nd ed new haven HRAF 1962 ackerman edward others japans prospect preface carl J friedrick cambridge harvard university press 1946 azizlazielaziz M japans colonialism indonesia under direction netherlands institute international affairs hague martimartinusMartlmarci nus niehoffn1jhofnijhofff 0 1955 beasley william G modern history japan new york praeger 1963 bisson T japan china new york macmillan 1938 borg dorothy unitedstatesUnitedunited states far eastern crisis 19331938 cambridge harvard university press 1964 borton hugh japantsjacapantspan modern centurycen tury newnow york ronald press company 1955 buss claude far east new york macmillan 1955 war diplomacy eastern asia new york macmillan 1941 cameron meribethmeriMerl bethbech others foreword kenneth latourette china luanduanguanjadanjapanjedan powers new york ronald press 1952 chamberlain william H japan asiaaslai boston little brown 1939 christopher james W conflict far east leiden brill 1950 colegrove kenneth W militarism japan boston new york world peace foundation 1936 dallin david riseR i se russiagussiaruss i in asiaaslaia new haven yale university press 1949 soviet russia far east new haven yale university press 1948 eckel paul E far east since 1500 new york harcourthercourt 1947

94 95 fairbanks john K others east asia modern transformation boston houghton mifflinmiff lintin 1965 frifrifcersterstens gerard MI outer mongoliasongiongollaolia arcanearoano tst internationalinternationalpositionposition edited eleanor lattimore Vs711tb introduction owen lattimore baltimore johns opkinshopkinslal111 1941949 goette john laJapan fights asiaaslai kewnew york harcourt brace 1943 harada masamori waanasauasawaga kanmomanmomanrao nikki tokyo rinxinkinseishakinselshaseishaKinKinselshaeisha 1962

C neng jones 5 F japans new order east asia london oxford 1954 manchuriaManchurichurl sincei nceneeneg 1931 london royal institute international affairs 1949 kahin george NM ed mamaj G overnnienovernovernmentsgovernmentsnienmentsts asia 2nd ed ithaca cornell university press 19631 kawakami kiyoshi K manchukuoManchukuo child conflictconflicts new yorkyockyorke macmillan 1933 koo V KY wellington norandamemorandamerMeT presented utton commissioncoitonission vol I1 new york chinese cultural society 1932 langer william L ed encyclopedia world historyH torytocy dostonbostonbostons

houghtonC1 mifflinmiff lintin 1948 lattimore owen inner asian frontiers china bostonbostontbostone beacon press 1962 manchuria cradiecradlecrad ie conflict rev ed new york macmillan 1935

nationalismnat i ona Us p trnR qvo1uvolutionti mongolia new york oxford university press 1955

studies frontierfrontierhistorycollectedhi1 storzstorystony collected paterstPaTparpapersersaerst 1928195819281928. 1958 london oxford university pressIP ressyess 1962 vloneolsmongolsmongole manchuria london george alienallenailen union 1934 leacueleaaueleague nations appeal chinesecbichicblabi nese Coverngovernmentgovernment washington goatgovt priantingprintingnting office 1932 verdict league china japan manchuria in- troductiontroduction manley 0 hudsonhucisonhuchisonHu cison boston world peace foundation 1933

LinelinebarsarLinebarlinebargarwinebargarbargarsarsan paul M others far eastern governments politics princeton vainvan strandnostrandKo 1956 macnair11ja cNair 11 FF lach D G modernMo lerniennionn far eastern international relatibelatirelationsons new york van nostrand 1950 96 maki john M conflict tension far east seattle university washlWashiwashinatonwashinntonwashingtonnaton press japanese militarimilitarism sm new york knopf 1945 manchoukuo department foreign affairs manchoukuo handbook information inkinghsinkingheinkingHs 1933 manchoukuo yearbook 1942 inkinghsinkingheinkingHs manchoukuovianchoukuo year book 1942 maslennikov V contemporary mongolia translated russian david C montgomery bloomington mongolic society 1964 maxonmax yale C control JajapaneseRanese foreign policy berkeley university california press 1957 memc nelly theodore contemporary government japan boston houghton mifflin 1963 michael franz H taylor george E far east modern world new york henry holt 1956 moko talkantaikanbalkantaigan compiled zenrinkyokai chosabuchosakuChosabu tokyo kalzoshakaizoshaKalzKaiz oshaoshe 1938 moore harriet record soviet far eastern relations 193119421931 1942 new york international secretariat institute pacific relations 1942 morris ivan ed japan 193119451931 1945 militarismMilitmilitariamariam fascism japanism boston D C heath 1963 morse hoseahoseahhoseabHoseadseaBB macnair narleyharley F far eastern international relations boston new york houghton 11mifflin 1931 nicolaerskynicolaevskyNicola ersky B russia japan pan asiatic movement 1925 far eastern QuarquarterlyterLterm VIII may 1949 259295259 295 ogata sadako N defiance manchuria makinsmakinemaking japanese foreign policyP 01 icylcy 143119314311932193219 32 berkeley university california press 1964

1 peffer nathanielNn 1 he farfar F ast modern history ann arbor university thaniel press michiganC 1958

Prawpraedinprawdindin michael T tonmonmongolgoll riserisoniso legacy translated eden cedar paul london george alienallenailen unwin 1952 quigley harold scott farfarpar eastern war1937harwarnay 193719411937 1941 boston world peace foundation 1942 rea george bronson case ffon manchoukuo new york D appleton century 1935 rosinger lawrence KY others state asia new york knopf 1953 rowe david N modern china new jersey D van nostrandnostrandt 1959 97 rupen robert mongelsmongols twentieth centurycent indiana university publication altaic series vol 37 part 1 bloomington indiana university 1964 scalapino robert democracy thepartyPartypartz movement prewar japan berkeley university california press 1953 shepardson whitney H united states world affairs account 1934193519341934. 1935 collaboration william 0 scroggins new york london harper 1935 smith sara R manchurian crisis 193119321931 1932 new york columbia university press 1948 south manchurianmancmane hurihurt railway third report progress manchurla2manchuria 1907321907 32 dairen south Mlanmanchuriachuriachurla railway fifth report gressinprogressinprogressionProprogress manchuria 1936 tokyo herald press 1936 sixth report progress manchuria 1939 tokyo herald press 1939 storry richard history modern jajapanrapanaa2a baltimore penguin 1960 tang peter H russian soviet policy manchuria outer mongolia 19111931igli19111911. 1931 introduction philip E mosely durham duke university press 1959 tupper eleanor reynolds george E japanjaban american public oiioliopinion012 inion introduction george H blakeslee new york macmillan 1937 willoughby westel W japans case examined baltimore johns hopkins press 1940

& sino jaranesejapanesecaranese controversy league nationsna tionseions baltimore johns hopkins 1935 woodhead H G W visit manchuria shanghai I1 mercury press 1932 yoshihashi takehiko conspiracy mukden new haven yale university press 1963 articles appleton john B stake north china asia XXXVI september 1936 566574566 574 deatbeatbealdeaibeeldeel edwin G jr 1940 census manchuria far eastern quarterly IV may 1945 243262243 262 bell charles struggle mongolia ft reprinted journal royal central asian society XXIV january 1937 467246 72 98 bisson T outer mongolia new danger zone far east 1 I foreign policy reports XI november 30 1935t1935 227236227 236 trend toward dictatorship japan foreioforeign polipollpoilpolicycy reports X february 13 1935t1935 31832318328318 32832 8

0 ilthealthe dismemberment china foreign policy reports X april 11 1934t1934 425242 52 byas hugh riftsdrifts war clouds asia MXIVXXXIV september 1934 521524521 524 chamberlain william H japans stake empire asia XXXV november 1935 654661654 661 dorfman ben two years manchoukuo regime foreign policy rerortsreports X september 12 193401934 170180170 180

manchurian incident 1931 11 harpers CLXI september 1934 44952449 52 dull paul assassination chang tso lin far eastern quarterquerterquarterly II11 august 1952 55363553 63 duranty walter russia watches east well west asia XXXVI february 1936 818581 85 ferrell robert H mukden incidentincidents september 18019 1931 journal modem bistoHistohistoryrytrys XXVII march 195591955 667266 72 field frederick V american far eastern policy 193119371931 1937 11 pacific affairs X december 1937 377392377 392

11 friters gerard M prelude outer mongolian independence 9 pacific affairs X june 1937 168189168 189 hanwell norman D japans inner mongolia wedge far eastern surveysurveys VIII june 21 1939 147153147 153 hodges charles tin japan imperial way authorized interview war minister araki asia 34 february 1934 868786 87 hudson G F mongolia manchuria nineteenth century CXVII january june 1935 162171162 171 hume peter mongelsmongols under new orders journal royal asian society XXVIII july 1941 245255245 255 lattimore owen chinese colonization manchuria geographical review XXII april 1932 177195177 195 inner mongolia chinese japanese mongol pacific affairsAf fairst X march 1937 647164 71 mongolia enters world affairs pacific affairs VII march 1934 152815 28 99 lattimore owen wickedness being nomadstnovadsNomadnomadsmadsst asia XXXV octobersoctober 1935 598605598 605 mongol destiny manchoukuo astagasiaasla XXXIV aprilaprils 1934 208213208 213 outer mongolia frontierfrontiers forelforeignp Affairaffairssi XXIV july 194611946 648660648 660 irrhearrhe phantom mengkukuo pacific Affairaffairsss X december 193701937 419427419 427 cheittheatthe unknown frontier Mancmanchuriahurias foreign Afaffairsfairst II11 january 1933 315327315 327 michael franz background fight mongolia contemporary review CLII september 1937 316324316 324 orchard dorothy J manchuria pattern new order east asia asia XL january 1940 363936 39 ping shang chu spirit hsieh ho huihuthul concordiaassociation associations 111 pan pacific illtiiIII111 october december 1939 283128 31 smallwood ii st C Manchurmanchurialaslag land promise japan society XXX forty second session 1932331932 33 212721 27 snow edgar japan gates red Monmongoliagolias asia XXXVI Janujanuaryarys 1936t1936 9139 13 spinks charles N man behind japan ysiayslaasiaaslaasta amerlAmeriamericascass XLIII april 1914 218221218 221 steelesteelessteeley T mongol border asia XXVI augustaugusts 1936 494502494 502 stewart john R manchoukuomanchoultuo announces mongol programprograms far eastern survey IX february 28 1940t1940 586058 60 manchuria today international affairs XX january 1944 688068 80 open door manchuria far eastern surveysurveys VI december 1 1937q1937 271276271 276 timperley H F japan manchoukuo foreignaffairsforeign affairs XII Janujanuaryarys 193411934 295305295 305 manchoukuo open door asia XXXV Janujanuaryarys 1935 161816 18 walter ellery russia faces japan across manchoukuo asia XXXIV june 1934 362365362 365 white oswald japanese administration korea manchuria journal royal central asian society XXX january 1943 193619 36 100 yakhontoff victor mongolia target ScreescreensereennV pacific affairs IX march 1936t1936 133313 33 documents foreign relations united states 1931 vol liiiliillIII111 far east washington government printing officesofficeofflee 1946 foreign relations united states 1935 vol illliiiliIII111 washington government printing office 1953 foreign relations united states 1936 vol IV washington government printing office 1954 newspapers ekins 11 E free mongelsmongols watch ponder new york times may 7 1933t1933 4 fisher sterling russia faces japan vast asian front new york times april 5 1936 5 new york times august 6 1933 january 27 1935 april 19 1935

june 15 1935

july 7 1935 october 22122 1935 april 13 1936 april 15 1936

june 25 1939

july 14 1939

august 27 1939 unpublished materials chen eslaohsiao hsin development transition public administration inner mongolia kengchiangmengchiangmenlwhiangMengchiang 1930 1945 unpublished MA thesis department political science brigham young university 1966 101 beissigheissigissig walter derper mongolischeMongolische kulturwandel den hsinfanhsingan provinzenprovinden mandschukuoamandschukuos unpublished doctoral dissertation der universitat wien 1941 hyer paul V lamaist buddhism japanese policy mongolia unpublished MA thesis department history university california 1953 moses larry W battle nomonhan khalkhin colgolgoi unpublished manuscript indiana university march 25925 1966 APPENDIX

MAPS 103

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m r y x aslajlSSL JAPANESEJAPADESE ATTEMPT SOLVE

MONGOL QUESTION MANCHURIA

193119451931 1945

abstract thesis presented department history brigham young university

partial fulfillment requirements degree master arts

richard D kwak august 1966 abstract thesisqthesis richard D kwak accepted present form department history brigham young university satisfying thesis requirements degree master arts

ft chairman advisadvisorwadvisory01 committee

touttop r nerwer VL aembermemberaemmer advisadvfsadvfsorycommiyommiammi tteeatee

f f chachaiiimaniman major department

typed kerstin H kramer following manchurianManchurlan incident september 18 1931t1931 subsequent occupation eastern mongolia northwestern manchuria japanese faced crucial mongol question question itself complex dealt problem governing 150000011500000 mongelsmongols vast nomadic region problem winning support promotion japanese expansion 1932 contact mongelsmongols new japanese early february 1919 japanese through collaboration semenov sponsored dauria government 11 anti bolshevik pan mongol movement however january 1920 movement ended abortively after- math manchurian incident another opportunity arose japanese chenchiatungchenchlatung toltoitoikatonteikatonTeiToi katon february 18 1932 mongol leaders various banners eastern mongolia gathered express desire autonomy japanese promise autonomy protection further chinese colonization aided winning support eastern mongelsmongolsMongols shortly thereafter autonomous hsinfanhsingan province created eastern mongolia within few years subdivided north hsinfanhsinganHs ingan west hsinfanhsinganHs ingan south hsinfanhsingan east hsinfanhsingan provinces

each headedbyhead edby mongol governor 10 advised10advised japanese councillor like government manchukuoManchu kuo these autonomous mongol provinces merely facades real administrators japanese office hsinfanhsingan11singan affairs liaison between central government provinces provincial banner level nominal head office mongol official japanese saw traditional mongol society frus- trate ambitious aims eastern mongolia Thereforthereforeeq decided 2 decided modernize society program reform education played major role young lamaist monks sent japan indo- trictrinationnation schools established programs sanita- tion medical services stockstockbreedingbreeding fanningfarming etc instituted context then said japanese made con- tribtributionution general wellwellbeingbeing mongelsmongols longiongbong1ong programs promote development japanese imperialistic almsaims however events 1930s1930ts presaged eventual military con- frontationfrontation between japan soviet union 193291932 japanese permitted hsinfanhsingan mongelsmongols own army hsinfanhsingan mongol academy established wangyehmiaowangyehmiaoin 1934 193611936 massive japanese military buildupbuild hallarhailar mobilization japanese iisingan11singan mongol troops area saw commensurate buildbuildup outer mongol air force fortifications mobilization soviet outer mongol troops outer mongolia ideally occupation outer mongolia enhance japanese image possible benefactor pan mongolismmongol ism Hohoweverwevers soviet russia determined defend preeminencepre eminence outer mongolia spite previous retreating policy north manchuria short japanese plans extend hegemony outer mongolia through eastern mongolia failed 1 japanese mi- scalculated strength soviet power border skirmishes along outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border 193519361935 1936 led defeat japanese forces battle monhannomonhan 1939 final annihilation kwantungKwantung army 1945 result japanese defeat pacific 2 japanese policy shortshortsightedsighted failed comprehend 3 mongol aspirations self determination 3 japanese administration hsinfanhsingan provinces paternalistic bound arbitrary resultsresultoresultresuit japanese sponsored autonomous mongol provinces eastern MonmonfoliamongoliaFolia came end