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Niigata University Development of Foreign Relations of Mongolia in the First Half of the 20th Century: Mongolia’s Struggle for Independence By Buyanlham Tumurjav (Z04H506D) Graduate School of Modern Society and Culture Niigata University 2007 DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN RELATIONS OF MONGOLIA IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: MONGOLIA’S STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE By Buyanlham Tumurjav A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of Modern Society and Culture in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY at the NIIGATA UNIVERSITY 2007 ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS Development of Foreign Relations of Mongolia in the First Half of the 20th Century: Mongolia’s Struggle for Independence By Buyanlham Tumurjav Doctor of Philosophy Graduate School of Modern Society and Culture Niigata University, 2007 Professor Tetsuo Imura, Supervisor This thesis is a historical analysis of the development of Foreign Relations of the Mongolian People’s Republic (Mongolia) in the 1st half of the 20th century. The main focus of the research is the struggle of this small nation, sandwiched between two giant neighbors, for its independence, which had been at stake several times in early 20th century. Prior to discussing independence movements in Mongolia, the research analyzed how Mongolia became a subject of another state, the Qing dynasty and what the Qing rule brought to Mongolia. The world situation, in particular internal disorder in China greatly facilitated Mongolia to announce its independence to the world in 1911, which unfortunately was not recognized in the international arena at that time. Although the victory of 1921 People’s Revolution brought better chances for Mongolia to have its independence recognized, it was far too early and difficult to get Russia and China’s recognitions as both of these countries had their special interests in this part of the region. Further the research discusses how nationalism was viewed in Mongolia and what consequences it brought to the people of Mongolia and Buryat Autonomous Republic of Russia, Comintern’s role in Mongolia, Halkhiin gol war or Nomonhan conflict, and consequences of secret provisions of the Yalta conference. Mongolia was finally given a great opportunity to get formally recognized by its two neighbors, the Soviet Union and China, as a result of a provision of Yalta conference concerning Mongolia. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………….. 1 Reviews of researches carried out on Mongolia and its position in the international arena Points to be argued in this research Chapter breakdown Chapters: I. MONGOLIA IN EARLY 20th CENTURY…………………………………. 18 • Historical insights on relations of Mongols and Manchus • Administrative system and social structure of Mongolia under the Qing rule • Mongolia’s relations with Chinese and Russians II. NATIONAL LIBERATION REVOLUTON OF 1911 …………………….. 43 • National liberation movements against Manchu rule • Mongolians ask for Russian assistance • The victory of National Liberation Revolution resulted in national liberation movements in some Inner Mongolian territories • Independent Mongolia and how other powers reacted to such news III. FORMATION OF RED MONGOLIA ……………………………………. 87 • Mongolia after Khiagt Treaty • Political games carried out by outsiders: Ataman Semenov and Baron Ungern • Formation of secret circles in Mongolia • Rise of Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party and 1921 revolution IV. MONGOLIA’S STRUGGLE FOR NATIONALISM…………………… 123 • Definition of nationalism • Internal affairs of Mongolia and Mongolia vs. Comintern • Nationalism and Mongolia in the 1930s • Buryat Autonomous Republic of Russia • Current views on nationalism iii V. END OF JAPANESE EXPANSION INTO EAST ASIA AND WORLD WAR II …………………………………….………………………. ………….. 165 • Japanese military expansion into Manchuria and Mongolia • Pre-Yalta American views on China and the Soviet Union • Yalta conference: Discussions concerning Far East and reaction of Nationalist China • A provision of Yalta agreement concerning Mongolian People’s Republic • Political and economic situation of Mongolia after WW II CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………… 205 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………… 217 APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………….. 225 iv INTRODUCTION This research will attempt to analyze how Mongolia developed its foreign relations in the first half of the 20th century, focusing on Mongolia’s struggle for independence. To become a sovereign member of the world and to have its independence recognized in the international arena, Mongolia has gone through different political regimes. This research comprises the first five decades of the 20th century and is written in a chronological order. Reviews of researches carried out on Mongolia and its position in the international arena Although there are already many books and materials published on the history of Mongolia and its foreign relations, some of these studies neglected or did not provide thorough judgments on some periods of Mongolia’s history of early 20th century. Such books and documents varied greatly with regard to which academic world they represented, prior to 1990. It is the fact that the division of the world into two systems, communist and capitalist, made its reflection in the academic world by separating them into Western and Soviet doctrines. The history of Mongolia, therefore, was studied differently in both Soviet and Western academic circles. Here I would like to discuss briefly what stages the study of Mongolian history has gone through in 20th century, in the lights of both Mongolian/Soviet and Western publications. The study of the history of Mongolia and its foreign relations reflected the atmosphere 1 of the era when Mongolia was still in the communist orbit. Most of the books and materials written on the history of Mongolia illustrated greatly how Mongolian arats (common people) managed to build socialism by passing the capitalist stage of the development, which was oppressing the working class. History of the Mongolian People’s Republic1 written by Mongolian and Soviet scholars is a clear demonstration of the Soviet style publication that was dominating the academic world then, and it summarizes the history of Mongolia as follows, “the contemporary history of the Mongolian people can be divided basically into two stages, namely, the first stage from 1921 to 1940, when the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal revolution was completed and a firm foundation laid for non-capitalist development, and the second stage from 1940 up to the present day, when socialism is being built up”2. Thus, we can see that during the era of communism the new history of Mongolia was inaugurated from 1921’s People’s Revolution in Mongolia. In addition, the main emphasis was applied to a great assistance provided by the Soviet people, the communist party, and the communist internationalism. Certainly, generations who were brought up by learning such history truly believed in only communism and its internationalism. In my research, therefore, I would like to examine if the new history of Mongolia started from 1921, by discussing both 1911 and 1921 revolutions, the main aims of the revolutions and what these revolutions brought to Mongolia as a result. If we refer to the new history of Mongolia that believed to have its start in 1921, where 1911 national 1 USSR Academy of Sciences and MPR Academy of Sciences, History of the Mongolian People’s Republic, Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2000. 2 Ibid., p. 16. 2 revolution should be placed when we discuss the development of new Mongolia in 20th century. As mentioned earlier many books and publications on the history of Mongolia reflected the mood of the era. However, the change of the world system in 1990s brought us a lot of new information and we learnt many facts about our past history. It also opened our eyes to other sources that were previously impossible to obtain. Thanks to the changes in the world system we have become able to use some of the previously considered confidential documents on the history of Mongolia in archives of Mongolia and Soviet Union. Indeed there had been many books and publications on the history of Mongolia written by Western scholars and many of them contributed their solid researches to the study of this country. I want to point out scholars such as O. Lattimore and G. Friters specifically as their books written on the history of Mongolia have become for many scholars the main sources to rely on. O. Lattimore is regarded one of the few scholars who wrote about the history of Mongolia objectively. In his book Nomads and Commissars: Mongolia3, he for the first time examined both positive and negative outcomes of 1921 revolution in Mongolia. O. Lattimore’s conception about satellite character of Mongolia’s relations with the Soviet Union had been a straight concept. He stated, “…a satellite is not a colony and stands somewhere between the protectorate and the “subordinate ally” – the ally which, in negotiating its alliance with a much stronger country, has had to waive, or at least to cease to exercise, some degree of effective 3 Lattimore, Owen, Nomads and Comissars: Mongolia Revisited, New York: Oxford University Press, 1962. 3 sovereignty, though retaining judicial equality”4. Although such a definition clearly showed in what position Mongolia remained during the communist regime, most books and documents viewed the history of Mongolia, both of its external and internal affairs, in this regard in a subordinate position to the