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1 S Prometheus Bound MYTHIC THEMES aw LITERARY ANALOGUES IN LOWELL1 S PROMETHEUS BOUND APPROVED; //.1-D f). Major Professor ' ^ Minoor Professor £1^ Director oft'the Department of English Dean of the Graduate School MYTHIC THEMES AND LITERARY ANALOGUES IN LOWELL1 S PROMETHEUS BOUND THESIS Presented to the Graduate Council of the Horth Texas State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS By Carolyn Holford Denton, Texas June, 1970 TABLE OP CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION I II. LOWELL* S DEVELOPMENT AS A MAN OF LETTERS ... 8 III, ROMANTICISM AND REBELLION IN LOWELL'S PROMETHEUS 28 IV. THE PROMETHEAN MYTHOLOGEM kO V. THREE PROMETHEAN DRAMAS 47 VI. PINAL SPECULATIONS ON THE MEANING OP PROMETHEUS BOUND 75 BIBLIOGRAPHY 86 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION To present a complete portrait of Robert Lowell and his literary art would be to investigate a lifetime of reading and scholarship encompassing an immense scope of world literature, philosophy, religion, and languages—areas of information which may be recalled with facility by Lowell and which are channeled through his historical perspective into his poetry and plays. Because that type of study would exceed limitations of space and time allotted to a thesis, the present study will be con- cerned primarily with an interpretation of Lowell*s derivation Prometheus Bound as he adapted that play from the Greek playwright Aeschylus* version, with a study of the development of his themes in that play, and with consideration of some of the sources upon which those themes are dependent. Because Lowell's play was produced during a year of extreme, active interest in the forthcoming presidential election, several of the reviewers interpreted that production in the light of the author*s own political and personal activities. Later revisions in the book indicate the author*s intention to contemplate 1 universal meanings rather than merely to vrite a contemporary play.1 The first of two specific purposes herein will be to establish that Robert Lowell, having once achieved his reputa- tion as a poet, purposely adapted the Aeschylean play in order to reveal likenesses between ancient and modern man.2 The method by which he portrayed that similarity was the utiliza- tion of a cyclical motif, which is also similar to a Heracleltan flux noted in earlier poetic themes.3 Secondly, the develop- ment of the heroic figure of Prometheus will be considered as one of the poet's archetypal images, representing universal meaning, and briefly traced from the ancient mythologem obser- vable throughout worldwide cultures, reflecting a radical The word "eagle," which had re-inforced an implication of United States* policy, was revised to "vulture,* a more traditional translation from the Aeschylean play. See Robert Lowell, Prometheus Bound (New York, 1969), P* 63. 2That aspect of Lowell's work was earlier observable by a writer who was among those to compare Lowell's writing to Ezra Pound's. See Donald Carne-Ross, "The Two Voices of Transla- tion," cited in Thomas Parkinson, Robert Lowell: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, 1968), p. 158. •^Jerome Mazzaro, The Poetic Themes of Robert Lowell (Ann Arbor, 1965), p. 121. change during the early nineteenth century, and culminating in a quixotic figure in Lowell1s twentieth-century derivation of that play originally written by Aeschylus during the fifth century before Christ. Two other aspects of the role of Prometheus as a hero in literature as it has emerged since the Golden Age of Grecian literature—the role of trickster and that of creator—will be briefly considered, since Lowell*s sources very likely include not only those to which Shelley had access when he wrote a lyri- cal drama about Prometheus, but also a cumulative amount of information discovered through specialized studies during the past century. Consideration has not been given to those as- pects of the Promethean figure which have been compared with Satan or with Job,2* in favor of the earlier, more primitive aspect which Lowell appears to have fused with other character- istic representations. Within this thesis, investigation has focused upon Lowell*s classical influences, particularly those derived from the Greek dramatist Aeschylus through Hesiod, and upon Lowell* s debt to the younger British Romanticists, Byron and Shelley. 4 Moses Hadas, A History of Greek Literature (New York, 1950), p. 81. Cf. Gilbert Murray, Aeschylus: The Creator of Tragedy (Oxford, 19^0), pp. 92-95. Another problem presented by the present endeavor, in addition to the separation of Lowell^ personal and political activities from his artistic ability, has been the task of isolating controversial assessments by popular writers who composed hasty evaluations and who possibly overlooked the merit of his art; consequently, the literary interpretation has necessarily required independent analysis through appraisal of a number of critical opinions based upon the poet's work through the first two decades of writing and through critical reading of his latest works which appear to reflect a modifi- cation of tone.5 The consensus is that he has moved away from his early poetic mode which emphasized Catholic imagery, has returned to traditional forms, but has also experimented suc- cessfully with free verse. Marius Bewley, an author who pro- bably has written the most definitive account of Lowell's Catholic viewpoint, sometimes called apocalyptic, describes that early poetry as a "head-on collision between the Catholic tradition and an Apocalyptic Protestant sensibility."6 Bewley states that in this collision, he sees a "metaphorical impact ^Lowell*s work has received labels of determinist, rationalist, and surrealist, the latter two terms being sup- ported by the poet*s own statements. ^Marius Bewley, The Complex Fate (London, 1952), pp. 159* 160. of staunchly opposed opposites."? Lowell1s use of free verse was apparent within his distinctive form of confessional poetry. M. L. Rosenthal, an author who has placed Lowell fore- most in a compilation of the British and American poets of renown since World War II, has explicated Lowell1s discovery of the confessional mode.8 Rosenthal concludes that Lowell*s use of confessional poetry represents an evolution, or a strengthening period, and that this evolution "suggests that * confessional* poetry was an impermanent but indispensable phase of Lowell's development."9 Rosenthal's earlier discus- sion of Lowell^-0 ascribes that trend of the poetry of confes- sion to the influence of the Symbolists, Eliot, and Pound. The selected comments within the next chapter are intended to reflect the trend and the magnitude of the canon of an artist whose work appears to be evolving and whose conscience will not ^Ibid.. p. 160. 8M. L. Rosenthal, The New Poets; American and British Poetry Since World War II (Hew York, 1967), pp. 25-78* 9lbId.„ p. 78. 10M. L. Rosenthal, The Modern Poetss A Critical Introduc- tion (New York, i960), p. 226. allow him to appeal to commercial markets.H Any evaluation within this thesis has necessarily been confined to a minor purpose in correlation with the major premises, which are centered upon an investigation of the possible influences which are suggested by the imagery in Lowell's play Prometheus Bound. Because a study of the organic structure of the play revealed that poetic imagery and themes have been intertwined and that perhaps that organism12 reflects an undertone of reconciliation of a conflict, rather than despair of modern civilization, the position of this thesis will be that through the medium of drama and the interpolation of Junglan symbolism, Lowell has subordinated his use of an apoca- lyptic, fire-breathing tone in his earliest poetry.^3 While his sensitivity still voices concern and his vision often appears to foreshadow a prophetic warning, his later writing i:iNew York Times. May 31, 1967, Sec. 3, p. 1. 12 Allen Tate had anticipated Lowell11 s further development, analyzed his organic method at that time, and observed the nature of his use of Christian symbolism in 1944. See Allen Tate, "Introduction of Land of Unlikeness," cited in Robert Lowell Essays, p. 36. •^Neville Braybrooke, "The Poetry of Robert Lowell," Catholic World. CLXXXXVIII (January 7, 1964), 330-337. Cf. John Hollander, Modern Poetry: Essays in Criticism (New York, 1968), pp. 257-358. does offer vindication and resolution rather than condemnation and pre-occupation with guilt for an American society. To evaluate or explicate the work of a mature writer on the basis of his earlier poetic endeavors seems neither fair nor adequate. A thorough, if not final, investigation of Lowell's canon at present would probably reveal a modification of his social consciousness! consequently, one section of this thesis will include a brief study of Lowell1s themes. CHAPTER II LOWELL1 S DEVELOPMENT AS A MAN OP LETTERS Robert Lowell*s poetry, from Its inception, has attracted not only the attention of contemporary writers in America but also a worldwide audience, because of his cosmopolitan interests. One volume of poems entitled Poesle has been compiled and trans- lated into Italian, and other volumes have been published in Great Britain and Canada and have received commentary abroad. Lowell received the signal honor, for an American poet, of being nominated in 1966 for professor of poetry at Oxford.* The choice lay between Robert Lowell and Edmund Blunden, and the latter was elected. Stephen Spender has written, "Robert Lowell is an outstanding pioneer extending the frontiers of language, making notable conquests of material which often seems too eccentric for poetry and consolidating It in very * strong and compact form. ^"Electing a Poet," Encounter. XXVI (April, 1966), 51-52. 2Stephen Spender, "Robert Lowell* s Family Album," New Republic. CXL (June 8, 1959), 17. 8 Lowell* s strong penchant for imagery with diverse possibil- ities for interpretation probably reflects the influence of Ezra Pound, because of Pound*s wide-ranging and sometimes peculiar interests.
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