Religious Extremism and Pak Relations with Central Asia Implications for Islamism

Under The Supervision of

Dr. Iram Khalid

Submitted by

Tauqeer Ahmed

M. Phil – International Relations (Sem. I)

Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab, Lahore

Abstract

This study set to find impacts of Islamism in the region on relations between Central Asia and Pakistan. Objectives of this study are to find vision and policies of Pakistan and Central Asian republics towards Islamism and its repercussions on relations. Descriptive and analytical method is applied by using secondary data. Pakistan and Central Asian countries have different policies and approaches towards Islam as a political force as it is manifested in differences of both sides in Afghanistan which are fueled by ethnic violence. Pakistan support of Islamism caused tension in the relations due to Islamist threat to autocratic regimes of Central Asia. Good relations can be maintained if mutual distrust is eliminated by cooperation and respects for interests of each other. Islamist Insurgency in Pakistan and imminent US withdrawal from Afghanistan has changed the scenario from confrontation to cooperation. Recent developments in security cooperation and counterterrorism are promising which needed to be strengthened. Key Words: Ethnic Violence, Extremism, Stability, Afghanistan, Autocracy

In every epoch of time, some factors dictate the relations between different nations. Although international relations theorists especially realists always assert that National Interest is motivating factor for relations among nations. But certainly these interests are also linked with other dimensions of International System. Security always has been main concern of states but after 9/11 states not only have to secure themselves from aggressive states but also from non- state threats which often have their roots in extreme political, ethnic or religious ideology. Our world is plagued by increasing intolerance fueled by extremist ideologies. Religious intolerance is by far most wide spread and dangerous among them. Islamism is one of these extreme religious ideologies. Islamism is an extremely conservative view of Islam, which may entail violence. Our country Pakistan has been confronted by this conundrum for a very long time. Among other things this problem proved an anathema to our foreign relations. Relations of Pakistan with Central Asia are very important particularly in light of energy needs of Pakistan and Central Asian need to access the sea. Central Asia is a complex term. Central Asia is defined differently by various authors. Some geologists called this region „Inner Asia‟ comprising Central Asian Republics, Xinjiang, Tibet, Mongolia, Afghanistan, northern Iran and northern Pakistan (Miroshnikov, 1992: 477-80). Some geologists described as „Middle Asia‟ the Muslim areas from above mentioned are included in this region (Soucek, 2000: xi-xii) which together with Muslim nations of Middle East constitute (Buzan and Waever, 2003: 423). Some scholar use same term „Central Asia‟ for entire Central Asia for heartland of Asia from Volga to Siberia and the Himalayas (Akiner, 1998: 4). But now Central Asia is widely used term among these in contemporary literature, including only five Muslim Republics of Central Asia of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan (Bergel, 1996: 3). Central Asian republics (the five former Muslim Soviet republics, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan) are also facing this problem. There should be cooperation between Pakistan and these states because both are prone to same threat but there are some misunderstandings due to some international actors‟ portrayal of Pakistan as promoter of terrorism, not its victim. This study raises the question about Central Asian and Pakistani view of Islamism in general and Islamic extremism in particular. How Islamism can affect the relations between Pakistan and Central Asian republics. The objective of this study is to explain implication of Islamism on relations between Central Asia and Pakistan. This study also focuses on sources of extreme Islamic ideologies in Central Asia as well as in Pakistan. This study also elaborates the manner with which Central Asian republics and Pakistan tackle the threat of Islamic extremism. Literature Review: The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (1994) by Ahmed Rashid describes Islam in Central Asia in pre-independence era. But main focus of the book is Islamic revival at the time of disintegration of Soviet Union. Pakistani religious organizations especially Jamat-e-Islami funded many madrasas in Central Asia which were main source of this Islamic surge in the region. Pakistani government was also keen to use Islamic sentiments to increase its influence in the region. But these Islamic movements were loathed and ultimately suppressed by Central Asian regimes. Pakistani support for these movements has negative effects on bilateral relation even though both sides were anxious to strengthen economic relations. Pakistani religious organizations channeled funds of Saudi Arabia during Tajik Civil War to Islamist factions. Each of Central Asian republics of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan has its chapters, in which differences and similarities of different Islamist groups throughout Central Asia are discussed. Baran, Starr and Cornell (2006: 5-49) described the Islamist and secular patterns of societies of Central Asian Republics. They described pre-independence Islamic movements in Central Asia. They also enlist different Islamic Radical groups, Hizb ut-Tahrir al Islamiyya (The Islamic Party of Liberation), Akramiya, Hizb un-Nusrat, The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), Islamic Rebirth Party of Tajikistan (IRP) and The Islamic Movement of Central Asia (IMCA). Hizb ut-Tahrir, The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and Islamic Rebirth Party of Tajikistan (IRPT) are important among them. These three groups are also related to Pakistan because members of these groups were engaged in training in Tribal Areas of Pakistan. Even Tajik and Uzbek officials blame Pakistan to support these fundamentalist groups alongside with Turkey and Saudi Arabia. They also elaborate extremist dimensions of Tulip Revolution in 2005 in Kyrgyzstan and Andijan Tragedy in Uzbekistan also in 2005. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (2000) by Ahmed Rashid give a comprehensive picture about how religious fundamentalism is turned into violent struggle in the region. The large resources of oil made Central Asia very important strategically. This region has become a center of intrigue between different regional powers. He gives the example of Tajik Civil War in which Iran supported government forces whereas Saudi Arabia supported Islamist with the help of Pakistan. Iran also supported Northern Alliance in Afghanistan alongside with Central Asian states whereas Pakistan was supporting Taliban alongside with Saudi Arabia and Turkey. These moves pitched Pakistan against Central Asian states. Taliban carried out massacre of ethnic Tajik and Uzbeks alongside with Hazaras in Northern Afghanistan, most important of which is the massacre of Mizar Sharif in 1997. When Pakistan continued the support of Taliban even after these atrocities, relations with Central Asian countries were severely damaged. But writer did not mention that Uzbek forces led by Abdul Rashid Dostam also carried put massacre against ethnic Pashtuns. The Establishment of National Republics in Soviet Central Asia (2004) written by Arne Haugen focuses on how political identity of people of Central Asia changed from Islam to nationalism. In Soviet times Islam was banished from political circle of life and was replaced by nationalism. Even Soviet Union abhorred nationalism too but she used it to counter Islam as a political force which she perceived as greater threat than nationalism as Basmachi rebellion and Jadid movement were essentially Islamist rather than nationalist and these movements made Soviets realized the potential force of Islam. After independence, leaders of Central Asian countries continued the legacy of their Soviet predecessors and obstructed any role of religion in politics. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia (2002) by Ahmed Rashid listed out major Islamist groups in Central Asia after discussing Islam in the past. Before Soviet takeover of Central Asia, Sufi Islam was strong in Central Asia. Soviet authorities suppressed Islam without any distinction between tolerant Sufi Islam and violent militant Islamism. In this book, one chapter is reserved for each important Islamist group in Central Asia. These includes Hizb ut-Tahrir al Islamiyya (The Islamic Party of Liberation), The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and Islamic Rebirth Party (IRP). The relations of Central Asian countries with their neighbors are also discussed in a separate chapter which includes relations of Pakistan with Central Asian republics. In „Understanding Central Asia: Politics and Contested Transformations‟ (2012) author Sally M. Cummings describes minute change in political system of Central Asia since independence. Instead she renders broad understanding of stability and peace in Central Asia even with problems of ethnicity, language and religion. She also sheds light on Islamic extremism, its rise and the participation of Islamist parties in the politics. Autocratic leaders see them as a opposition to their rule. Central Asian identity was strongly link with religion but in Soviet era Practice of Islam was severely restricted. Now, Kazakh, Uzbek, Tajik, Kyrgyz and Turkmen people are returning to religion after independence but they do not necessarily want Islamist governments. In security, Central Asian nations are dependent on Russia and China which also see Islamism as a threat. Tajik Civil War and other security issues have shown the vulnerability of Central Asian Republics especially to Islamic extremism, ethnic violence and localism. But she also observed that suppression of religion by Central Asian leaders also contributed in extremist tendencies in citizens. Descent into Chaos: The United States and the Failure of Nation Building in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia (2008) by Ahmed Rashid criticize war on terror did not end the Islamism in the region of Central Asia. The actors in the region failed to reach on consensus on how to deal with Islamism. One of the Frontline states against terrorism, Pakistan is still supporting certain Islamist elements in the region especially in Afghanistan to exert its influence, Central Asian states are also more focused on their ethnic interests in Afghanistan than to concentrate on elimination of Islamic extremism in the country. Both sides do not trust each other. Pakistan believe that Central Asian republics along with their ethnic allies in Afghanistan trying to undermine her security by tilting towards India, the arch rival of Pakistan which will result in encirclement of Pakistan. Central Asian republics think that Pakistan is bent to spread Islamism in the region to counter Indian influence as Pakistani authorities think that if Islamist would come into power in Central Asia, they will be more close to Pakistan rather than India and Russia. Historical Background Islamism seeks application of Islamic ideals in all areas of life. Mostly Islamist groups did not acknowledge other school of thoughts in Islam. They consider their own interpretation of Islam right whereas they regard difference of opinion in Islamic values and faith deviation. Some Islamist ideologies consider other Muslims who do not believe in their version of Islam as heretics, even infidels. These ideologies advocate violence to spread their beliefs. These ideologies come under the umbrella of „Islamic Extremism‟. Central Asia and Pakistan both have been centers of Islamic Mysticism. Islamic Mysticism is and ideology which is tolerant towards other Islamic schools of thought. This ideology is even tolerant to non-Muslims. Religious dimension of relations between Central Asia and Pakistan is spectacular. Many Muslim conquerors from Central Asia facilitated the cause of Islam in sub-continent. But they were the Sufis who left magnificent impression on Muslim civilization in India. Muslims in both Pakistan and Central Asia revered Sufism as path to God. Sufi traditions of Pakistan especially Suhrawardiyya School of thought have its roots in Central Asian cities of Bukhara, Samarkand and Khiva. The beacon lit by Bukhari, Ghazali and Razi (all belonged to Central Asia) was inspiration for Muslim scholars in India. If we ponder on great Sufi past of Pakistan and Central Asia, present religious extremism in this area seems very absurd because Sufism in inherently abominated to religious extremism. Pakistan has strong and archaic cultural and religious affinities with Central Asian States. Aryan came to Indus Valley from Central Asia. As Khan (1996, 92) put it, “Central Asia holds signal significance for the land and people of Pakistan, its culture and the society are Central Asian”. India particularly North- western India (present day Pakistan) attracted the invaders from Central Asia. From Kushans, Hephthalites and Parthians to Muslim conquerors such as Mahmud Ghaznavi, Muhammad of Ghor and Babur and his Mughal descendants belong to Central Asia. It is interesting that all ruling Muslim dynasties (Ghulaman, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sadat, Lodi, Suri and Mughal) traced their lineage from Central Asia. After Mongol invasion of Central Asia many artists, Sufis, intellectuals and scientist took refuge in India and contributed in native architecture, literature, arts and sciences. Muslim architecture is heavily influenced by Central Asia even Taj Mahal took inspiration from Timur‟s Mausoleum in Samarkand. Pakistan is conscious of this cultural link to Central Asia. Reetz (1997, 212) said that Pakistan, the most significant countries of South Asia are highly mindful of their common cultural heritage with Central Asia. Transformation of Religious and Cultural Ties: Central Asia had been under complete Russian domination since 1865. Tsarist rule was only concerned with political and economic gains from region. It did not interfere in religious and cultural of native people. But Russians were apprehensive about relations of Central Asian Muslims with Indian Muslims which were also now living under domination of a foreign power, Great Britain. Great Britain and Russia were rivals. This rivalry started the transformation of cultural ties between Central Asian and Indian Muslims. Now both Muslim nations were living in hostile empires. Both British and Russians detest Islam as a political ideology. Due to Salafist movement in present-day Saudi Arabia, Islamist movements also grew in Central Asia and present-day Pakistan. These movements were opposite to Sufi ideologies prevailing in these societies. These movements consider Sufism and mysticism as superstition, heresy even polytheism. This was the watershed of modern Islamism in both sub-continent and Central Asia. These movements also sought political domination of Islam and to establish a society where they could implement their version of Islam. Revolt of Shah Ismail in Balakot against Sikhs and Faraizi Movement of Haji Shariat Ullah against British were examples of early Islamist movements in sub- continent. In Central Asia, Jadidi movement was pioneer Islamist movement which aimed to achieve a united Muslim Turkistan and revival of true Islam (according to their own ideology). Both Russian and British crushed these movements. Even after political domination of Russia and Britain, role of religion in life of a common man remained the same in Central Asia and sub- continent respectively. But Communist Revolution in 1917 changed this scenario. Bolsheviks abhor religion and tradition which was the core of Central Asian culture. Soviet Union started to discard religion form social and political spheres in Central Asia. Religion played important role in society before Soviet overtake of Central Asia but during Soviet period, State and Religion were separated and atheist ideology of Communism was promoted. Delimitation process (1921-36) divided single Muslim Turkistan into national republics to transform identity of people from Islam to nationalism. In wake of this „Divide and Rule‟ policy, Sharia law and courts were declared null and void. Qadis and their Sharia courts were replaced by Peoples courts supervised by Supreme courts which operated on Inquisitorial System of Roman Law. Atheist communist ideology became prime source of newly developed constrictions of Central Asian Socialist republics. Religious education was banned. Scientific education swapped conventional and tradition education as well as schools replaced Madrasas. Mosques were closed down and scholars were arrested, executed or deported. Script of all national languages (Tajik, Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Uzbek and Turkmen) was changed from Persian to Cyrillic. Soviet-sponsored culture stressed more on different national identities rather than a unified Muslim heritage. These policies have impact on foreign relations too. In era of Stalin Central Asia was virtually cut off from Muslim world as Stalin fear the popularity of movements of Pan-Islamism and Pan-Turkism which are directly connected to Islamic world. Soviet regime introduced „Look West‟ policy in which more contacts were established between Central Asian republics and other communist regimes in Europe. According to Soviet Union, the relations with other nations were based on political ideology, not on culture or religion. But in sub-continent, Islam emerged as political mobilizing force during Khilafat movement which was not only a sign of solidarity for Turk Muslims but also indicated tendency of people towards a unified government (Caliphate) based on principles of Islam (even nominally). In contrast to that, Russian Tsars and their Soviet successors ruthlessly crushed Pan-Turkism and Pan-Islamism movements which were also connected to Ottoman Caliphate and Islamic Unity. These policies resulted in two contrast situations. Soviet authorities were successful in separation of State and religion in Central Asia. Elite was created which have no regard for religion. Character of Central Asian people changed from religious to nationalist. Even after independence, Soviet legacy persisted and Central Asian societies remained atheist nationalist. But suppression of Islam did not bring the results Soviet Union wanted. Instead these policies bought fruits in quite opposite way. Instead it resulted in quite opposite. Soviet authorities want to end Islam as political ideology and a way of life. They wanted that people should look towards communism for political guidance rather than Islam and their way of life should be dictated by Leninist-Marxist ideology not by some supernatural being. When people were forced to renounce their beliefs, they abide by decision in the face of mighty power. Oppression always begets Oppression. Oppression of religion led to Oppression on the name of religion. So, oppressed religious sentiments turned into religious extremism Wahabists and Salafists especially during and after Afghan war exploited the repressed religious sentiments and spread the puritan version of Islam. Soviet authorities want to end Islam as political ideology and a way of life. These extremist movements took a toll on stability of Central Asia. So, Soviet policies polarized Central Asian societies in this way. As for Pakistan, Islamism was always present because many people believe that Pakistan achieved independence in the name of Islam. From the Objective Resolution to Constitution of 1973, Islam was declared „State Religion‟ of Pakistan. But Pakistan was never an extremist society even though there were certain Islamist elements which favored extreme version of Islam. Pakistani society faced extremism as real threat as result of Afghan War. Afghan Conundrum and Tajik Civil War Interestingly religious extremism in both Pakistan and Central Asia is, in some way, linked to invasion of Afghanistan by atheist regime of Soviet Union. By invading Afghanistan, Soviet imperialism reached at its military zenith. To keep Russian bear off the warm waters USA started to arm Afghan mujahedeen with help of Pakistan. Extremist Salafist found their Ideological paradise in Afghanistan and started tinting an independence movement in the shade of religious crusade. Now, Central Asia and Pakistan were standing in opposite sides. Pakistan government deliberately used religious sentiment to counter Soviet Union in Afghanistan. Islamist from all over the world After Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989, religious extremism trickled down to newly independent Central Asian republics meanwhile Pakistan was exposed to „Kalashnikov Culture‟ with increasing Sectarian violence thanks to increasing religious militarism. Authoritarian governments see the rise of Islam as threat and brutally repressed religion. This victimization card was in return played by religious extremist who used the public discontent against autocratic regimes to grind their own axe. The domestic dissenter elements perceived as threat by authoritarian governments, Political Islam is greatest among them. Political Islam is greatest threat to autocrats of Central Asian Republics. Authoritarian rulers of Central Asian Republics legitimize their rule as bulwark against Islamic extremism (a claim which is partially valid). In past, some people in Central Asia thought that survival of Islam would be eventual cause of fall of Soviet Union (Bennigsen and Wimbush, 1985: 4), they are worried that same Political Islam also can be dangerous for Independent states of Central Asia. Even common adherence to Islam is seen in political meaning due to (even after independence) continued Soviet Context (Khalid, 2003: 574). Pakistani government helped Mujahedeen who fought on the name of Islam, not on the name of Afghanistan. Pakistani government also used Islam to portray the imperialism of Soviet Union and righteousness of Afghan Mujahedeen. These initiatives by Pakistan ultimately create a perception of Pakistani inclination towards Islamism in the mind of Central Asian people in general and in mind of Central Asian leaders in particular. Tajik Civil War (1992-1997) is most prominent conflict in Central Asia. It was not purely Inter-State conflict but it involved many states as it grew in its ferociousness. If the sequences of events leading to this war are seen, it is clear that why after so many years people of Central Asia are content with autocratic rulers. As truly described by Rubin (1998, 132) that how Tajikistan went into chaos explain why Tajikistan went into chaos. Central Asia will face the baptism of blood and fire as Tajikistan faced from 1992 to 1997 during the civil war because of friction between extremist elements and regime. But this conflict was not limited to Tajikistan only, many countries in the region was drawn into this conflict. Lynch (2001, 49) puts it that Tajik Civil War was fought on basis of power not on ideologies. Islamist parties do not seek revival of religion, they seek political power. Islamic Rebirth Party of Tajikistan paddled its Salafist ideology, to gain influence in Tajikistan, not to save the souls of Tajiks. Islamic Rebirth Party of Tajikistan could never challenge the authority of Tajik government unless it did not have the support of Afghan Mujahedeen. Gulbuddin Hikmetyar was most staunch supporter of Tajik Islamist among Afghan Mujahedeen. He was supported by Pakistani government against Ahmad Shah Masood, a Tajik Mujahedeen leader and Abdul Rashid Dostam, an Uzbek warlord. After independence Central Asian republics look towards Pakistan alongside with Iran and Turkey for economic assistance. All Central Asian republics became members of Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and Central Asian leaders paid visits to Pakistan as well as visited by Pakistani leaders also. But Pakistani support to anti-Tajik and anti-Uzbek elements in Afghanistan proved a crack in the cup. Pakistan ignored that after facing economic Both Uzbeks and Tajiks in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan were part of Tajik Civil war. Due to existing Inter-ethnic tensions for example between Tajiks and Uzbeks as described by Roy (1997, 143-4), Uzbekistan was also drawn into this conflict. Uzbekistan especially, is threatened by Islamism due to very religious area of Farghana Valley. Boas (2015, 9) stressed that Islamic civil society is most prominent hazard to the supremacy of the regime in Uzbekistan because compete with the regime for legitimacy among the populace. The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) has strong links with extremist groups in Tribal Areas of Pakistan. But Islamist threat was not limited to only Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Brown and Sheiko (2006, 11) of the view that like other leaders of Central Asian Republics, Turkmen autocrat leaders maintain Islam as the belief of the Turkmen but discard any political role for spiritual leaders, much like his Communist forerunners. This fear can be regarded true as nearly all post-Independence conflicts are related to fundamentalist Islamist ideologies. Plagued with Islamist insurgency in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, China was also alarmed by situation. Tajik Islamists started to receive support from Afghan Taliban which further alienated most of Tajiks from Islamists as they saw them as agents of Pashtun Taliban which are targeting ethnic Tajiks in Afghanistan. This move also caused rift in ranks of opposition because Pamiris were repulsed by receiving help from Taliban who are massacring their fellow Shia Muslim brothers as Pamiris are Ismaili Shias. Roy (1998, 141) also claims that localism prevailing far and wide in Tajikistan leading to Tajik Civil War. This caused people to think when there would be democracy in Tajikistan and everyone have the right to vote, these religious, ethnic, linguistic and regional conflict will make this country a living hell. Even resenting autocratic rule, Tajik people, like their fellows living in other Central Asian republics know that these autocratic are operating as lid on these ethnic and religious tensions. Without strong leaders, Central Asia will be thrown in conflict and war. Rubin (1998, 153) suggested that breakdown of autocratic institution led to Tajik Civil War Islamist parties are unable to give stable substitute political as well as economic structure as Rashid (2002, 113) suggested. This political system has created a delicate balance between different ethnic, religious, linguistic and regional groups in terms of power and hierarchy. Ethnicity also plays a major role as setback for the relations between CARs and Pakistan. Northern Alliance hostile to Taliban was heavily comprised of Tajik and Uzbek ethnic groups of Afghanistan which are second and third largest ethnic groups in Afghanistan respectively. Pakistan government‟s support for mostly Pashtun Taliban was a source of discomfort for these ethnic groups which also create apprehensions in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan as these states always try to protect the interest of their brethren in Afghanistan. Tajiks and Uzbeks are most educated and liberal people of Afghanistan who always see religious extremism with alarm. They were also suspicious of the intentions of Pashtuns and they brethren living in Pakistan. Pashtuns of Pakistan likewise have sympathies for their ethnic fellows in Afghanistan. Pashtuns living on both sides of Durand Line were deeply religious and traditional. Rise of Taliban made the waters murkier. Now Central Asian leaders were looking at a group which endorsed a very conservative Islamic ideology and was also ethnically Pashtun. Tajik civil war was still raging. Pakistan was again on the other side of the fence. Pakistani government was wholeheartedly supporting Taliban, many of whom were educated in Pakistani Madrasas. According to Burke (1998) who was writing in British daily Independent, Uzbek President Islam Karimov and Tajik President Emomali Rahmon publicly accused Pakistan of nurturing Islamism in Central Asia to gain influence in the region. Central Asian states still fears that any Islamist government will spill Afghan instability over the whole region as it was done in Tajik Civil War when Tajik Islamist started to cooperate with Afghan Mujahedeen to defeat regime of Emomali Rahmon and extended Afghan drug smuggling network up to Russia itself. That time conflict was averted forces from all Central Asian members of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) installed in Tajikistan and Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan was signed with the help of mediation by Russia. As Ambrosio (2008, 1336) called stability, even after end of Tajik Civil war, most important value for Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). In the perspective of Islamist movements in Russia Republics of Chechnya and Dagestan and Chinese Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China and Russia would never tolerate any Islamist government in Central Asia. Central Asian Republics of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan share border with Afghanistan which is already in the state of war due to extreme Islamist ideology of Taliban. Even though, China has extremely friendly relations with Pakistan, members of SCO are very cautious about Islamist movements in their countries which have breeding grounds in Pakistan. Pakistani government changed its attitude towards Islamism in general and Taliban in particular after 9/11. But many considered it a charade as policies of military of Pakistan remained same which still considered Islamist elements as „Strategic Assets‟ against India. Ironically when Pakistan was declared greatest non-NATO ally against terrorism, Jamat-e-Islami, one of the leading Islamist parties of the world was governing the very province in which most of extremist movements including Hizb ut-Tahrir al Islamiyya (The Islamic Party of Liberation) and The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) have their training camps. Triumph of Northern Alliance over Taliban turned the table in the region. Dominated by Tajiks and Uzbeks, Northern Alliance visibly tilted towards India which also has implication in Central Asia. Indian lease of Farkhor and Ayni bases in Tajikistan in addition to military hospital clearly indicate the failure of foreign policy Pakistan because Pakistani decision makers failed to understand implications of support of Islamism on the relations with Central Asian republics. New Opportunities In nowadays, Central Asia is dubbed as „New Middle East‟ due to its strategic location and rich wealth of natural resources especially hydrocarbons. Central Asia is blessed with being located at the crossroads of Asia and Europe and sharing border with China and Russia but it also face constraints of difficult terrain and lack of access to sea. The needs of Pakistan and CARs complement each other perfectly. CARs needed access to sea and transit facilities to reach out world. Pakistan is facing mammoth energy crisis which can be unraveled through adding new energy flows in economy. After independence of Central Asian states Pakistan continued to look towards Central Asia in the light of cultural and religious ties. Pakistani policy makers ignored the potential of economic and commercial relations. As Khan (1996, 93) describes, “The Northern connections were only discernible in the historical perspective and had little commercial or strategic use for the early policy makers. Pakistan therefore continued to shut its eyes to the North, until the emergence of new realities. Both public and government were excitedly awakened to the situation and attempts at all levels commenced forthwith to revive the links”. But with energy crisis looming over the economy of Pakistan, government officials are keener to establish economic relations keeping in view the large oil and gas resources of Central Asia. “Pakistan‟s economic priority is for developing bilateral trade in raw material and manufactured goods, opening up communications and contracting for regular supplies. Pakistan saw industry, Pakistani entrepreneurs felt they had a great deal to offer in setting up substantial benefits for its industrial growth in obtaining regular supplies of surplus power through gas and electricity grid scheme or through future oil supplies from Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Besides manufacturing and light banking and insurance as well as stock Markets, joint venture capital and import-export, all sectors poorly developed in Central Asia” (Anwar, 1997: 190-191). However, Tareen (1995, 35) laments the “directionless government of Pakistan” for “pursuing equally directionless and haphazard policy” towards Central Asia which is “against all reasons”. He asks, “How can we realistically hope for a trade link with Central Asia when the easiest, the most feasible and economically viable rout that passes through Afghanistan is blocked?” Pakistan is presently intertwined in severe energy crisis but according to Tareen she is for the “second time in history losing a golden opportunity next door”. Tareen says, “Our electricity and power is far more expensive per unit than imported power from Tajikistan which according to experts would not only have been feasible but cheaper than locally generated electricity”. Construction of Gwadar port and the inception of Pak-China Economic Corridor have given Pakistan relation with Central Asian republics a new dimension. Pakistan can now have access to mineral resources of Central Asia. But this is not only opportunity for Pakistan. Central Asian republics can also have access to new markets with help of above-mentioned projects. According to Effendi (1995, 2), “Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, the two significant South Asian states are „Eurasia‟s treasure house‟ of natural resources in terms of hydroelectric power hydrocarbon, agronomical products and minerals. During the Soviet period these two republics were mainly treated as source for raw materials for the capital and consumer goods industries of the USSR, located in Western Russia and Urals. However, despite the ruthless exploitation during the Soviet era, the resources of the Region seem inexhaustible”. Effendi (1995, 8) further writes, “The labour market of Uzbekistan has an abundant quantity of good quality manpower which is both cheaper and more disciplined than what available in South-West Asia and the Sub-continent. In the same manner the oil reserves of Kazakhstan accounted for 9% of the former USSR‟s deposits, while overall the CIS reserves ranging between 6 to 10 % constitute the entire world‟s hydrocarbon reservoirs. The Manqyshiak oil is unique as it contains limestone which is an excellent building material”. Deposit of manganese Kazakhstan has 13% of global deposits and is ranked third after US and Ukraine. Furthermore, Kazakhstan is the world‟s second largest producer of Chromium. In iron production she ranks as the eighth largest producer and produces 16,662 million tons of Iron and she is the second largest producer of phosphorous, fourth largest producer of lead and molybdenum, having large uranium deposits and “produced 56% of the total output of the former Soviet Union. She has large uranium deposits and produced 56% of the total output of the former Soviet Union. Central Asian republics can exploit this mineral potential if these states have access to lucrative markets of world. Being Landlocked, these states can reach out the whole world by using Gwadar port. But Islamism posed a threat to economic projects also. Presence of Islamist movements of TTP in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Jandullah in Baluchistan is alarming because these two provinces are key regions to transit corridor for Central Asia access to Arabian Sea. These opportunities are not only on economic front. US have indicated its withdrawal from Afghanistan in near future. This scenario projects gloomy picture for Central Asian republics which are contemplating surge in Islamist movements in their countries due to Taliban rise in Afghanistan on the horizon as in past mujahedeen takeover of Afghanistan resulted in extremist violence in Central Asia which reached its zenith with Tajik Civil war. Pakistan is also engaged in struggle against extremist elements in the country. Rise of IS in Afghanistan is also alarming for both Central Asia and Pakistan. Pakistan has one of the strongest armies of the world whereas Central Asian countries are dependent on Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) for their security. Pakistan has potential to provide security assistance to Central Asian republics against these extremist movements due to immense experience of dealing with extreme Islamist movements at home. Fortunately, both sides have realized these possibilities and making progress towards it. PM Nawaz paid visits to Tajikistan (17-18 June 2014), Turkmenistan (20-21 May 2015), Kyrgyzstan (22-23 May 2015), Kazakhstan (25-26 August 2015) and Uzbekistan (17-18 November 2015) while Tajik President visited to Pakistan (12-13 November 2015). In all these visits several agreements were signed which included security, defense and eradication of terrorism and extremism. Individual Level Analysis: Leaders in Pakistan have cognitive map which is definitely embedded in religion due to their religious upbringing and some leaders like Gen. Zia used Islam as political ideology because his autocratic regime needed legitimacy. His use of religion tapped religious extremism into politics which through Afghanistan (where leaders have same ideology and Islam was also their source of legitimacy) spread into whole region. In contrast, leaders of Central Asian Republics were brought up in atheist Soviet Union for whom ethnicity is more important than religion as Kyrgyz President once said that I am a Kyrgyz, not a Muslim. These leaders are also repressive but their source of legitimacy is nationalism, not the religion. They see Islamic extremism as a threat to their rule as it did threaten Tajik regime in Tajik Civil War (1992-97) and Andijan insurgency (2005). For Central Asian leaders, Afghan War constructs a perception of Pakistan as an Islamist state. Lack of any define policy towards extremism in Pakistan further fueled this perception. State Level Analysis: Central Asian Republics came into existence after the breakup of Soviet Union. These states were based on ethnicities. For example, Tajikistan is an independent state because it is homeland of Tajik people, not Muslim or Turk people. If it would be the case than what is difference between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan? In Central Asia, Islamism posed a threat to autocratic governments and these governments dealt with it with iron hand. In Pakistan used the policy of vacillation towards Islamic extremism even after the end of Afghan War. Furthermore when Islamism rises in Central Asia, these states were at the threshold of independence. This situation called for stability and consensus whereas Islamist movements were creating chaos and intolerance. Meanwhile, Pakistan favored Islamist movements in Central Asia on the grounds that it will lead to strong relations based on religious ties. In Central Asian political culture Islamist parties are not tolerated whereas in Pakistan, Islamist parties are strong and part of both government and opposition. Central Asian bureaucracy is comprised of elite elements that see Islamism as threat to their interests. In Pakistan, military bureaucracy is sympathetic to Islamism. System Level Analysis: Central Asia is dominated by Russia and China which are facing Islamic extremism in their countries. Therefore, most significant regional organization in the region SCO define „Extremism, Terrorism and Separatism‟ as Evil Triangle. After 9/11, Central Asian republics and Pakistan both decided to join US in „War on Terror‟. But policies and interests of Pakistan and Central Asian states are different towards Islamism especially in Afghanistan. But Pakistan is facing energy crisis and Central Asian republics need transit route for access to global trade. These elements are bonding these states together despite existence of above-mentioned factors. Summary: Historical relations between Central Asia and present-day Pakistan were based on religious ties, manifested by Sufi traditions which are opposite to current Islamist ideologies. Russian Tsardom and British Empire set the trend of Islamism in Central Asia and Pakistan respectively which still persists. Afghan war led to surge in Islamism in both Central Asia and Pakistan. Pakistan used Islamism to exert influence in the region whereas newly-independent Central Asian states perceived Islamism as a threat due to ideological as well as ethnic factors. After independence, Central Asian republics established good relations with Pakistan because they needed economic assistance to build their weak economies. Inclusion of all Central Asian republics (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan) in ECO was a sign of increasing cooperation. But rise of Taliban and subsequent Pakistan support for this ethnic Pashtun group against Northern Alliance comprised of Uzbek and Tajik Afghans, led to slouch in relations. After 9/11, Pakistan and Central Asian republics both find themselves in the ranks of US-led coalition against terrorism but vacillating policies of Pakistan breed mistrust in relations. Andijan insurgency and Tulip Revolution in 2005 made Central Asian governments very cautious about Islamism and prompt them to rally under the flag of Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) to fight Islamic extremism. In Pakistan, the rise of Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) proved a watershed movement. Pakistan military conducted operation in Tribal Areas to eradicate extremist organizations including Hizb ut-Tahrir and The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU). These moves by Pakistan are welcomed by Central Asian republics. Pakistan has become full member of SCO with support of all five Central Asian republics which is a clear sign of increasing trust in Pakistan.

Findings:  Central Asian leaders view Islam as political force due to persistence policies of Soviet Union and Islamist opposition to autocratic Central Asian leaders. Islamist political parties are suppressed at home and in addition to that Central Asian opposed to Islamist movements in other countries too especially in the region.  In Pakistan, Islam is a strong political force. This ideology is often endorsed by successive regimes (such as Gen. Zia). Many Islamist parties are not only support the enforcement of Islamic laws but also providing support to Islamic groups in other countries (including Central Asian states).  Pakistan and Central Asian republics enjoyed good relations but after start of Tajik Civil War, relations began to sour as Pakistan supported Islamist elements in Tajikistan which received aid and training from Saudi Arabia from the channel of Pakistan.  Relations between Pakistan and Central Asian republics were affected due to their policies towards Afghan Mujahedeen. Central Asian republics considered them as agents of Islamism in their own countries. Pakistan viewed them as a channel to increase influence in the region.  Rise of Taliban introduced an ethnic dimension in Islamism in the region. Pakistan supported Taliban whereas Central Asian states supported Northern Alliance. Taliban oppression of ethnic minorities of Uzbeks and Tajiks caused stress in relations of Pakistan and Central Asian states.  Even after Pakistan‟s withdrawal of support for Taliban in the wake of terrorists attacks of 11 September 2001, relation with Central Asian states on the issue of Islamism remained tense due to apathy of Pakistan towards interests of Central Asian states in Afghanistan  Islamist insurgency in Pakistan has significantly changed the policies of Pakistan towards Islamism. These changes have implications on relations between Pakistan and Central Asian states as now there is increasing trust which is shown by many agreements between two sides for annihilation of Islamism in the region.

Suggestions:  Pakistan should stop Central Asian Islamists groups to use her territory. Pakistan also should prevent its Islamic parties to support and fund Islamist groups in Central Asia.  Peace in Afghanistan is necessary for good relations between Central Asian countries and Pakistan because ethnic groups in these countries (Pashtun in Pakistan as well as Tajiks and Uzbeks in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) are also present in Afghanistan in large numbers. Islamism in Afghanistan is threat to Pakistan and Central Asian states.  Central Asian countries should end the persecution of religion which is main reason of extremism.  A platform should be created by Pakistan and Central Asian states to cooperate for eradication of Islamism which is a menace for whole region. Inclusion of Pakistan in Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) provides the perfect opportunity for progress in this direction because other members China and Russia are also facing the peril of Islamism.

Weaknesses: Many observers believe that Central Asian concern regarding Islamism is mere „Cry Wolf‟ and actually government‟s own policies of suppression of religion is root cause of extremism. In addition to that, Central Asian republics of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan themselves has been supporting Islamist movements in Xinjiang region of China due to ethnic affinity with Uighurs which also points out the main source of conflict is not religion but the ethnicity. Even with historical religious ties, Pakistan and Central Asian republics treat Islamism differently at home and at regional front. Pakistan is often accused (most of the time correctly) as promoter of Islamism as an agent of influence in the region. Due to their domestic situation and their interests in Afghanistan, Central Asian republics are opposed to Islamism which pitches these countries against Pakistan. Although there is no direct confrontation but there is high degree of suspicion and mistrust between both sides. Central Asian republics and Pakistan know that they need good relation among them because of economic needs. Good relations can be maintained the region to respect the interests of each other. Islamism is threat to both sides which can be effectively dealt with cooperation. Peace in Afghanistan is necessary for stability in whole region and peace in Afghanistan can only be achieved by end if Islamic extremism in the country. Recent developments regarding cooperation between Pakistan and Central Asian states regarding security matters especially end of extremism and terrorism is a sign of progress which needed to be strengthened.

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