Root and Tuber Crops 5 8

Home , Dioscorea alata, Dioscorea bulbifera, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dioscorea trifida, Eddoe

ROOT AND TUBER CROPS 5 8

GARDENS OF OCEANIA t P h anc aro c fo casv meal. pl try ub e ycle ave l an an rm , u ien are ts rs , ts nd b th is Breadfui with en t wi a e also whic centred. ti s are basi th mes; we in equally edibl introduce enrgy-povid ha Vanut s the swet of t ve Taro and a agr se en rots anci ni-Vanut pota ban, a icultra d. since nd , en a But and r t y e an am t h and al c o s e s s e - f an B p f ea d P S times are o o lan ifernt o uerai u o o rl d me t d ds ie no the the t, p r of la tha of so t longer im n first second fod the ts they section and es are of of plants t he th shortage eatn are Cordyline regula thes y e a w fi herbacous tread of r er co st excpt the e is verd O y , i mpor c a such eatn. , bok. ea ni tre but in in her an s tan as in t . Genus Alocasia

Family Araceae

The genus comprises about 60 species spread from South Asia to the Pacific islands and Australia. Many species are ornamental.

Species present Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) Schott. Alocasia, elephant’s ear, giant taro

Alocasia, a wild plant in Vanuatu, is sometimes cultivated in the gardens. But it is mainly a plant used in times of food scarcity, situated in moist places but not in free-standing water, whose sweet cultivars are sought after.

References Bradbury & Holloway (1988), de Candolle (1883), Christophersen, ed. (1971), French (1986), Glassman, ed. (1971), Hay (1990) 10 , Ivancic & Lebot (2000), Neal (1929), OMS (1998), Pétard (1986), Plucknett (1970), Purseglove (1988), Simmonds, ed. (1984), Weightman (1989), Wilson et al . (1988), Yuncker, ed. (1971, 1974), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

Oceania, as far as Polynesia, Plant used in times of food Hawaii and Japan. La Billardière, scarcity or famine, local during his voyage of research Alocasia macrorrhiza with La Pérouse, observed it in a cultivated state in New Caledonia. Alocasia, elephant’s ear, giant taro Later it was also introduced to tropical America. In Vanuatu it History was introduced by humans in ancient times, but it is little The plant, originally from main- cultivated because of abundant land Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka crystals of calcium oxalate and India, has been cultivated contained in its corm , which since ancient times in tropical irritate the throat. It is a minor regions from Myanmar to Papua crop except in the islands of the New Guinea and northern Aust- central Pacific (Samoa, Tonga, ralia. Subsequently it was spread Wallis and Futuna) where it is by humans to all the islands of grown in abundance. S P O R C R E B U T D

10 N

A reference in bold type A

indicates the latest revision of T O

the genus or the most recent O that we were able to consult. R 59 6 0

GARDENS OF OCEANIA s Niu Mo L Descri Th such th b o cylin 4 caliu in o cul o con th mor u wi s vated In pe last, a wi a gren flo flo ap lo lo flo o evral elctio arge ecau f r val, ndu r m petio sp n n at ey flo t t diamet t th wers wers wers. e mo a tivaed g h h ger e iole tain end rphol a in phot wil wh cu e rescn ther pedu d are pu grey, lat as an gr dix re. m se fo rical h p s h le lti th oil age en, d erbacous etiol ite rple e; variets. d n t eight. towards at rms, li pt longer oxal hos Fr the of e vate an Leavs tinged forms er tle ypes contaig Tonga, i veins n n f and for , are the corm. u or og ion cle the tha conave, and the e favour someti espcialy i result ate. ts 1 of and alocsi a o consum consit Long . f ; base ical forms m f orm p in than one Amon h promi are section thi is wi from S resn erct, eight the have The Populatins l In amoa, a others ong; as pla th s o s of cl and not to variability corm Vanut f becaus 1 tip; femal w long purle risng wit u nt forms g contiual net; 8–40 swet ce ption ng metr selctd t o regula ith st in margi sagite, wo thes f edibl tinged of mal reaching P h er, a of a with of cul on (20 a as a steril male s met e. kg), out ee red; e red ap or ti e ns or cm - ds y, r e e , . m in S va island Wa d m an min ex a A pr Cu i V sp w th i lan Fo s ha ri an years ten imp are seriou ca ab b ( in W s n P u amo u an ecaus t lo il wild a cr o ith e r p us y ch aced a ces r d d o t ares ring ra d r ll o i d ve st he casi l pu l e uat ve sh corm or know, ium resiv ease after a in i may , ti e ri pl t du si n the as s i its ir cultivars in y e da an va te an te a more of the pl (E st the s water . and about nt ga be disea those d of d ct ace m ate the wher culti ha s its alocsi i a increas fa be is Ambae. ti about n , or rd a ca in wo a soil b sp.) the era te ) v f i o pl genral and ge Walis te s solid on but ut en e on kept u soi the kil d n vation ace rk t se r . b ry 2 When h of gr s. s i New of It are os tw ee l. s a banks the in om an a m regulay wil th later ow t infest s s It P te nevr or The g n for corm the But o oi year, is ar per e i suc entcos aprt. and e re found n nds ly d in d i taro o l n ins p e es a is H c cultivaed r to presu ac pigs ov tr l Cond found o pl w h yields a ebrids. f the plant. thr of l ew od uc m ect Futna. nt to ikely he but entialy atcked. situaed th et anta shot, er as taro, betl mu rives In ee e on d s reach e betr may but st an four To pest is l xp is m t ed tio or nit y op in - are No to the nga, ik es ear at u and n on ds ns ies b ot o it a y s - f min Th Al to co the uce so tha foun tha orde car Alocasi m m ime p is t t e s east o igs. e mun can sp d is, in r fo very to i fo o n r a an nt at H il of od i ocasinly el i the may ts ty owevr, th least oven imnate ar god, Ef own crop setld e P y ate tase. be ort u in of consumpti coked tha sw regu se Vila the Vanut, hot the at e l is W Forai also t market. arly crystal stone cul alisn also wi be tivars prod on th a fed on in - T O p a Gui to l co co cathes wh c e ut n u h a th y n rosive rpose avoid e f en ne st tac s is plant er uc e a an of m , h but wi , wal te use l unfores us a eting in sap n is nd th e doe ker us F used in the ca ij flows ed s s re V this and not unaw an skin. a for mus t s uat a come fr see Papu n rainstom m om u are. umbrela edicnal be m . Its th t into tak o A New e la ha rg en v e e

ROOT AND TUBER CROPS 61 6 2

GARDENS OF OCEANIA c is e So in Pac eou Ph the S lo Th Hist Elep campn Amor Fo on tai n ls outh (1972), B Ref Thi E Amo S The A Fami A Gen n t Z Pur O B s n h evi lo Jav, p i i le ewh o evn pec aru u ra chse g lip s e d wil ifc sl morph ecis. wad h t p mon s strange tim seglo l-sme ory In ant y in ce h th p east er gen an us d ere. ant rph genratd in pho do-M island; cr yst als i e ti l & Papu e ays es & ae state y cient (1962), es, fot Hendrso mes Is w us ago nc ve de Asi f ul Bakhuizen Its la o ild ot ing. pres after ala and comprise ph nds ph plant at (198), es Wet in yam a. of huge from forms plant N ya y of it us T It alu Java al am , fami Chr ew in n and he a form is ca l (198 is pha came us regio nt a lon i mainl nfl cu is Guinea istophern, s found w ci um ne, & Sastrpdj are sponta an so van campnults 2). ild ltivaed lite or g Hancok in about d met loc n period es a fods in and lus forms the ox ala te den and very ce al in t ime culti and he nce - a Brink Australi. in s of hundre vated (198), ed. ti et preation. mes a p b to wh b qu so its o p very co T o with erct, S Descr al (1980), (197), lan u u n p f in he sp me and ns ite . t t ly eard, V whic cultiva ich gle (1984), of ther anut the (Rox ontaeusly Ivanci ex t um speci Vanut much eatn thre low tha s compsite, famine, a therfo stop leaf we i ct rae e Pétard pt Hay rs and is b.) et as i ti is n . m in ( aprecitd on Weig htman i m is then their O som & fo on sw oxalte. nevr elsw spr ain e e (19 pose ce ti its not rm Lebot has stil x. o mes et (1986), an i ead etims f divson lite huge s dive genratd consu i De l real deply t her of almost 0) an s used cultivaed. cultivars of in i (20), cne t n Nowadys , s ly h eatn. tr o corm Hedrick famine. s A a is mption, (198), it double), by ls o know, one frica into du c spe lobed, is disa each Asian gr o is are cies ti o , - w n , multiple, elongate segments, more generally in any place pale green; long (50 cm) and that suffers seasonal dryness, thick petiole, rugose and often from sea level to 800 m altitude. spiny, greenish-grey or purplish, The sweet forms are multiplied dotted with little whitish mark- using small secondary corms, ings. When the leaf falls the or cormelles, which are planted inflorescence appears. This is a in fertile and well-drained soil. spadix 20–25 cm long comprising The corm, mature after about in order from bottom to top cylin - five months when the petiole drical female flowers, conical falls, remains for several months male flowers, and then a sterile in the ground. It is harvested appendage that is spongy, phallic, after three years. The small crumpled and adorned with shoots are used either for purplish grooves. The stink of propagation or for food. the inflorescence is reminiscent of rotting carrion, and it attracts Alimentary uses flies. As it ages the spathe folds back to form a collar with wavy Only the cultivated form is eaten , edges, yellow at the base and and this only rarely. In case of purplish at the apex. Numerous absolute necessity the wild forms fruits stuck one to another, the can be used, but at the expense size of small peas, red, 1 cm in of very careful preparation in diameter; peduncle erect. Seeds order to eliminate the oxalate polyembryonic . Corm in the crystals that irritate the throat. shape of a thick disc with a Corms of small size are cooked. central depression, reddish- They are cut into pieces which brown, irritant to the skin when are then retted (steeped in it is young, 20–25 cm in diameter water) for a long time. Then and can weigh up to 15 kg. they are baked in an oven of hot stones or boiled for ages. The cultivated form does not need Morphological variabilit y retting, but must still be baked There exists a wild form that for a long time in the hot stone cannot be eaten, which has a oven. This food, which was massive and very corrugated doubtless eaten regularly in petiole, and a cultivated form earlier times, is nowadays only that is edible and has a smooth er a food during famines, eaten petiole. by a few communities such as in Tanna and Santo. Cultivation and production Other uses

This plant is very rarely cultivated The sap of the plant is irritant, in Vanuatu. It may be seen in and the early Samoans whipped

unfaithful wives with the leaves. S areas of fallow, shady places, P O pastures under coconut, and R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

63 Genus Colocasia

Family Araceae

The genus contains seven species of which only one, Colocasia esculenta , is an important food plant. It is the only one present in Vanuatu.

Species present Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. 11 Taro

Taro, together with yam, is one of the two major food plants of Vanuatu. It is grown in every island, rainfed and irrigated. It is always served at feasts, and is harvested after a year.

References Bown (2000) , Bradbury & Holloway (1988), Hay (1990) , Ivancic & Lebot (2000), Lebot (1992), Lebot & Aradhya (1991), Matthews (1990) , Plucknett (1984), Wang (1983), Yen & Wheeler (1968).

nental plates of Sahul and Sunda . Staple food plant, local It has certainly been domesticated Colocasia esculenta for several millennia on one or other of these continental plates, Taro i.e. in Southeast Asia and in Papua New Guinea. This domestication History since ancient times has led to Colocasia esculenta having Taro originates from the Indo– thousands of cultivars, some of Malayan region between Myan- which are unique to the Pacific. mar and Bangladesh. From there The distribution of the Oceanian it spread eastwards to Asia and forms, from Papua New Guinea to the Pacific and westwards to Polynesia, is poorly understood, Madagascar and Africa, and the n however. But it is noticeable that the West Indies and America. all the Oceanian forms show Recent research has built on this quite narrow genetic variability, classic scenario. The area of even more so when one looks distribution of this species in at those of Polynesia. Thus, the wild state is much larger, the genetic variability of taro and extends from Myanmar to in Vanuatu is less than that of

A Papua New Guinea and northern I Solomon Islands or Papua New N Australia, astride the two conti- A Guinea, but more important E C O F O S 11 N The name taro is also applied E

D – incorrectly – to other closely R

A related plants that are used in G the same manner (see pp 59, 69, 106). 64 than that of Polynesian taros. In Vanuatu, forms are found that flower naturally and even produce seeds spontaneously.

Description

Herbaceous plant 1–1.5 m in height. Subterranean stem (corm) globular to cylindrical, variable in size; epidermis smooth or scaly ; flesh more or less fibrous, white, pink, yellowish, mauve or violet. Leaves peltate and cordate , light green to dark purple, 30–80 x 20–50 cm; petiole thick, variabl e Colocasia esculenta in size and colour, uniform, speckled or striped. into consideration when building Morphological variabilit y up their personal collections. Certain taros in Vanuatu appear According to botanists, taro is a to be spontaneous wild forms, single species that encompasses perhaps present on the islands two major varietal types, known before the arrival of humans. It under the names of Dasheen may thus be that the remarkable and Eddoe (or Eddo). Dasheen variability found is of ancient (derived from the French de origin, and results both from Chine meaning “from China”) recombination through sexual have a large central corm reproduction, although this is surrounded by small lateral rare, and selection of somatic corms that are hardly developed; mutations that are certainly Eddoe has a small central corm more frequent. surrounded by lateral corms that are well developed. Eddoe does not occur in Vanuatu. The morp h- Cultivation and ological variability is nevertheless production very important in Vanuatu, Taro likes humid areas, and it depending on the size and shape is therefore dominant on the of the corm, the size and colour windward sides of islands and at of the leaf and the petiole, the altitude. It is also cultivated in texture and colour of the corm, water in the extremely sophis- and the presence and number ticated, irrigated taro gardens of stolons . Over 500 different discussed earlier, that may be morphotypes have been disting- situated in leeward zones such uished. The cultivars are recog- S as on the west coast of Santo P nised also on organoleptic O and Maewo. It is these irrigated R criteria, which the farmers take C taros that produce the highest R E B U T D N A T O O R

65 6 6

GARDENS OF OCEANIA s o cyle. d that wh it Un th cro y T Al th d abo p th yield main of in T vary p taro wh cor cr It is ju th (DM se con h tap ield f ur aro eclin er aro riately. ot d o i e is e o ri o may pre th pro ime s a l er ich p. ico ugh wn m in ik ve-ground tro co swo sto h le favo b p ho V) e us b s, s fr tain is, is ectar g e It est h an etl p es corm rm During in fo om l h enom ared i u simply l n o in th wit o is v above t i e Dashen nt l them. as togehr s s e d f urs ir rtion od The wi i the to en e abou thei n the presnt. fils a desi rotai us and can 15–30 h ar a f . l corm ( vigour irst p i of in per base Th P other ts great d rai l main find r y orde rab ant apu is the with to al In be then ruin t par the numeros vegetative gardens e ons ea n six u 20–3 year, far the le tones. f Vanu atu Mosaic wit culti baked at of se sucker ed se s an t pha the wel ni-Vanut. tase rot and pest to st an of months me ea i of the i n h sw g ts arch, ar e whil se m humidty vated ardens ten the orde cm entir 60 yam, rs sp.), in and st crops, elling apro a is bot for wi when ke know increas Virus k ems. tones ways. heigt hot plant no e dep, t or no w th the he tom stil the of s the the for to om t the a - aro or its n, It e e th It d T Ot p c t an leavs with b p o co leavs vegtabls, o th co co ro a so C vi starch so crystal artion. b an su alergnic It also calium in o o istrbued lan aro ambo ick f r e ertain r d tesinal e is is is o o u fering co ld ok d rm d t p flow glowin elicous suited her u t ner rce grand re , in boiled. tiny t, ed al evn e nu rich crops. in conut is or pa to of so presnt g an tha of and ering t of and a broiled cultivars i re O of in m a and u th t pots contaiers. a cult in taro from u to envl movent, thers calories m cermonis. pure i se fods e lap god an lk sed cal often embrs. is acompniet abundtly Taro coked Above mixed fibre ay f this . the iron. i ur ne easily for - mil o Fi cium are lap evn b gastri for v aly ope on tha na n e en ritual an flowers for form is sprin k tha es baies! are , c eat ll , a by prov wi making al ut d a s o importan y, the oxalte of in in T dig hot invalds co f Sprinkled c o very w th to h i gra a and helps it hot f kled n of leavs n smal legnd. ulcers, pl e t ntai y raping estd ide i to during other is t the as stone young ant make s ting are pre- It soft s god pie in used gr hypo tone with is are ti by to ain ce th m by and to e e s. s. s - Genus Cordyline

Family Agavaceae

Species present Cordyline terminalis (L.) Knuth Cordyline

Cordyline is one of the most important Oceanian plants. In earlier times its tuber was eaten and its leaves served as skirts for women on certain islands. Nowadays it is principally an ornamental plant, scarcely eaten except in times of famine.

References Barrau (1962), Cox (1982), French (1986), Guillaumin (1946), Neal (1929), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), OMS (1998), Parham (1972), Peekel (1984), Pétard (1946, 1986), Seeman (1873), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

Nagriamel movement, which Food in times of famine, local amongst other things preaches Cordyline terminalis a return to the traditional way of life, takes its name from cordyline Cordyline (nagaria ) and cycad ( namwele ).

History Description Cordyline originates from South - Plant 3–5 m tall; trunk long and east Asia, northern Australia and narrow. The root swells into a Melanesia. It was certainly spread large, fibrous tuber 10–20 cm in Oceania by humans as they in diameter. Leaves terminal, migrated through the region. In arranged in a spiral, smooth, Vanuatu its ancient use as a foo d thick and long (60 x 15 cm); veins has almost disappeared, and fine and longitudinal. Inflores- villagers nowadays grow it as cence terminal, branching and an ornamental plant. It does, long (30–60 cm); numerous smal l however, retain some cultural flowers with six lobes, white, value in certain communities. purple or lilac. Fruits round, For example in Fanafo the yellow or red, 1 cm in diameter. S P O R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

67 6 8

GARDENS OF OCEANIA th th was are pr fo leavs. aco Th Cu cul Nu Mo Th Al ha Cul in resu New yelo o s in It to th p p v wi s d It agin in o times ize, tems igo f f lan ern isea to e o rest e i beco v va t gard ime th 2,60 fi e e s mero oduc tivaed h u ti e lt fo ap ed u bre, rp hol lt ts p tu p gh scar th ri e rd ten var w, a be en variet r ivat ro lan n rme very ous it p ib o p th are b e h an machet in ens mes ial; Wil rare earnc f nt p lants. er d p s problems ave w l us soi m at while ce, e, t g ink sexual erness d agted whos ti as dif grows usal se and io variets to i ar d quickly ies increase ar alti are var but og t was l, l on does ben after ignfed le c forms fer is eatn or ound n and the y No tude iets can the ic al the e planted often in te d ent feathry ly u and used. and to of crosing, by tube from colur occur ser se thes sel having Vanut gren, ar ornam you aper resto t the wh and fo e found and cutings he the have va ria bi lit y nvir e lea ex ectd ious and r cut rs In en recod. ir la r ng sea vil ist st directly easily. na th grow are is o leavs. of leavs. earl back g is ben whil fod nm ent red, pest am leavs ic in ages. tu whic e found as lev only the for the kne eaten t ra en the of al ub oun ier a e l or l t ss e y s. r t ir aro p u p evil o S ni existe c d o co tied fro A S C Ot mak it also b large tu cen gu f E fro fro with Co co resu T b ha in ib o atches sed lan f an ish f an efo an ein rig o romang, to ties wa b simple o s ok m o rous, h p rd rdyline m m m her und er tr ki to to ked. na a ot repation ate spirt e lting ted g p with re in s ed yl of when conut e for n the one whic r oven. ie d was came smal coked an for fi ep in g stone. the of d being P c cordyline. r vilages f in in w is e, of e or st u entcos u marking tar base leafy exclusivy s, pure S a s island its t er w se was coked tuber chewd w cemtri an a pee land it a a cord and In o ti e togehr l hic w nd hi F ap-ls, l col to o is eatn. on p cr mil utna om in ch In Eroman n l of its sprig ed varied cultivaed , h t insufcetly u was and it g oured in he f the t belt. was an sh or the seve k , the o i en t s and boundaries a is The a im n gardens who and l e nd another. v nd es. k ike oven. w d made ho gr al and then ery w ee centr e back whic around peld, m r The ell s i ways in c at al as as leavs n modes i use. It lighty le pi ale n go, ut used chewing -wash e h th in comm Futna, ng is an spread d a in ard mixed in In bef plant e skirt. . and ritual and h and the also The aw of after a In han ove e to a ore cut a dge of ed nd a u n d y - Genus Cyrtosperma

Family Araceae

The genus is pantropical and contains 11 species. Only one species is present in Vanuatu.

Species present Cyrtosperma chamissonis (Schott.) Merrill Giant swamp taro

Giant swamp taro is little cultivated. It may sometimes be found in a garden, most often on the banks of a small watercourse. But it is present in Vanuatu, and people may turn to it for food in times of scarcity.

References Barrau (1962), Bradbury & Holloway (1988), French (1986), Hay (1990) , Ivancic & Lebot (2000), Lambert (1982), Plucknett (1970), Purseglove (1988).

erect, sagittate , triangular, with Local plant, eaten occasionally three roughly equal lobes, the Cyrtosperma chamissonis two lobes at the base being long and pointed; long, thick petiole, Giant swamp taro cylindrical, sometimes furnished with spines at the base. Thick, History open spathe; spadix with hermaphrodite flowers. Originating from the coastal zones of Papua New Guinea, giant swamp taro has moved with Morphological variability humans throughout the islands Varieties are very numerous of Oceania. This is a taro that is according to shape, size and little cultivated except by inhabi- colour of leaves, and colour tants of Micronesian atolls. and size of the spathe. From an agronomic point of view cultivars Description vary according to their yield and their tolerance to salinity. It is Large herbaceous plant 3–4 m hard to know the diversity of

tall. Large, almost cylindrical S

this plant in Vanuatu because P corm, from 20–40 kg. Leaves O

it is not much cultivated there. R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

69 7 0

GARDENS OF OCEANIA p waterco Po cor marsh pr Gia Cu p agted its iecs l oduc ynesi al n lt cu t ivat i swamp y sland t o vegtai ares, out urse, f a. cor ti io T on by he m n of t the aro or peol vely plants or and Micr the sucker beds is by onesia e grown cultivaon are in plantig of the pro smal in and i n t he - T Al s i in is p ten two n o iecs, h n il. t V i e hr men ot or anut. , corm T and ee he much so then to corm may tar years. is f ou culti peld boiled y r stay reachs ye u vated se ars in or and , the s baked. ome or maturiy cut soil eatn t imes into for It Genus Dioscorea

Family Dioscoreaceae

The genus comprises 603 species, distributed throughout tropical regions and independently domesticated on three continents. Over 50 species are edible, and without doubt these were important food for the first humans. Vanuatu is home to seven species, five of which are local and two introduced since European contact.

Species present Dioscorea alata L. Winged yam, greater yam, water yam

Dioscorea bulbifera L. Air potato, aerial yam, potato yam

Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill. Chinese yam, lesser yam, sweet yam

Dioscorea nummularia Lam. Pacific yam, hard yam

Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Five-fingered yam

Dioscorea rotundata Poir. and D. cayenensis African yam, white yam

Dioscorea trifida L. Cushcush, Indian yam

References Adeleye & Ikotuu (1989), Alexander & Coursey (1969), Bahuchet et al . (1991), Bonnemaison (1991), Bourret (1973), Bradbury & Holloway (1988), Burkill (1960) , Coursey (1976, 1983), Dumont & Marti (1997), Hamon & Bakary (1990), Hamon et al . (1995), Lebot et al . (1998), Marchand & Girardot, eds (1998), Martin & Rhodes (1977), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Osagie (1992), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Weightman (1989), Wilson (1988).

History Staple food plant, local

The origin of this species remains S

Dioscorea alata P

a puzzle. It does not exist in the O R

Winged yam, greater yam, wild state, but recent work has C water yam R confirmed its close relationship E B U T D N A T O O R

71 Dioscorea alata

with D. nummularia , a species people who made the Lapita that is typically Melanesian and pottery 2,500 years ago, but it with which it shares a number may even be older than that. The of characters. It is certainly one winged yam, a seasonal plant, is of the most ancient of cultivated used everywhere in customary plants. Domesticated in New exchanges, and is the staple food Guinea, which is also its centre of coastal populations. The vege- of diversity, and then distributed tative cycle of this yam sets the throughout the tropical world, rhythm for the village life, for it is the best represented of the certain rituals and for the cultural species of yams. It reached calendar. Some communities, A

I Vanuatu at a time that is still such as those on the west coast N

A uncertain, probably with the of Santo, gained access to these E C O F O S N E D R A G

72 yams relatively late, a short varieties destined for offerings while before the advent of and exchanges, while the short, Europeans. Their culture and round ones are the varieties for their utilisation of the yam for daily use. The above-ground food are thus less developed parts, stems and leaves, also than in the rest of Vanuatu. have very diverse morphology and colouring. The villagers distinguish their cultivars accor d- Description ing to taste and cooking quality, Climbing plant; stem smooth, and grow for example certain square or winged, twining to the yams that are particularly soft right. Leaves opposite , heart- for children and old people who shaped, more or less round or no longer have teeth. Finally, elongate according to cultivar, certain cultivars are resistant light green to dark green. Some to anthracnose 12 . The species bulblets in certain cultivars. is dioecious (separate male and Tubers extremely variable in female plants), but it is rare that shape, number and size; long the plants flower in Vanuatu and tubers are usually single, round most of the ones that do are male. tubers usually three or four. Cultivation and Morphological variability production

The morphological variability This species is the most important of this species is very important, in Vanuatu. It is grown annually each community having its own on slopes that are very sunny special collection of cultivars and and have fertile soil. Gardens are its own classification. Over 500 opened up each year between different varieties are known from August and November. After Vanuatu. Numerous forms contain the vegetation has been cut anthocyanin which colours the and burned, whole tubers or, flesh pink, mauve or violet. They more rarely, pieces of tubers are are most often grouped accord- planted in the soil. The heavier ing to the local taxonomies. The the planting material, the greate r shape of the tuber, often resemb - the subsequent yield. The soil is ling human anatomy, may be generally buttressed around the round, cylindrical, very elongate, tubers, but the size and shape with a number of side branches , of these mounds varies with the smooth or embossed, or recurved community. The most imposing in a hook-shape, sometimes are found in Malekula, where extravagantly so. The elongate the round hillock is often high, yams are associated with men, and in Tanna where the yams the round ones with women. The are cultivated on long platforms. size of the tuber is likewise very Once the stems emerge from the variable. Generally the cylindrical S

ground, the yam is staked. There P and very long yams, which are O again the types of stakes vary – R difficult to harvest, are the a simple reed or bamboo stake, C R E B U T D

12 N

A fungal disease caused by A

Colletotrichum gloeospor- T O

ioides , an epidemic of which O can blacken the leaves so R quickly that the farmers think 73 that the damage has been caused by thunderbolts. a trellis, or a long tree branch bring together several commun- or trunk of a tree killed for the ities. Farmers who are able to purpose. The yams are harvested grow such yams are accorded between March and August, but great prestige, which is also the dates vary a little from north reflected on the community to to south, planting and harvest which they belong. The growing being earlier in the north and of these yams is always carried later in the south. There are out by men. also some stands of D. alata

maintained close to villages or Complementary food plant, local along forest footpaths in sunny positions. The main disease is Dioscorea bulbifera anthracnose. Air potato, aerial yam, potato yam

Alimentary uses History

Conveniently, yams keep for Originally from Asia, Africa and several months in shade and Oceania, this species was inde- humidity as long as they have pendently domesticated in all been harvested carefully and are three regions. It reached Vanuatu undamaged. The tubers are laid in a time long ago, maybe even out along bamboo beds, covered before the arrival of humans with leaves of Heliconia or because it is not impossible shaded by small awnings built that bulblets could be dispersed for this purpose in the gardens. naturally from island to island They are eaten whole, baked through the agency of marine over glowing embers, or cut currents. It is a wild plant that in large pieces and baked in occurs in a spontaneous state an oven of hot stones, or boiled throughout Melanesia and in 13 in a marmite , or grated and Australia. used for lap-lap . Yams are sold seasonally in the markets, but it remains predominantly a food Description plant for home consumption, Stem round, twining to the left, and is present in all feasts. without spines. Subterranean tuber small or absent, spongy. Other uses Leaves alternate , broad, round, heart-shaped; leaf blade Yam is, together with taro, embossed; veins well marked; one of the two ritual plants of petiole long and jointed at the Vanuatu. Its morphological plas- base. Bulblets in the axils of ticity has encouraged farmers to leaves, abundant, round, some- produce some tubers of extraor- times large in size, epidermis dinary shapes, such as yams close pale, flesh yellow or reddish, to 2 m in length offered with great sometimes toxic. A

I display during ceremonies that N A E C O F O S 13 N A round iron cooking pot used E

D particularly for stews. R A G

74 The corm of alocasia ( Alocasia macrorrhiza ) grows up out of the ground. The ni-Vanuatu also call this large plant elephant’s ear.

The inflorescence of Amorphophallus campanulatus gives off an evil-smelling odour. r e t l a W .

A Amorphophallus campanulatus . Wild form, irritant. © 75 Roots and tubers are the major food plants, around which the agricultural cycle revolves.

Collection of taros ( Colocasia esculenta ) at the Chapuis Agricultural Station (Santo).

© A. Walter 76 Colocasia esculent a. Over 500 cultivars of taro are known. The colour of the petiole, or of its point of attachment, the shape of the leaves, or the existence of red edging at the leaf margin, are among the characteristics for differentiating the cultivars. Here are some examples.

In Luganville market taros are sold in bunches, tied together around their petioles.

Taros sold by the single piece, with the petiole removed.

78 © A. Walter

Cordyline terminalis, an ornamental plant and a plant used in times of food scarcity, has great cultural significance.

Rare in Vanuatu, giant swamp taro ( Cyrtosperma chamissonis ) grows near small watercourses. 79 Dioscorea alata. The lush vines of the winged yam twine around their supporting stake.

Dioscorea alata , the winged or greater yam, is the most important species in Vanuatu. Like taro, it is one of the great ritual plants.

Male flower of Dioscorea alata .

The tubers of Dioscorea © A. Walter alata are variable in shape. 80 Cultivar of Dioscorea alata with rounded leaves.

Like taro, the winged yam has several hundred cultivars, of which these are two examples.

Cultivar of Dioscorea alata with triangular leaves and mauve stems. © A. Walter

Supporting stake bearing vines of Dioscorea bulbifera in a garden. © F. Tzerikiantz

Leaves of Dioscorea esculenta , the Chinese yam.

Tubers of Dioscorea bulbifera .

Baked, boiled or in a lap-lap, Dioscorea nummularia is very popular. It is a food during the transition between the two major yam harvests.

The cultivar Maro of Dioscorea nummularia The five-lobed leaves of is famous for the whiteness of its lap-lap. Dioscorea pentaphylla.

The large tuber of Dioscorea pentaphylla.

Leaves (above) and tubers (below) of Dioscorea rotundata-cayenensis, the African yam.

The winged stalk of Dioscorea trifida , introduced to Vanuatu. © A. Walter

The trilobate leaf of Dioscorea trifida , the cushcush or Indian yam.

Sweet potato and cassava, two other staple food plants, were introduced to Vanuatu.

Violet sweet potato with white flesh, a form occurring in Vanuatu.

Row of cassava plants ( Manihot esculenta ) in a garden.

Lap-lap from cassava. The crusting comes from long cooking at low heat with coconut cream.

Pueraria lobata. Its tuber is still grown in some gardens. © A. Walter 89 Tannia or macabo ( Xanthosoma sagittifolium ) growing in a garden in the forest.

Tannia, or macabo, is increasingly often replacing taro in the gardens and in the diet.

Xanthosoma sagittifolium: inflorescence.

Secondary corms or cormlets of tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) for sale by the basket. © A. Walter

© D. Greindl 90 Morphological variability light. However, in times of food shortage these wild forms may b e The wild forms seem to be eaten after having been cooked relatively homogeneous, but in the ancient way, i.e. grated several dozen local cultivars are and carefully washed. recognised according to the size and shape of the leaves and the bulblets, the colour of their skin Other uses and their flesh – white, yellow or The wild forms of D. bulbifera mauve. Flowering is relatively have been found by recent common among these individuals. research to contain anti-fungal agents (dihydrodioscorine). Cultivation and Initial analyses carried out in production scientific laboratories have been promising. This yam may be collected from the forest where certain stands Staple food, introduced (or local?) of edible cultivars are protected and even tended. There are also Dioscorea esculenta some cultivated forms, propa- Chinese yam, lesser yam, gated vegetatively in the gardens sweet yam amongst other yams, by planting a bulblet as one plants a potato. The yield of these bulblets is History impressive and may reach several Originally from Southeast Asia, kilos per plant, sold by the this species was spread around basketful at the market. the Pacific by human migration. It is believed to have been rela- Alimentary uses tively late arriving in Vanuatu. In Santo, the most ancient cultivars This species, when growing have been partially replaced by naturally, contains some toxic forms of better quality introduced substances (alkaloids), which from New Caledonia called are soluble in water and are wovilé . therefore destroyed by cooking. In earlier times these yams were grated and washed for a long Description time in flowing water before Round stem twining to the left, being eaten. It is generally the set with small spines along its above-ground bulblets that are entire length. Tubers numerous, eaten, but some cultivated forms oval, spiny, with white, pink or exist that produce edible tubers. purple flesh. Leaves heart-shape d, Nowadays forms are grown in almost round, pilose at the the gardens that are non-toxic, extremity of the stems, although they are slightly bitter small in size; no bulblets. S P when they have grown in full O R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

91 9 2

GARDENS OF OCEANIA ro s sp les h u variet th great col and pr Th Cu Fo Mo Th Al va fro gard ac i p w case o Few mak later ten gro tase so me and to s to h On d very s s wet. um pe eals ish lace f ave ur o e ts, e r t p ime sp an 10 i i r e m oduc r ie o d ci e s s wn cies in research l lt n k ristc a rp hol an ers ed th with e u fi in en ti e yam sp in o w a u th . nt an recod g i w ivat r i b o i an s, s it th nd f mpor eir mber es g , It m tones el, es s It rous racnose ver transpo o s e in ecis hi b evn the d nt n p i is eir to an d d pr es d f i alongside y s ha ve ot s troduce exist ref . te is it a its on shape, has the ti a hardy the therfo and pl io ar har such i very li only og ft cultivars harvesting ncr mainly real to tance; on than of a anted stati tle yi si v e t thoug i n y he flesh s v a r ta ves per si dul elds tha if ic al eas tubers er y yi Its cultivaed e D. tuber and u and ze st e easil dries as y care ons rots and i and elds i yi eld s. ted those t se ts wha hectar. alata tubers sevral p in of D. is purle. spe eat the are whic t are ri mit iv va ria bi lit y in ha vi epidrms neds y. it ex flow resitan damge by 8 t the it of o tha alt ruse, he per en s t –9 t ci amount whic tricky. It presnc u very pe di . produces of the is swet It t es the close I raely same sting baked leavs, m er. n kep ri slo s plant in vari i other e dozen is Som s li g lite This me it , onth so con c hig. and wl t yam h has h h m es - nt a tl y us y. e - r e s s - win i In o to milk u hu n ku b b h ro times b co sp an Stem Descr n is A Hi P Di Compl th L Mo d G an h occur sem o cated, f r ac rb evrthls ranched, u ard ranches. es o iversty u f u n an very o n in rdate; gles, d la n t t n certain make Maleku. sto o b inea, o ifc an ts, ative ged dr dres ocasinly ocur o rp y Vanu atu , sco t a varible D flesh, ile but round ed nd more at of e in varible markets. particuly . y to h r anciet men twing d, i am, yam. alt y but pt the o i lap- the r bulets o S to may regula have it ea s of r an regi in Elongate lo coverd pr s genraly i so tary Melansi i h o or in base; mpor to f flesh cultivars. Asia. g i spontaeu ar contais Its , orest, n morphlgicay n n be ons d thi , i Solmn ben kl w d i plant, ca u it if n to . fo true ith ed y fer pink. It Papu s mu absent. is size, tan a od shape is long such l Its the speci in m sel with and en a w va ri ab il ity tuber , four domesti to s white pla varibl this the centr ith t right, a than and a i It wi Leavs mpor later cult as there nt, New god watery wel Island tiny and l alwys or co th island a yam some Male- forms does r loc co ivars the more ia very tant - of in ty nu are al - . t is difficult to study because a forests in order to provide good number of the forms are a food reserve that was rapidly found in the forest where they available if needed. Its period are maintained by farmers. of dormancy is relatively short, Some are cultivated annually, and the tubers produce new others are perennial plants that stems less than two months produce new stems every year. after harvest. No serious pest or disease problems are known and it is highly resistant to Cultivation and anthracnose, making it popular production in areas where anthracnose is a dominant disease. Farmers This species is one of the yams of Mele (Efate) for example that are called ‘wild’, which are are nowadays cultivating this cultivated minimally in forest species. The yield is such that areas but which may also be a plant may be partly harvested planted in yam gardens after each year while being left in the D. alata . Certain communities ground to continue growing. such as those of Malo put aside a special garden for D. nummularia . It is planted between Alimentary uses October and November, and is cultivated with less care than The taste of this yam is popular, D. alata except on the patches and according to cultivar it is of land that are reserved for it. eaten baked, boiled or as lap-lap . It is harvested after the winged The well-known cultivar Marou, yam, but some cultivars may be originally from Malo, is very much left in the soil for two to three favoured because of the whiteness years. It thus plays an important of the lap-lap that can be made role in strategies for food secur- from it, which is a characteristic favoured by the consumers. ity, since it provides a transitional The dry matter contents of the source of food between the main different cultivars are very high. yam ( D. alata ) harvests and it provides something to eat throughout the year. The com- Food plant occasionally eaten, loca l munities of Malo have developed Dioscorea pentaphylla production of this species for sale in the market of Luganville, Five-fingered yam which provides them with a useful cash income. However, History farmers are becoming concerned at the increasing popularity of This wild species was without D. nummularia , because this doubt distributed through the yam is taking up a lot of land Pacific islands before the arrival and requires the killing of many of the first people. It is abundant trees so that their trunks can in Vanuatu, available from the S serve as supports for the yam P forest and in gardens where O R vines. In earlier times this yam farmers often cultivate a few C was largely maintained in the R stands. E B U T D N A T O O R

93 9 4

GARDENS OF OCEANIA gated certain v in a o s s pr Oft Cu Th Mo s S Descri can th s to p wh flaten abu ed, t is a s h D. y pa left, s s of th Th th m ately care. ub mal eco mal teri po h up ery am f tem ro arvestd si tre at e e e lig all th th e lma e th flo nu oduc ich en ng le er du t po lt an ur i nd flesh fo same rp hol vary spo spe le) e ow spi e n htl (alo e resist ant h w set T ivat ro mu rest, dary is to b cti d easil rt envi co as an ty th same crop ed t var h er , u y ny. e cul t cie s u when hole e planted and pt at for ng l on harvest. nsi t i ta nd aprt ben we is from blets. nd, of t with and spot, (some ti y crow or ronm from io is y tivars s withou Tuber can tubers og lari marked ion wi der i acording of on eded the the area. s has from scoope d in ha absent twi n up t th lo w compa t bulets chosen, o five white ic al he and ed n rv e l toge the ent. and tubers ater vi or ni se ), D. i disea, forms , to can is n , The round, The ne, tuber the bulets. to tha ng st ed ra n this vera cultivaed l the colur bul r then disturbance or ), Aft eaflts; tweny va ria bi lit y eplantd her se be to to n out be the gi n t density t. s re bi to he e rve are soi whic wi t l speci pec cl a (very are r p a the Leavs reachs me cul proa- fer with imed- g often ose piece by urpl the a ground and abilty wild l h f of ie as to sh r a in mb tiva or some hand g om es s to r an ad e. a in i a ea i so n er s of rs is d y t - . its C d b t rap D rotu n h f d f sp T Hi A Di Di S T Al Sm Descr f o (wh to A th very D an p sp In ‘ po o West martinquse’ an r o r ta fric evlopd. u ame u o f o rign hi h an frica o om . . an r eci ecis th pul i t ge n p V the N e sto o o m pl a cayen ce tase al s men id t ia ular. many anut ich opy h bysin ew n an speci racnose sco sco e ya l popula i es t th is Indies. complex n a dat to maturion hi n of and fo increasg from r, throug m r y e u e is i y s wi Caledoni ( y a bushy, a pt ar i d mb D a r r D en ea s s cr nt t m, tar d ou ea ea m al branches a ll ioscrea li . the relativy is ica st hra o i si about Stem p er so r. er praehnsil M b on btl t w – aperd ss It l e it used eco a y I co cayen r artinque s hi w ). t o n town t cn . used of e o i is w is the becaus heavy me l I f t, u is te ailu ss as t i t T t ose, ke ith me s becoming round, likey impo form se and intr wa he fity un tem eaten y be s, to it cro am o po cayensi- per as oth of i s is in b i compund f cau ncre o eve cover nsipd. d en s and ut i i ta t Ne s duc i sing years rtance ts nt a Ho caled n B per at er tha in stem. resulting of less se n li b rod n is l o, w resi- West si and/or asin ec uail ght ame e the loca wel t its am a) ho a d of s p Ca le the very uc au this n of lant, no ago, ug d gly ou of it ed s s w i e h - s . green, waxy, twining to the right ; Alimentary uses slightly spiny at the base; short This yam is suitable for making lateral branches. Tuber often lap-lap , but people prefer to eat single, skin light chestnut in it boiled. colour, cylindrical, smooth, with white flesh. Tuber dormancy is shorter than that of other species Food plant occasionally eaten, of yam. Leaves cordate, elongate, introduced dark green; no bulblets. Dioscorea trifida

Cushcush, Indian yam Morphological variability There is great morphological History heterogeneity in the area of origi n of this yam complex. In Vanuatu This species originates from it is very limited – two cultivars America, where it was domesti- of D. rotundata with white flesh cated in the region of the frontie r and some of D. cayenensis with between Brazil and Guyana yellow flesh. The variety called before being spread through the Six manis in Bislama is known West Indies. It was introduced for its short life cycle of six to Vanuatu quite late and it is months , but its tuber tends to not very common there, but is subdivide and its harvest is tricky. becoming increasingly popular.

Cultivation and Description production Stem twining to the left, quadran- gular, winged, without spines. This yam is cultivated like Small tubers 20 cm in length, the winged yam, and the yield grouped fifteen to twenty in the depends on the weight of the one stand; flesh white, yellow, material that was used for plant- pink or purple. Leaves with three ing. In contrast to D. alata , it does or five lobes; bulblets absent. not do well without staking or other support and requires much work to be undertaken. Morphological variability Its harvest requires great care There is not much variability because the epidermis of the in Vanuatu. Only one clone is tuber copes less well with damage known, which has the strange than other yam species. It is like- name Africa in Bislama (strange wise necessary to be careful when since it is an American species). transporting this yam because The species is spread around jolting can cause rapid rotting the archipelago, though in any of affected tubers. It is also very one place there will only be a susceptible to nematodes that

few stands grown. S

damage the tubers and render P O them unsaleable. R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

95 Cultivation and Alimentary uses

production The small tubers are cooked It is planted like other yams but like new potatoes, as boiled or its vegetative cycle is relatively steamed vegetables. It is very long, and it is brought to market fragrant, and its sweet taste in August and September. It is combined with its soft flesh resistant to anthracnose but very makes it a popular yam with susceptible to Yam Mosaic Virus young children. It is not suitable (YMV) – however, at present this for making lap-lap because it disease is absent from Vanuatu. does not have much dry matter. A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

96 Genus Ipomoea

Family Convolvulaceae

This important genus comprises around 400-–500 species, distributed throughout the tropical regions. It is divided into several sections, of which the section Batatas includes eleven species plus one hybrid and originates from America. Two species are present in Vanuatu.

Species present Ipomoea aquatica Forskal Water spinach, kangkong, swamp morning glory (cf. p. 200, climbing plants)

Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Sweet potato

Sweet potato is introduced, and has become one of the main food plants of Vanuatu.

References Austin (1988), Barrau (1962), Cornelis (1985), Cornelis & Nugteren (1982), Fosberg & Sachet (1977) , French (1986), Lin et al . (1985) , Nishiyama (1971), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Piperno & Pearsall (1998), PROSEA (1994), Purseglove (1991), Rubatzky & Yamagushi (1997), Sauer (1993), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Weightman (1989), Worsley & Oldfield (1988), Yen (1974, 1976, 1982).

region is home to thousands Staple food plant, introduced of cultivars and represents a Ipomoea batatas second centre of diversification, interesting because of the high Sweet potato content of dry matter and low degree of sweetness of some of History the cultivars. Various theories on how sweet potato reached Sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas ) the region are now discredited – originates from Peru, Colombia that it was brought from Latin and Ecuador. It was probably

America by canoe piloted by S th introduced during the 16 century P

Polynesians or Amerindians, that O to Papua New Guinea and all R it was brought to New Zealand C of Melanesia. This geographical R in prehistoric times or by the E B U T D N A T O O R

97 first wave of explorers, that it the stem. The taste, consistency was introduced to Melanesia and cooking time of the flesh also by the ancient Polynesians a vary. In places where the foliage little before the arrival of the of sweet potato is fed to pigs, first Europeans, or that it was varieties with perennial stalks brought by the Europeans. that produce lots of leaves are One fact is certain – that it was prized. From an agronomic point already present in Hawaii before of view, cultivars vary according the arrival of Captain Cook. It to their time to reach maturity seems certain that it reached and their resistance to local Vanuatu relatively late, towards diseases, the most serious of the end of the 17 th century, which are viruses and above all arriving simultaneously in the the sweet potato weevil ( Cylas north (Santo) and the south spp.). The northeast region of (Futuna). It is increasingly Santo is one of those where the grown there and eaten very diversity is greatest. However, widely. Research on sweet over recent years new hybrid potato and its improvement varieties have been introduced by began in Vanuatu in the 1980s. the Department of Agriculture and compared with the local varieties. Description

Creeping plant whose stems Cultivation and have internodes from which roots arise. Just beneath the production surface of the soil, thickening of Sweet potato is present from se a the adventitious roots produces level to about 1,000 m altitude, a dozen or so tubers, fusiform in sunny areas. It is a perennial or globular , smooth or furrowed, plant that is generally cultivated white, yellow, orange, red or as an annual. It is propagated violet. Leaves simple, arranged vegetatively by stem cuttings, or in spirals, entire or deeply lobed , much more rarely by pieces of oval, green or with a violet hue, tuber. It is harvested after about 15 x 15 cm; petiole 5–30 cm long . 3–8 months, its productivity is Flowers solitary, trumpet-shaped, high and its cultivation is easy. purplish, 4 cm in diameter. Small Further, when the fallow time is fruits with 4 black seeds, some- shortened and the area becomes times not properly developed grown over with vegetation, it because pollination is incomplete. is useful to plant some sweet potatoes whose vines restrain Morphological variability the vegetation regrowth. The two most serious diseases are Fifty or so local cultivars occur in a fungal disease, scab ( Elsinoe Vanuatu, distinguished according batatas ), which damages the to the size, colour and texture of young leaves, and a mycoplasma A I the tubers, the shape and colour that causes their dwarfing. The N

A of the leaves, and the length of scab is a real problem as cropping E C O F O S N E D R A G

98 intensifies, and rotations are sweet to be made into lap-lap. necessary to avoid a devastating Only the region of Port Orly is build-up. From time to time known for its lap-lap made from farmers must make seedbeds, sweet potato, which makes a planting in them tubers which very good dessert. Sweet potato sprout and provide vines that are is available throughout the year, more vigorous for production of and is sold regularly and well cuttings. For a single variety the in local markets. It may be kept yield may vary greatly according for a few weeks in shaded and to the season. When it is hot dry conditions. The tips of the and humid, sweet potato makes stems are often used as a vege- few tubers but many stems and table, and are sold as such in leaves, and the opposite when it the markets. They may also be is cool and dry. It is thus best to made – but not very often – into grow it from May to December. chips that are sold in groceries.

Alimentary uses Other uses

Sweet potato occupies an The stems and secondary tubers increasingly important place in are fed to pigs. Farmers value the nutrition of the ni-Vanuatu. their ability to cover the soil It is eaten baked or boiled in a and to keep plots of land neat marmite , but its flesh is too and clean. S P O R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

99 Genus Manihot

Family Euphorbiaceae

The genus comprises about a hundred species distributed from southern Arizona to Argentina, the two centres of diversity being Mexico and Brazil.

Species present Manihot esculenta Crantz Cassava, manioc, tapioca

References Allem (1999), de Candolle (1883), Charrier et al ., eds (1997), Mathon (1981), McKey & Beckerman (1993), Nassar (1978), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Piperno & Pearsall (1998), Purseglove (1991), Rogers & Appan (1973) , Rogers & Fleming (1973), Sauer (1993), Silvestre & Arraudeau (1983), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Viard (1995), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

Domesticatio n probably Staple food plant, introduced occurred with intra- and inter- Manihot esculenta specific hybrids in the Rio Negro region situated in the north Cassava, manioc, tapioca of the Amazon Basin. Cassava (Manihot esculenta ) is diploid, History and emerged from successive hybridisations between wild The most ancient traces of cassava species. Various studies suggest (macrobotanical remains and that the species involved were grains of starch) have been found M. flabellifolia, M. peruviana and in the north of Peru, and have been M. glaziovii . In the 16 th century dated as 8400–6000 years before the Portuguese introduced cass- our era. But the exact origin of ava to the Gulf of Benin and the this plant is not well understood, mouth of the River Congo. At though its cultivation was already the end of the 18 th century the well developed in Latin America plant reached Réunion and Mad a- 4,000 years ago. The genus Manihot gascar, then it spread throughout is considered to be a complex of the rest of Africa, particularly species in which natural hybrids th A during the 20 century. Nowadays I

N are numero us and common.

A Africa is the largest producer E C O F O S N E D R A G

100 Manihot esculenta

of cassava, and is considered of entry. The first could be from together with Indonesia to be a New Caledonia where the plant second centre of diversification. was introduced in about 1850 Cassava doubtless spread to the by immigrants coming from the Pacific via the Philippines, and island of Réunion. The second was very quickly adopted by involves the region of Samoa and local populations. Cultivation Tonga, from where cassava was of cassava continues to increase , introduced to New Caledonia, and more and more its consump- and from there to Anatom by tion rivals that of local root James Paddon. Since the end th crops or rice. The history of of the 19 century cassava has S P the penetration of cassava into been widely adopted by local O R

Vanuatu is still a mystery, and people and is grown in all the C R there are two possible modes gardens. E B U T D N A T O O R

101 1 02

GARDENS OF OCEANIA a remain matu cul fou and wi n latter red cort S Descri A Mo sp p wh wh tin s l St cu lobe 10 and in t tin d d lo p win flo ma ul f th p th o th eaf ive ha mo in hr almte a evlo etio ol f mi n ar g ur at re er p an, th ry lt i swet ged ted wers, cm le tivars ite, itsh g. t e lin r . rimay u at , gs rphol dy s, o sc t ni can may v reach L e are years. b 1.5 r a to ria rity, le In f ar th re ati w oo ts eavs x to are lo th ov mu , a w in lo p yelow wi t y florescence , r s contaig ith ac gren t in ngul ru thin, we rs or e ith on. s c pt expl en ng six be from al p with both tre wi th diametr casv, r with th m some about hin g i a nk, apex each the maturity c nk bitter distnco or wr T long og ion crop mont kept red, lo se ar of red lon ar months he o white, an d l inkl so wi or thre or with soil sw si a ranged or ance up sw l a ical g, obe former , 1 of vely s metimes its or fiten th t 4–20 year cycle red. flesh. red, with in hs, ho rt o eling streakd m et t ed, bea br oad . o wher for whic th e ola thr brown. a leng s. a termi Epiderm the i to in someti variability 7 n and after disper short caly f Underlyig r Fr 5–30 brown, x t c m te in e lesh, obvius thre si ing is wh o m length ni I a ro of th soil n variet 2–6 e uit x , re in reach ai n a ne na i r gr those sed p b Va nt . can cyano- ic m x s secon spiral, fe m ran T with m cm hei ght. li Flesh e ix mes g cy c l, h the o ont f dep nu with cm; u en s to fe lob or ai wi s t be ta fi by e ch - es al e at nl le hs m n or ke th - r - u y e , - s , of an tro C pr Cu peri i fro an p h It w ch o are A ne g etc.) mo co is ep l o so Man resitanc, an ab b strengh is flo flo n variets th an h slo germinato resu n oo en revious ave n f ecaus o ave asv mazoni hi at is far in metis ss or a d d arcteis n id d d t n flora wering wers. p m wly. o k the st ny s l ch ten ee princaly ods imposble creasing ical , is conut. hig the y lting ermis, ti easy t have du f are ben ben le stem or of l A be d cultivars va s es grown make basi af s ort Its th of fo resulting e al and ct ares. i H is the a of not have nitao, yields. ti crops ar from to col at germinatd re than is owevr , of prio drought cul impovershd cloned. cuti not i and o l quality indvual becaus the on region. y- grow is frequnt, ou flower starch b of of it presnt n soil becaus m mai It tivaon ec m come a spontaeu I frost- r, distngu tha m stem, nevr tha sed (degr at the ngs, such an t is om ty uc Selct plant sha – can u orphlgica nl w in proagted ri h – charact farmes in someti d and y in div ild The par bu found n some since of pe so dry appr from as in g in g survie Vanu atu g flower , i yields, i in and ds in ersity lerant, disea ion plants n t ils row ticulary. func g absenc ished of will lowand the coa of vari en o alows mater the Vanut times eci by alwys tha t er loca plants sed is in erct it uber tion also very ty p grow etis is ated. field is for the and ti es cs al s, - depleted soils to recover, and with coconut milk. The raw root it complements traditional is often grated, sometimes flav- root crops that are less easy to oured with coconut milk, then grow – important for a growing baked in an oven of hot stones, population. For this reason it or in small quantities in a section is often used at the end of crop of bamboo. Finally, the plant is rotations in gardens just before the main ingredient in the manu- the fallow, or it is planted at the facture of tuluk : the root is edges of huts or tracks in poorly cooked, pounded and then knead- prepared land. No serious pests ed in to a paste and flavoured or diseases are known, except with coconut milk; the paste is for pigs that cause a great deal then rolled into little puddings, of damage. The majority of stuffed with force-meat (often varieties stand erect, which is canned meat), then cooked again convenient for cutting the stem in a bamboo or marmite . In some into sections before the arrival parts of the world flour is made of a cyclone that readily knocks from cassava, but not in Vanuatu . down the plants and causes them The young leaves, although very to rot within a matter of days. rich in proteins, are not eaten, unlike in other tropical countries. Alimentary uses Other uses The roots are peeled and washed , then cut into pieces and boiled, Cassava is also used as a sometimes twice in succession. forage plant. It is eaten as it is, or flavoured S P O R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

103 Genus Pueraria

Family Fabaceae

Species present Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi Kudzu, pueraria

Kudzu is no longer eaten regularly, though it undoubtedly was by the ancient Oceanians. But it is not rare, and it is sometimes found in gardens.

References Barrau (1962, 1965), French (1986), Parham (1972), Peekel (1984), Purseglove (1991), Sillitoe (1983), Skerman (1977), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

horizontal, that can reach 1–2 m Food plant occasionally in length. Leaves pilose, leaflets eaten, local entire or with slightly demarcated Pueraria lobata lobes, triangular; stipules elongate; long, pilose petioles (5-10 cm). Kudzu, pueraria Small flowers in groups, mauve or purple. Pods straight or slightl y History curved, cylindrical, flattened, pilose. Seeds oblong or square, Originally from Asia and Japan, brown, about 15 in number. kudzu is a very ancient plant in the Pacific, and was a staple food crop for Melanesian peoples Morphological variability before the arrival of sweet potato . Not studied in Vanuatu. Cultivated in Papua New Guinea and in New Caledonia, it is found from Vanuatu to Samoa. Cultivation and production

Description The plant is cultivated in the Climbing plant with a thick stem, gardens of several communities flexible and hairy, able to root in Vanuatu. It is propagated from nodes to produce secondary vegetatively by planting a top of a tuber attached to the stem.

A stems. Large, elongate tuber, I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

104 It is mainly used as a cover plant food shortage resulting from a for keeping patches of land clean, cyclone. The tubers are generally but once it establishes it is very cut into pieces and baked in a difficult to get rid of it. hot stone oven. Certain softer cultivars may be peeled and cut into pieces, then boiled and Alimentary uses enhanced with coconut milk. In Nowadays this plant is rarely earlier times it was also used for eaten, but a number of commun - making lap-lap . These fibrous ities grow it in their gardens or tubers must be chewed for a long in forest as a reserve in case of time and the fibres spat out. S P O R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

105 Genus Xanthosoma

Family Araceae

The genus comprises about 40 species, all American. A single species is present in Vanuatu.

Species present Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott Tannia

Introduced to Vanuatu, tannia is nowadays grown in all the gardens and replaces taro in areas where taro is difficult to grow. The ni-Vanuatu eat it to a major extent.

References Barrau (1962), Bradbury & Holloway (1988), Brücher (1989) , Cable (1984), Ivancic & Lebot (2000), Lambert (1982), Onwueme (1978), Plucknett (1984), Purseglove (1988), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

Description Staple food plant, introduced Herbaceous plant over 1 m Xanthosoma in height, with a robust stem. sagittifolium Central subterranean stem (corm) Tannia, new cocoyam, macabo surrounded by a dozen or so cocoyam, arrowleaf elephant’s lateral cormlets. Leaves sagittate ear, yautia with wide but short basal lobes, 100 x 70 cm; marginal leaf veins History very obvious; petiole about 1.5 m long. A group of two to Originally from tropical America three inflorescences that appear and the West Indies, tannia was in succession; spathe green or th spread during the 19 century to purple; spadix with male flowers Africa and Asia and throughout in the upper part and female the Pacific. It was probably flowers in the lower part, brought to Vanuatu from Fiji, by separated by a sterile zone. ni-Vanuatu returning from work in plantations. Its cultivation has increased because it is robust,

A more resistant to drought and is I

N less work to cultivate than taro. A E C O F O S N E D R A G

106 Morphological variability are harvested over a period of two to six years. Farmers put This introduced plant shows only them in at a high crop density a little variability in Vanuatu, in that totally covers the soil, colour and size of the leaves, the removing any need to look after shape of the corm and the pigmen- the plants. These areas of plants tation of the shoots. Twelve are visited regularly for collection different cultivars are recognised of lateral corms. The main corm in the whole country; they are is too fibrous to be eaten by distinguished by the colour of the humans, and is cooked and petiole – light green to dark purpl e given to pigs. – and the colour of the flesh of the cormlets – white to purple. Alimentary uses Cultivation and Tannia is eaten more and more production frequently, especially in the dry islands where true taro grows Tannia is a plant of humid regions, poorly. Tannia thus complements but it tolerates drought better than yams. It is either baked or boiled, taro. It is propagated vegetatively and sometimes sprinkled with by planting of suckers at any time coconut milk. The young leaves of the year, and it reaches maturity are sometimes used as vegetables . after nine months. The central The main corm, which is very corm, which is very acrid, is not fibrous, is a choice food for pigs. harvested, but the lateral corms S P O R C R E B U T D N A T O O R

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