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Plant Resources of South-East Asia

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A4 ß/{$$£) -ói~l ttffC\)J€.-c\b~o\ Plant Resources ofSouth-Eas t Asia No 9 Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates M. Flach and F.Rumawa s (Editors) H Backhuys Publishers, Leiden 1996 PROFESSOR DR M. FLACH graduated in tropical agronomy in 1957 at Wagenin­ gen Agricultural University, where he obtained his doctorate in 1966. From 1957 until 1963 he worked in agricultural extension in New Guinea, in what is now the Indonesian province of Irian. From 1963 onwards he was attached to the Department of Tropical Agronomy at Wageningen Agricultural University in various ranks, becoming full professor and head of department in 1981. He has travelled widely in various capacities, especially in South-East Asia. He has published a number of papers on root and tuber crops and on palms, in­ cluding after his retirement in 1991. DR F. RUMAWAS graduated in 1963 from the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Indonesia. In 1965 he obtained a degree in botany and plant pathology at the University of Kentucky, Lexington, United States, and in 1968 was awarded a PhD in agronomy by Purdue University, Indiana, United States. He is current­ ly a lecturer in agronomy at Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia, and a senior scientist in charge of sago production at the Indonesian Ministry of Re­ search and Technology. Cip-Data Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag Plant Plant resources of South-East Asia. - Leiden: Backhuys Publishers. - 111. No. 9: Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates / M. Flach and F. Rumawas (eds.). With index, ref. ISBN 90-73348-51-X bound NUGI 835 Subject headings: non-seed carbohydrates; South-East Asia. ISBN 90-73348-51-X NUGI 835 Design: Frits Stoepman bNO. © Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 1996. No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations embodied in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form including print, photocopy, microfilm, electric or electromagnetic record without written permission from the copyright holder, Prosea Founda­ tion, c/o Publication Office, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Nether­ lands. Printed in the Netherlands. Published and distributed for the Prosea Foundation by Backhuys Publishers, P.O. Box 321,230 0 AH Leiden, the Netherlands. Contents Editors and contributors 8 Prosea Board of Trustees and Personnel 11 Foreword 13 1 Introduction 15 1.1 Definition and species diversity 15 1.2 Role of plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates 16 1.2.1 Geographic distribution 16 1.2.2 Area and production 17 1.2.3 Nutritional aspects 17 1.2.4 Quality aspects 20 1.2.5 Other uses 21 1.2.6 Average and actual yield levels 21 1.2.7 Potential yield levels 23 1.2.8 Root and tuber crops compared with cereals 25 1.2.9 Perennial crops 25 1.2.10 Sweetening agents ofplant origin 25 1.3 Botany 26 1.3.1 Taxonomy 26 1.3.2 Growth and development 26 1.4 Ecology 29 1.4.1 Climatic factors 30 1.4.2 Soil factors 32 1.5 Agronomy 33 1.5.1 Cropping systems 33 1.5.2 Propagation 34 1.5.3 Husbandry 34 1.6 Harvesting and post-harvest handling 35 1.6.1 Sugar cane 35 1.6.2 i?oo£cm d ta&er craps 36 1.6.3 Sago palm 36 1.6.4 PaZm tapping 36 1.7 Processing and utilization 37 1.7.1 Sugar cane 37 1.7.2 i?oo£an d £w6ercrop s 37 1.7.3 Sago palm 37 1.7A Tappedpalms 38 1.8 Genetic resources and breeding 38 1.9 Prospects 39 1.9.1 Non-seed carbohydrates as food 39 1.9.2 Non-seed carbohydrates as industrial raw material 40 1.9.3 Non-seed carbohydrates in energy cropping 40 1.9.4 Research 41 2 Alphabetical treatment of species 43 Amorphophallus amorphophallus 45 Arenga arenga 50 Arenga pinnata sugar palm 53 Boràssus flabellifer toddy palm 59 Canna indica canna 63 Caryota fishtail palm 66 Colocasia esculenta taro 69 Curcuma curcuma 72 Curcuma xanthorrhiza temu lawak 74 Curcuma zedoaria zedoary 76 Cyperus cyperus 78 Cyrtosperma merkusii giant swamp taro 82 Dioscorea yam 85 Dioscorea alata greater yam 90 Dioscorea esculenta lesser yam 93 Dioscorea hispida Asiatic bitter yam 95 Eleocharis dulcis Chinese water chestnut 97 Helianthus tuberosus Jerusalem artichoke 100 Ipomoea batatas sweet potato 102 Manihot esculenta cassava 107 Maranta arundinacea arrowroot 113 Metroxylon metroxylon 116 Metroxylon sagu true sago palm 121 Musa plantain and cooking banana 126 Nelumbo nucifera lotus 131 Nypa fruticans nipa palm 133 Pachyrhizus erosus yam bean 137 Plectranthus rotundifolius Madagascar potato 141 Saccharum officinarum sugar cane 143 Solanum tuberosum Irish potato 148 Stachys sieboldii Chinese artichoke 155 Tacca leontopetaloides East Indian arrowroot 156 Xanthosoma xanthosoma 159 3 Minor species yielding non-seed carbohydrates 165 4 Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates, but with other prima­ ry use 187 Literature 191 Acknowledgments 198 Acronyms of organizations 199 Glossary 201 Sources of illustrations 217 Index of scientific plant names 220 Index ofvernacula r plant names 228 The Prosea Foundation 234 Editors and contributors General editors of the Prosea Handbook P.C.M. Jansen, E. Westphal and N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto Editorial staff of this volume - Editors: M. Flach and F. Rumawas - Associate editors: P.C.M. Jansen (botanical aspects), I.C. Onwueme and J.S. Siemonsma - Illustrator: P. Verheij-Hayes - Language corrector: J. Burrough-Boenisch Contributors - N.O. Aguilar, Museum of Natural History, University of the Philippines at Los Banos (UPLB), College, Laguna 4031,Philippine s (Cyperus) - G.H. de Bruijn, Reeënlaan 3, 6705 BZ Wageningen (Manihot esculenta) - F.A. Evangelio, Philippine Root Crops Research & Training Centre, Visayas State College of Agriculture (VISCA), Baybay, Leyte, Philippines (Cyrtosper- ma merkusii) - M. Flach, Department of Agronomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands (Borassus flabellifer, Caryota, Introduction) - Z.N. Ganga, Northern Philippine Root Crops Research & Training Centre, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines (Dioscorea ala- ta) - L.E. Groen, Heelsumseweg 49, 6721 GR Bennekom, the Netherlands (Minor species) - Halijah Ibrahim, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 59100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Curcuma, Curcuma zedoaria) - W.L.A. Hetterscheid, Chrysantenstraat 28, 1214 BM Hilversum, the Nether­ lands (Amorphophallus) - P.C.M. Jansen, Prosea Publication Office, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands (Amorphophallus, Curcuma, Curcuma xanthorrhiza, Cur­ cuma zedoaria, Cyperus, Plectranthus rotundifolius, Xanthosoma, Minor species) - F.S. Jong, Department of Agriculture, 96000 Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia (Metroxylon sagu) EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS 9 J. Jukema, P.O. Box 4280, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles (Maranta arundi- nacea, Tacca leontopetaloides) T. Kuntohartono, Indonesian Sugar Research Institute, Jalan Pahlawan 25, Pasuruan 67126, Indonesia (Saccharum officinarum) CG. Kuo, Asian Vegetable Research & Development Center (AVRDC), P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan 741,Taiwa n (Ipomoea batatas) J.P. Mogea, Herbarium Bogoriense, Research & Development Centre for Bi­ ology (RDCB), P.O. Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia (Arenga) H.C. Ong, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 59100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Canna indica, Caryota, Nelumbo nucifera) I.C. Onwueme, Agriculture Department, PNG University of Technology, Pri­ vate Mail Bag, Lae, Papua New Guinea (Dioscorea, Dioscorea alata, Dioscorea esculenta, Dioscorea hispida) Y. Paisooksantivatana, Department of Horticulture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand (Borassus flabellifer, Eleocharis dulcis, Tacca leontopetaloides) A.E.A. Päivöke, Viirilä, 01490 Vantaa, Finland (Nypa fruticans) V. Premchand, Department of Agronomy, Wageningen Agricultural Univer­ sity, P.O. Box 341,670 0 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands (Xanthosoma) F. Rumawas, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor 16143, Indonesia (Introduction) S. Sakamoto, Kitasuna 5-19-6-1301, Koto-ku, Tokyo 136, Japan (Ipomoea batatas) D.L. Schuiling, Department of Agronomy, Wageningen Agricultural Univer­ sity, P.O. Box. 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands (Metroxylon, Metroxylon sagu) J.S. Siemonsma, Prosea Publication Office, Department of Agronomy, Wa­ geningen Agricultural University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands (Arenga, Canna indica, Colocasia esculenta, Minor species) W.T.M. Smits, International MOF Tropenbos - Kalimantan Project, P.O. Box 319, Balikpapan 76103, Indonesia (Arenga pinnata) M. S0rensen, Department of Botany, Royal Veterinary & Agricultural Uni­ versity, Rolighedsvej 23, DK-1958 Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark (Pachyrhizus erosus) H. Takagi, Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS), Okinawa Subtropical Station, Maesato, Ishigaki, Okinawa 907, Japan (Ipomoea batatas) J.P. Thijsse, Asterkade 19, 2106 BA Heemstede, the Netherlands (Saccha­ rum officinarum) R.V. Valmayor, International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), c/o PCARRD, Los Bahos, Laguna, Philippines (Musa) M.H. van den Bergh, Veluviaweg 21, 6706 AJ Wageningen, the Netherlands (Stachys sieboldii) C. van der Wilk, Department of Agronomy, Wageningen Agricultural Uni­ versity, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands (Amor- phophallus) W.C.H. van Hoof, Molenlaan 57, 2251 CC Voorschoten, the Netherlands (Pachyrhizus erosus) H.J. Veitkamp, Larenstein International Agricultural College, Brinkgrever- 10 PLANTS YIELDING NON-SEED CARBOHYDRATES weg 69, 7413 AB Deventer, the Netherlands
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    KOMAROVIA (2003) 3: 1–83 Saint Petersburg Phytogeographic review of Vietnam and adjacent areas of Eastern Indochina L. V. Averyanov, Phan Ke Loc, Nguyen Tien Hiep, D. K. Harder Leonid V. Averyanov, Herbarium, Komarov Botanical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Prof. Popov str. 2, Saint Petersburg 197376, Russia E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Phan Ke Loc, Department of Botany, Viet Nam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam. E-mail: [email protected] Nguyen Tien Hiep, Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources of the National Centre for Natural Sciences and Technology of Viet Nam, Nghia Do, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Viet Nam. E-mail: [email protected] Dan K. Harder, Arboretum, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, California 95064, U.S.A. E-mail: [email protected] The main phytogeographic regions within the eastern part of the Indochinese Peninsula are delimited on the basis of analysis of recent literature on geology, geomorphology and climatology of the region, as well as numerous recent literature information on phytogeography, flora and vegetation. The following six phytogeographic regions (at the rank of floristic province) are distinguished and outlined within eastern Indochina: Sikang-Yunnan Province, South Chinese Province, North Indochinese Province, Central Annamese Province, South Annamese Province and South Indochinese Province. Short descriptions of these floristic units are given along with analysis of their floristic relationships. Special floristic analysis and consideration are given to the Orchidaceae as the largest well-studied representative of the Indochinese flora. 1. Background The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, comprising the largest area in the eastern part of the Indochinese Peninsula, is situated along the southeastern margin of the Peninsula.
  • Aponogeton Pollen from the Cretaceous and Paleogene of North America and West Greenland: Implications for the Origin and Palaeobiogeography of the Genus☆

    Aponogeton Pollen from the Cretaceous and Paleogene of North America and West Greenland: Implications for the Origin and Palaeobiogeography of the Genus☆

    Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 200 (2014) 161–187 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/revpalbo Research paper Aponogeton pollen from the Cretaceous and Paleogene of North America and West Greenland: Implications for the origin and palaeobiogeography of the genus☆ Friðgeir Grímsson a,⁎, Reinhard Zetter a, Heidemarie Halbritter b, Guido W. Grimm c a University of Vienna, Department of Palaeontology, Althanstraße 14 (UZA II), Vienna, Austria b University of Vienna, Department of Structural and Functional Botany, Rennweg 14, Vienna, Austria c Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department of Palaeobiology, Box 50007, 10405 Stockholm, Sweden article info abstract Article history: The fossil record of Aponogeton (Aponogetonaceae) is scarce and the few reported macrofossil findings are in Received 15 January 2013 need of taxonomic revision. Aponogeton pollen is highly diagnostic and when studied with light microscopy Received in revised form 4 September 2013 (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) it cannot be confused with any other pollen types. The fossil Accepted 22 September 2013 Aponogeton pollen described here represent the first reliable Cretaceous and Eocene records of this genus world- Available online 3 October 2013 wide. Today, Aponogeton is confined to the tropics and subtropics of the Old World, but the new fossil records show that during the late Cretaceous and early Cenozoic it was thriving in North America and Greenland. The Keywords: Alismatales late Cretaceous pollen record provides important data for future phylogenetic and phylogeographic studies Aponogetonaceae focusing on basal monocots, especially the Alismatales. The Eocene pollen morphotypes from North America aquatic plant and Greenland differ in morphology from each other and also from the older Late Cretaceous North American early angiosperm pollen morphotype, indicating evolutionary trends and diversification within the genus over that time period.
  • Where All of the Undescribed Fungi?Г Wherein Only 7% of the Worldгs

    Where All of the Undescribed Fungi?Г Wherein Only 7% of the Worldгs

    CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Research Rationale µ:KHUH DOO RI WKH XQGHVFULEHG IXQJL"¶ ZKHUHLQ RQO\ RI WKH ZRUOG¶V IXQJL KDYHVRIDUEHHQGHVFULEHGRIWKHPLOOLRQRI+DZNVZRUWK¶VHVWLPDWLRQLQZKLFK one third of the estimation are plant pathogenic fungi (Hawksworth, 1991; 2004). Fungi also comprise about 95% of all known plant pathogens, the remainder being bacteria, mycoplasma-like organisms and viruses (Shivas and Hyde, 1997). Rossman et al. (1987), from Literature Guide for the Identification of Plant Pathogenic Fungi, estimated the number of plant pathogenic fungi about 23,000, however, their estimation includes only those species that cause disease in vascular plants. In tropical area, moreover, Shivas and Hyde (1997) estimated about 270,000 of plant pathogenic fungi may present based on four parameters: (1) three-quarters of plant genera known occur in the tropics, (2) plant genera have an average about 50 fungal pathogens, (3) one-half of the pathogens on a host are specific to the host genus or to closely related genera and (4) few fungal pathogens have a wide host range. Although there were wide variations about the estimation of fungi including plant pathogenic fungi occur worldwide, tropical regions were generally assumed to host the greatest diversity of life and plant pathogens. It does not take into account epiphytic, lichen forming, lichenicolous mycoparasitic and mycorrhiza. Ironically, high population and rapid industrialization in most of the tropical countries present serious habitat destruction and environmental issues include large- 2 scale illegal deforestation, over-exploitation of marine resources and other environmental problems of which finally threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including fungi.