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Palgrave Studies in Religion, Politics, and Policy

Series Editors Ted G. Jelen University of Nevada, Las Vegas Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

Mark J. Rozell George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia, USA A generation ago, many social scientists regarded religion as an anachronism, whose social, economic, and political importance would inevitably wane and disappear in the face of the inexorable forces of modernity. Of course, nothing of the sort has occurred; indeed, the public role of religion is resurgent in US domestic politics, in other nations, and in the international arena. Today, religion is widely acknowledged to be a key variable in candidate nominations, platforms, and elections; it is recognized as a major influence on domestic and foreign policies. National religious movements as diverse as the Christian Right in the United States and the Taliban in Afghanistan are important factors in the internal politics of particular nations. Moreover, such transnational religious actors as Al-Qaida, Falun Gong, and the Vatican have had important effects on the politics and policies of nations around the world. Palgrave Studies in Religion, Politics, and Policy serves a growing niche in the discipline of political science. This subfield has proliferated rapidly during the past two decades, and has generated an enormous amount of scholarly studies and journalistic coverage. Five years ago, the journal Politics and Religion was created; in addition, works relating to religion and politics have been the subject of many articles in more general academic journals. The number of books and monographs on religion and politics has increased tremendously. In the past, many social scientists dismissed religion as a key variable in politics and . This series casts a broad net over the subfield, providing opportunities for scholars at all levels to publish their works with Palgrave. The series publishes monographs in all subfields of political science, including American Politics, Public Policy, Public Law, Comparative Politics, International Relations, and Political Theory. The principal focus of the series is the public role of religion. “Religion” is construed broadly to include public opinion, religious institutions, and the legal frameworks under which religious politics are practiced. The “dependent variable” in which we are interested is politics, defined broadly to include analyses of the public sources and consequences of religious belief and behavior. These would include matters of public policy, as well as variations in the practice of political life. We welcome a diverse range of methodological perspectives, provided that the approaches taken are intellectually rigorous. The series does not deal with works of theology, in that arguments about the validity or utility of religious beliefs are not a part of the series focus. Similarly, the authors of works about the private or personal consequences of religious belief and behavior, such as personal happiness, mental health, or family dysfunction, should seek other outlets for their writings. Although historical perspectives can often illuminate our understanding of modern political phenomena, our focus in the Religion, Politics, and Policy series is on the relationship between the sacred and the political in contemporary societies.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14594 Sabrina P. Ramet The in Polish History

From 966 to the Present Sabrina P. Ramet Sociology & Political Science Norwegian University of Science & Technology (NTNU) Trondheim, Norway

Palgrave Studies in Religion, Politics, and Policy ISBN 978-1-137-42622-2 ISBN 978-1-137-40281-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-40281-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017936490

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Nature America Inc. The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A. For Dr. Patricia Fresen and in memory of Benedictus de Spinoza (1632–1677) PREFACE

This volume is not exactly a history of Polish Catholicism; the writing of such a history has already been accomplished in English translation by the Polish scholar Jerzy Kłoczowski. This volume is rather a history of the Catholic Church in Polish history. By that I mean that, in the following pages, I intend to embed the story of the Catholic Church within its time, and to show how the great events affecting all of provided the framework within which the Church lived. To achieve this it will be necessary to explore some events and developments which did not have a direct impact on the Church but, nonetheless, helped to shape the framework within which the Church had to work. The story of Catholicism in Poland is conventionally dated to 966, the year that Duke Mieszko I converted to Christianity and began the process of imposing the Christian faith on the . As in other lands, there was at first resistance from ordinary people, whose traditional religion was poly- theism. But over time, the memory of polytheism faded, and Christianity took hold. The of the Church of Rome in Poland, as elsewhere, was threatened in the 1500s by the Protestant Reformation and, at the peak of Protestant influence, a large number of Poles had converted to the new faith. But Catholicism prevailed for a number of reasons, including prominently that the peasants remained loyal to the pope and viewed Protestantism, which had taken hold in the cities, as foreign to their way of life. Thus, peasant distrust of city-folk played its part in the ultimate success of the Catholic Counter-Reformation in Poland, alongside the institutional strength of the Church of Rome, the high caliber of its intellectuals, and the emergent Marian devotions.

vii viii PREFACE

But it was the three – in 1772, 1793, and 1795 – in the course of which Poland was divided between , , and the Habsburg Empire, which wed the Poles more deeply to Catholicism. Where Prussia championed Lutheranism and Russia championed Orthodox Christianity, the Catholic Church prioritized protecting its own institutional interests and presence; accordingly, the and most of the Polish bishops urged Poles, during the years of foreign occupation, to accept German, Russian, and Austrian rule as anointed by God. With pressures from state-sponsored Protestantism in Germany and state-sponsored Orthodoxy in Russia, the Catholic Church was on the defensive in those two empires. Then, with the restoration of statehood in 1918, something remarkable happened. The Catholic Church, no longer on the defensive, took on the role of ecclesiastical hegemon, laying claim to Orthodox Church facilities which had been seized by the in the nineteenth century; local did not view this as a restoration of the Catholic Church’s original title to the properties, but as the seizure of properties legitimately belonging to the Orthodox Church. A particularly painful episode involved the burial of Marshal Józef Piłsudski in Wawel in Kraków. The Archbishop of Kraków, Adam Stefan , did not want to see Piłsudski’s last remains interred in the cathedral and, ignoring both the President of the Republic and the papal nuncio, arranged to have Piłsudski’s sarcophagus transferred from the cathedral to the Silver Bells tower. This transfer provoked public outcry. These were ripples but more important than the diverse experi- ences in the nineteenth century as a factor affecting Poles’ attachment to the Church was that Poles had achieved independence and, whether they had looked to the Church as their protector during the years of partition or viewed the Holy See as betraying them because of encyclicals advising them to obey the occupation authorities, independence created a new context, in which the Church had both new opportunities and new challenges. In the years 1918–1939, the Church’s hold weakened some- what, especially in the cities. Again, there was a sharp break, with the outbreak of World War Two and the fourth partition between and the Soviet Union. With the Nazis enslaving Poles and the Soviets preaching an atheist ideology, the Catholic Church once more cast itself as the defender of the Polish nation – including in retrospect. This revival of the Church’s role as defender of Poles continued into the communist era, when it found itself, from the second half of the 1940s until the summer of 1980, to be PREFACE ix the only independent organization of any note. The imprisonment of Bishop Kaczmarek and detention of Archbishop Wyszyński, both in 1953 which had been intended to weaken the Church, only gave the institution a martyr’s crown, strengthening its hold on Polish hearts. The charismatic Wyszyński emerged from prison in 1956 politically stron- ger and assumed the role of outspoken advocate for the human, cultural, and of course religious rights of Poles, even entering into the debate about a draft constitution for Poland. From then until summer 1980, the Church was widely understood to be the Poles’ sole defender. However, with the appearance of the independent trade union Solidarity in summer 1980 and the death of Wyszyński the following year, the Church lost its monopoly on this role. Even after its suppression in December 1981, Solidarity continued to operate in underground, only to reemerge into legality in 1989. As for the Church, Wyszyński’s successor as Primate of Poland was the uncharismatic Archbishop Józef Glemp, who tried to make gains through compromise with the communists, in the process coming to be called “the red archbishop”. However, the election of Karol Cardinal Wojtyła, archbishop of Kraków, as Pope John Paul II in 1978 gave Poles a new religious leader, one who proved to be hugely charismatic and, if anything, even more outspoken than Wyszyński. In the era of the partitions, the enemy was clear: the foreign occupation powers, especially Protestant Prussia and Orthodox Russia. In the com- munist era, whenever anything went wrong, it was clear whom to blame: the communists. Since 1989, however, the entire picture has been more complicated and there is no obvious “enemy”, no obvious party to blame for problems. The more conservative Catholics, gathered around the radio priest Fr. Tadeusz Rydzyk, have viewed the European Union as a threat to Poland’s culture and identity, but theirs is a minority viewpoint. And for those who might blame capitalism or foreign investment for difficulties, the Church is not an obvious resource. Moreover, no sooner was com- munism eclipsed than the Church advanced its agenda, including a ban on abortion, penalties for insulting Catholicism in the broadcast media, and introducing Catholic religious instruction in the state schools, all the while treating sexual minorities as sinners. Overnight, the Church was claiming what it considered its rightful role as moral hegemon but, as the account which follows will show, this has been accompanied by an attenuation of faith and a loosening of people’s bonds with the Church. The notion, thus, that the Catholic Church has been deeply embedded in Polish society is only half-right, because it focuses only on the Church’s x PREFACE role during times of foreign occupation or communist domination. Taking the long view, what emerges is that, at least since 1772, the strength of Catholicism in Poland has risen when times have been difficult, but has declined when oppression has faded and times have been better. This correlation between religiosity and difficult times may be found also in other societies. I have adopted several conventions for this book. The first is that, following well-established usage in ecclesiastical circles, I shall capitalize Church when I am referring to the institution and lower-case church when I refer to a building. While lower-casing generally does not produce confusion, it has happened that there can be ambiguity when all references to the institution are lower-cased. I have adopted this convention, thus, for reasons of complete clarity. Second, whenever I write “the Church”, without specifying that it is some denomination other than the Catholic Church, then it should be assumed that I mean the Catholic Church. Similarly, when I write simply “the clergy”, I mean the Catholic clergy. If I wish to refer to the Protestant clergy, for example, that will be stated explicitly. Third, in some chapters (especially Chapter 3), some of the actors have rather long names. I have therefore adopted the convention of usually providing only the shortened version of each such name in the text while, in the first reference, providing the full name in an endnote. For example, I write Lord Castlereagh in the text, but in the attached endnote the reader can find that his full name was Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh and 2nd Marquess of Londonderry. Similarly, in the text I write Johann von Hohenzollern, but in the attached endnote the reader can find that his full name was Johann Karl Reichsgf. von Hohenzollern. Fourth, the Catholic Church embraces eight rites, of which the Roman is only one. Only two other rites have been present in Poland: the Armenian rite and the Eastern-Rite, also known variously as the Byzantine rite, the Greek-Catholic rite, and the Uniates. I have preferred, in most instances, to refer to this rite as “Eastern-Rite”, although I have employed the term “Uniates” in a few instances. And fifth, there is the question of whether to give the names of people, cities, and regions in the language used at the time – which would be German, in the case of cities included during the years 1772–1918 in Austria or Prussia/Germany, or Russian during the same years – or Polish, or English. Most scholars write (English) but Kraków (Polish) and but (rather than John the Terrible, as it would be in English). Where there are well under- stood conventions, I have followed them. At the same time, I have PREFACE xi preferred to refer to Austrian and Prussian/German figures in German, rather than translating their names into English. Thus, I write Friedrich the Great of Prussia (rather than Frederick the Great) and Maria Theresa of Austria (rather than Mary Teresa). I have also preferred to write the names of Polish figures in Polish, rather than translate their names in English. Thus, I write King Stanisław Augustus, rather than King Stanley August, , rather than Vincent Witos, and Karol Wojtyła, rather than Charles Wojtyła. I have followed the universal con- vention of referring to the of Russia as , though I have chosen to refer to as Empress; following the same rule, I refer to the emperors of Austria and Germany as Kaisers, but to the Holy Roman emperors as emperors. I have followed the same conventions for non-English names from other languages. Where Polish cities incorpo- rated into Austria or Prussia/Germany during the years of the partitions are concerned, I have adopted the convention of using the Polish names throughout, except in the case of Warsaw, but, for cities incorporated into either the Habsburg Empire or Prussia/Germany, providing the German name in parentheses in the first mention of the city in that chapter. Thus, I write (Gnesen), Poznań (Posen), Wrocław (Breslau), and so forth. In the case of the Duchy of Posen, I stick to the German, since this administrative unit existed only in Prussian times and was never an administrative unit in any independent Polish state. Although I read all of the German- and English-language materials cited in this work, I struggled to learn Polish for a while and managed to translate the materials cited in Chapter 5; even then, however, I asked a native speaker of Polish, Aleksander Zdravkovski, to check my translations. Generous funding from the Norwegian University of Science & Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim, Norway, permitted me to hire translators for other Polish-language material cited in this volume. The Polish materials cited in Chapter 3 were translated for me by Maciej Potz, the Polish materials cited in Chapter 4 were translated for me by Ela Walters and Maciej Potz, except for one extract translated by Zdravkovski; the Polish materials cited in Chapter 6 were translated for me by Krzysztof Koseła (who kindly translated the materials cited there without compensation); and the Polish materials cited in Chapter 7 were translated for me by Sindre Finnanger and Zdravkovski. Thanks again to funding from NTNU, I was able also to undertake two trips to Poland for the purpose of conducting research interviews related to this book; these trips took me to Warsaw, Łódź, and Lublin, for two-and-a-half weeks, xii PREFACE during June–July 2004, and to Warsaw, Kraków, and Łódź, for another two-and-a-half weeks in April–May 2011. I also wish to thank Beata Eggan for her assistance in identifying and making preliminary contact with potential interviewees in Warsaw for the 2011 trip, Berit Berggård and the NTNU Faculty Administration for granting her leave to devote time to this project, and Irena Borowik for her assistance in identifying and making preliminary contact with potential interviewees in Kraków. I am also grateful to Neal Pease for checking Chapter 4 and to Magnus Rom Jensen, the social science librarian at the NTNU library, for his assistance in collecting materials needed for this project. I wish to thank the Department of Sociology and Political Science of NTNU for granting me a sabbatical during 2015–2016, during which I was able to finish the writing of this book. In addition, I would like to thank Indiana University Press, Duke University Press, and Cambridge University Press for permission to reprint certain material. In Chapter 5, the lengthy extract, appearing in the section “The Gierek Era, 1970-1980”, is taken from pages 134–135 of my book, Cross and Commissar: The politics of religion in Eastern Europe and the USSR (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1987). It is reprinted here courtesy of Indiana University Press. All rights reserved. Portions of Chapter 5 (in the section, “Cascade to collapse”) are from “Church and Dissent in Praetorian Poland”,inSocial Currents in Eastern Europe: The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation, 2nd ed.. © 1995, Duke University Press. Republished by permission. Chapter 6 is a mod- ified version of my chapter, “Thy Will be Done: The Catholic Church and Politics in Poland since 1989”, in Timothy A. Byrnes and Peter J. Katzenstein (eds.), Religion in an Expanding Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pages 117–147. I am grateful to Cambridge University Press for granting permission for me to reprint this chapter here. Chapter 7 is an updated version of my chapter, “The Catholic Church in Post-Communist Poland: Polarization, Privatization, and Decline in Influence”, which originally appeared in Sabrina P. Ramet (ed.), Religion and Politics in Central and Southeastern Europe: Challenges since 1989 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2014), pages 117–147. I am grateful to Radmil Popovic of the Geography Department at my university for preparing the maps used in this book and to Kristen Ringdal, head of the Department of Sociology and Political Science, for allocating funding to pay for the cost of the maps. For this volume, I adopted the convention of using the English names for the best-known cities in all PREFACE xiii instances (hence, Warsaw, , and ) as well as for all rivers, but using the name of each city as it stood at the time represented in each map. For the final map, showing borders both pre-1945 and post-1945, I have chosen to use the post-1945 names of the cities. Finally, I would like to thank Ted Jelen and Mark Rozell, the editors of this series, for their interest in and enthusiasm for this book, and my life partner, Christine Marie Hassenstab, for her interest in my work and patience during my sabbatical year, as she watched me finish the work on this book.

Saksvik, Norway Sabrina P. Ramet PERSONAGES

Adamski, Bishop Stanisław of Katowice (1875–1967), circulated a peti- tion in 1952 asking the government to restore religious instruction to those schools where it had been abolished. I (1777–1825), reigned as of Russia 1801–1825. Alexander II (1818–1881), reigned as Tsar of Russia 1855–1881, eman- cipated the serfs in 1861, sold Alaska to the United States in 1867. Alexander III (1845–1894), reigned as Tsar of Russia 1881–1894. Bach, Baron Alexander von (1813–1893), served as Austrian minister of the interior from 1849 until 1859. Beck, Colonel Józef (1894–1944), served as Polish foreign minister from 1932 until 1939. Benedict XV (1854–1922), reigned as Pope 1914–1922. Benedict XVI (b. 1927), reigned as Pope 2005–2013, served previously as Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 1981– 2005, and was the first pope to resign since Pope Gregory XII in 1415. Bierut, Bolesław (1892–1956), general secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party 1948–1956, president of Poland 1947–1952, 1952–1954. Bismarck, Otto von (1815–1898), served as Chancellor of the North German Confederation 1867–1871, Chancellor of Germany 1871–1890, and Minister-President of Prussia 1873–1890, launched the Kulturkampf in Polish-inhabited regions of Germany. Brezhnev, Leonid Iyich (1906–1982), general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1964–1982.

xv xvi PERSONAGES

Caprivi, Leo von (1831–1899), served as Chancellor of Germany 1890–1894. Catherine II (1729–1796), reigned as Empress of Russia 1762–1796, participated in the three partitions of Poland 1772–1795. Cimoszewicz, Włodzimierz (b. 1950), prime minister of Poland 1996– 1997, foreign minister 2001–2005 Clement, XIV (1705–1774), reigned as Pope 1769–1774, welcomed Austria’s annexation of a portion of Poland in the First Partition (1772). Curzon, Lord (1859–1925), served as British foreign minister from 1919 to 1924, drew the famous “” as a proposal for the eastern border of Poland. Cyrankiewicz, Józef (1911–1989), served as Polish prime minister 1947–1952 and again 1954–1970. Czartoryski, Prince Adam (1770–1861), served as foreign minister to Tsar Alexander I of Russia, 1804–1806. Dalbor, Archbishop Edmund (1869–1926), supported Roman Dmowski’s National Democrats. Dmowski, Roman (1864–1939), founder and leader of the right-wing National Democratic Party. Duda, Andrzej (b. 1972), president of Poland since August 2015. Dziwicz, Archbishop Stanisław (b. 1939), archbishop of Kraków since 2005, elevated to the College of Cardinals in 2006. Ferdinand I (1793–1875), reigned as Kaiser of Austria, King of Hungary and Croatia, and King of Bohemia 1835–1848. Ferdinand II (1578–1637), reigned as Holy Roman 1619–1637, was firmly committed to roll back Protestantism during the Counter- Reformation. Francis (b. 1936), elected Pope in March 2013, generally regarded as somewhat liberal. Frank, Hans (1900–1946), governor general of the Nazi-occupied Polish rump state during World War Two. Franz II (1768–1835), reigned as Holy Roman Emperor 1792–1806 and, as Franz I, as Kaiser of Austria 1804–1835. Franz Joseph (1830–1916), reigned as Kaiser of Austria, King of Hungary and Croatia, and King of Bohemia 1848–1916, negotiated the Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867, under which the Hungarian portion of his empire obtained wide-ranging autonomy. Friedrich II “the Great” (1712–1786), reigned as King of Prussia 1740–1786, participated in the three partitions of Poland 1772–1795. PERSONAGES xvii

Friedrich Augustus (1750–1827), reigned as King of Saxony 1806–1827, served a figurehead Duke of Warsaw 1807–1815 Friedrich Wilhelm II (1744–1797), reigned as King of Prussia 1786–1797. Friedrich Wilhelm III (1770–1840), reigned as King of Prussia 1797–1840. Friedrich Wilhelm IV (1795–1861), reigned as King of Prussia 1840–1861. Garampi, Giuseppe (1725–1792), appointed apostolic nuncio to Warsaw in spring 1772. Gierek, Edward (1913–2001), served as first secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party from 1970 until 1980, pledged to work for better relations with the Catholic Church. Glemp, Archbishop Józef (1929–2013), served as archbishop of Gniezno and Warsaw 1981–2006 and primate of Poland 1981–2009, elected to the College of Cardinals in 1983. Gołuchowski, Agenor (1849–1921), served as joint foreign minister of Austria-Hungary 1895–1906. Gomułka, Władysław (1905–1982), first secretary of the Polish Workers’ Party (the communist party) 1943–1948 and first secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party 1956–1970, ordered the release of Cardinal Wyszyński from prison in 1956. Grabski, Władysław (1874–1938), served as Polish prime minister June– July 1920 and December 1923–November 1925, negotiated the with the Holy See on behalf of Poland. Gregory XVI (1765–1846), reigned as Pope 1831–1846, instructed the rebellious Poles to accept the Tsar of Russia as their divinely anointed secular ruler in his encyclical Cum Primum, issued on 9 June 1832. Gromyko, Andrei (1909–1989), Soviet foreign minister 1957–1985. Gronkiewicz-Waltz, Hanna (b. 1952), chief of the Polish National Bank 1992–2001, ran for president in 1995 with the backing of several Christian organizations. Hlond, Archbishop Hlond of Gniezno and Warsaw (1881–1948), served as Archbishop of Poznań and Gniezno from 1926 until 1946, when he was appointed to head the archdiocese of Gniezno and Warsaw, Primate of Poland from 1926 until his death, elevated to the College of Cardinals in 1927. Isakowicz-Zaleski, Fr. Tadeusz (b. 1956), investigated the extent of col- laboration with security police in the communist era on the part of Catholic clergy in the Archdiocese of Kraków. xviii PERSONAGES

Jaroszewicz, Piotr (1909–1992), prime minister of Poland from December 1970 until February 1980. Jaruzelski, Wojciech (1923–2014), minister of defense 1968–1983, prime minister of Poland 1981–1985, first secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party from October 1981 until July 1989, chairman of the Council of State 1985–1989, president of Poland 1989–1990. John Paul II (1920–2005), reigned as Pope 1978–2005, previously served as Archbishop of Kraków 1964–1978, elevated to the College of Cardinals in 1967, beatified in 2011, canonized in 2014. Joseph II (1741–1790), reigned as Holy Roman Emperor 1765–1790, abolished the death penalty and brutal punishments, freed the serfs, introduced religious toleration, mandated a minimum age for young men to enter the monastery, among other reforms. Kaczmarek, Bishop Czesław of Kielce (1895–1963), collaborated with Nazi occupation authorities during World War Two, put on trial by the communists after the war on charges of spying for Western intelli- gence agencies and imprisoned from 1951 to 1955. Kaczyński, Jarosław (b. 1949), prime minister of Poland 2006–2007, chairman of the right-wing Law and Party (PiS), which he co- founded in 2001. Kakowski, Archbishop Aleksander of Warsaw (1862–1938), elevated to the College of Cardinals in 1919, a friend and ally of Piłsudski. Kania, Stanisław (b. 1927), first secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party from September 1980 until October 1981. Kauntiz, Prince Wenzel Anton (1711–1794), served as state chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire 1753–1792. Kazimierz III the Great (1310–1370), reigned as King of Poland 1333– 1370, founder of the University of Kraków. Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich (1894–1971), first secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1953–1964 and chairman of the Council of Ministers 1958–1964, delivered a famous speech in February 1956 denouncing Stalin’s rule, sanctioned the return of Władysław Gomułka to the leadership in Poland. Kolbe, Maximilian (1894–1941), a Franciscan friar who volunteered to be executed in place of a stranger in the Auschwitz concentration camp in 1941, canonized in 1982. Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky, Count Franz Anton von (1778–1861), member of a secret executive committee functioning on behalf of Ferdinand I from 1836 to 1848, Minister-President of Austria briefly in 1848. PERSONAGES xix

Komorowski, Bronisław (b. 1952), marshal of the 2007–2010, president of Poland 2010–2015. Kuroń, Jacek (1934–2004), initially a member of the PZPR, but sen- tenced in 1965, together with Karol Modzelewski, to three years in prison for having written a critical Open Letter to the Party, released in 1967 but incarcerated for a second time in 1968 and for a third time, briefly, in 1980, founding member of the Independent Trade Union Solidarity, minister of labor and social policy 1989–1990 and 1992– 1993, member of the Polish parliament 1989–2001. Ledóchowski, Archbishop Mieczysław (1822–1902), served as Archbishop of Gniezno and Poznań from 1866 to 1876. Leo XIII (1810–1903), reigned as Pope 1878–1903, issued the encyclical Rerum novarum in 1891, advocating social equality and social justice. Leopold I (1640–1705), reigned as Holy Roman Emperor 1658–1705. Leopold II (1747–1792), reigned as Holy Roman Emperor 1790–1792. Lepper, Andrzej (1954–2011), leader of the Self-Defense Party. Lorek, Bishop Jan of Sandomierz (1886–1967), served as bishop from 1946 to 1967. Maria Theresa (1717–1780), reigned as Empress-Consort of the Holy Roman Empire 1745–1765 and as Queen of Hungary and Croatia 1740–1780, participated in the first and third partitions of Poland. Marwitz, Bishop Johannes von der (1795–1886), served as Bishop of Chełmno from 1856 until 1886. Mazowiecki, Tadeusz (1928–2013), the first non-communist prime min- ister in Poland since 1946, serving in office from August 1989 until January 1991, previously editor of the Catholic weekly Więź and later of the Solidarity weekly, Tygodnik Solidarność. Metternich, Prince Klemens Wenzel von (1773–1859), served as foreign minister of the 1809–1848 and as state chancellor of the Austrian Empire 1821–1848. Mieszko I, Duke (c. 930–992; reigned 960–992), converted to Christianity in 966. Michalik, Archbishop Józef (b. 1941), chairman of the Polish Synodal Council 2004–2014 and Archbishop of Przemyśl 1993–2016. Michnik, Adam (b. 1946), Polish historian, essayist, public intellectual, and editor-in-chief since 1989 of the independent newspaper Gazeta Wyborcza, joined the Workers’ Defense Committee (KOR) in 1977, served as adviser to the Independent Trade Union Solidarity 1980–1989, in and out of prison in the 1980s because of his opposition to . xx PERSONAGES

Mikołajczyk, Stanisław (1900–1966), leader of the revived Polish Peasant Party after World War Two and deputy prime minister in post-war Poland until 1947, when he emigrated to the United States. Miller, Leszek (b. 1946), prime minister of Poland 2001–2004. Moczar, Mieczysław (1913–1986), deputy minister of internal affairs in Poland 1956–1964 and minister of internal affairs 1964–1968, made a bid for power in 1968 by stoking up anti-Semitism. Mościcki, Ignacy (1867–1946), served as president of Poland from 1926 until 1939. Muszyński, Archbishop Henryk of Gniezno (b. 1933), known for his Biblical studies, especially the Qumran manuscripts. I (Bonaparte, 1769–1821), reigned as Emperor of the French 1804–1814, set up the in 1807. Narutowicz, Gabriel (1865–1922), elected president of Poland in 1922 and assassinated five days after his election. Nicholas I (1796–1855), reigned as Tsar of Russia 1825–1855, closed Polish schools, hospitals, seminaries, religious houses, and printing presses. Nicholas II (1868–1918), reigned as Tsar of Russia 1894–1917. Nycz, Archbishop Kazimierz (b. 1950), archbishop of Warsaw since 2007, previously served as bishop of Koszalin-Kołobrzeg 2004–2007, ele- vated to the College of Cardinals in 2010. Ochab, Edward (1906–1989), served as first secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party from March 1956 until October 1956. Paderewski, Ignacy Jan (1860–1941), world famous pianist who served as prime minister of Poland January-November 1919 and as foreign min- ister of Poland January-December 1919. Paetz, Archbishop Juliusz of Poznań (b. 1935), forced to retire in 2002 because of allegations that he had sexually molested seminarians. Paskievich, Field Marshal Ivan (1782–1856), suppressed the Poles’ in spring 1831, subsequently served as Prince of Warsaw (appointed by Tsar Nicholas I). Paul I (1750–1801), reigned as Tsar of Russia 1796–1801. Paul VI (1897–1978), reigned as Pope 1963–1978, famed for his policy of Ostpolitik vis-à-vis communist regimes. Piasecki, Bolesław (1915–1979), established an association of “patriotic priests” called PAX to collaborate with the communist regime. Pieronek, Bishop Tadeusz (b. 1934), secretary general of the Polish Episcopal Conference 1993–1998. PERSONAGES xxi

Piłsudski, Marshal Józef (1867–1935), chief of state 1918–1922, minister of military affairs and de facto leader of Poland 1926–1935. Pius VI (1717–1799), reigned as Pope 1775–1799, was upset about Joseph II’s Edict of Toleration. Pius IX (1792–1878), reigned as Pope 1846–1878, instructed the rebel- lious Poles to accept the Tsar of Russia as their divinely anointed monarch, issued the anti-liberal Syllabus of Errors in 1864. Pius X (1835–1914), reigned as Pope 1903–1914. Pius XI (1857–1939), reigned as Pope 1922–1939, served previously as apostolic visitor/papal nuncio to Poland 1918–1921, elevated to the College of Cardinals in 1921, issued the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge in 1937, criticizing the Nazis. Pius XII (1876–1958), reigned as Pope 1939–1958, issued the scathing condemnation of with his encyclical Summi Pontificatus in October 1939. Poniatowski, Stanisław. See Stanisław. Popiełuszko, Fr. Jerzy (1947–1984), outspoken advocate of independent trade unionism, murdered in 1984. Radziviłł, Prince Antoni Henryk (1775–1833), served as Duke-Governor of the Grand Duchy of Posen 1815–1830. Ratti, Achille. See Pius XI. Rydz-Śmigły, General Edward (1886–1941), commanded Polish armies against the Bolsheviks during the Russo-Polish War of 1919–1921, promoted himself to Marshal in 1936. Rydzyk, Fr. Tadeusz (b. 1945), Redemptorist priest and founder/director of Radio Maryja. Sapieha, Archbishop Adam Stefan of Kraków (1867–1951), elevated to the College of Cardinals in 1946, supported Roman Dmowski’s National Democrats. Schwarzenberg, Prince Felix von (1800–1852), Minister-President of the Austrian Empire 1848–1852, persuaded Kaiser Ferdinand I to abdicate so that his nephew, Franz Joseph, could take the throne as Kaiser. Sikorski, General Władysław (1881–1943), prime minister of Poland from December 1922 until May 1923, inspector general of the Polish armed forces November 1939–July 1943. Sobieski, Jan III (1629–1696), reigned as King of Poland and of 1674–1696, commanded a Christian army which rescued Vienna in 1683 from an Ottoman siege. xxii PERSONAGES

Stalin, Losif Vissarionovich (1879–1953), general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1922–1953, prime minister of the Soviet Union 1941–1953, used show trials to convict his political rivals on trumped-up charges and have them executed, carried out forced agricultural collectivization and accelerated industrialization. Stanisław, Augustus (1732–1798), reigned as King of Poland 1764–1795, tried in vain to abolish the liberum veto. Suchocka, Hanna (b. 1946), prime minister of Poland from July 1992 until October 1993, signed the Concordat with the Holy See in 1993. Szydło, Beata (b. 1963), prime minister of Poland since November 2015, a firm believer that abortion should not be allowed under any circumstances. Teodorowicz, Archbishop Józef Teofil (1864–1926), supported Roman Dmowski’s National Democrats. Turowicz, Jerzy (1912–1999), editor of Tygodnik Powszechny after 1956. Urban, Jerzy (b. 1933), government spokesman and press secretary for General Jaruzelski’s government 1981 to 1989, since 1989 chief editor of the satirical weekly newspaper Nie. Wałęsa, Lech (b. 1943), co-founder in 1980 and head of the Solidarity Independent Trade Union, recipient of the Nobel Prize in 1983, president of Poland 1990–1995. Wielgus, Archbishop Stanisław of Płock (b. 1939), accused of having collaborated with the communist security service for about two decades. Wielopolski, Alexander (1803–1877), appointed head of the Department of Religious and Educational Affairs in Warsaw, hoped to restore the Congress Kingdom’s lost autonomy, resigned in 1861. Wilhelm I (1797–1888), King of Prussia January 1861–March 1888 and Kaiser of Germany January 1871–March 1888. Wilhelm II (1859–1941), King of Prussia and Kaiser of Germany June 1888–November 1918. Witos, Wincenty (1874–1945), head of the Polish Peasant Party, served as prime minister of Poland July 1920–September 1921, May-December 1923, and May 1926. Wojtyła, Archbishop Karol. See John Paul II. Wyszyński, Archbishop Stefan of Gniezno and Warsaw (1901–1981), Primate of Poland from 1948 until his death, appointed to the College of Cardinals in 1953. Życiński, Archbishop Józef of Lublin (1948–2011), a Polish philosopher and intellectual. CONTENTS

1 Introduction 1

2 From the Origins to 1772 13

3 The Polish Church in the Era of the Partitions, 1772–1918 39

4 The Interwar Republic, 1918–1939 111

5 War Years and Communism, 1939–1989 145

6 Transition to Pluralism, 1989–2004 191

7 Controversies in the Life of the Church 227

8 Conclusion 261

Appendix – Timeline, 966–2016 271

Select Bibliography 279

Index 291

xxiii LIST OF ACRONYMS

AK the Home Army, the chief anti-Nazi resistance force in occupied Poland during World War Two AWS Solidarity Election Action BBWR Non-Partisan Bloc for the Support of the Government, a pro-Piłsudski organization CBOS Center for Public Opinion Research (Warsaw) EU European Union FWFP Federation for Women and Family Planning GDR German Democratic Republic GG General Gouvernement, the Nazi-occupied rump Polish state during World War Two IPN Institute of National Remembrance IVF In Vitro Fertilization KEP Episcopal Conference of Poland KOK Committee for the Defense of the Country, established by General Jaruzelski in 1981 KSM Catholic Youth Organization KUL Catholic University of Lublin LGBT Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender (also sometimes written LGBTQ, with “Q” standing for Queer) LPR League of Polish Families, a right-wing organization opposed to abortion ND National Democrats, the nationalistic party led by Roman Dmowski from 1897 to 1939 NSDAP the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or – for short – the OZN Camp of National Unity, a pro-regime organization set up in 1937

xxv xxvi LIST OF ACRONYMS

PAP Polish Press Agency PO the Civic Platform, a liberal party which dominated Polish politics from 2007 until 2015 PiS the , a right-wing party which won the Polish parlia- mentary elections in October 2015, which has sought to eliminate the independence of the judiciary and to institute a total ban on abortion, without exception PKWN the Polish Committee of National Liberation, established with Soviet backing in 1944 PPR the Polish Workers’ Party, i.e., the Polish communist party PPS the , forced to merge with the PPR in December 1948 PZPR the Polish United Workers’ Party, formed in December 1948 from the merger of the PPR and the PPS, ruling Poland until the party was dissolved in January 1990 SB the Security Service, i.e., the communist-era secret police SLD the Democratic Left Alliance, formed in 1991 as an electoral alliance of center-left parties, participating in ruling coalitions 1993–1997 and again 2001–2005 WAK Catholic Election Action ZLN the Populist-National Union, from which Catholics were excluded ZMP the Union of Polish Youth, a communist-sponsored organization, established in 1948 LIST OF MAPS

Map 2.1 Medieval Poland 17 Map 2.2 The Polish–Lithuanian commonwealth 22 Map 3.1 The partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795) 48 Map 3.2 The Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815) 52 Map 3.3 International borders, 1815–1914, showing the Congress Kingdom 54 Map 5.1 The partition of Poland during World War Two 148 Map 5.2 Poland’s borders, 1939–1951 154

xxvii LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Population by ethnicity (1921) 118 Table 4.2 Population by religion (1921) 119 Table 4.3 Population by ethnicity (1931) 120 Table 4.4 Population by religion (1931) 120

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