The-Christocentrism-Of-The-Carmelite

Table of Contents

1 Summary ...... 11 2 Preface ...... 13 3 The Christocentricity of Albert's Rule ...... 15 3.1 Walking in the footsteps of Jesus ...... 17 3.2 How the obsequium Informs the Rule ...... 18 4 Christocentrism in the Tradition ...... 21 4.1 The Christocentrism of Teresa of Avila ...... 21 4.2 The Christocentrism of John of the Cross ...... 25 4.2.1 Christ as Model ...... 26 4.2.2 Christ as Mediator ...... 28 4.2.3 Christ as Spouse ...... 29 5 Christocentricity and Carmel Today ...... 31 5.1 Transcendental or Anthropological Christology ...... 31 5.2 Rearticulating Christocentricity Today ...... 40 5.3 Christology from Below ...... 42 5.4 Rearticulating Christocentricity Today ...... 46

10 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 11

Christocentrism is highly kenotic, patterned on the self-emptying of 1 Jesus coming to completion in his own suffering and death. Associated Summary with this Crusade-influenced Chris- tocentric spirituality is the importance of the original Jerusalem community of the Acts, which serves According to the Prologue of as a model for the first hermits on the Rule of St. Albert, Carmelites, as Mt. Carmel. all Christians, are called to be disciples of Christ, “to walk in the foot- This Christocentrism of the steps of Jesus Christ”. The Rule Rule finds two paramount expositors spells out the specificity of the Car- in Teresa of Avila and John of the melite mode of this Christian disci- Cross. For both mystics, the humani- pleship. The Rule, therefore, is ty of Jesus is central to their under- thoroughly Christocentric. In every standing of transformation into age and every place where Carmel Christ and hence to their under- has taken root, Carmelites have had standing of the journey of the per- to dialogue from the perspective of son to God. For both writers, this that age and place with the Christo- Christocentrism is focused in the centricity of their Rule to recon- role of the humanity of Jesus in struct the meaning of walking in the prayer, even in the highest stages of footsteps of Jesus Christ for their contemplative prayer. Christian life specific times and cultures. Such an in all stages is incarnational in struc- ongoing dialogue, which constitutes ture with Christ as model, mediator the effective history or tradition of and goal. For both John and Teresa Carmel, of necessity has given and this Christocentric mysticism is ke- will continue to give rise not only to notic and directed not only to God a multiplicity but also a “conflict of but to the healing of the world. interpretations”. Just as Teresa and John re- This paper first explores the trieved the Christocentrism of the Christocentricity of the Rule of St. Rule for their day, so also Carmelites Albert as this Christocentricity is un- today must do the same. Two con- derstood within the Rule itself as temporary Christological approaches contextualized by its twelfth and are offered to facilitate this retrieval: thirteenth century ecclesial-historical the anthropological Christology of contexts, especially medieval feudal- Karl Rahner and Christologies “from ism and the Crusades. below” based upon the “historical Jesus”. In each case but in somewhat Through prayer, penance and different ways the humanity of Jesus fasting and especially through medi- and its importance for Christian life tating upon the law of the Lord and is stressed. Both Christological ap- the recitation of the psalms, the first proaches present challenges to con- hermits of Carmel were to be trans- temporary Carmelites to understand formed into Christ. In turn through anew the meaning of walking in the their spiritual combat and transfor- footsteps of Jesus Christ. Both ap- mation into Christ, they were to con- proaches call forth a kenotic follow- tribute in their own way to regaining ing of Jesus. for Christ the land which he had acquired through his own cross. This 12 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

NOTES

Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 13

2 Preface

The Order of Carmel has its origins in a group of Western lay hermits who journeyed to the Holy Land and settled near the spring of Elijah on Mount Carmel. Between the years 1206 and 1214 these hermits approached Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem and Papal Legate for the province of Jerusalem, with a request for a “formula of life”, which would come to be known as Albert's Rule.1 As I hope to show, this Rule is thoroughly Christocentric. This Christo- centricity has continually informed the spiritual heritage of Carmel, seen for example in the writings of Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross.

In this paper I wish to do three things:

1) explore the Christocentricity of Albert's Rule;

2) show how that Christocentricity is witnessed in the Carmelite tradition in the persons of Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross; and

3) rearticulate this Christocentricity for Carmel today in light of contemporary Christological think- ing.

1 Carlo Cicconetti, "The History of the Rule". in Michael Mulhall, ed., Albert's Way, Rome: Institutum Carmelitanum, 1989, pp. 24-27.

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In responding to the request of 3 the hermits of Carmel for a formula of life, Albert, in n.1, as one might The expect, lays down the fundamental project of every Carmelite, namely, Christocentricity “to walk in the footsteps of Christ”.5 In the Rule he then delineates the of specific ways in which these hermits 2 were to live out the universal Chris- Albert's Rule tian vocation of “a life of allegiance

to Jesus Christ”.6 This Christocentric

project is certainly not unique to

those original Carmelites or their Albert's Rule is notorious for its followers. Yet it is this project which brevity. Yet it contains twelve direct must inform the precise modality of and at least eight indirect references Christian living spelled out in the to Christ. Various theories regarding Rule. In all aspects of their lives, the the “center” or “heart” of the Rule hermits are to in obsequio Jesu Christi have been proposed, e.g. its eremit- vivere. This obsequium becomes their ical-contemplative or its communal “supreme and fundamental norm”.7 dimension.3 Without wishing to en- Thus I fully concur with Valabek's ter into this debate, I would propose position: that anterior to any other interpreta- Saint Albert immediately seizes on the tion of the Rule is the centrality of essential: religious are not in the first Christ and walking in his footsteps, place bound to a well-described, scheduled discipleship.4 way of life, but they are bound to a per-

2 In dealing with the Rule I will refer to the text as son: Christ Jesus. In fact, the Rule is per- mitigated in 1247 by Innocent IV according to the vaded by this presence of the person of new uniform enumeration of sections accepted in 8 1999. With only slight revisions, the following Christ both in word and in sacrament. treatment of the Christocentricity of Albert's Rule is taken from pp. 91-98 of my article "Jesus in Carmelite Spirituality" found in Paul Chandler, O. Carm. and Keith J. Egan (eds), The Land of Whatever else Carmelites may Carmel: Essays in Honor of Joachim Smet, O. or may not be, they must in the first Carm., Rome: Institutum Carmelitanum, 1991, pp. 91-107. instance be Christians, followers of 3 For a discussion of this issue, see selections in Christ. Walking in the footsteps of Mulhall, Albert's Way. Christ becomes, therefore, the un- 4 "He (Albert) wishes the hermits well-being in Jesus, who will hold the central position in his derlying hermeneutic of the Rule formula for living . . . ." Otger Steggink, Jo and not just an incidental adjunct. Tigcheler, Kees Waaijman, Carmelite Rule, Amelo, 1979, p. 14, n. 9; see also p. 47, n. 85 and As hermeneutic it not only informs 86, where the person of Jesus is referred to as the whole of the Rule; it also pro- the ultimate motive and foundation of the life on vides its interpretive key. Further- Carmel. Rudolph Hendriks states: "We cannot stress sufficiently: Christ is the Alpha and Omega more, precisely as interpretative key, of the Carmelite Rule. The Rule begins in Christ walking in the footsteps of Christ and ends in Christ.... They [the first Carmelites] wish simply to serve Christ by living a solitary life near the spring on Mount Carmel, fasting and keeping vigil, meditating on the law of the Lord, explanation of St. Paul's expression constitutes constant in prayer. They wish to imitate Christ in the entire novelty of our study of Carmel's Rule". his prayer at night on the mountain, and to keep The Rule of Carmel, Darien, IL: Carmelite watch with him in the garden". See "The Original Spiritual Center, 1984, pp. 14, 15. Inspiration of the Carmelite Order as Expressed 5 I will discuss below the meaning of "in obsequio in the Rule of Saint Albert", in Hugh Clarke, Jesu Christi vivere", in n.1. O.Carm. and Bede Edwards, O.C.D., The Rule of 6 Cicconetti, The Rule of Carmel, 63, 296. Saint Albert, Aylesford, 1973, p. 69. Likewise 7 Steggink et al., Carmelite Rule, p. 4, p. 14, n. Cicconetti claims: "A central design in Albert's 11, p. 16, n. 17. See Bruno Secondin, "What Is 'formula of life' is the following of or allegiance to the Heart of the Rule", in Mulhall, Albert's Way, Jesus Christ (obsequium Jesu Christi). . . . the pp. 116-17. spirituality of the rule of Carmel hinges on 'the 8 Redemptus M. Valabek, "The Spirituality of the following of Christ' (obsequium Jesu Christi). The Rule", in Mulhall, Albert's Way, pp. 151-52. 16 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

must function along the lines of a centricity of the Rule should come as hermeneutic of suspicion, that is a no surprise. hermeneutic which stands in judge- ment of and corrects every past and As for the ecclesial context, at present interpretation of the Rule the end of the twelfth century there and provides direction for its ongo- arose in Europe new spiritual ing rearticulation. movements which in critique of the opulence of the clergy and monks I have claimed that the underly- returned to the scriptures, and ing project and hence hermeneutic hence to the centrality of imitating of Albert's Rule is expressed in n.1 Christ and the apostolic way of life of itself, namely, walking in the foot- the Jerusalem community. One form steps of Jesus Christ (in obsequio Jesu of this evangelical awakening was a Christi vivere). As underlying herme- movement of lay, wandering hermits neutic, one would expect that this dedicated to penance, evangelical Christocentric project informs the poverty and the visiting of holy plac- whole of the Rule. And indeed it es.10 does. To appreciate the Christocen- tricity of the Rule one must first step Moreover this same period wit- back behind the text to its author nessed the Crusades, which under- and ecclesial context. took the task of recovering the “Land of Christ”. However, after the Prior to Albert's appointment as defeat of Hattin in 1187 and with bishop of Bobbio in 1184, he had the election of Innocent III in 1189, been a Canon Regular of the Holy the theological reason for visiting Cross in Mortara. His formation as a the “Land of the Lord” prevailed Canon Regular entailed the constant over all other motives (e.g. military reading of the sacred scriptures and and commercial).11 Of all the holy devotion to the Cross of Christ. Fur- places which the wandering hermits thermore, as Patriarch of Jerusalem of Europe visited, the “Land of and Papal Legate to the Holy Land, Christ” became the most popular. the patrimony of Christ, he had a There they could literally walk “in special commitment to the obsequium the footsteps of Jesus” and through of the Cross of Christ.9 With this penance imitate his suffering and background, therefore, the Christo- death.12 “By renouncing all earthly goods in voluntary poverty, they sought to renew Christian life by the 9 Cicconetti, "The History of The Rule", pp. 25-26, and The Rule of Carmel, pp. 2, 300. As J. Pelikan following of Christ through imitat- and B. McGinn point out, devotion to the cross of ing the ‘way of life’ of the Apos- Christ and imitation of the crucified Christ typifies 13 Western spirituality ever since the early Middle tles.” Furthermore, as Cicconetti Ages and was flourishing in the eleventh and notes: twelfth centuries, as can be seen e.g. in the The very fact of being in the Holy Land writings of Peter Damien (1007-1072), Anselm of Canterbury (10033-1109) and Bernard of comprised in itself a decision to fight for Clairvaux (1090-1153). And E. Cousins claims: Jesus Christ, not necessarily in the mili- "By the end of the thirteenth century devotion to the humanity of Christ was solidly established in tary sense, but in personal service, in Western spirituality, and its focus was fixed on the spiritual warfare. In fact, the Holy Land passion of Christ". See Ewert Cousins, "The was considered the “patrimony of Jesus Humanity and the Passion of Christ", in Jill Raitt (ed), Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Christ”, his heritage or kingdom. One Reformation, New York: Crossroad, 1989, pp. who dwelt there was by a special title his 386-387. See also Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: The Growth of Medieval Theology (600-1300), Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978, pp. 106-157; Bernard 10 Cicconetti, "The History of the Rule", pp. 34-35, McGinn, "Christ as Savior in the West", in 43 and The Rule of Carmel, pp. 27-43. Bernard McGinn and John Meyendorff (eds), 11 Cicconetti, "The History of the Rule", p. 31. Christian Spirituality: Origins to the Twelfth 12 Steggink et al., Carmelite Rule, p. 4; Cicconetti, Century, New York: Crossroad, 1989, pp. 253- The Rule of Carmel, pp. 40-41. 259. 13 Cicconetti, "The History of the Rule", p. 43. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 17 liege-man, a vassal in the following of As Cicconetti notes, Christ to whom he owed fidelity and the phrase in obse- faithful service.14 (Emphasis mine). 3.1 quio Jesu Christi, Walking drawn from 2 Cor One such group of Western in the 10:5, takes on footsteps of evangelical, lay hermits who re- 18 somewhat different turned to the land of Christ and the Jesus meanings in differ- primitive apostolic life to help re- ing situations.19 claim the patrimony of Christ were Valabek summarizes the Pauline the hermits of Carmel who request- meaning of this obsequium. A disciple ed Albert for a “formula of life”, of Christ is a doulos, a slave or servant which itself would respond to but who totally hands over self, thoughts, also further delineate a life-style will, wishes to Christ, who becomes (propositum) which they already the most important person in life. In lived,15 that is, a life dedicated to the turn the disciple shares in the very following of Christ, especially the life of Christ and becomes a new self Christ of the Cross, and lived in imi- created in God's way.20 tation of the primitive Jerusalem community.16 As Cicconetti notes This Pauline notion of obsequium and as will become clear below: “The took on specific connotations in thoughts of the hermits (of Mount feudal times. What images or over- Carmel) focused on the Holy Land tones did this Pauline expression completely. From this posture, evoke in the hermits of Carmel dur- which regarded the Holy Land as ing this feudal period? the sacred patrimony of Christ, one must view the rule and spirituality of The basic feudal meaning of in Carmel”.17 obsequio was that of service, the service which a vassal rendered to a Given the above context for Al- sovereign. Cicconetti notes: bert's “formula”, two questions can Following of or allegiance to another (ob- now be addressed. First, what was sequium) implied duties on the part of the meaning of the phrase in the master and subject. Those living in the Prologue: “walking in the footsteps patrimony of a feudal lord promised good of Jesus”? Second, how is this fun- and faithful service, assistance in time of damental project delineated in the war and participation in resolution of Rule in such a way that it “informs” problems or questions. In return the lord the whole? promised protection . . . to his subjects.21

This secular meaning of in obsequio was transferred in the religious realm to service owed to God or (especially) Christ.

In the XII and XIII centuries, relationship with Christ was judged in similar

18 Various English translations of the Latin in obsequio Jesu Christi vivere are found: walking in the footsteps of Jesus Christ, living in the footsteps of Jesus Christ, to live in allegiance to Jesus Christ. In my explanation of this concept I 14 Cicconetti, The Rule of Carmel, p. 42; see also am indebted especially to Cicconetti, The Rule of pp. 62. Carmel, pp. 296-312. 15 Ibid., pp. 62-63, 296; see also Steggink et al., 19 The Rule of Carmel, p. 298. Carmelite Rule, p. 4. 20 Valabek, "The Spirituality of the Rule", pp. 152- 16 Steggink et al., Carmelite Rule, p. 4. 153. 17 Cicconetti, The Rule of Carmel, p. 17; see also 21 Cicconetti, The Rule of Carmel, p. 15; see also pp. 63-64. p. 299. 18 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

terms; traditional feudal values of service In the case of the hermits of . . . , of fidelity . . . , of allegiance or fol- Carmel, therefore, their particular lowing (obsequium), of being bound to allegiance (obsequium) to Christ was . . ., of dedication . . . , governed a man's very much defined by the then cur- responsibilities to Christ with a pervading rent theology of reconquering the influence that colored every aspect of daily land of Christ through spiritual com- life.22 bat in imitation of the suffering and Crucified Christ. They were to em- All Christians were bound to brace poverty, penance, silence, soli- this obsequium Christi. But during the tude, prayer and fasting, “to follow period of the Crusades, the concept Christ's law, be available to do all took on even greater specificity. things in his name, to vest them- Christ had been expelled from his selves in spiritual armor”,27 to disarm own patrimony and had suffered an the forces of evil and above all to injustice. Hence popes evoked the meditate upon the law of the Lord.28 concept to induce Christians to sup- In all of this, but especially through port the liberation of the Holy meditating upon the law of the Lord Land.23 Hence, the obsequium Jesu and the recitation of the psalms, Christi had a very pregnant sense for they were to be transformed into crusaders and others, such as the Christ.29 It is this specific form of hermits on Mount Carmel, who pil- “walking in the footsteps of Jesus” grimaged to or resided in the land which is signalled in n.1 and further of Christ. All such Christians became specified in their “formula of life”. Christ's special subjects, were especially dedicated to his service (obsequium) and were to be completely I do not intend to faithful to him.24 analyze or comment 3.2 upon each reference How the Of course the patrimony of to Christ in the Rule. obsequium Christ was to be regained not only I merely wish first to Informs through military efforts. Since the make some general the Rule fall of Jerusalem was attributed to observations and the infidelity and sins of Christians, then show how the true interior conversion to Christ very structuring of the Rule is Chris- and spiritual arms (prayer, penance, tocentric. fasting) were more important than the earthly weapons of the crusader. From the above, one can see The soldier of Christ had to arm how the basic project of walking in himself with the disarming attitude the footsteps of Jesus, signalled in of Christ.25 This was a spirituality the Prologue, is then articulated in founded on the passion of Christ the Rule itself: faithful following of and realized only by taking up the Christ through obedience to his rep- Cross, through which Christ himself resentative, the prior (nn.4,22,23), had acquired the land. The obsequi- solitude (n.6), meditating upon the um Jesu Christi was, therefore, very much a following of the crucified 27 Ibid., 16. See also pp. 303-304, 310-11. 26 Steggink et al. seem to interpret the in obsequio Christ. as imitating Christ in his desert battle with Satan. "Wearing God's armor is a concrete application of 'living in the footsteps of Jesus', for in 2 Cor. 10:4- 5 the 'arms of warfare' and the 'walking in the footsteps of Jesus' are closely connected". Carmelite Rule, p. 35, n. 58; see also pp. 4, 15, n. 22 Ibid., 299. 14-16, p. 33, n. 53, pp. 33-34, n. 55. 23 Ibid. 28 Cicconetti, Albert's Way, p. 310. See also 24 Ibid., 16, 299. Valabek, "The Spirituality of the Rule", p. 154. For 25 Ibid., 301-302, 309. See also Valabek, "The the medieval meaning of "meditating", see Spirituality of the Rule", pp. 168-174. Cicconetti, The Rule of Carmel, pp. 309-310. 26 Cicconetti, The Rule of Carmel, p. 302. 29 Valabek, "The Spirituality of the Rule", p. 154. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 19 law of Lord, vigilance in prayer, re- Eucharist is structurally central, i.e. citing psalms (nn.10,11,14), poverty it lies at the very center of the text (n.12), penance as fasting and absti- (n.14). This textual centrality re- nence (nn.16,17), vesting in spiritual flects the spatial centrality of the Eu- armor for spiritual warfare charistic oratory in the midst of the (nn.18,19), doing all in the Word of cells.35 This textual and spatial cen- the Lord (n.19), willingness to un- trality in turn indicate the theologi- dergo persecution (n.18), silence cal center of the Rule, the Eucha- (n.21). In all of this Christ is present rist.36 to the hermit community as model, teacher, savior and eschatological This structural approach to the judge (nn.23,24).30 Within this Rule, with the Eucharist as its textual Christocentric perspective, Elijah center, reveals that the center of this and Mary, present only implicitly in hermit community is, as it was for the Rule, become subordinate mod- the Jerusalem community, Christ. els or symbols who serve to con- The Rule now appears visually as an cretize the obsequium Jesu Christi.31 arc. At the two ends of the arc are the following of Christ (n.1) and the Even more important than see- awaiting of the return of the Lord ing how the various elements of the (n.24). At its apex is the presence of obsequium Jesu Christi are taken up in Christ in the Eucharist. “Between the chapters of the Rule is the Chris- these three reference points all the tocentric structuring of the Rule.32 rest of the Rule rotates, either as a And here we discover the role which consequent actualization or as a dy- the ideal Christian community of the namic referent.”37 Structurally the Acts played for those first Carmelites Rule is saying that the whole Chris- in their walking in the footsteps of tocentric project of the Rule, namely Jesus. to walk in the footsteps of Jesus (n.1) in anticipation of his return (n.24), We saw above that the hermits is focused upon, celebrated in and on Carmel were part of a larger spir- subsumed into the Eucharist (n.14), itual movement which espoused a in which Christ himself is sacramen- return to the scriptures and the life tally present to the community and of the Jerusalem community. Their which itself anticipates his return.38 walking in the footsteps of Jesus was not to be done in a solitary way but In concluding this first part as a community. “Reechoing the in- dealing with the Christocentricity of sights of Luke, Albert enjoins on the the Rule and by way of introducing hermits a following of Christ by fol- the second part of this paper, I cite lowing the ideals and values of the the words of Secondin: apostolic Christian community.”33 In the Rule, then, we find a Christology Hence it is no surprise that nn.10-15 which esteems discipleship and revolves of the Rule parallel Acts 2:42-47; around a “life in Christ”, prayerful lis- 4:32-35 (fidelity to the Word, perse- tening to the Word, celebration of the verance in prayer, sharing in goods, Mystery, a vision of meditation as a way fraternal unity, the centrality of daily of imprinting Christ into one's life . . . , worship).34 Within the Rule, daily and the awaiting of his return. The same

30 Ibid., 156. 31 Ibid., 156-157. 35 Secondin, "What Is the Heart of the Rule?" pp. 32 Here I am indebted to Bruno Secondin, O. 108, 129. Carm. "What is the Heart of the Rule?" in Mulhall, 36 Ibid., 94. Albert's Way, pp. 93-132. 37 Ibid., 110. 33 Valabek, "The Spirituality of the Rule", p. 159. 38 In this Eucharistic "concentration" or 34 Ibid., 157-159; Secondin, "What is the Heart of "sublimation", the Rule anticipates many the Rule?" pp. 103-04. Secondin claims (p. 94) statements from the teachings of the Second that the unifying center of the Rule, which Vatican Council. See the Decree on the Ministry integrates all other elements are nn.10-15. and Life of Priests, n. 5 and 6. 20 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

way-of-life . . . as a dedication to the Lord in the Holy Land . . . is now transformed into an open journey to be undertaken in any place or time.39

39 Secondin, "What Is the Heart of the Rule?" p. 119. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 21

tirety of our spiritual lives.41 For Te- resa, the humanity of Christ remains 4 the sole gate through which we must enter if we desire “his sovereign Christocentrism Majesty to show us great secrets”.42 As the spiritual journey to the center in the of the soul or castle progresses, more and more the figure of Christ Tradition becomes predominant.43 As Thomp- son states: For la Santa, every aspect of our Chris- tian lives is in some sense Jesus-mediated. Indeed this Christocentric way On our way to God and our neighbor, we of life, celebrated in Albert's Rule in never really leave Jesus. That seems to be the context of a crusade spirituality her fundamental intuition.44 of reconquering the land of Christ through spiritual combat in imita- This Christocentrism of Teresa tion of the suffering and crucified of Avila is above all reflected in her Christ, was transformed into an own interior journey of prayer. As open journey to be undertaken in Luti states: “The humanity of Christ any place or time. This Christocen- was absolutely central to Teresa's trism would continue to inspire developing relationship with God in Carmel's tradition as witnessed prayer”.45 In order to appreciate through and interpreted by its many Teresa's Christocentrism, therefore, saints. Two such saints are Teresa of one must attend to what she says re- Avila and John of the Cross. garding the role of Jesus in prayer. The main sources for her explicit treatment of the role of Jesus in In his lecture on prayer are the Life, chapter twenty- the role of the two and the Interior Castle, book six, 4.1 human Christ 46 The chapter seven. for St. Teresa Christocentrism upon the occa- of Teresa of As Thompson and others point sion of the 47 Avila out, while there was no debate on fourth centenary Jesus' role as mediator for the early of the death of stages of the spiritual life, it had be- Teresa, the noted Carmelite scholar, come fashionable in some circles to Dr. Eamon R. Carroll, singles out think that one must transcend the Teresa of Avila as “one of the all- humanity of Jesus as one progresses time great defenders” of the in obsequio Jesu Christi tradition of the Car- 41 William M. Thompson, Fire and Light: The melite Rule.40 Saints and Theology, New York: Paulist Press, 1987, pp. 143, 147. 42 Life, 22.6, in The Collected Works of St. Teresa Reflecting upon Teresa's con- of Avila, vol. I, trans. Kieran Kavanaugh, O.C.D. cern for the humanity of Jesus and and Otilio Rodriguez, O.C.D., Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications, 1976, p. 147. the role of Jesus' humanity in Chris- 43 John Welch, O. Carm. Spiritual Pilgrims: Carl tian life, William M. Thompson Jung and Teresa of Avila, New York: Paulist Press, 1982, pp. 193, 208. claims that she accents the mediato- 44 Thompson, Fire and Light, p. 143. See also rial role of Jesus throughout the en- Carroll, "The Saving Role of the Human Christ for St. Teresa", p. 136. 45 J. Mary Luti, Teresa of Avila's Way, Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1991, p. 97. 40 Eamon R. Carroll, O. Carm., "The Saving Role 46 For a clear and concise treatment, see Antonio of the Human Christ for St. Teresa", in John Moreno, O.P., "St. Teresa, Contemplation and the Sullivan, O.C.D. (ed), Carmelite Studies, III, Humanity of Christ", Review for Religious 38 Centenary of Saint Teresa, Washington, D.C.: (1979): 912-923. ICS Publications, 1984, p. 133. 47 See e.g. Luti, Teresa of Avila's Way, pp. 94 ff. 22 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

up the mystical ladder. The myster- contemplatives should never relin- ies of the human Jesus, i.e. the quish the humanity of Christ in their events of his life, especially his pas- life of prayer. The first reason has to sion and death, but also his resurrec- do with a lack of humility, i.e. one tion, were thought to be merely thinks that in prayer one can lift stepping stones for the contempla- oneself beyond the humanity of tive beginner.48 Christ in order to contemplate God in God's self. This is tantamount to This debate regarding the role wanting to be Mary before having of Jesus' humanity in prayer is not worked with Martha.53 merely an “insular skirmish on an esoteric subject in ascetical theolo- The second reason, found also gy”,49 for prayer is a microcosm in chapter six of the Interior Castle, is which reveals the very nature of a much more theological and anthro- religion. Thus the struggle over the pological. In the Life Teresa puts it mediatorial role of Jesus in contem- in this way: plative prayer is, as Thompson ... we are not angels but we have a body. points out, really a struggle over Je- To desire to be angels while we are on sus' mediatorial role in Christian earth - and as much on earth as I was - is faith. It raises the questions of foolishness. Ordinarily, thought needs to whether or not Christians encounter have some support.54 God apart from Jesus or receive the gift of salvation apart from Jesus.50 In other words, as O'Donoghue For Christians, the answer to these explains, since we are on earth we question is an emphatic “no”, since need something to lean on, especial- for Christian trinitarian faith the ly in times of stress or aridity. “At very meaning of Jesus and his history such times Christ is a very good is God precisely as God-for-us, i.e. friend and companion.”55 He is the God as the God of salvation.51 It is one through whom all things come this basic Christian trinitarian and to us and so “we should desire no Christological faith which is itself at other path even . . . at the summit of issue in Teresa's insistence upon the contemplation”.56 role of Jesus' humanity even in the highest stages of contemplative In a similar vein, Teresa writes prayer.52 in the Interior Castle: ... To be always withdrawn from corpore- In chapter twenty-two of the al things and enkindled in love is the Life, Teresa gives two reasons why trait of angelic spirits, not of those who live in mortal bodies. It is necessary that

48 Thompson, Fire and Light, pp. 144, 147. See we speak to, think about, and become the the Life, 22.1, p. 140. companions of those who, having had a 49 Thompson, Fire and Light, p. 146. 50 mortal body, accomplished such great Ibid. 51 On this matter, see the excellent work of Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God For Us: The Trinity and Christian Life, San Francisco, CA: 53 Life, 22.9. Harper, 1991. 54 Ibid., 22.10, p. 148. 52 Thompson (Fire and Light, p. 146) correctly 55 Noel O'Donoghue, Mysticism for Our Time, points out how this same issue was very much at Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1989, p. 29. See the Life, stake in the Arian crisis and Nicean response to 22.10. O'Donoghue goes on to point out (p. 30) Arius. Is Jesus merely a dispensable finite that Teresa is affirming the way of the humanity of medium through which the God of salvation can Christ as the staple of contemplative prayer, even be encountered or is Jesus himself in his though she allows a secondary place to another humanity the Self-gift of God to us? Nicea's state in which for a short period of time, the response was that Jesus is not merely one humanity is transcended. Teresa, indeed, among several dispensable finite media in and appreciated the symbolic and historical character through which the divine can work. For God to be of the human person, because of which the the God of salvation, i.e. for God to be God-for experience of God must always be mediated. For us, God must "do" or "be" God in Jesus. Hence Christians, the humanity of Christ acts as the the Son is "one in being" with the Father, or else primary mediation of the divine. there is no salvation. 56 Life, 22.7. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 23 feats for God. How much more is it neces- belongs also to the higher states of sary not to withdraw through one's own infused or supernatural communica- efforts from all our good and help, which tion.61 The whole prayer-experience, is the most sacred humanity of our Lord therefore, must be grounded in the Jesus Christ.57 incarnation and should itself be deeply incarnate. “Once this anchor- Teresa goes on to indicate that ing in the Word made flesh is af- such persons who abandon the hu- firmed fully and concretely, there is manity of Christ in prayer will harm no limit to the horizons of contem- themselves and others and will not plative vision.”62 For Teresa, there- enter the last two dwelling places. fore, the “denigration of the human For if they lose the guide, who is the good and finite and material fosters a Jesus, they will not hit on the right simple other-worldly form of pie- road.... The Lord Himself says that He is ty”.63 the way; the Lord also says that He is the light and that no one can go to the Father This appreciation of Teresa for but through Him, and “anyone who sees the “this-worldly” or incarnational me sees my Father”.58 structure of religious experience and its relevance for contemporary spir- O'Donoghue points out that the ituality have been noted most favor- real issue here is the meaning of the ably by the Jesuit theologian, Karl presence of Christ's humanity in Rahner. Comparing Teresa's mysti- prayer. He indicates that there are cism to that of John of the Cross, three distinct presences: “presence- Rahner states: before”, “presence-beside” and We might at first perhaps think that the “presence-below”, or Christ as object radical “absence of images” in the experi- of contemplation, as friend and ence of God as described by John of the companion, and Christ as support.59 Cross would make him a better interpreter of our modern experience of God than Against her opponents who Teresa with her frankly visionary mysti- would grant the last two presences, cism. But if we consider that the loss of even in the higher states of mystical imagery today is to be counted precisely as prayer, Teresa steadfastly maintains a loss and not as a gain, if we see that also the first presence, Christ as ob- our relationship to God today must either ject of contemplation. 61 O'Donoghue points out that in these higher Rejecting, therefore, a totally stages of prayer Teresa does not mean by contemplation "discursive meditation". "Here apophatic mysticism in the Dionysi- there is question of an interior glance, a kind of an tradition of the divine darkness, intuition, a mere look, a simple vision. This mere look is ... the launching pad of the mind's journey which would haughtily look down into the world of Divine mystery... What has upon the role of the creature in the happened is that the memory has brought an higher states of contemplative pray- image before the understanding which launches the understanding into the heavens of er, Teresa says such an attempt to contemplation . . . ." Mysticism for our Time, p. leave behind the humanity of Christ, 33. For a similar treatment, see Moreno, "St. Teresa, Contemplation and the Humanity of to neglect to continue to contem- Christ”, pp. 919-920, and Thompson, Fire and plate the mysteries of his life, is a Light, pp. 150-51, 155-56, where he distinguishes “dangerous path”.60 For Teresa, the between mediation and mode of mediation. Our God experience, says Thompson, is always a contemplation of Christ's humanity, Jesus-mediated experience. But that experience especially the mysteries of his life, can come to us in either the mode of images or concepts or in the more supraconceptual or imageless mode of the apophatic way. 62 O'Donoghue, Mysticism for Our Time, p. 33. 57 The Interior Castle, 6.7.6, trans. Kieran O'Donoghue points out (pp. 33-34) that because Kavanaugh, O.C.D. and Otilio Rodriguez, O.C.D., of Teresa's appreciation of the incarnational or New York: Paulist Press, 1979, p. 145. historical nature of religious experience, even 58 Ibid., 146. contemplative experience, liturgy also plays an 59 O'Donoghue, Mysticism for Our Time, p. 30. essential role in contemplative life for Teresa. 60 Interior Castle, 6.7.14, p. 150. 63 Thompson, Fire and Light, p. 146. 24 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

be mediated perhaps more explicitly than Carroll state “to pray (for Teresa) ever though our relationship to the con- meant to be transformed in Jesus the crete Jesus of Nazareth, to his life and Lord”.70 Carroll describes this pro- death and his relationship to his fellow- cess of transformation in the follow- men, or it will not exist at all, then it is ing words: perhaps not so obvious that for us today She (Teresa) did not simply “put on” Teresa of Avila must rank behind John of Christ, she was transformed into him, a the Cross. The fact that her desire for development not from without but from penance did not lessen her appreciation within, Jesus acting in her, at the heart of of good roast partridge and that she was the interior castle of her personality. The also an incomparable worldly-wise organ- progressive degrees of prayer in her life izer and diplomat ..., these are also were stages in grasping Christ, or better, things which make her mysticism particu- being seized by him.71 larly sympathetic for us today.64 And summarizing Teresa's doc- And what are we to say of Tere- trine on this matter, Welch states: sa's many visions? Teresa's visions, In sum, Teresa tells us that Christ ac- which were mainly of Christ,65 are, companies our journey. Christ is our true according to O'Donoghue, the ex- life, our final goal. He is the model whom pression or overflow of the very re- we are to imitate. That imitation will birthing of Christ within her. “In her principally be in his suffering. “Fix your and through her Christ lives again, eyes on the Crucified…”72 dies again, goes down to hell again, rises again in glory.... Where so many This process of transformation Christian mystics go upwards to God, into Christ or “Christoformation” is Teresa brings God down to earth.”66 very graphically depicted by Teresa in chapter two of book five of the This rebirthing of Christ in Te- Interior Castle where she speaks of the resa opens another window on the process in which the silkworm Christocentrism of Teresa. Not only weaves its cocoon, dies and is re- is Christ as object of contemplation birthed as a butterfly. In chapter two central for Teresa in his mediatorial of book seven of the Interior Castle, role in prayer and the spiritual life, where the goal of the spiritual life is Christ is also the very model and goal depicted in terms of spiritual mar- of prayer and the spiritual life. It is riage or identification with Christ, precisely through meditation upon the butterfly itself now dies, “and and imitation of the mysteries of with the greatest joy because its life Christ's life,67 especially his passion is now Christ”.73 At this stage of total and death,68 that one becomes more transformation into Christ, Teresa and more transformed through love can say: “For me to live is Christ, and into Christ.69 Quite accurately does to die is gain”.74 The transformative process of silkworm-cocoon-butterfly 64 Karl Rahner, Opportunities for Faith: Elements and final death of the butterfly sym- of a Modern Spirituality, trans. Edward Quinn, bolizes the pascal mystery itself, the New York: Seabury Press,1974, p. 126. 65 See especially chapters 27, 28 and 29 of the mystery of transformative death to Life. self and resurrection into Christ. In- 66 O'Donoghue, Mysticism for Our Time, p. 41. 67 Teresa often identifies with Mary Magdalene, the Samaritan woman and others in their when in the inmost center of ourselves Christ in relationships with Christ. See e.g. Interior Castle enthroned...." See Carroll, "The Saving Role of Book 6.7. the Human Christ for St. Teresa", p. 134. 68 See e.g. the Life, 13.13, 22.12; Interior Castle, 70 Ibid., 138. 6.9; 7.1,4,8. Carroll points out that the emphasis 71 Ibid., 135. in imitating Christ is always on his suffering and 72 Welch, Spiritual Pilgrims, p. 196. death. See Carroll, "The Saving Role of the 73 For an excellent treatment of the butterfly Human Christ for St. Teresa", p. 139. symbol in Teresa as image of healing and 69 This theme of transformation into Christ runs transformation into Christ, see Welch, Ibid., 136- throughout Carroll's lecture. As Carroll states, for 164. Teresa "we become most properly human beings 74 Interior Castle, 7.2.5, p. 179. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 25 deed, the story of the silkworm's We saw above transformation represents the entire how for Teresa of journey to the center of the castle, 4.2 Avila the humani- The where is found Christ himself and ty of Christ plays 75 Christocentrism union with him. of John of the an essential role Cross79 in all phases of And of course the whole pur- the spiritual life pose of this transformative process is so that every as- “the birth always of good works”, not pect of Christian life is Jesus- unbroken repose, but apostolic ac- mediated. Is the same true for John tivity on the basis of inner stability. of the Cross? For Teresa the contemplative vocation is not opposed to the apostolic. Both Edwards and Barron point Contemplation results in love of out that John has been criticized on God and neighbor and is directed this very point.80 No less a premier not only to God but to the healing of theologian than Karl Rahner has the world. The vocations of Martha made this criticism. We saw above and Mary must become fused.76 his defense of Teresa. However, regarding John of the Cross, Rahner No one image or statement can says the following in writing about exhaustively express the centrality of the abiding mediatorial significance Christ for Teresa.77 He is a very good of the humanity of Jesus: friend with whom we can identify in Signs of the great difficulty of such a his own weakness and trials. In turn Christianization of the basic religious act he is a good companion for he un- directed towards God are to be seen even derstands the human situation and within the theory of Christian mysticism. knows “of what stuff we are made”.78 This theory has always been tempted He is our brother who enables us to (even in St. John of the Cross) to let every- call God our Father. He is the way, thing in the mystic act disappear in the the light, the master, the teacher, face of God, so that over and over again the one whom we are to imitate in subsequent corrections of such a basic his poverty, humility, compassion, start on a pantheistic basis were found to suffering, forgiveness and love. But be necessary to enable the mystic to hold he is also the risen and glorified on to the fact that he may and can still Christ indwelling within us and pre- occupy himself with the humanity of sent for us in the Church and Eu- Christ.81 charist. Ultimately he is the bride into whom the butterfly dies and 79 In my treatment of the role of Christ in John of becomes one. the Cross, I am guided mainly by two doctoral dissertations. James Denis Edwards, The Dynamism In Faith: The Interaction Between Experience of God and Explicit Faith: A Comparative Study of the Mystical Theology of John of the Cross and the Transcendental Theology of Karl Rahner. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1979. Keith Reeves Barron, A Study of St. John of the Cross's Theology of Transformation from the Perspective of Psychoanalytic Object Relations Theory. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1989. 80 Edwards, The Dynamism in Faith, p. 92; Barron, A Study of St. John of the Cross's 75 Welch, Spiritual Pilgrims, pp. 141-42, 145. Theology of Transformation, p. 151. 76 Interior Castle, 7.4.6, 10. See Rowan Williams, 81 Karl Rahner, "The Eternal Significance of the Teresa of Avila, Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Humanity of Jesus for Our Relationship with Publishing, 1991, pp.138-139. God", in Theological Investigations, vol. 3, trans. 77 For this summary statement, see Luti, Teresa Karl H. Kruger and Boniface Kruger (London: of Avila's Way, pp. 96-103, and Carroll, "The Darton, Longman and Todd, 1967), p. 42. Saving Role of the Human Christ for St. Teresa", Regarding the eternal significance of the pp. 133 -151. humanity of Jesus, Rahner himself states: "For, 78 Life, 22.10; 37.5. according to the testimony of faith, this created 26 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

That John of the Cross could so This is certainly not John's teaching, easily be misunderstood regarding however, and it becomes clear with a care- his position concerning the role of ful examination of his doctrine that the the humanity of Jesus throughout all humanity of Christ is not left behind or stages of the spiritual life is some- transcended, much less is the Trinity.85 what understandable. Edwards indicates how certain writers point to Much as Teresa argued for the John's “rejection of discursive necessity of the humanity of Jesus, thought and images as proximate since we are not angels, John's means to union with God in order to teaching, claims Barron, is that the suggest that he rejects the humanity person is human and the human is of Jesus in prayer. This is related to not lost in God. “Human nature is the opinion of those who hold that not destroyed but transformed and St. John seeks to go beyond the in- perfected in union with God.”86 carnation and the Trinity into the Hence the humanity of Christ can oneness of God”.82 no more be left behind than can one's own humanity. Along similar lines, Barron asks: “When St. John of the Cross teaches John's life itself shows how de- that no creature has proportion to voted he was to the incarnate Christ. God and that the soul must empty He loved to carve wooden images of herself of all particular finite forms, Jesus; his sketch of the crucified Je- images, concepts, and apprehen- sus is well-known; as a superior he sions in order to reach union with led his community in devotional God, is there room left for the hu- dramas to celebrate Christmas.87 manity of Christ?”83 In analyzing the works of John, While granting that one can le- both Edwards and Barron88 con- gitimately question John regarding clude that the incarnate Word, Jesus, his appreciation for the humanity of is for John the model of the whole life Jesus at all stages of the spiritual life, of asceticism, the mediator in the both Edwards and Barron emphati- soul's union with God, and the cally deny that this is truly John's spouse in the mystical marriage. position. Edwards believes that such an interpretation is “an extraordi- nary injustice to the thought and 84 4.2.1 Christ as Model teaching of John of the Cross”. And Barron states: In the Ascent Christ, especially ... Because John's Christology is not sys- the suffering and crucified Christ, is tematically elaborated in his writings, a presented as our model, the one cursory reading of his works can lead one who shows the soul the way it must mistakenly to conclude that the person of travel. The more the soul models Jesus . . . must be left behind as the soul itself on Christ, the more it is open journeys into the vast emptiness of God. to his transforming presence. Christ's role as model is seen clearly human nature is the indispensable and in the following two counsels: permanent gateway through which everything created must pass if it is to find the perfection of its eternal validity before God. He is the gate and the door, the Alpha and Omega, the all- embracing in whom, as the one who has become man, creation finds its stability. He who sees him, sees the Father, and whoever does not see him - 85 Barron, A Study of St. John of the Cross's God become man - also does not see God”. Ibid., Theology of Transformation, p. 152. p. 43. 86 Ibid., p.152. 82 Edwards, The Dynamism in Faith, pp. 91-92. 87 Edwards, The Dynamism in Faith, p. 93. 83 Barron, A Study of St. John of the Cross's 88 See Edwards, Ibid., pp.93-99; Barron, A Study Theology of Transformation, p. 151. of St. John of the Cross's Theology of 84 Edwards, The Dynamism in Faith, p. 92. Transformation, pp. 153-158. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 27

First, have a habitual desire to imitate abandonment”.94 It was “at the moment Christ in all your deeds by bringing your in which He was most annihilated in all life into conformity with his. You must things” that the greatest work in all of then study his life in order to know how heaven and earth was performed in the to imitate him and behave in all events redemption of humanity.95 To follow the as he would. way shown to us by Christ is to walk “the narrow path of obscure contemplation”.96 Second, in order to be successful in this It is nothing less than the “living, sensory imitation renounce and remain empty of and spiritual, exterior and interior death any sensory satisfaction that is not purely of the Cross”.97 for the honor and glory of God. Do this out of love for Jesus Christ. In His life He Likewise the Maxims have the had no other gratification, nor desired same message. For example in Max- any other, than the fulfillment of His im 8 John says: Father's will, which He called His meat Crucified inwardly and outwardly with and food (Jn 4:34).89 Christ, you will live in this life with fullness and satisfaction of soul, and possess It is especially in Book Two of your soul in patience.98 the Ascent that the role of Jesus as model is highlighted. Barron cites And Maxim 78 says: several references in the following Never take a man for your example in the summary statement:90 tasks that you have to perform, however John states that a person “makes progress holy he may be, for the devil will set his (on its journey to God) only through the imperfection before you. But imitate imitation of Christ, Who is the Way, the Christ, who is supremely perfect and su- Truth, and the Life. No one goes to the premely holy, and you will never err.99 Father but through Him, as He states 91 Himself in John” (Jn 14:6). The contemplative journey is the embrace of the 94 Not all John of the Cross scholars would agree cross of Christ who is “our model and our with this statement of Barron. A puzzling problem 92 for these scholars is why it is that in The Dark light”. Christ himself has called us to Night John does not hold up the suffering Christ this when he says: “If anyone wishes to as a model. He makes no reference to Jesus and his passion. Nor does he make reference to the follow My way, let him deny himself, take Suffering Servant texts of Isaiah. Rather, his up his cross and follow Me. For he who references are to Job, Jeremiah and the Psalms. For a treatment of this issue, see Georges Morel, would save his soul shall lose it, but he Le sens de l'existence selon S. Jean de la Croix, who loses it for Me shall gain it” (Mk Vol. II, Aubier, 1960, pp. 179-215. 95 8:4-35).93 The dark night is patterned on Ascent, 2.7.11 96 Ascent, 2.7.13. Christ's crucifixion and the ensuing an- 97 Ascent, 2.7.11. Again, as these citations nihilation that Christ experienced when indicate, it is especially the suffering and crucified Christ who is presented as our model. Regis he was left by His Father “without any Jordan likewise highlights the role of the cross in consolation or relief” and in “extreme John's spirituality, claiming that John bases his approach to the theme of absolute negation on the death of Christ. "Christ's death is the motive and model for our own death. This accounts for John's radical teaching on the so-called negative 89 See The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1.13.3, 4, in way: the death, the self-abasement of the soul in The Collected Works of St. John of the Cross, the sensual and spiritual nights must correspond trans. Kieran Kavanaugh, O.C.D. and Otilio to the death of Christ, so that the soul may be Rodriguez, O.C.D., Washington, D.C.: ICS united to him and, through him, with the Trinity." Publications, 1979, p. 101. Edwards claims that See Regis Jordan, O.C.D., "Jesus Christ in the the call to imitate Christ and the constant Writings of John of the Cross”, in Steven Payne, references to the life of Jesus are such constant O.C.D. (ed), Carmelite Studies, vol. VI: John of themes in the Ascent that there can be no the Cross, Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications, argument on this point. He cites the following 1992, p. 100. See also Tomas de la Cruz, O.C.D., from the Ascent as examples: 1.5.2; 2.7.4-12; "The Carmelite School: St. Teresa and St. John 2.22.6-7. See The Dynamism in Faith, p. 94. of the Cross”, in Jesus in Christian Devotion and 90 See Barron, A Study of St. John of the Cross's Contemplation, trans. Paul J. Oligny, O.F.M., St. Theology of Transformation, pp. 153-154. Meinrad, IN: Abbey Press, 1974, pp. 95-96. 91 Ascent, 2.7.8. 98 Kavanaugh and Rodriguez, Collected Works, p. 92 Ascent, 2.7.9. 674. 93 Ascent, 2.7.4. 99 Ibid., 679-680. 28 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

With Christ as model, we are reward.... Hear Him because I have no reminded by John that to lose one's more faith to reveal nor truths to mani- life is to save it; to surrender all is to fest....102 gain all. “This is one of the most striking and hopeful themes one en- If you desire Me to answer with a word of counters in St. John of the Cross. comfort, behold My Son, subject to Me, John wants us to possess all things! and to others out of love for Me, and you But he knows that the only way to will see how much He answers. If you achieve this is through total dispos- desire Me to declare some secret truths or session.”100 events to you, fix your eyes on Him, and you will discern hidden in Him the most secret mysteries, and wisdom, and the 4.2.2 Christ as Mediator wonders of God.... The Apostle, therefore, gloried, affirming that he had acted as Not only does Christ function in though he knew no other than Jesus the spiritual life as model, providing Christ and Him crucified (1 Cor 2:2). the example to be followed, he is And if you should seek other divine or also mediator. He mediates to the corporal visions and revelations, behold soul its own divinization.101 It is es- Him, become human, and you will en- pecially as the fullness of God's reve- counter more than you imagine, because lation to the human soul that Christ the Apostle also says “In Christ all the fullness of the divinity dwells bodily” (Col functions in his mediatorial role. 103 2:9). This revelatory-mediatorial role of Christ is clearly spelled out by It is entirely illegitimate, there- John in the Ascent. John writes: fore, in John's teaching to bypass Any person questioning God or desiring Jesus in seeking to know God, alt- some vision or revelation would be guilty hough even here the soul must pro- not only of foolish behavior but also of ceed in faith alone, for it is only faith which most vividly sheds light con- offending Him, by not fixing his eyes en- 104 tirely upon Christ and by living with the cerning the Beloved. In Edwards' desire for some other novelty. words: “There is no other knowledge than that of the crucified Jesus. St. God could respond as follows: If I have John tells us to look at the Son ‘be- already told you all things in My Word, come human.’ All wisdom, all knowledge of God is mediated by My Son, and if I have no other word, 105 what answer or revelation can I now the Incarnate Word”. In him we make that would surpass this? Fasten have received all. your eyes on Him alone, because in Him I have spoken and reveal all.... For He is According to Edwards, this same My entire locution and response, vision point is confirmed in John's “Prayer and revelation, which I have already of a Soul Taken with Love”. He cites spoken, answered, manifested, and re- the following: vealed to you, by giving Him to you as a Why do You delay? For if, after all, I am brother, companion, master, ransom, and to receive the grace and mercy which I entreat of You in Your Son, take my mite,

100 Barron, A Study of St. John of the Cross's Theology of Transformation, p. 154. 102Ascent, 2.22.5. 101 Barron points out (Ibid., 154-155) that while 103 Ascent, 2.22.6. John spends little time writing about Christ's 104 Canticle, 12.2, in Kavanaugh-Rodriguez, The mediatorial role, his whole doctrine hinges on this Collected Works of St. John of the Cross, "The point. It is the very key to understanding his truly devout person directs his devotion mainly to Christology, which, as will become clear above, is the invisible object .... He seeks the living image a "revelational" Christology and, in that respect, of Christ crucified within himself, and thereby he somewhat similar to that of Karl Barth, Wolfhart is pleased rather to have everything taken from Pannenberg and Karl Rahner. Christ himself is him and to be left with nothing". the very self-revelation of the Father. 105 Edwards, The Dynamism in Faith, p. 96. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 29 since You desire it, and grant me this delight she thanks and loves the Father blessing, since You also desire that. again through His Son Jesus. She does this united with Christ, together with Who can free himself from lowly manners Christ.108 and limitations if You do not lift him to Yourself, my God, in purity of love? How Again we see that because Christ will a man begotten and nurtured in is sole mediator between the soul lowliness rise up to You, Lord, if You do and God, there is no leaving behind not raise him with your hand which the humanity of Jesus. made him?

You will not take from me, my God, what 4.2.3 Christ as Spouse You once gave me in Your only Son, Je- sus Christ, in whom you gave me all I Not only is Christ our model desire. Hence I rejoice that if I wait for and our mediator, our means to You, You will not delay. spiritual perfection, he is also our spouse, and as such he represents the With what procrastination do you wait, goal of the spiritual life, the union since from this very moment, you can love or spiritual marriage between the God in your heart? soul and Christ. Writing of this union, John says: Mine are the heavens and mine is the When there is union of love, ... it is true earth. Mine are the nations, the just are to say that the Beloved lives in the lover mine, and mine the sinners. The angels and the lover in the Beloved. Love pro- are mine, and the Mother of God and all duces such likeness in this transfor- things are mine; and God Himself is mation of lovers that one can say each is mine and for me, because Christ is mine the other and both are one .... Thus each 106 and all for me. one loves in the other and is the other, and both are one in the transformation of In this prayer, claims Edwards, love.109 Christ is seen as the mediator in three ways. In him is all forgiveness In this union the soul “becomes of sin. He is the basis of all our hope. divine, becomes God through partic- And union with God and all crea- ipation”, insofar as this is possible in tures is given in and through him, our earthly existence.110 And God “because Christ is mine and all for weds himself to the soul in this spir- 107 me”. itual marriage precisely through the deep revelation of the mysteries of Here we can see that the soul's Christ's humanity to her.111 growing union with God is itself being mediated by God's own union Describing this mystical union with humanity in the incarnation. or marriage, in which Christ is our The soul is achieving its own union spouse, Edwards writes:112 with God through sharing in the In this union the Lord reveals his secrets very incarnation of the Son. By be- to the soul and communicates the mystery ing assimilated more and more into of his incarnation.113 In this union we Christ, it is becoming more and are taken into the love of the Trinity in more “Christoformed”. Hence John can write:

In His Son Jesus Christ, the soul is most 108 Canticle, 37.6. See also 37.3. sublimely and intimately transformed in 109 Canticle, 12.7. 110 Canticle, 22.3. the love of God. And with unspeakable 111 Barron, A Study of St. John of the Cross' Theology of Transformation, p. 156; see Canticle, 106 Kavanaugh-Rodriguez, The Collected Works, 37.4-6. p. 669. 112 Edwards, The Dynamism in Faith, p. 98. 107 Edwards, The Dynamism in Faith, p. 97. 113 Canticle, 23.1. 30 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

an adoptive sonship.114 Even in the next not encourage us to meditate imagina- life our joy will be to know in Jesus Christ tively on the details of the life of Jesus, the mysteries of his incarnation, and to be because the Lord himself is calling us to a transformed “into the beauty of both his more immediate union in dark faith. But created and uncreated wisdom, and also this is union with the person of Jesus into the beauty of the union of the Word Christ who is both God and man.... St. with his humanity”.115 John's suggestions concern our mode of union with Christ. The mode is dark Concluding his reflections on faith rather than imaginative medita- the role of Christ in St. John of the tion. But the object remains the same, the Cross, Edwards says: Incarnate Lord Jesus Christ, and in him There is no doubt that for St. John, Jesus the soul is taken into the intimacy of the Christ is the way to truth and life for us. Trinity.118 All prayer is in and through the Incar- nate Word. It is certainly true that “no So it is, therefore, with John of one goes to the Father except through him the Cross, much as was the case with as he states himself in St. John (Jn. Teresa of Avila, that in our being 14:6)”.116 For John of the Cross, it is more and more assimilated into equally true that “there is no advancing Christ himself, especially the suffer- in faith without the closing of one's eyes ing and crucified Christ, we enter to everything pertaining to the senses and into the very inner life of the Trinity. to clear, particular knowledge”.117 This In the Son, Jesus Christ, we too be- means that there is a time when he does come sons and daughters of God.

114 Canticle, 36.5. 115 Canticle, 38.1. Surely, in view of these words, Rahner, who stresses the significance of the role of Christ even in the Beatific Vision, would seem to have to revise his assessment of John of the Cross. 116 Ascent, 2.7.8. 117 Ascent, 2.16.15. 118 Edwards, The Dynamism in Faith, pp. 98-99. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 31

A transcendental or anthropo- 5 5.1 logical Christol- Transcendental ogy can give us or Christocentricity a new way of Anthropological understanding Christology120 and Carmel the divinity or sonship of Today Christ. Many theologians today ap-

proach and understand the divinity

or sonship of Christ from the per-

spective of his life, death and resur- Any retrieval of the Christocen- rection.121 For these theologians the trism of the Rule for our day must life, death and resurrection of Jesus take into account contemporary are “constitutive” of his being Son of Christology, for any view of Christ is God, of his being divine. This re- time-conditioned. How does con- newed and biblically inspired under- temporary Christology view Christ? standing of Jesus' sonship can in This is not an easy question to an- turn give Carmelites a renewed un- swer, for today there are many views derstanding of the Christocentrism of Christ, many Christologies. It is of the Carmelite charism. neither possible nor for our purpos- es necessary to present here even a The classical Christology of the brief overview of contemporary Church came to be articulated in Christologies.119 the well-known two nature-one per-

son model. According to this model, Of the many models and ways of Jesus possesses two natures or two doing Christology today, two will be modes of being, human and divine. considered here: 1) a transcendental Both natures exist in the one divine or anthropological Christology, and person or bearer, who is the eternal 2) a Christology “from below” based Logos or Son of God. This two na- upon the “historical Jesus”. ture-one person model was itself embraced by the Councils of Chal- cedon in 451 and Constantinople II in 553. Hence it has come to be called “Neo-Chalcedonian” Christol- ogy.

In recent years due to the influence of contemporary biblical Chris- 119 For overviews of contemporary Christologies tology122 and also contemporary phi- see Gerald O'Collins, What Are They Saying About Jesus? New York, 1977; Bernard Cooke, losophy, many questions have been "Horizons on Christology in the Seventies”, raised regarding the adequacy of the Horizons 6 (1979): 193-217; Francis Schüssler Fiorenza, "Christology after Vatican II”, The classical two nature-one person Ecumenist 18 (1980): 81-89; John P. Galvin, S.J., "Jesus Christ”, in Francis Schüssler Fiorenza and John P. Galvin (eds), Systematic Theology: Roman Catholic Perspectives, vol. 1, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991, pp.251-324. 120 Here I will focus primarily although not In 1984 the Pontifical Biblical Commission issued exclusively upon the systematic Christology of an extensive document on Christology entitled Karl Rahner. Bible et christologie. This document presents in 121 I have in mind theologians such as Karl survey fashion, with reference to authors, eleven Rahner, Walter Kasper, Wolfhart Pannenberg, "approaches" taken in contemporary Christology. Jürgen Moltmann, Piet Schoonenberg, Dermot For an English text of this document and Lane, William M. Thompson. commentary upon it, see Joseph A. Fitzmyer, 122 The following section of this paper dealing with S.J., "The Biblical Commission and Christology”, a Christology "from below" will take up this Theological Studies 46 (1985): 407-479. renewed biblical Christology. 32 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

model.123 It should be pointed out, within the one Christ. Hence the however, that the majority of theo- classical Christological problem: how logians today, while pointing out the can one and the same Christ be both limitations and difficulties with the human and divine? In affirming that classical model, in no way contest its one and the same Son is human and basic affirmation, namely, that one divine, Chalcedon definitely main- and the same Son, Jesus Christ, is tained the Christian faith and pro- truly God and truly man. The ques- claimed what Hellenistic metaphys- tion is, can the mystery of Christ be ics could never attain, namely, that more clearly and adequately articu- in the one person are found the in- lated today. finitely opposed divine and human. In this regard Chalcedon is truly a In order to better understand “de-Hellenization”. But since it also Rahner's own Christology, which worked within the presuppositions itself is an attempt to surpass the of classical metaphysics, it could in many difficulties and limitations of no way explain how the one person the classical Christology, I would like can unite the divine and the hu- briefly to state and describe six such man.126 difficulties and limitations.124 Second, the classical Christolo- First, classical Christology, un- gy, though the result of Christianity's der the influence of various strands basic soteriological faith that Jesus is of Platonism, rests upon several savior, is not expressly soteriological. philosophical and theological pre- That is, it does not show that Jesus is suppositions. Above all it presuppos- Son precisely because he is Savior, es a view of God as absolutely immu- or, Jesus' salvific actions, above all table and also as infinitely opposed his obedience, obedience unto or antithetical to the creature. This death, are themselves significant for antithesis between the divine and his being Son. The classical ap- the creaturely becomes a major proach first dealt with Jesus' being- problem in attempting to under- structure as Son (one person, human stand what “The Word became and divine) and then went on to flesh” (Jn 1:14) could possibly mean consider his redemptive work. What and how such an incarnation could is needed is a much closer integra- be possible in the first place.125 Giv- tion of the redemptive work of Jesus en the antithesis between the human (his obedience) and his being Son. and the divine, the human and divine of Jesus would have to be un- Third, the Christ of classical derstood as two distinct and infinite- Christology is not seen as coming ly opposed natures or substances from within the context of creation and history. Rather, because of the

123 “fall”, the eternal Son, “for us and See for example Karl Rahner, "Current Problems in Christology", Theological for our salvation” became human. Investigations, vol. I, trans. Cornelius Ernst, O.P. Had there been no fall, there would (Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1965), pp. 149-200; Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus God and Man, trans. have been no incarnation. Immedi- Lewis L. Wilkins and Duane A. Priebe ately, then, Christ is seen as some- (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1968), pp. 283- thing of a “divine visitor” who comes 323; Piet Schoonenberg, The Christ, trans. Della Couling (New York: Herder and Herder, 1971), into creation and history “from pp. 50-91; Dermot A. Lane, The Reality of Jesus without”, but who is not himself an (New York: Paulist Press, 1975), pp. 109-121; John C. Dwyer, Son of Man and Son of God (New integral moment of creation and York: Paulist Press, 1983), pp. 77-154. history, such that even had there 124 For the following, see references in note 123. 125 See Rahner's excellent analysis of "The Word became flesh" in "On the Theology of the 126 Hence in Chalcedon the relation between the Incarnation", Theological Investigations, vol. IV, human and divine natures is spoken of only in trans. Kevin Smyth (Baltimore: Helicon Press, negative terms, "without confusion, without 1966), pp. 105-120. change, without division and without separation". Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 33 been no “fall”, there would have of course, due to the Hellenistic been no Christ. Such a “divine visi- metaphysics of substance and acci- tor” from without, not really belong- dent. A being possesses the fullness ing to creation and history, immedi- of its being in its first moment of ex- ately appears as something of an istence. Any changes which occur to “exception” to what all other human the being thereafter are strictly “ac- beings are. One must begin to ask cidental” modifications of the being whether such a Christ is truly “one in but in no way affect the inner “na- being with us” as Chalcedon had in- ture” of the being. We will see that sisted. the New Testament takes quite a different view. Moreover, once one un- Fourth, the categories used to derstands the incarnation as involv- describe the Christ of classical Chris- ing the human freedom of Jesus, then tology, such as nature and hypostasis the history of Jesus becomes essential appear to be somewhat impersonal to understanding this incarnation. or “thing-like”. While Christology affirmed that in the incarnation the Sixth, and finally, the distinc- Logos took upon itself a human nation and opposition between the ture, this human nature was not un- human and the divine can itself lead derstood to involve freedom. Hence to the impression that Jesus must the incarnation almost appears to be somehow be “schizoid”. How can an event between God and a “thing” one affirm at one and the same time in which event the freedom of Jesus of one and the same subject that it itself plays no role. On the other knows all and does not know all, is hand, the New Testament in speak- fully aware of its identity and is not ing of Jesus' relationship to the Fa- fully aware of its identity? The fallacy ther (his Sonship), always speaks in here is to assume that the human personal categories and stresses the and the divine of Jesus are in the role of Jesus' free obedience. To ne- first place antithetical and in the glect the role of Jesus' freedom in second place, belong to Jesus in the the event of the incarnation itself same way, i.e. both being his proper leads one to an understanding of natures, as “being human” is proper Jesus in which God pre-empts or to Peter or Mary. precludes the freedom of Jesus. This was precisely the problem with such In his anthropological Christol- heresies as Apollinarianism and ogy Rahner wishes to surpass these monotheletism, condemned in the many limitations of Neo- early Christological Councils. These Chalcedonian Christology, a Chris- heresies failed to take seriously the tology which, though maintaining true human freedom and subjectivity the genuine humanity of Jesus, of Jesus. could never do justice to the full historical humanity of Jesus and its im- Fifth, for the Christ of classical portance for his being Son of God. Christology, i.e. his humanity, his Rahner wants a Christ who is not the divine sonship and the event of the big exception to the rule, a Christ who incarnation itself, Jesus' life, history, is truly human with a genuine hu- obedience, death and resurrection man history and freedom, coming are quite irrelevant. This Christ ap- from within creation and history it- pears in history but not as being tru- self. Likewise he wishes to give us a ly historical. He is no more Son in his unified Christ in whom the antithesis resurrection than in his birth. All of the human and divine is resolved. that occurred after December 25th His model of Christ will not be the is irrelevant for his being human, two nature model of divine and hu- divine or incarnate. This ahistorical man but the anthropological model view of Christ and the incarnation is, 34 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

of divine as human. The “and” and matter evolves to life, it is no longer the “as” make all the difference.127 mere matter but living matter. In other words, at every stage of the To achieve his goal of a Jesus evolutionary process the new reality who is truly divine as human, Rah- which emerges has a limited poten- ner opts for the thirteenth century tiality for development. It has limits Franciscan theologian, John Duns to its possibilities of becoming. It can Scotus, on the question of the mo- itself become so much and no more. tive of the incarnation. For Scotus, If it transcends its own being in its sin or no sin, there would have been process of becoming, an evolution- the Christ, for in Christ God was to ary critical threshold has been bring his creation to completion. crossed and it ceases to be what it Hence, Rahner will view Christ from had been. When in the evolutionary the perspective of creation itself, i.e. process animal became human, it as its goal and culmination, or as de ceased being just an animal and has Chardin says, its omega point. In this become rational animal. In simple regard, Rahner's is a “New Adam” or language, you can teach a dog so “Eschatological Adam” Christology, many tricks and no more. Once the i.e. Jesus is the crown of God's crea- dog learns the trick of saying “I am a tion itself. dog”, it is no longer a dog! It has been sublated to the level of “hu- In this “New Adam” Christology, man”. Christ will not be explained so much “from above” as “from below”, or Of course throughout this evo- “from within”, i.e. in terms of pro- lutionary process, since there results ceeding from creation itself, and in an emergence of new and higher fact creation understood as occur- being, God as empowering or tran- ring in an evolutionary way, i.e. in scendental cause is at work. It is pre- terms of the evolutionary, historical cisely God's empowering causality and creative process itself. In this that enables beings to surpass them- way Christ will not appear as the big selves in the evolutionary process. “exception”, but as the supreme exem- Without this grounding and em- plification or the supreme instance of powering causality of God, finite be- what God is always doing everywhere ing can neither exist nor become in God's creative activity. Hence nor surpass itself in its becoming as Rahner's Christology can also be occurs in evolution. called an “archetypal” Christology. Jesus is “exhibit A” of the human, Eventually in this evolutionary the perfect model, the New Adam. process matter unfolds in its unlim- ited potentiality to the point that it After taking the above men- can reflect back upon itself. At that tioned Scotistic option, Rahner then point human matter or “spirit” has contextualizes his Christology within emerged, and at this point there is the framework of evolution. He something unique about the new points out that as any being emerges being which has emerged. Whereas from within the evolutionary pro- in all previous stages of evolution the cess, it stops being “what it had being which has emerged has defi- been” and is now “sublated” to a new nite limits to its possibilities of be- and higher level of being. When coming, once the human has emerged, this is no longer the case. 127 The best single source for Rahner's This is because of the understanding Christology, which itself incorporates several earlier Christological writings, is Rahner's of the human which Rahner has. Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduction to the Idea of Christianity, trans. William V. Dych For Rahner human nature is not (New York: The Seabury Press, 1978), pp. 176- 321. absolutely limited, determined or Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 35 circumscribed in its being. Human realization of the human is always being is not absolutely “finite”, but due in the first place to the divine rather is a relative infinitude. Hu- initiative, to grace or God's self-gift man being is capax Dei or capax in- which empowers human freedom to finiti. As “spirit” the human being is respond to this self-gift. But in the a being whose very being is infinite second place, this total realization of openness. Hence Rahner states: “Hu- the infinite openness which human man being is not some absolutely being is does demand human free- terminated quantity.... Human being dom, human response. God (grace) is rather a reality absolutely open never excludes nor acts apart from upwards....”128 human freedom. Jesus is the highest instance of this reciprocal dynamic As capax Dei there is no finite between God's creative-empowering end to that which the human can self-gift and human freedom. become. And as “absolutely open upwards”, no matter how much a Hence to Jesus and his human human becomes, he/she remains freedom God has totally given God's “just human”. The only “end” which self, and that total self-gift creates the human can have as capax Dei is and enables the human freedom of God him/herself. Only the infinite Jesus to respond totally to this same itself can fully “fill” or actualize the self-gift. In so responding fully, Jesus infinite capacity which the human is. through his human freedom, em- powered by God's own self-gift, total- Since the human is an infinite ly actualizes the infinite openness or capacity for God's self-gift, God can capax Dei which he is as human. give totally the fullness of God's own Hence, while remaining human, but being to a human being. Thus, if now fully and totally human, Jesus is God were totally to give God's own divine. Not divine and human but self to a human being, e.g. Jesus of divine as human. The divine of Jesus Nazareth, that infinite openness or is no longer understood as a nature capax Dei would be totally actualized distinct from his being human, but is or realized. That human being rather his human nature as fully ac- would now be fully and totally hu- tualized due to the empowering cau- man. He or she would not cease be- sality of God's total self-gift.130 Thus ing human, nor would he or she move to a qualitatively “higher” 129 stage, since his/her own being as Hence for Rahner this capax Dei is merely an "obediential potency", i.e. a potentiality which human is open to the infinite. Nor cannot of itself actualize or realize itself. would that person be human plus 130 Thus while affirming the Chalcedonian doctrine of the humanity and divinity of Jesus, Rahner is something else, namely, divine, as if no longer articulating that doctrine within the two- the divine would be distinct from the nature framework necessitated by the human. Rather that person would be metaphysics of Hellenistic philosophy with its antithesis between the human and divine. fully human and hence divine, since Rahner's Christology is a one nature Christology, the human as capax Dei can only be made possible by Rahner's anthropology, i.e. his understanding of human nature as capax Dei. fully human if it itself is divine. That one nature is the human nature. But the human is understood here as fully actualized by God's self-gift. Only to the extent that the human Of course for Rahner, this total nature of Jesus in and of itself is not able to totally actualization of the infinite capacity actualize itself but is actualized only by this divine which is the human being is not self-gift can we speak of a two nature Christology in Rahner, i.e. the human of Jesus in and of itself something that can be achieved by is not divine. With his one nature Christology, human freedom alone.129 This total Rahner of course is not falling into the one nature Christologies condemned by the Councils, according to which the humanity of Jesus is either displaced by the divine (Apollinarianism) or absorbed by the divine (monophysitism). In 128 "Current Problems in Christology", p. 183. Rahner's Christ, nothing of the divine or the human is lacking. Hence Rahner protects 36 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

Rahner states: “Only someone who expression of the divine. “We must forgets that the essence of man... is learn to see that what is human in to be unbounded... can suppose that Jesus is not something human (and it is impossible for there to be a man as such uninteresting for us in the who precisely by being man in the world) and ‘in addition’ God's as fullest sense (which we never attain) well (and in this respect alone im- is God's existence into the world”.131 portant...). On the contrary, in this And again: “The less we merely think view the everyday human reality of of this humanity as something added this life is God's Ek-sistence...; it is on to God, and the more we under- human reality and so God's, and vice stand it as God's very presence in the versa.”134 world and hence... see it in a true spontaneous vitality and freedom Hence, against all heretical before God, the more intelligible tendencies to skirt or downplay the does the abiding mystery of our faith humanity of Jesus and the role of become, and also (the more it be- Jesus' human freedom, Rahner in- comes) an expression of our very sists that the humanity of Jesus is not own existence”.132 merely a passive puppet or instru- ment through which God acts. For For Rahner, it is only because Rahner, Jesus in his human freedom the human is capax Dei that the in- does Jesus, as is true of every other carnation (“The Word became flesh” person. The eternal Logos of Jesus is of Jn 1:14) is, from the perspective the person or agent of Jesus only in of the human, possible. If the that the humanity of Jesus is itself “flesh”, i.e. human nature itself, were the historical expression of this Log- not open to the infinite Word, the os. Word could not itself become en- fleshed. It could merely lie “along- Thus far we have seen that from side of” but not be one with the the perspective of human nature the flesh, as is the case with the classical condition for the possibility of an two-nature Christology.133 incarnation is that human nature be open to the infinite itself, be capax Hence according to this an- Dei, otherwise there is no way that thropological Christology, it is pre- the Word could become flesh. But cisely Jesus as human, in his “bare the condition for the possibility of humanity”, who is God's expression an incarnation also demands some- in history. Precisely, and only, as thing from the perspective of the human, Jesus is the primordial sac- divine being itself. God must be a rament, exegesis or grammar of the God who can “become”, or “give divine. One need not nor must not God's self away”. look for the divine in Jesus “alongside of” or “behind” the humanity. Hence, this view of Jesus is also The human of Jesus is the historical rooted in Rahner's understanding of God's own inner trinitarian being,

Chalcedon's concern for the integrity and fullness according to which to say that God is of the both the human and the divine. God-Logos is precisely to say that it 131 "Current Problems in Christology", 184. 132 belongs to the very being of God “to Ibid., 185. 133 Rahner states this in a somewhat oblique be human”, to express God's self manner. "This human reality as human... in its outwardly into history, to be God-for 'bare' humanity can only be of theological importance if it is as such (as just this) the us in and as history, i.e. in and as the manifestation of God in the world, not just as historical event of Jesus. Reminiscent something joined on in a logically subsequent way; if, that is to say, it is one with the Logos in of the early Apologists and Irenaeus, virtue of being the reality of the Logos itself, and for Rahner Jesus is the fullest histor- (is) not the reality of the Logos in virtue of being 'one' (how?) with the Logos." "Current Problems in Christology", p. 191. Emphasis mine. 134 Ibid., 191. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 37 ical expression of this immanent metaphysical presuppositions of the mode of existing in God called God- classical two-nature Christology. Logos, i.e. God as a God who can give First, there is not an absolutely infi- God's self to us in and as history. nite abyss between the divine and Hence Rahner writes: the human. These are not infinitely We could now define the human... as antithetical. Second, God is not ab- that which ensues when God's self- solutely immutable in every respect. utterance, his Word, is given out lovingly As pure actuality, as God-Logos, God into the void of god-less nothing. Indeed, can express God's self in and as his- the Logos made “man” has been called tory. God can become in history the abbreviated Word of God. This abbre- God-for us. viation, this code-word for God is man, that is, the Son of man, and all men who In this anthropological view of exist ultimately because the Son of Man Christ, therefore, the incarnation is was to exist. If God wills to become non- understood as a dialectical event of God, man comes to be.135 God's self-giving and the human response of Jesus. In this regard, Jesus In a similar vein he writes: is no different than any other hu- We must never forget that the Christian, man being. Through God's self-gift authentically Catholic truth of faith or empowering causality, he in his about the incarnation of the Father's freedom, as all humans, is empow- eternal Word does not mean that God put ered to respond to God. Since in on some kind of overall called humanity, him this self-gift is total and hence because his world had somehow broken enables a total response of freedom, down, contrary to his original plan, so Jesus is not the exception but the that he had to repair God the creator's supreme exemplification of what the original plan down here in this world of human is. He is the perfect image of ours. It means that God is man to all God. eternity, so that to all eternity we cannot think rightly about this God or express It was seen above that the incar- him properly unless we add to our think- nation for Rahner is a dialectical ing what we men and women all are as event of God's total self-gift enabling well. There is no longer any theology to the total response of Jesus. This dia- all eternity which is not anthropology lectical event of incarnation itself, too.136 however, has a history. Precisely because in the incarnation God creates Precisely because God is God- and takes upon God's self a human Logos, God can “become” God for us. freedom, this event of incarnation In this “becoming”, God does not cannot occur in one moment. For become more God in God's self, God to become human demands since God is pure actuality. Rather, that God take upon God's self a his- God becomes more God for us, more tory, since human nature demands a our God. Our God is a God whose history of self-realization or actual- very being is self-communicable or ex- ization through human freedom. pressible. If God's being were not self- For Rahner human nature is not a communicable, there could be no terminated, static, ahistorical es- incarnation. sence which exists fully in its first moment of existence. Human na- We can see, therefore, how ture is a project or task. Human na- Rahner has overcome two of the ture to be all that it can be demands a history of self-realization through

135 "On The Theology of the Incarnation", p. 116. human freedom. We must “do” our- 136 "The Body in the Order of Salvation", selves to “be” ourselves. Theological Investigations, vol. XVII, trans. Margaret Kohl (New York: Crossroad, 1981), p. 80. 38 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

Thus for Rahner the response beginning with Jesus' conception of Jesus' human freedom to God's and ending with his death- total self-gift is a response that is resurrection. They are constitutive made throughout the history of Je- of Jesus' history of becoming more sus, constituting that history and and more who he is, the Son of God. hence the very being of Jesus. It is Without this history of freedom, through his obedience to the Father, culminating in Jesus' own death and obedience unto death, that Jesus resurrection, there would be no in- “does” Jesus and hence becomes carnation. Hence Rahner can state: more and more who and what he is, “the incarnation is a divine move- the perfect image of God, the Son of ment which is fully deployed only in God. The total self-communication the death and resurrection of Jesus of God to Jesus and Jesus' total re- Christ”.138 And again, “Consequently sponse to this self-communication the life, death and resurrection of reaches its own climax in Jesus' own Jesus are the history of the hypostat- death and resurrection. It is in his ic union....”139 death that Jesus collects and sums up or recapitulates his own history of The following and somewhat free obedience to God and totally lengthy statement of Rahner clearly hands himself over to the Father. expresses his dynamic and historical Jesus' death is Jesus' total “yes” of interpretation of the incarnation. In free obedience to God.137 In this to- this statement one can see how im- tal self-emptying or response to God, portant for the incarnation event is which is his death, itself enabled by the role of Jesus' freedom, obedi- God's total self-gift to Jesus' free- ence, death and resurrection. dom, Jesus has totally actualized his How can we understand the incarnation infinite openness to God, his capax of the Logos, i.e. the assumption of the Dei. He has become “fully human” human reality and the essence of this and hence divine. He is now, (human) reality itself, in such a way that through his obedience, obedience the event of the incarnation from the start unto death, the perfect Son of God, is no longer understandable merely as the the perfect sacrament or expression assumption of a thing-like, static reality of the divine. In turn, in raising Jesus but rather is seen as the assumption by from the dead God has accepted the Logos of a time, a history, a life- and given eternal validity to the total giving death? Can the incarnation of “yes” of Jesus to God which occurred the Logos be so understood so that from in his death. Jesus dies into God. the innermost essence of the incarnation. The resurrection constitutes the dialectical reality of God's self-gift and 138 See "Salvation", in Sacramentum Mundi, vol. Jesus' response, which culminated in III, ed. Karl Rahner et al. (New York: Herder and his death, an eternal reality. Herder, 1969), p. 428. 139 "Jesus Christ, IV: History of Dogma and Theology”, in Sacramentum Mundi, vol. III, p. 208. Hence Jesus' freedom and obe- Needless to say the importance of Jesus' dience, culminating in his own act of obedience, death and resurrection for his being Son, Christ, Lord or High Priest is clearly total self-kenosis in his death, as well indicated in the New Testament itself. See e.g. as Jesus' being raised by God are all Heb. 2:9-10; 3:2,6; 4:14-16; 5:7-10; Rom. 1:3-4; the history of the incarnation itself, 10:9; Acts 2:32-36; 5:29-31; 10:42-43. In John's Gospel Jesus is the "Son" not because of a divine moments of one process or history nature which he has, but because of his perfect obedience towards and love of his Father. The Father and Jesus are "one" because Jesus 137 For Rahner death is the supreme act of a always does the will of his Father. See e.g. Jn. person. It is only through death that one can 4:34; 5:30; 6:38; 8:28, 10:25-38. Perhaps the totally dispose of oneself or "sum one's self up" clearest statement is that found in the Philippians before God. This act of total self-dispossession hymn (Phil. 2:5-11) in which Jesus' obedience, cannot occur prior to death since one's history is obedience unto death and exaltation or not yet complete. Prior to death, one's history is resurrection are all constitutive of his being given still "out-standing". Only at the end can a person the name above every other name, Yahweh's collect one's total history and dispose of it. own name, "Lord". Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 39

. . that one event of death and resur- there would have been no incarna- rection is (also) meant and accepted? tion. Such an approach makes Jesus When, on the one hand, the history of to be an exception to the rule from “man”, the act of his freedom and the the very beginning of his human ex- absolute culmination of this freedom (i.e. istence. Such a Christ is not really his death) are not considered accidents, the same as other human beings. He which belong to an in-itself-unaffected- is not really the New, the second or substance of a human nature conceived perfect (eschatological) Adam be- in a static and thing-like way, but rather cause he is not in the first place Ad- are seen as the self-fulfillment of an am, truly “one in being with us”, as essence, which achieves its own reality Chalcedon insists. in this process of self-fulfillment, and when on the other hand therefore free- Because of the Scotistic option, dom is not seen so much as a “faculty” spoken of above, which Rahner which a human has but as the (self)- takes, his Christ is seen not to be a disposing freedom which a human divine visitor to creation and human person is (precisely in order to bring one's history who is not related to or inte- own pre-given essence... to its fulfill- gral to creation and human history. ment), then the event of the incarnation Rather, as the one in whom God's is seen as more closely and essentially total self-gift and total “yes” to that related to the fulfillment of a human gift is found, Jesus is seen to be the life... than as the constitution of a hu- goal and culmination of God's crea- man subject, within whose life this or that tive and salvific activity everywhere event only subsequently and acci- operative. In him, God has brought dentally happens.140 God's creation to its completion. Jesus is the goal or eschaton of histo- Here of course, through his ry, because Jesus is the total and emphasis upon the importance of complete expression of the plan human freedom for the history of which God has had from all eternity one's own self-actualization, one can to create and to give God's self to see that Rahner has again broken that creation in Jesus, thus fulfilling from Hellenistic metaphysics in its and bringing that creation back to position that human nature exists in God's self. As the full and total his- its entirety in the first moment of its torical expression of God as God- existence, so that all that freedom Logos, i.e. as God for us, the saving achieves throughout the history of a God, Jesus brings all of God's crea- person is only “a mere epiphenome- tive and saving work to its fulfill- non of an essence which abides stat- ment.142 And hence also as the goal ically and unaffected”.141 or eschaton of history, he himself is the Savior. In him, heaven and earth There remains only one point not only touched. They became one. left to consider in the Christology of This is the meaning of the incarna- Karl Rahner. We saw above that one tion. In the man Jesus, through his of the difficulties of classical Chris- life, death and resurrection, God has tology is that Jesus is seen to be fully achieved God's eternal plan to something of a divine visitor to hu- be a loving God, a saving God, God man history. He does not come from for us. within the process of creation and history and hence does not belong to creation and history as an integral moment. Had there been no “fall”,

140 "Dogmatic Questions on Easter", Theological 142 See especially Rahner's "Christology within an Investigations, vol. IV, pp. 130-31; translation and Evolutionary View of the World”, Theological emphases mine. Investigations, vol. V, trans. Karl-H. Kruger 141 "Jesus Christ", Sacramentum Mundi, III, 208. (Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1966), pp. 157-192. 40 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

speaks of Christ as praying with loud This Rahnerian cries and tears to his Father who had vision of Christ the power to save him from death.145 5.2 can help Car- And Hebrews also points out that Rearticulating melites today to Jesus had to learn obedience Christocentricity articulate in a through his suffering and become per- Today new way the fected. Because he was perfectly obe- Christocentrism dient, obedient to and through his of our Rule and tradition. death on the cross, he became the perfect Son and High Priest.146 So often the Christ of classical Christology was not truly one of us. This is not a “plastic” Jesus who Although Phil 2:5ff. exhorts us to is above the human fray, a Jesus who have “the attitude which was that of “play acts” his way through the ups Christ”, who emptied himself and and downs of human experience, a took upon himself the form of a gnostic or docetic Jesus who only slave, being obedient, obedient unto “appears” to be human but who does death, and although Heb 12:2 ex- not truly walk in our shoes, with all horts us to keep our eyes fixed upon the anguish, darkness, faith, trust, Jesus, the pioneer and perfecter of love, abandonment and joy which our faith, so often Christians do not that involves. find that Christ is truly imitable. Be- cause Jesus has so often been pre- What makes the Christ of classi- sented as the big exception to the cal Christology quite unlike us and rule, one could not truly follow him. hence quite inimitable is not only After all, he is “God”. He may be like that it “added” on “divinity” to the us in his human nature. But in his man, Jesus, but it also distinguished divine nature and person, he is quite and opposed within Christ the hu- unlike us. man and the divine. Moreover, it “compressed” the concrete, fleshy So often the Christ of classical humanity and actual history and ex- Christology was not truly tempted, perience of a real live Jesus into a despite the Epistle to the Hebrews timeless, abstract, ahistorical, imper- saying that he himself was beset by sonal human “nature”. When this weakness and was tempted in every abstract human nature, quite unaf- way that we are and hence can sym- fected by and above history, is put pathize with our weakness.143 He did alongside of the divine nature, and not experience the negative and when the ultimate bearer or person shadow side of human existence. He of these two natures is the eternal, did not really have to grow in his divine Logos, understood in a highly relationship with God, as we do, personal way,147 it is almost certain even though Luke says that he grew that the genuinely historical humani- in wisdom, age and grace before God ty of Jesus will be lost, even though and people (Lk 2:52). He did not the human “nature” will be affirmed. have faith or have to grow in faith; he did not undergo the “dark Even such a theological genius nights” of faith as we do, even as Thomas Aquinas has difficulty do- though Hebrews speaks of his faith- ing full justice to the genuine, his- fulness to God, a faithfulness which torical humanity of Jesus. Thomas' exceeds that of all the Old Testa- ment witnesses, even Abraham.144 In 145 Heb 5:7. fact the same Epistle to the Hebrews 146 Heb 5:8-10. 147 By "personal way" I mean here “person” in the 143 Heb 4:15, 5:2. contemporary sense of person, that is, as a 144 See Heb 3:2, 3:6, chapter 11 and chapter center of consciousness, self-consciousness, and 12:2. freedom. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 41

Jesus in the first moment of his hu- indicate, Jesus too had to come to man existence enjoys the beatific grips with the roaring lion who goes vision, which for other human be- about seeking someone to devour. ings is the goal of their existence. “Abba, you have the power to do all Hence Thomas' Jesus is somehow things. Take this cup away from me. both a “viator” and “comprehensor”, But let it be as you would have it, not i.e. both a pilgrim and one who has as I.”149 already arrived at journey's end. Moreover, through this beatific vi- The Jesus of this anthropologi- sion, Jesus knows all things. He can cal Christology shows us that our suffer on the cross only in virtue of a own growth in sonship or daughter- divine dispensation given to his hu- ship, our own spiritual journey, con- manity by the divine Logos, who sists precisely in kenosis, in self- permits Jesus to suffer on the cross. emptying, self-abandonment, self- But this suffering is only bodily and displacement, so that we can be not experienced in the intellectual filled with God. Jesus so totally emp- part of his soul, i.e. psychological- tied himself that he could be totally ly.148 filled with the divine. In this self- emptying, he who was the old Adam How different is Rahner's un- as we are, became the new and per- derstanding of Christ! Rahner gives fect Adam, which we are all called to us a Christ who is truly “one in being be in imitation of him. This Christo- with us”, as Chalcedon teaches. logical theme of kenosis, so essential Rahner's Christology allows and in to understand Jesus' own sonship, is fact necessitates a Christ who can of course a central theme in our own and must truly grow in his own rela- Carmelite tradition of desert, dark- tionship with his Father. Rahner's ness, dark night and pure heart, as Christ is one who must also walk the has been seen above in the Rule, road of faith, trust and love. Rah- Teresa of Avila and John of the ner's Jesus is a truly human Jesus Cross. who undergoes a truly human history with all that that implies. One last point from Rahner's anthropological Christology which This is a Christ with whom we can be instructive to us. Rahner's can identify because this Christ has Jesus, as we have seen, is divine be- truly identified with us. His divine cause he is fully human. In the good sonship does not make him different Catholic tradition of grace and na- from us. It makes him the supreme ture, Rahner never has grace com- and complete realization of what all pete with or preclude the human. humans are called to be, “images of Grace always makes possible the tru- God”, daughters and sons of the Fa- ly human, enriches it and completes ther. Discipleship, i.e. walking in the it. We have seen that Jesus is the su- footsteps of this Jesus is truly possi- preme instance of this theological ble. This Jesus can truly inspire and principle. What is instructive here is motivate discipleship, for he first that growth in faith, growth in the had to clear the way for us as the pi- spiritual life, growth in prayer, if it is oneer and perfecter of our faith. As genuine growth, can never be dehu- the temptation and garden stories manizing. It must always be humanizing. In a very true sense, given

148 See S.T., III, q. 14, art. 1, ad. 2. See also q. 9, Rahner's view of the human person arts. 1 & 2. In q. 14 art. 2 Thomas has to make a as capax Dei, one can say that grace case that Jesus had such "defects" as hunger, thirst, ability to suffer and die. In other words, for does not divinize. Grace humanizes. Thomas it is not obvious, given Jesus' humanity, Or perhaps it would be more precise that Jesus would have these human experiences. Again one begins to wonder how "one in being with us" is this Jesus. 149 Mk 14:36. 42 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

to say that grace divinizes us by mak- is actually a composite image of Je- ing us more and more human. sus (his words, deeds, self- understanding, claim, understand- In view of this theological prin- ing of his fate) which is reconstruct- ciple, of which Christ is the highest ed through the use of historical- and fullest example, the life of faith critical methods applied to New Tes- or the spiritual life should never al- tament texts.153 It is with select as- ienate us from our genuine humani- pects of this historical Jesus that I am ty or true selves. Jesus' sonship as the concerned, for they can most help radical realization and hence cele- us rearticulate the Christocentrism bration of the human militates of the Rule.154 against all gnostic, Manichaean, Al-

bigensian and Jansenistic tendencies Bourke (New York: Seabury Press, 1975), pp. in spirituality to denigrate the hu- 213-214. 153 man. Christ as the New Adam, as the Regarding the term "historical Jesus", see Elizabeth Johnson, "The Theological Relevance one totally actualized human being of the Historical Jesus: A Debate and a Thesis", is the witness par excellence to the The Thomist 48 (1984): 4-10. For a succinct presentation of the historical Jesus along with words of Irenaeus, “The glory of extensive bibliography, see John P. Meier, God is the human person fully "Jesus", in The New Jerome Biblical alive”. Commentary, Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer and Roland E. Murphy (eds) (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1990), pp. One concern 1316-1328. 154 It should be pointed out that while Rahner's common to most Christology discussed above is a Christology from 5.3 contemporary Chr- below insofar as he does take seriously the Christology istologies is to take historical humanity of Jesus, nonetheless Rahner from Below150 himself spends little time discussing the concrete seriously the signif- historical details of Jesus' life and ministry as icance of the histor- these are known through contemporary historical- critical methods. Nor does he spell out the social ical humanity of and political consequences of this historical Jesus.151 Hence, many Christologies Jesus. Hence his more speculative, anthropological Christology needs to be today, e.g. that of K. Rahner, E. complemented by a consideration of the historical Schillebeeckx, W. Kasper, W. Pan- Jesus, his words and deeds and their socio- nenberg, J. Sobrino, are character- political consequences. Because Rahner's theology often fails to take seriously the concrete, ized as Christologies “from below” or specific details of history and to spell out the “ascent” Christologies, i.e. Christol- socio-political consequences of the Gospel, it has been accused of being somewhat privatized and ogies which move from the “the his- spiritualized, that is, it is concerned more with the torical Jesus” to the Christ of faith individual and its authentic self-actualization than and dogma.152 The “historical Jesus” with the historical, societal and communal aspects of human existence and their transformation. The same criticisms could be raised regarding the spirituality of Teresa and 150 The following section, with some revision and John. This world, with its oppressive socio- expansion, can be found in Buggert, "Jesus in economic structures, and the liberation of history Carmelite Spirituality", pp. 98-107 (see note 2 from all forms of oppression and injustice were above). not central themes for them. Nor could we expect 151 On this see, e.g. Jon Sobrino, Jesus in Latin them to be. It is only in our day, perhaps because America (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Press, of Karl Marx himself, that there has been a 1987), pp. 30-32, 43, 56-57. I stress the word rediscovery of biblical eschatology and its "historical", for these Christologies are not significance for a "worldly" Christianity and hence concerned with Jesus' human "nature" a "worldly" following of Christ. However, it is understood in a timeless, ahistorical, important to note that even today we have much philosophical way but with the actual "specifics" of to learn from Teresa and John and the inner Jesus' own history and the significance of these liberation of which they speak, a liberation which specifics for his being the Christ, Son, Lord, is essential for those who are committed to Savior. We have already to some extent seen the liberating those who are in any way socially or importance of this "historical" humanity in economically oppressed, for the enemy, the considering the Christology of Karl Rahner. roaring lion, is not only "out there", as Marx and 152 For the terms "from below" and "ascent", see, others have shown. It is also "within" as Paul, e.g. Hans Küng, On Being a Christian, trans. Augustine, Albert of Jerusalem, Freud, Paul Edward Quinn (Garden City, New York: Ricoeur and others have shown. Concerning the Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1976), p. 134; importance of Teresa and John for a Dermot A. Lane, The Reality of Jesus, pp. 15-18; contemporary "liberation" theology and Karl Rahner, "The Two Basic Types of Christology", spirituality, see Segundo Galilea, The Future of Theological Investigations, vol. XIII, trans. David Our Past (Notre Dame, IN: Ave Maria Press, Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 43

Reflecting the consensus of bib- peace and justice which will result lical scholars today, Norman Perrin from God's decisive act of reign- states: ing.157 The central aspect of the teaching of Jesus was that concerning the Kingdom of God. Among other characteristics of . . . Jesus appeared as one who pro- Jesus' reign of God proclamation claimed the Kingdom; all else in his mes- and praxis which are unique to Jesus sage and ministry serves a function in are that for him this Reign of God is relation to that proclamation and derives not only future but also present and its meaning from it. . . . Of all the de- in fact is already now breaking into scriptive titles that have been applied to history precisely through him, his Jesus through the centuries, the one that words and deeds. Hence Jesus sees sums up his historical appearance best is himself as the eschatological proph- the one whose currency owes so much to et,158 the one through whom the de- Bultmann: Jesus is the Proclaimer of the cisive eschatological reality of God is Kingdom of God.155 now being mediated to history. In his words and mighty deeds or mira- Jesus, therefore, did not preach cles (dunameis), the eschatological himself but the kingdom of God blessings of salvation are now occur- (malkuth shamayim) or, more precise- ring. Anointed with the eschatologi- ly, “the Reigning God”. This procla- cal spirit foretold by Joel, Jesus mation has its roots in the Davidic brings good news to the poor, pro- period. But with the prophets and claims the presence of the Jubilee apocalyptic seers the Reign of God year in which captives are freed and becomes an eschatological or futur- returned to the land, gives sight to istic hope. It is this eschatological the blind, cures the lame, lepers, understanding of the Reign which and deaf, proclaims good news to forms the context for Jesus' own the poor and binds up the strong proclamation and praxis.156 Hence man, Satan, and his reign.159 by Reign of God Jesus is referring in Through Jesus' reign of God praxis, the first place to God's final, deci- creation and history are already be- sive, salvific activity within history ginning to be brought to eschatolog- through which God fully becomes king, becomes fully the God of salvation. In the second place by Reign of 157 Perrin, Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus, God Jesus is referring to the eschato- pp. 55-60. I have stated here the basic meaning logical blessings of salvation such as of Jesus' Reign of God proclamation. But, as Perrin points out, the reign of God as proclaimed by Jesus is a "tensive" and not "steno" symbol, i.e. it is characterized by "semantic plenitude". 1985), pp. 25-43. On the relation between Thus it will take many "stories" or parables to liberating praxis and contemplation, see my own spell out this semantic plenitude and to mediate article, "Liberation Theology: Praxis and to Jesus' hearers the experience of God as king. Contemplation", Carmelus, 34 (1987): 3-58. See Perrin, Jesus and the Language of the 155 Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus (New Kingdom: Symbol and Metaphor in New York: Harper and Row, 1967), p. 54. See also Testament Interpretation (Philadelphia: Fortress Joachim Jeremias, New Testament Theology: Press, 1976), pp. 32-34, 55-56, 199-200. The Proclamation of Jesus, trans. John Bowden 158 For this notion see Schillebeeckx, Jesus, pp. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971), p. 96 441-49, 475-480; Walter Kasper, Jesus the (Kingdom as the central theme of the public Christ, trans. V. Green (New York: Paulist Press, proclamation of Jesus); Edward Schillebeeckx, 1976), pp. 69-70. Jesus: An Experiment in Christology, trans. 159 Since not only diabolical possession but all Hubert Hoskins (New York: Seabury Press, sicknesses were in some way attributable to 1979), p. 140 (Kingdom as basic impulse behind Satan, Jesus through his mighty deeds was the message and preaching of Jesus); Sobrino, dispelling the reign of Satan and ushering in the Jesus in Latin America, p. 84 (The ultimate for reign of God. Regarding Jesus' mighty deeds Jesus is the Kingdom of God); Meier, "Jesus", p. (miracles and exorcisms) and their relation to the 1320 (Kingdom as the basic message of Jesus). inbreaking Reign of God, see Kasper, Jesus the 156 As Sobrino and other liberation theologians Christ, pp. 95-98; Hans Küng, On Being a point out, not only Jesus' proclamation but also Christian, pp. 226-238; Schillebeeckx, Jesus: an his praxis of the Reign of God is important. See Experiment, pp. 180-200, in which Schillebeeckx Sobrino, Jesus in Latin America, pp. 13, 66-69, also relates the mighty deeds of Jesus to his 71, 85-86, 91-94. identity as eschatological prophet. 44 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

ical completion.160 In Origen's inbreaking of God's reign now. words, Jesus is himself the Reign of Hence he was not an “other worldly” God, the autobasileia. His message ascetic or hermit concerned only and cause (the Reign) cannot be with the “interior” life. He threw separated from his person.161 himself into the midst of his sin- laden society and challenged it. In For Jesus the reign of God en- this regard, he is a prophet and not tailed, therefore, a total transfor- a hermit. mation of creation and history. It was the realization of Israel's escha- One more aspect of the histori- tological hope that at the end of cal Jesus to be noted is his associa- time, all alienation and evil, be it tion with “sinners” or the “rabble”, physical or moral, would be over- those who in the eyes of at least cer- come, and justice and peace would tain Pharisees were considered to be reign. Nothing would escape its beyond the pale of God's compas- salvific, healing presence. And thus sion and mercy. Jesus' frequent asso- for Jesus, this reign of God, while ciation with sinners and his eating remaining “outstanding” or futuris- with them can only be understood in tic in its completion, was very much terms of his Reign of God ministry. a reality which was also this worldly In Jesus' time the ultimate for- and which was even now beginning giveness of sin was a major aspect of to heal reality in all its dimensions, apocalyptic hope. When God fully political, social, economic, personal reigned, all sin would be forgiven. and cosmic.162 It cannot be totally But such forgiveness was limited to eschatologized or spiritualized, that God-fearing, law-keeping Jews. It did is referring only to an other-worldly not extend to Gentiles or those Jews eschatological fulfillment or to only who deviated from the law and the the “spiritual” dimensions of men middle class mores of the Pharisees, and women.163 or who through certain professions or practices turned themselves into Jesus was not, therefore, con- Gentiles. In the eyes of the Pharisees cerned only with ultimate salvation, all such were Godless sinners, the the hereafter. He was also con- “rabble”, and included those unedu- cerned with salvation now, with the cated in the law, the poor, tax collec- tors, swineherds, prostitutes, the 160 For this summary statement, see Kasper, sick, blind and lame, demoniacs, Jesus the Christ, pp. 65-103; Schillebeeckx, beggars, robbers, gamblers, usurers. Jesus: an Experiment, pp. 140-271; Michael Cook, The Jesus of Faith: A Study in Christology It is especially for these, the margin- (New York: Paulist Press, 1981), pp. 35-62. alized, the oppressed, the vilified 161 Kasper, Jesus the Christ, pp. 100-01; William M. Thompson, Jesus Lord and Savior: A and the victims of society that Jesus Theopathic Christology and Soteriology (New worked his mighty deeds and pro- York: Paulist Press, 1980), pp. 63-66. 162 claimed his “good news” of the Leonardo Boff, Jesus Christ Liberator, trans. Patrick Hughes (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis reigning God, good news for those Press, 1978), pp. 51-56. Sobrino, Jesus in Latin who heretofore had heard only the America, pp. 81-94. Regarding the relationship between the Reign of God as historically realized “bad news” of exclusion and con- and its eschatological fulfillment, or between demnation. In fact, for Jesus the intraworldly liberations and ultimate salvation, see kingly activity of God was being pri- Leonardo and Clodovis Boff, Salvation and Liberation: In Search of a Balance Between Faith marily manifested in God's compas- and Politics, trans. Robert R. Barr (Maryknoll, sionate love for all these. It is espe- New York: Orbis Press, 1984), pp. 14-66. 163 See William M. Thompson, The Jesus Debate cially with these “outcasts” that Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1985), pp. 183-91; and his God had solidarity and for Donald Dorr, Spirituality and Justice (Maryknoll, 164 New York: Orbis Press, 1984), pp. 94-118. them a preferential love. Regarding the notions of spiritualization and eschatologization, see my "Liberation Theology: 164 Perrin, Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus, Contemplation and Praxis", Carmelus 34 (1987): pp. 90-94; Schillebeeckx, Jesus: an Experiment, 6-9; Boff, Jesus Christ Liberator, pp. 56-57. pp. 206-213; Albert Nolan, Jesus Before Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 45

Included among those who surprises. With Jesus and his God, were marginalized in Jesus’ day were there are no longer classes, barriers women. The role of women in Jew- and divisions. ish society at the time of Jesus was basically restricted to the home. The Jesus did not only associate with Jewish historian, Josephus, roughly a and minister to these “sinners” and contemporary of Jesus, writes: “The outcasts; worse yet, he broke bread woman... is in all things inferior to with them, and in so doing “de- the man. Let her accordingly be classed” himself, i.e. became one of submissive, not for her humiliation them.167 As Nolan states: but that she may be directed; for the It would be impossible to overestimate the authority has been given by God to impact these meals must have had upon the man”.165 the poor and the sinners. By accepting them as friends and equals Jesus had This inferiority extended also to taken away their shame, humiliation and religious matters. A woman was not guilt. By showing them that they mattered permitted full access to the temple; to him as people he gave them a sense of she was restricted to an outer court- dignity and released them from their cap- yard. The religious obligations ex- tivity.168 pected of her were the same as a slave's. She did not have to recite the But even more important is the shema that every male Jew was ex- theological significance of these pected to pray each morning and meals. For the Jew of Jesus' day, all evening. The reason for this was that meals were sacred. Table fellowship a woman was like a slave; she was not signified not only peace, friendship the mistress of her own time. Wom- and reconciliation, but it signified all en were not to be spoken to on the of this in God's eyes. The meal cele- street; they were to veil their faces brated the restoration of the cove- and remain behind their husbands nant relationship and the coming of in public.166 the Reign of God.

How shocking Jesus' association Jesus' meals with sinners were, with women in public must have therefore, “acted parables” which been. Many of his mighty deeds were celebrated the present joy of those performed for women; women trav- who had accepted the God of Jesus elled with him and in fact assisted and joyfully anticipated the eschaton Jesus and his disciples out of their when God's salvific gifts would be means (Lk. 8:1-3). It is the women, fully present. They were an acted not the male disciples, who remain symbol of Jesus' message and mis- faithful to Jesus until the end and sion of the offer of God's peace, fa- are present at the foot of the cross. vor and reconciliation, a sacrament Indeed, in his association with these or a prolepsis of the future Reign of women, Jesus is again shocking the God which itself in the prophets and system of his day, turning things up- seers was symbolized by a meal. And side down. With the now arrival of what was most scandalous about the Reign of God, the God of the these meals was that sinners were absolute future, there are indeed invited to eat along with the righteous. No longer did the law dictate with whom one was to eat. No longer Christianity (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Press, 1978), pp. 21-29. Regarding God's and Jesus' was the sinner to be so clearly distin- preferential love for these groups of outcasts, see guished from the righteous. Grace Dorr, Spirituality and Justice, pp. 87-94; Sobrino, Jesus in Latin America, pp. 13-15, 32-35, 86-94, and compassion were taking prece- 106-111. 165 See Donald Senior, Jesus: A Gospel Portrait (New York: Paulist Press, 1992), pp.67-68. 167 Schillebeeckx, Jesus: an Experiment, p. 211. 166 Ibid., p. 67. 168 Nolan, Jesus Before Christianity, p. 39. 46 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

dence over the law. This was new through an infinite act of satisfac- wine breaking old wine skins.169 tion. He died because he tangled with the powers of his day and lost, By way of summary we can say or so it seemed on Good Friday. But that Jesus understood himself to be Easter Sunday tells us that justice God's eschatological prophet whose triumphs over injustice.171 mission it was to usher in the Reign of God and its blessings which The project of touched all aspects of creation and all Carmelites is history. In his mediating the reign- 5.4 to walk in the ing God to men and women Jesus Rearticulating footsteps of Je- turned especially to those who were Christocentricity sus. But our un- the outcasts and marginalized of his Today derstanding of day, the victims of injustice and op- Jesus changes; pression. For them especially Jesus so also does the historical situation. had good news (Gospel) and to And the change of historical situa- them especially Jesus shows himself tion presents new challenges to our as the sacrament of God's compas- walking in the footsteps of Jesus. In sion. For them being sad in the order, therefore, to rearticulate the presence of Jesus was an existential Christocentric spirituality of Albert's impossibility.170 Rule we must take into consideration both our contemporary under- Indeed, this Jesus was pouring standing of the historical Jesus and new wine into old wine skins. He was also our contemporary situation. pouring the new wine of the good Hence before attempting a rearticu- news that the love and compassion lation, a word about the contempo- of the reigning God was now offered rary situation of the developed to all, even the outcasts, the margin- countries of the first world is in or- alized, the sinners and the rabble. In der.172 so pouring this new wine, Jesus came into conflict with the leaders of Isra- The Jesuit philosopher, John F. el. He, his message, his ministry, his Kavanaugh, views and analyzes our God were a threat and a challenge to contemporary situation by employ- them and their power. Eventually ing the Marxian inspired heuristic they would have to do away with model of the “commodity form”. him. They did. They had him crucified and hence he died a God- 171 See Leonardo Boff, Jesus Christ Liberator: A forsaken death. “Cursed is anyone Critical Christology for Our Time, trans. Patrick who is hanged on a tree” (Gal 3:13). Hughes (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Press, 1978), pp. 100-138; Jon Sobrino, Christology at We must not “mystify” this death on the Crossroads, trans. John Drury (Maryknoll, a cross with exalted theologies of New York: Orbis Press, 1978), pp. 179-235; Jon redemption, such as it was God's will Sobrino, Jesus in Latin America, pp. 119-122, 148-151. that his son die such a gruesome 172 Here I rely upon John F. Kavanaugh, death in order to expiate or wipe Following Christ in A Consumer Society (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Press, 1981). Similar away the debt of human sin or ap- in many aspects to Kavanaugh is Dorr, Spirituality pease God's anger through the sacri- and Justice. Both authors wish to achieve an fice of his own life. Jesus died not integration of faith and justice into a holistic Christian spirituality responsive to the contem- because his Father willed it. Nor did porary situation. For an analysis of the situation in he die to repair God's injured honor Latin America and a spirituality which will respond to its challenges, see e.g. Gustavo Gutiérrez, The Power of the Poor in History, trans. Robert R. Barr (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Press, 1982); We Drink from our Wells, trans. Matthew J. 169 For Jesus' meals see Perrin, Rediscovering O'Connell (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Press, the Teaching of Jesus, pp. 109-108; 1983); Segundo Galilea, The Future of Our Past; Schillebeeckx, Jesus: An Experiment, pp. 206- Jon Sobrino, Spirituality of Liberation: Toward 218; Nolan, Jesus Before Christianity, pp. 37-40. Political Holiness, trans. Robert R. Barr 170 Schillebeeckx, Jesus: An Experiment, p. 201. (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Press, 1988). Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 47

The commodity form is a paradigm ment, self-donation, generosity, jus- for human living. It is a way of per- tice, peace, forgiveness, healing, ceiving ourselves and others as compassion, the empowering and things or commodities, and living exaltation of those who are least.178 accordingly. Things replace persons; These two forms, the commodity material relations between things and the personal, are opposed in displace truly human relations. The every respect. And hence Christ and commodity becomes a god who the Gospel, as most fully revealing drives humans to worship things and the personal form, radically conflict relate to them as if they were per- with and even subvert our contem- sons and relate to persons as if they porary society and its commodity were things, with the result that perform. To follow Christ is, of necessi- sons are possessed by their posses- ty, to be counter-cultural.179 sions and produced by their prod- ucts. Thus they become alienated As we saw above, it was the cru- from themselves and transformed sade spirituality which helped define into the commodity itself.173 There is the obsequium Jesu Christi of the first even a commodity form of knowing. Carmelite hermits as one of imitat- Knowing is reduced to technical, ing Jesus' own spiritual battle scientific, instrumental, “thing-like” through poverty, penance, solitude, knowing.174 This commodity form silence, obedience and prayer. Such with its pre-eminent values of mar- a walking in the footsteps of Jesus ketability and consumption thus be- was not merely a “spiritual” enter- comes a pathology against which prise; it also had “political” connota- persons evaluate themselves in terms tions, for its purpose was to regain of productivity and usefulness with the land of Christ. Though involved the result that there is no intrinsic in spiritual combat, those first her- human value.175 mits were very much committed to the land of Christ, its liege, and so In turn the commodity form, as were truly citizens of this world. As underlying value of our society, gives vassals of Christ, they had solidarity rise to a commodity ethics of moral with and responsibility for the land rugged individualism, which results and its people.180 in violence, domination, manipula- tion, fear, alienation, racism, chau- Needless to say the crusades are vinism, hedonism, sexual mechanics, over, and reconquering the physical abortion, euthanasia, excessive con- land of Christ is not a priority item. sumption and the dissolution of fam- But for Carmelites, walking in the ily life.176 footsteps of Jesus does remain a priority item. Given the above analysis Besides the commodity form, of the contemporary situation in there is another paradigm of human terms of the commodity form, and existence, the “personal form”, given the above sketch of the histor- which is “a mode of perceiving and ical Jesus, how are we to rearticulate valuing men and women as irre- for today our “walking in the foot- placeable persons whose fundamen- steps of Jesus Christ”? I offer three tal identities are fulfilled in covenan- suggestions. tal relationship”.177 The personal form promotes the intrinsic worth of First suggestion: not any Jesus persons, respect, freedom, detach- will do. In our walking in the foot-

173 Kavanaugh, Following Christ, pp. xviii, 3-5, 26. 178 Ibid., pp. 96-97. 174 Ibid., pp. 27-29. 179 Ibid., pp. 69, 98, 112. 175 Ibid., pp. 21, 26. 180 Constance Fitzgerald, "How to Read the Rule: 176 Ibid., pp. xviii, 9, 30-40. An Interpretation", in Mulhall, Albert's Way, pp. 177 Ibid., pp. 51. 58-59; Cicconetti, The Rule of Carmel, p. 16. 48 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

steps of Jesus, which Jesus do we fol- tologization of faith and Christian low? Not every Jesus is reconcilable life. It anesthetizes us to the con- with the historical Jesus and his flictual and sinful reality of this praxis. Jesus has been used, abused world and the power of the “Satanic” and manipulated to become an ideo- at work in it.182 logical prop for the status quo. He has been invoked, and even prayed Any following of Christ which to, in order to keep the oppressed in anesthetizes us from history and its their oppression, the oppressors in conflicts at best is a fuga mundi spir- their power, the “haves” in their ituality which negates God's own in- riches and the “have nots” in their carnational history through which in poverty. If Bultmann “demytholo- Jesus God took upon God's self our gized” Jesus, we must “depacify” him history precisely to heal and fulfill it. so that he is not in connivance with At worst such an anesthetizing spir- idols, such as the commodity form, ituality which is focused upon one's and so that he does not leave reality “interior life” to the neglect of crea- in peace.181 tion and history is a gnosticization or Platonization of Christianity or a We must ask ourselves: what supposedly Christian form of magic would a “depacified” Jesus have to or voodoo which attempts to manip- say about the tremendous inequality ulate the divine and escape from the of the distribution and use of the painful, and in some instances, goods of the earth between rich and death-dealing commitments and ef- poor, rich and poor nations, about forts needed to make God's Reign all the enslavement, injustice, de- more a reality in our world. humanization and ecological plun- der which result from this unequal Second suggestion: walking in distribution? What would the “de- the footsteps of Jesus means taking pacified” Jesus have to say about the up Jesus' own Reign of God praxis. oppression and marginalization of There is still a land of Christ with its women or of any minority? Not to people to be regained, but this land bring Jesus and his liberating praxis with its people is not limited to the into the picture, as if they had noth- geographical land of Christ. Jesus ing to say about these issues, is in was about much more than that. Je- effect to present a heavenly and es- sus was about the inbreaking of the chatologized Jesus who has no signif- Reign of God now into history, a icance for history, for our salvation Reign of God which would embrace here and now. It is to reduce the reign and transform all of creation and all of God to an exclusively eschatologi- of history, a Reign which even now cal reality. in history would begin to dispel the Reign of Satan and all of its conse- Sobrino correctly warns us of quences: injustice, violence, war, having only an “Easter” Christology oppression, domination; a Reign which leaves the life and cross of Je- which would restore all to the para- sus behind, which gives us an exalted disal state. From the perspective of Christ who is above and indifferent the Reign of God proclamation and to the injustices of this world. Such a praxis of Jesus, the land and the Christology easily leads to the privat- people of Jesus embrace all creation ization, spiritualization and escha- and all history, especially the marginalized, the victims of oppression

181 Sobrino, Jesus in Latin America, p. 59. On the ideological or dehumanizing images and invocations of Jesus, see José Míguez Bonino, ed., Faces of Jesus: Latin American Christologies, trans. Robert Barr (Maryknoll, New 182 Sobrino, Christology at the Crossroads, pp. York: Orbis Press, 1977). 273-286, and Jesus in Latin America, pp. 148-54. Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism • 49 and injustice, the least of the sisters pendable “thing” and human expe- and brothers.183 rience to the quantifiable, with its enslaving values of marketability and Hence, to walk in the footsteps consumption, with its ethics of rug- of Jesus Christ to reconquer the land ged individualism and its offsprings is to insert one's self into history and of violence, domination, manipula- its conflicts, to take on earthly and tion, alienation, racism, chauvinism, political citizenship as did the origi- sexual mechanics, abortion and the nal hermits of Carmel.184 The obse- dissolution of family life, has become quium of the Rule allows for no pri- the new Satan, the new adversary vatized, spiritualized, eschatologized who prowls around as a roaring lion spirituality. It cannot be separated seeking those whom he can devour. from the polis. Both the Jesus and To take up Jesus' Reign of God prax- the discipleship of classical theology is in our day means to enter into bat- and spirituality must be “secular- tle with this roaring lion of the ized”, i.e. made relevant to the saecu- commodity form, to stand on the lum, the world and its history. Car- side of the intrinsic worth of per- melites also must attend to the wis- sons, freedom, detachment, generos- dom of Marx's well-known eleventh ity, justice, peace, forgiveness, heal- thesis against Feuerbach: “Philoso- ing, compassion and the empower- phers have only interpreted the ing of those who are least. world in various ways; the point, however, is to change it”.185 Third suggestion: to walk in the footsteps of Jesus demands entering Hence the obsequium of the Rule into spiritual combat with the roar- demands today commitment to the ing lion of the commodity form. In land, the here and now of history what might this spiritual combat with all of its sin-riddled conflicts. In consists? I propose three elements: the context of the developed, in- the vows, silence-solitude-prayer, and dustrialized nations of the first community. world, this insertion into history, this commitment to the land, becomes Poverty, chastity and obedience specified by prophetic denunciation themselves are counter-cultural; they of the commodity form and annun- are opposed to the commodity form, ciation of the personal form. The for their purpose is humanization idol of the commodity form, with its and freedom, freedom from powers reduction of the person to an ex- within which drive us to the commodity values of power, domination and possession, and freedom to em- 183 It is this thrust towards universalization, rooted in the Reign of God proclaimed and enacted by power others as persons. Likewise, Jesus himself, which accounts for the wisdom- there is an economics to the vows. inspired, world-historical and cosmic Christologies They are not very helpful to finan- of later New Testament works such as 186 Colossians, Ephesians and the Gospel of John. If cial growth. Jesus is to be "Lord", then his Lordship must be as extensive as that of Yahweh, whose name he now shares. Hence it must embrace all of There is also an economics to si- creation and history. On this see Reginald Fuller, lence, solitude and prayer. They too The Foundations of New Testament Christology are financially worthless and hence (New York, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1965), pp. 62-85; E. Schillebeeckx, Christ: The are a prophetic denunciation of the Experience of Jesus as Lord, trans. John Bowden commodity form.187 Silence and soli- (New York, New York: Seabury Press, 1980), pp. 179-217; James D. G. Dunn, Christology in the tude are filled with risks, for they Making (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, reveal our needfulness and inner 1980), pp. 163-250. 184 Fitzgerald, "How To Read the Rule: An poverty, which are so strongly de- Interpretation", p. 59. 185 See "Theses on Feuerbach" in Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader (New York: 186 Kavanaugh, Following Christ, pp. 48, 137-138. W. W. Norton and Company, 1978), p. 145. 187 Ibid., pp. 48. 50 • Christocentrism of the Carmelite Charism Horizons – Carmelite Spiritual Directory Project

nied by the commercialism and ma- steps of Jesus Christ by embracing terialism of the commodity form. the ideal vision of the Jerusalem Silence and solitude are hopelessly community. Albert's formula of life unmarketable.188 Prayer is an act of spells out this communitarian vision interiority which demands that we in terms of a sharing of goods and extricate ourselves from patterns of life, an egalitarian style of life, com- behavior which are normative for munal-dialogical discernment and a the commodity form of existence; respect for the individual. Hermits prayer involves being present to God within the Rule itself quickly come and hence to our true identity as to be called “brothers”, who are to persons; prayer is an attack against undertake a participative form of the fraudulence of mere roles de- living together. This communitarian manded by the commodity form; it is life is itself a counter-cultural, pro- a centering in “being” rather than phetic protest against the commodi- the “having” of the commodity form. ty form with its objectifying of the Prayer is a de-commodification of person through dominative and de- our lives and a reappropriation of humanizing relationships, its lack of our personhood.189 care and respect, its enslavement of freedom, and its idolizing of compe- Silence, solitude and prayer play tition, achievement and control.192 also another role in our spiritual bat- In turn such a communitarian life tle. These three typically desert val- witnesses to the values of the per- ues of Carmel make us attentive to sonal form: the intrinsic worth of the gratuitousness of God's love in persons, freedom, detachment, gen- our lives, dispose us to recognize erosity, justice, peace, forgiveness, that God is present in all things, pu- healing, compassion, the empower- rify our approach to others of the ing of those who are least. commodity tendency to impose an alien will on them and thus enable a The land of Christ has yet to be true and full encounter with our reconquered; all things have yet to neighbor.190 Silence, solitude and be subject to him so that his Father prayer are the “stuff” which produc- may fully reign and be all in all. As es mystical prophets. Because the in the days of Albert and the first prophet “tastes” the divine presence, hermits of Carmel, the land will be he/she can also taste its absence in reconquered not by arms and might history, the commodity form. It is but by walking in the footsteps of this awareness of the divine absence Jesus Christ. This obsequium Jesu which caused the prophet to de- Christi involves a spiritual battle nounce the old, the reign of Satan, which, as with Jesus himself, inserts and announce the new, the Reign of one into history in combat with the God. Silence, solitude and prayer roaring lion. To walk in the footsteps are the school of Elijan prophets.191 of Jesus Christ today is a call to a communal life of counter-cultural Community too is a counter- resistance, rooted in silence, solitude cultural form of spiritual combat. and prayer, by re-enacting Jesus' The original hermits of Carmel con- prophetic praxis of the Reign of God textualized their walking in the foot- in solidarity with all, but especially with those who are the sinners, the 188 Ibid., pp. 121. outcasts and the rabble of our day. 189 Ibid., pp. 121-122. 190 Gutiérrez, We Drink from Our Own Wells, pp. 110-113. 191 Regarding "mystical prophets", see my "Liberation Theology: Praxis and Contemplation", Carmelus 34 (1987), p. 55. On the importance of the desert spirituality of Carmel for the prophetic action of liberation, see Segundo Galilea, "The 192 See Fitzgerald, "How To Read the Rule: An Future of Our Past", pp. 25-43. Interpretation", pp. 61-62.