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EDUCATIONAL INSIGHT Six Streams Of Hindu Ṣaḍdarśana, Celebrating Diversity in the Quest for Supreme By Mahamahopadhyaya Bhadreshdas (Disciple of )

his article is a celebration of fearless diversity.  e world has never failed to be fascinated by the vast- ness and depth of the Indian —whether it be T its endearing and timeless culture, vibrant and expres- sive , ornate performances, articulate languages, or even its luscious cuisines. Mark Twain, in a celebrated passage, attempts to give us a taste of its magnetism. He describes as  e that all men to see and having seen once, even by

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D L E I N S S T I G H EDUCATIONAL INSIGHT a glimpse, would not give that glimpse for the shows of the rest of the globe combined.” Romain Rolland, a French scholar, echoes, “If there is one place on the face of Earth where all the of living men have found a home, from the very earliest days when SSixix SStreamstreams man began to of , it is India.” It is a land where the fi nds solace and dreams fi nd realization. What makes the Indian experience so enchanting is its capac- ity to embrace diversity. It has always encouraged the freedom OOff HinduHindu By Mahamahopadhyaya Swami Bhadreshdasto think, to dream and to express—all values that are sought by modern scholarship. Surprisingly, these aspirations are not to be envisioned as dreams of the future, but rather to be recalled from PPhilosophyhilosophy past histories. Ever since antiquity, the celebration of diverse thought has found home in India, a land that exemplifi ed what it means to be truly diverse. Th e setting that promoted this inces- Ṣaḍdarśana, Celebrating contemplation, and the subsequent dialogue that proceeded it, gave birth to one of the most priceless contributions of India: Diversity in the Quest for the Vedic ṣaḍdarśana—the six schools of philosophy based on the . Supreme Knowledge is the art of seeing. To see is ordinary. Everyone sees, but when a sees, it makes a diff erence. He refl ects on what By Mahamahopadhyaya Swami Bhadreshdas is seen, questions it, examines it and is also compassionate to (Disciple of Guru Pramukh Swami Maharaj ) observe it from diff erent perspectives. He has the power to chal- lenge with reasoning and to establish the need for faith in his article is a celebration of fearless diversity. . In this way, by seeing, a rishi knocks at the doors of . Th e world has never failed to be fascinated by the vast- Indeed, the ṣaḍdarśanas are of remarkable sight. ness and depth of the Indian experience—whether it be T its endearing and timeless culture, vibrant and expres- Pieter Weltevrede’s art depicts a Vedic representing the founders sive festivals, ornate ritual performances, articulate languages, or of the seminal schools of philosophy. He is seated on the cosmic cobra even its luscious cuisines. Mark Twain, in a celebrated passage, with six heads, each representing a distinct . From attempts to give us a taste of its magnetism. He describes India as the Īśa Upaniṣad’s Pūrṇamada , represented by an infi nite sea “Th e land that all men desire to see and having seen once, even by of knowledge and , arise six powerful rivers of knowledge, each sharing the same source but fl owing off in diff erent directions.

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october/november/december, 2016 today 37 ABOUT THE AUTHOR A MOUNTAINTOP Swami Bhadreshdas is a renowned Th e term darśana stems from the verbal root dṛś meaning “to .” In Sanskrit scholar. He is an ordained Sanskrit, terms that are used to express the act of seeing are also used in a more of the Bochasanwasi Akshar-Purushottam cognitive of attaining knowledge. As such, darśana means the attainment of PERSPECTIVE Sanstha (BAPS) and was initiated knowledge, experience (anubhūti) or system of . Within the Indian , by Pramukh Swami numerous schools of thought arose that off ered diff erent perspectives for under- Maharaj. Upon completing standing the world. It was by their gift s of knowledge and experience that these var- multiple masters on the ious schools of thought eventually became referred to as darśana. Vedic adarśana, he Th e Darśanic Lens: Th e formation of the darśanas transformed the Indian experi- composed in 2007 a ence. Th e ideas they presented encouraged one to view the familiar and the ordinary fi ve-volume classical through a broader, more encompassing, philosophical and theological paradigm. Sanskrit commentary Since the teachings of the darśanas were ultimately outgrowths of Vedic thought, on the . their creation, although characterized by distinct principles, resulted in a diverse, yet Titled the structured understanding of Vedic injunction and . In so arising, they pro- Swaminarayan vided perspectives that both enlightened and inspired. Th e eff ect was universal. Th e Bhashyam, this text darśanas presented philosophical ideas that had signifi cant bearing on one’s experi- illuminates the Vedic roots of the Akshar- ence of the phenomenological world; they taught one how and to what signifi cance philosophy as it was revealed to view the world we live in. Th ey taught what it means to live a meaningful life and by Swaminarayan and later by how to make life more meaningful. As such, their creation molded the Indian expe- Brahmaswarup . His notable rience through a darśanic lens. recognitions include the Darsanakesari, The Darśanic Way of Life: A study of the Vedic ṣaḍdarśana has the power to Vedantamartanda and Mahamahopadhyaya change the way we view and live life. Th ey emerged from honest investigations of awards. Swami was also bestowed a D. Litt. everyday, common concerns and strived to provide everlasting solutions for them. for his outstanding contributions in Sanskrit Attaining enduring bliss and freedom from misery are universal aspirations; they literature. He is the head of BAPS Swaminarayan are independent of age, nationality, race and even religious preference. Research Institute, Akshardham, , and The ṣaḍdarśana presented thoughts that brought a sense of maturity to intellec- travels as an international lecturer on the tual endeavor, and ultimately meaning to life. Th ey demonstrated how it was not Swaminarayan Darshana. only possible, but also instructive, to live among diversity. Th ey taught discernment when joining the visible with the invisible, and declared that there was a life before and be a life aft er the present. By exploring these principles, the darśanas wove shutterstock conceptual and into everyday living. Belief in vara/ Six Streams of : Th e six darśanas we will become familiar with in this Dar ana Progenitor About the ( tman) Valid Means of Knowing (Pram a) Unique Contributions work are: Sāṅkhya, , Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta.1 Th ey are col- Param tman lectively called the ṣaḍdarśana. Th ese six darśanas oft en appear as pairs: Sāṅkhya Sāṅkhya Maharṣi Yes/No Puruṣa is the (self). It is (pratyakṣa-pramāṇa) * Th e principle of satkāryavāda, is paired with Yoga, Nyāya with Vaiśeṣika, and Mīmāṃsā with Vedānta. Although Th e School Kapilamuni sentient, eternal, immutable and (anumāna-pramāṇa) the pre-existence of creation each darśana is distinct from the others, they are grouped in this way because the of Complete neither a cause nor an eff ect of verbal testimony (śabda-pramāṇa) * A precise enumeration of entities pairs share many similar beliefs. Knowledge anything. Similar Yet Distinct: All of the ṣaḍdarśanas share several similar concerns. Each acknowledges four endeavors of life: the attainment of (), Yoga Maharṣi Yes/No Th e ātman is bound because of the perception (pratyakṣa-pramāṇa) * To embark on the path of yoga, Patañjali advocates material attainment (), the fulfi llment of desire(kāma), and the attainment of Th e School of Patañjali unsteadiness of chitta inference (anumāna-pramāṇa) an eight-fold path known as aṣṭāṅgayoga liberation (mokṣa). Among these endeavors, all six darśanas place great signifi cance Contemplation verbal testimony (śabda-pramāṇa) * Signifi cance of practice (abhyāsa) and on liberation (mokṣa) and express a general dissatisfaction with the mere fulfi llment (vairāgya) of material desire or corporal gratifi cation. isTh comes as no surprise, as they all believe in the existence of the self (ātman) as distinct from the body and in its con- Nyāya Maharṣi Yes Th e ātman is of two types: the self perception (pratyakṣa-pramāṇa) * Th e existence of non-existence (abhāva) tinued existence aft er . Th e School of Gautama (jīvātman) and Īśvara/Paramātman inference (anumāna-pramāṇa) * Deep contemplation on the of inference Regarding knowledge, each darśana presents a systematic epistemological frame- verbal testimony (śabda-pramāṇa) work for its acquisition—be it faith in sacred texts or divine instruction, continued comparison (upamāna-pramāṇa) refl ection on the relationship between the self, the world, and (where applicable) Vaiśeṣika Maharṣi Yes Th e ātman is of two types: the self perception (pratyakṣa-pramāṇa) * Paramāṇukāraṇavāda : the notion of atoms or particles Īśvara or Paramātman. Th e ṣaḍdarśanas also concede that ignorance is the cause of Th e School of Kaṇāda (jīvātman) and Īśvara/Paramātman inference (anumāna-pramāṇa) as building blocks of creation bondage, misery and suff ering, and that endeavor () is necessary for attain- Particularity * Asatkāryavāda : the principle that created substances ing liberation. do not previously exist In addition to this emphasis on refl ection, a close relationship between ritual per- formance and philosophical or theological thought and a belief in both spiritual and Mīmāṃsā Maharṣi Yes/No Th e ātman is real, sentient, eternal perception (pratyakṣa-pramāṇa) * Creation of a universal hermeneutical theory worldly consequences of action are found in the schools. Th e School of Jaiminī and bound by . inference (anumāna-pramāṇa) * Deep contemplation on ritual performances such as Despite these similarities, each darśana has a distinct epistemic, philosophical and Vedic verbal testimony (śabda-pramāṇa) the yajña theological understanding. Th is work off ers a brief overview of each darśana’s con- comparison (upamāna-pramāṇa) tributions by presenting its characteristic fundamental principles, epistemology and postulation (arthāpatti-pramāṇa) notion and means for attaining liberation. We will also explore each darśana’s prin- non-perception ( -pramāṇa) ciple contributors and textual works. By doing so, this work seeks to provide insight Vedānta Maharṣi Yes Th e ātman is sentient and eternal. Although all schools of Vedānta accept: * Investigation on the nature of into the fundamentals of darśanic thought and experience. Th e School of Bādarāyaṇa Schools of Vedānta off er various perception (pratyakṣa-pramāṇa) * A greater signifi cance of verbal testimony Brahmavidyā Vyāsa conceptions of the nature of ātman. inference (anumāna-pramāṇa) (śabda-pramāṇa) 1 Th e Mīmāṃsā Darśana is also known as Pūrvamīmāṃsā, whereas the Vedānta Darśana is also called Uttaramīmāṃsā. verbal testimony (śabda-pramāṇa), * Th e need of a guru for acquiring the knowledge of some of them are known to accept the others. Brahman

38 october/november/december, 2016 october/november/december, 2016 hinduism today 39 Sage sits on the earth, with , fi re, existence of Īśvara. Others, however, argue that silence does air and ether on either side. Eighteen rays not demonstrate refusal and do not agree with the above infer- represent the other , or entities of prakṛti. ence. Despite this, however, in his Sāṅkhyapravachanabhāṣya, He introduced the gunas, the three qualities of Vijñānabhikṣu, who wrote extensively on the Vedānta, , and , shown here as the , Sāṅkhya and Yoga darśanas, strongly establishes that Sāṅkhya and triangular halos. His right hand advocates the existence of Īśvara.19 Descriptions of Sāṅkhya as is in chin , the insignia of knowledge. seśvara (“with Īśvara”) from purāṇa texts like the Bhāgavata, historical texts like the Mahābhārata, philosophical texts like the Bhagavadgītā,20 and Bhagavān Svāminārāyaṇa’s description prakṛti is with action but insentient; of Sāṅkhya as a means for understanding Paramātman21 also justify the whereas puruṣa is sentient but without position that the darśana is seśvara. action. As a result, neither can cause cre- Epistemology: Th e study of knowledge can be roughly divided into ation alone. Sāṅkhya, therefore, explains investigations of the following four elements: the subject of knowledge that the world is created by the union of (prameya), the knower (pramātā), the means of knowledge (pramāṇa) prakṛti and puruṣa. Th is mutual depen- and knowledge itself (pramā). Among these, darśanic epistemology dence is explained using the analogy of greatly focuses on investigations of pramāṇa. a crippled man leading a blind one.17 With regards to pramāṇa, the Sāṅkhya Darśana accepts three means One needs eyes to see; whereas the other of knowledge: pratyakṣa-pramāṇa, anumāna-pramāṇa and śabda- needs legs to move forward. pramāṇa. Pratyakṣa-pramāṇa utilizes the as a means for acquir- At the of dissolution, prakṛti is ing knowledge. Anumāna-pramāṇa utilizes logical inference. Th e fi nal, in a state of equilibrium (sāmyāvasthā), śabda-pramāṇa, identifi es the speech or words of one who is authorita- with the three guṇas equally balanced. tive and truthful (āptavaktā) as a means to knowledge.22 However, in the presence of puruṣa, this Liberation: Sāṅkhya that liberation is the permanent elim- equilibrium becomes disrupted and ination of misery (duḥkha). On this subject, Īśvarakṛṣṇa clearly states results in creation. that bondage and liberation are not states of the puruṣa; but of prakṛti.23 Satkāryavāda, Pre-existence of Cre- Despite this, the bondage of prakṛti that is believed as puruṣa’s is caused ation: Within its creation narrative, the by a lack of discernment, or vivekajñāna: an understanding of the Sāṅkhya Darśana also accepts the prin- nature and form of puruṣa and prakṛti as distinct. ciple of satkāryavāda—the pre-existence When a puruṣa is liberated, Sāṅkhya describes prakṛti as of creation. It believes that the created silent. Īśvarakṛṣṇa explains this using an analogy: just as a performer resides in an unmanifest form in its becomes quiet aft er displaying her form on stage, prakṛti becomes dor- material cause.18 For Sāṅkhya, an eff ect mant having revealed its true nature to the puruṣa.24 is merely a manifestation of what already Liberation Before and Aft er Death: Th e Sāṅkhya Darśana describes existed in its cause. It believes that no two types of liberation: jīvanamukti and videhamukti. In the state of pieter weltevrede new substance ever comes into exis- jīvanamukti, one liberation while still being alive. In this tence. Rather, that which already existed state, one is not bound by karma even when performing action. To becomes manifest. For instance, in the case of a clay pot, it is believed explain the continued life of the liberated, the analogy of a potter’s SĀṄKHYA DARŚANA: THE SCHOOL OF COMPLETE KNOWLEDGE to have existed in an unmanifest form in the clay from which it was wheel that continues to move for some time, despite the absence of the made. Creation and dissolution are understood as merely appearance potter’s applied force, is oft en off ered.25 Th e attainment of everlasting lib- āṅkhya is one of the oldest of the ṣaḍdarśana. Origins of some Darśana presents a precise enumeration of the entities that make up the (āvirbhāva) and disappearance (tirobhāva) of that which already existed. eration aft er death is known as videhamukti. Upon attaining liberation, of its beliefs are oft en traced to the Vedas. It has also been dis- world,9 it is also identified as the school of enumeration. Īśvara: There has been great debate regarding the role of Īśvara bondage never reoccurs. cussed in philosophical texts such as the Bhagavadgītā and Prakṛti, the Material Cause of Creation: Prakṛti means “that which in Sāṅkhya. Īśvarakṛṣṇa’s Sāṅkhyakārikā remains silent on the mat- We can thus summarize that the Sāṅkhya Darśana is a school of dual- purāṇa texts like the Bhāgavata. Kapilamuni is the founder exceedingly does.”10 As such, it is used to refer to the material cause ter. Because of this, some believe that Sāṅkhya does not advocate the ism, pluralism and realism. of this school. His teachings are compiled in an aphoristic text (upādānakāraṇa11) of creation. It is real, insentient, eternal and imper- named the Sāṅkhyasūtras, also called the Sāṅkhyapravachanasūtra1, ceptible. It is accepted as being constituted of three qualities: sattva, which consists of six chapters2. The Sāṅkhyasūtras are referenced rajas and tamas.12 Satva is light and bright, rajas is exciting and mobile, Works Cited th 3 13 Banerji, Sures . A Companion to Sanskrit . Th ird. Calcutta: Calcutta Edinburgh University Press, 1999. Print. Oriental Book , 1933. Print. in Vijñānabhikṣu’s 16 century text Sāṅkhyapravachanabhāṣya . and tamas is heavy and enveloping. Th ey mutually suppress, support, Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989. University Press, 1948. Print. Larson, Gerald James. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Svāminārāyaṇa, Bhagavāna. . 14 However, instead of Kapila’s Sāṅkhyasūtras, āchāryas have histori- produce and exist, but do not appear alone. In Sanskrit, guṇa expresses Print. Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Delhi: Ed. et al. Amdavad: Bhaṭṭācārya, Śrītārānātha Tarkavācaspti. First. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Motilal Banarasidass, 1998. Print. Swaminarayan Aksharpith, 2009. Print. cally preferred to cite the Sāṅkhyakārikā, a 72-verse text written by two meanings: “for others” or “secondary,” and “strands.” Sattva, rajas 2005. Print. 4 Vācaspatyam. Vol. 6th. Vāraṇasī: Caukhambā Miśra, Vācaspati. Sāṃkhyatattvakaumudī. Ed. Taponiṣṭha, Vedamūrti, ed. Matsyapurāṇa. Īśvarakṛṣṇa. It is considered the earliest authoritative text on classi- and tamas are identifi ed asguṇa because they benefi t others by their Saṃskṛta Series, 1962. Print. 6 vols. Ishwarkrishna. Sāṅkhyakārikā. Bombay: Śrīrāma Śāstrī Bhaṇḍārī. Benares: Caukhambā Saṃskṛta Saṃsthāna. Print. cal Sāṅkhya.5 Several commentaries have been written on it, includ- role in producing variety in creation;15 their signifi cance is only second- Brahmadarnadāsa, Sādhu. Bhāratīya Darśana. Printing Press, 1931. Print. Surabhāratī, 1921. Print. Vijñānabhikṣu. Sāṃkhyapravacanabhāṣya. Ed. 16 Vol. 2. BAPS Svāminārāyaṇa Mandira Īśvarakṛṣṇa. Sāṅkhyakārikā. Vārāṇasī: Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol. 2. Richard Garbe. : Harvard University, ing the Mātharavṛtti, Gauḍapāda’s Gauḍavādabhāṣya, and Vāchaspati ary to a puruṣa’s; and, like a rope, they bind the puruṣa to the circle of Sāraṅgapura, 1996. Print. Caukhambā Surabhāratī. Print. Holland: George Allen & Unwin, 1948. Print. 6 1895. Print. Miśra’s Sāṅkhyatattvakaumudī, all suggesting the text’s signifi cance. birth and death (saṃsāra). Chatterjee, Satishchandra, and King, Richard. Indian Philosophy: An Introduction 2 vols. Vyāsa, Veda. Śrīmadbhagavadgītā. Gorakhapura: A Darśana of Complete Knowledge: The nameSāṅkhya is derived Th e Separate Puruṣa: Puruṣa is the self (ātman). It is sentient, eter- Dheerendramohan Datta. An Introduction to to Hindu and Buddhist Th ought. Edinburgh: Sharma, Har Dutt. Sāṃkhyakārikā. Poona: Gītāpress, 2066. Print. in two ways: By joining sam (सम),् meaning “complete” with khyā (ख्या) nal, immutable and neither a cause or effect of anything. Puruṣa is Footnotes meaning “knowledge,” the word Sāṅkhya is formed to mean “complete understood as being without parts and all-pervasive. It does not per- 1 (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 5) (Mahābhārata. 12.294.41-42) something is made. In the pot example, 17 (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 23) 7 2 (Banerji 315) (Hiriyanna 269) (Matsyapurāṇa. 3-29) the potter, the potter’s wheel and the rope 18 (Sāṅkhyakārikā 9) (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 10) knowledge.” Sāṅkhya views the world as divided into two distinct enti- form any action. It can be analogized with the Moon, whose refl ection 3 (Radhakrishnan 256) 9 (Sharma 4) that was used to spin the wheel are all 19 (Vijñānabhikṣu) ties: the sentient (puruṣa) and insentient (prakṛti). For Sāṅkhya, com- in turbulent water makes it seem as if it is moving, when in it is not. 4 (Hiriyanna 269) (Chatterjee and Datta 10 प्रकषेर्ण करोित कायर्मुत्पादयित इित ृितः।प्रक considered the nimittakāraṇa. 20 (Vyāsa 78–102) plete knowledge consists of understanding the vivekajñāna( ) Sāṅkhya claims that there are many such puruṣas. It that since 291–2) (Ishwarkrishna 226) 11 Th ere are two types of causes. Th e 12 (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 16) 21 (Svāminārāyaṇa 327, 624) 5 (Hiriyanna 269) (Chatterjee and Datta upādānakāraṇa (the material cause) is 13 (Sāṅkhyakārikā 13) (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 13) 22 (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 5) between puruṣa and prakṛti. The title of the darśana originates from are born and die at diff erent and locations, engage in dif- 291–2) the substance from which something is 14 (Sāṅkhyakārikā 12) (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 14) 23 (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 57) this emphasis on attaining this complete knowledge. Alternatively, the ferent actions throughout their life, and experience pleasure and misery 6 (Larson 147) (King 64) made. For instance, since a clay pot is made 15 (Vāchaspati Miśra’s Sāṅkhyatattvakaumudī 24 (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 52) 7 (Bhaṭṭācārya 1269) from clay, that substance is considered 12) (Miśra 219) 25 (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 60) Mahābhārata and the Matsyapurāṇa offer that the term Sāṅkhya orig- diff erently, there cannot be just one puruṣa, but must be many. 8 16 8 (Īśvarakṛṣṇa 4) (Brahmadarnadāsa 4) an upādānakāraṇa. Th e nimittakāraṇa (Vijñānabhikṣu’s Sāṅkhyapravachanabhāṣya inates from the word saṅkhyā, meaning “number.” Since the Sāṅkhya Creation from the Sentient and Insentient: According to Sāṅkhya, (Taponiṣṭha 51) (instrumental cause) is the means by which 1.61) (Vijñānabhikṣu 29)

40 hinduism today april/may/june, october/november/december, 2011 2016 october/november/december,january/february/march,april/may/june, 20162011 hinduism today 41 Yogī Patañjali meditates in padmāsana beneath 8) Samādhi, perfect concentration, or contemplation, is the the holy tree ( bengalensis), with fi nal stage of aṣṭāṅgayoga. It is a state of perfect focus in which its roots woven deeply into the earth. Its eight only the object of concentration shines forth, while the self is limbs, representing the eight stages of yoga, understood as absent.14 reach for the sky. Th e illustration reminds us Having described the eight parts of yoga in this way, that a yogī must be grounded to soar from Maharṣi Patañjali placed greater emphasis on the last three within. A fi ve-headed , symbolizing parts of yoga, dhāraṇā, dhyāna and samādhi, which mark the the kuṇḍalinī power, surrounds him. various stages of concentration. Within aṣṭāṅgayoga, these three are understood as more internal15 than the first five parts. By dhāraṇā, the roving is tied fi rst to an object in The ātman is bound because of the order that it may become steady. In dhyāna, concentration of the object unsteadiness of the chitta, which is performed in dhāraṇā is continued, and in samādhi concentration often compared to a fluttering flag. becomes extremely intense, causing one to become submerged in abso- Obtaining this control is not easy. Th e lute . Bhagavadgītā explains that control- Abhyāsa and Vairāgya: Two universal problems hinder success: the ling the mind is as diffi cult as trying to lack of practice and attachment to things that deviate from the goal. To grasp the wind.4 For this reason Patañ- all of us, the Yoga Darśana presents two unique teachings that are ben- jali exceedingly focuses his attention on efi cial for success in all fi elds of life: practice (abhyāsa) and detachment understanding the chitta. He discusses (vairāgya). Abhyāsa is continuous practice over an extended period of the chitta’s fi ve diff erent transformations time, carried out in a respectful and thoughtful manner,16 and vairāgya (vṛtti) as: correct knowledge (pramāṇa), is the act of subjugating the desire for objects that obstruct the goal. false knowledge (), verbal Th rough abhyāsa and vairāgya, a practitioner attains yoga. knowledge about something that is non- Th e Fruit, Complete Liberation: Th e primary objective of yoga is to existent (vikalpa), deep sleep (nidrā) attain complete liberation. Through the practice of yoga, impurity is and recollection (smṛti).5 Whether it is overcome and discriminative knowledge (vivekajñāna) is obtained. By our fl owing thoughts, emotional surges, this, ignorance is destroyed and misery comes to an end. or any other internal proceedings, they Īśvara in Yoga: Unlike the Sāṅkhya Darśana, Patañjali clearly dis- are included in one of these fi ve. cusses Īśvara in the Yogasūtras. He identifies Īśvara as a particular The darśana also describes five hin- puruṣa who is unaff ected by affl ictions, karma, the fruits of karma and drances (kleśa): ignorance (), the resulting latent impressions.17 He also acknowledges Īśvara as the erroneous identifi cation of the self with subject of profound .18 Despite this, because of the sūtras’ the intellect (asmitā), attachment (rāga), conceptualization of Īśvara as a puruṣa and its mention of Īśvara as an aversion (dveṣa) and fear of death alternative subject of profound meditation, many have found scope for (abhiniveśa).6 Yoga provides a means debating Īśvara's existence and signifi cance in yoga. pieter weltevrede for restraining the mind when it is con- However, from the theistic descriptions of the darśana found in the fronted by these hindrances. Mahābhārata, Bhagavadgītā and the Bhāgavata, it seems only appropri- Th e Th ree Stages of a Yogin: Yoga presents the following three cate- ate to say that not only is Yoga seśvara, but also that its ultimate goal is YOGA DARŚANA: THE SCHOOL OF CONTEMPLATION gories of yogic aspirants: yogarūḍha, yuñjāna and ārurukṣu. Th e high- not just to concentrate on the self, but to attain samādhi in Paramātman. est category is that of the yogarūḍha. Through great yogic endeavor Bhagavān Svāminārāyaṇa also advocates the same while explain- o you ever fear; are you harassed by incessantly changing Yoga Darśana. Among them, Veda Vyāsa’s Vyāsabhāṣya, Vāchaspati (sādhanā) in their past lives, the yogarūḍha have attained great heights ing the Yoga Darśana. He states, “Th e principle of the Yoga scriptures thoughts? Do you feel like a victim of ? You cannot Miśra’s Tattvavaiśāradī and Vijñānabhikṣu’s Yogavārtika and Yoga sāra- of yoga. Th ose who have progressed signifi cantly toward the yogic aim, is as follows: ‘The functioning (vṛtti) of the mind should be first sta- concentrate and feel as if you are smoldering with jealousy saṃgraha are well known. but are still attaining the heights of yoga are called yuñjāna. Th e lowest bilized through practice (abhyāsa), and then it should be attached to and strife. Are you tired, disgruntled and stressed? More Companionship with Sāṅkhya: Th e Yoga Darśana is a companion of category of yogic endeavor is that of the ārurukṣu. Th ese aspirants are Paramātman.’”19 importantly, do you to free yourself from all of this? If so, the Sāṅkhya in that it accepts much of the metaphysics, epistemology and beginning on the path of yoga and have yet to engage in yogic endeavor. In this way, the Yoga Darśana off ers a comprehensive philosophical Yoga Darśana will provide much to learn from, including the neces- of Sāṅkhya. Despite their similarities, Sāṅkhya places greater The Eight Parts of Yoga: Patañjali advocates eight steps of yoga understanding along with a detailed description of the means for its sary tools to live a peaceful life. emphasis on deliberation, while the Yoga Darśana focuses on spiritual known as aṣṭāṅgayoga. It consists of the following: realization. Th is is why Yoga continues, even today, to leave a lasting Most readers will know, to some extent, about the Yoga Darśana. endeavor (sādhanā). As such, it is not incorrect to say that Yoga is a 1) , moral imperatives, is the introductory step. It involves the impression on our . Many view yoga as a solution to the modern concern for health and practical application of the tenants of Sāṅkhya. Th is companionship is practice of (ahiṃsā), truthfulness (), avoiding theft fi tness, and a means for overcoming the anxiety of modern-day living. clearly substantiated by the Bhagavadgītā, “Children (the unknowledge- (asteya), (brahmacharya) and avoiding avarice (aparigraha).7 Works Cited 2 However, the essential philosophy behind yogic practice lies in some- able) state that Sāṅkhya and Yoga are distinct, not the wise.” 2) , moral conduct, consists of attaining purity of the mind, Patañjali. Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi. Svāminārāyaṇa, Bhagavāna. thing beyond. Yoga, Restraining the Mind: Yoga is derived from the Sanskrit verb body and speech (śaucha), contentment (santoṣa), austerity (), Ed. Kāśīnātha Śāstrī. : Vachanamrut. Ed. Gopalanand Swami et Ānandāśramamudraṇālaya, 1904. Print. al. Amdavad: Swaminarayan Aksharpith, Yoga has been put into practice ever since Vedic times. It is also men- yuj, meaning “intense absorption” or “contemplation” (samādhi), con- study of sacred texts (svādhyāya) and an engrossed contemplation of — Th e Yoga of Patañjali. Trans. 2009. Print. 8 tioned in the Purāṇas, the Bhagavadgītā and the Mahābhārata. Despite trol (saṃyamana), or “association” (). Hence, Patañjali Paramātman (Īśvarapraṇidhāna). James Haughton Woods. New York: Dover Vyāsa, Veda. Śrīmadbhagavadgītā. its previous historic practice, Patañjali molded yoga into a systematic defi nesyoga as the restraint of the function or movement of the chitta 3) Āsana, position, involves assuming a steady, comfortable posture. 9 Publications, 2003. Print. Gorakhapura: Gītāpress, 2066. Print. 3 school of thought by creating the Yogasūtras. Its text consists of 196 aph- (cittavṛttinirodha) Here chitta refers to an inner faculty: the faculty by 4) Prāṇāyāma, control of breath, is to restrain inhaling and exhal- Footnotes 1 10 orisms distributed amongst four chapters (pāda): which we think, desire, decide and conduct such cognitive tasks. Phys- ing. Patañjali does not describe in detail the various types of āsana and 1 (Patañjali, Th e Yoga Sutras of Patañjali xiii) 10 (Yogasūtra 2.49) (112) Th e fi rst chapter, titled Samādhipāda, defi nes yoga, samādhi and other ical and mental discomforts, such as stress, anxiety and illness, which prāṇāyāma in his Yogasūtras, but instead places greater emphasis on 2 (Bhagavadgītā 5.4) (Vyāsa 94) 11 (Yogasūtra 2.54) (116) 3 (Yogasūtra 1.2) (Patañjali, 12 (Yogasūtra 3.1) (118) relevant terms. The second chapter, called Sādhanāpāda, focuses on we experience in our everyday lives, are the consequences of the chitta’s other yogic endeavors. 13 11 Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi 4) (Yogasūtra 3.2) (119) the practice of yoga. Chapter three, named Vibhūtipāda, narrates the (mind’s) unsteadiness. Yoga explains that the puruṣa acts, enjoys and 5) Pratyahāra is the withdrawal of the senses from the outer world. 4 (Bhagavadgītā 6.34) (Vyāsa 114) 14 (Yogasūtra 3.3) (119) various fruits of yogic endeavor, while the fi nal chapter, Kaivalyapāda, suff ers through the functions of this chitta. Th ese functions create latent 6) Dhāraṇā, concentration, consists of binding the chitta to a particu- 5 (Yogasūtra 1.6) (Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi 10) 15 (Yogasūtra 3.7) (121) 12 6 (Yogasūtra 2.3) (59) 16 (Yogasūtra 1.13-4) (17–8) describes liberation and the means for its attainment. inclinations which, in turn, give rise to others; in this way the cycle of lar location or subject. 7 (Yogasūtra 2.30) (102) 17 (Yogasūtra 1.24) (25–6) Patañjali’s Yogasūtras were followed by the creation of significant saṃsāra revolves. 7) Dhyāna, meditation, is the uninterrupted stream of concentration 8 (Yogasūtra 2.32) (104) 18 (Yogasūtra 1.23) (25) expository texts on the philosophical and theological tenants of the Th e practice of yoga is the act of establishing control over the chitta. on the object of dhāraṇā.13 9 (Yogasūtra 2.46) (110) 19 (Svāminārāyaṇa 375)

42 hinduism today april/may/june, october/november/december, 2011 2016 october/november/december,january/february/march,april/may/june, 20162011 hinduism today 43 NYĀYA DARŚANA: ānvīkṣikī-vidyā Nyāyavārtika Nyāyavārtikatātparyaṭīkā darśana’s Nyāya Darśana. means of knowledge merates sixteencategories knowledge whose isemphasized for under- doubt clusion elaborations on many of hismetaphysical and epistemological princi- ples. Among commentaries these and expositions, Vātsyāyana’s exten- is alternatively calledAkṣapāda Darśana. Th ters, resulted inthesystematic representation of theprinciples of the lowers are aptly identified as nature and source of knowledge and its validity identifies it asalso standing theworld and attaining liberation. He liststhemas:1)valid sive commentary on the 44 Aft Rishi Gautama known is also asAkṣapāda, hencetheNyaya Darśana Sixteen Categories Known: to be Nyāya Darśana isknown for its precise descriptions, def- meticulous creation of the initions and systematization of reasoned thought. RishiGautama’s f you like reasoning, you willenjoy reading the er Gautama, followers these of theNyāya tradition gave extensive idimtdy october/november/december, 2016 hinduism today hinduism today april/may/june, 2011 (śaṃśaya), (siddhānta), great emphasis on and logic reasoning , Jayanta Bhaṭṭa’s , meaning “the study of investigation.” Th 4)purpose Nyāyasūtras 7) parts of 7)parts an argument (pramāṇa), are distinguished. Nyāyasūtras (), , Nyāyamañjarī tārkikas 1 2) objects of 2)objects knowledge an aphoristic textspanning fi chap-ve Gautama, inhis , Udyotakara’s creation of the or or 5)example e naiyāyikas naiyāyikas (avayava) darśana’s and Vāchaspatimiśra’s (tarka THE SCHOOL OF THESCHOOL LOGIC (dṛṣṭānta), Nyāya śāstra Nyāyasūtras, ). , 8)hypothetical because of the analysis of the e school’s e fol- (prameya), 6) con- . Th enu- 3) 3) e (atyantābhāva) discussion quacies of argument cating and even evaluating the emphasizing acontemplation of entities, places also great signifi cance objection by of theuse similarity and distinction of argumentation, of thefallacy arguments of and thecharacteristics on thenature and of methods reasoning and dialogue.Th of, for example, apot, prior non-existence is thenon-existence of the pot before it wascreated. Posterior non-existence isits non-existence pendent isparticularly interesting. object Both reasoning lacious reason terior non-existence identity between two things, suchasthe pot and, for instance, apiece of andtimes at allplaces; and mutual non-existence istherejection of the non-existence asfour prior types: non-existence aft formal debates. Th and Vaiśeṣika’s also acceptance of non-existence sound arguments provide for tools thenecessary understanding, expli- becomes even more evident inits extensive expositions on conducting er it isdestroyed. non-existence isits non-existence inall Th From t From e Existence of eExistence Non-Existence: his categorization, it becomes clear that Nyāya, inaddition to (tarka) (vāda) (hetvābhāsa) and mutual non-existence e , 11)wrangling , 9)doubtless settlement darśana’s (nigrahasthāna) (pradvaṃsābhāva) , 14) the use of, 14)theuse equivocation elaborations on knowledge, theprocess darśanic (jalpa),

. Can non-existence exist?Nyāya’s 2

dialogue. 12)caviling (nirṇaya) (anyonyābhāva) , absolute non-existence () darśanas (abhāva) (prāgabhāva) , 10)constructive (vitanḍā) and 16)inade- is emphasis (chala) categorize asan inde- . 3 In terms , 13)fal- , pos- , 15) Th (parārtha) Mīmāṃsakas and Vedāntins later accepted it assuch. , sincethere issmoke on it, like inakitchen,” theknowledge emphasizes systemby aparticular arguments which are presented. tobe edge ispreceded which by perception.” Inference of istheact establish- ences: those thatences: those are for oneself of fi re that exists on the mountain isestablished indirectly throughsee- of contemplation Nyāya ininference performed israrely inany seen of have criticized ing smoke. Th reasonably. Th ing through reason. For instance, intheinference: “Th the other specifi issystemhelps toeff • an example ininference used • by established it which istobe established• what istobe • reason • thesis • where it established istobe • illustration • comparison Th Five Steps of Establishment: From SmoketoFire: eNyāya Darśana inference uses inthisway toacquire knowledge. reason c types ofc types propositions forth intheproceeding order: (pratijñā): . When inference isintentioned for convincing others, Nyāya darśana (hetu): efollowing major components make up thisinference: epresented argument takes theform of thefollowing fi (udāharaṇa): (): upamāna thereason by thestatement which isestablished . Gautama defines thestatement that examined istobe ortlessly direct themindof thelistenertothink Ofthefour means of knowledge, theamount asadistinct (sādhya): an example applicable tothestatement and

application of thefi pieter weltevrede Th Maharṣi Gautama sits under the sacred gavaya categories to beknown for attaining liberation. shines asymbolic , whose rays represent the 16 upamāna-pramāṇa who hasnever a who seen talis früher) talis tree (Saraca indica) with disciples in front of philosophical topics with an opponent and has has and opponent an with topics philosophical pramāṇa (pakṣa): dent others object, have it rejected and cloth. edge: perception comparison creature that looks like acow but isnot, edge about something by its similarity comparison isnoteworthy. off his followers listening and learning. In the sky thatchedhis forest he recalls thestatement of theforester the following example. Suppose aman inference informed by aforester that a to something else. these, the these, accepts four means for acquiring knowl- accepting non-existence asan indepen- and comes toknow that it is a similar toacow. When heencounters a bal testimony Nyāya two of distinguishes types infer- emeans by theknowledge which of a (svārtha) (udāharaṇa): Although many other ered substantial arguments against it. Epistemology: (hetu): 4 i.e.,fi Although some have followed by isobtained iscalled inthiscase inference i.e.,on themountain istheability toobtain knowl- i.e.,smoke

means of knowledge, some and that those are for others re (anumāna-pramāṇa) darśana’s , 7 (upamāna-pramāṇa) upon entering aforest, is i.e.,akitchen (śabda-pramāṇa)

(anumāna) rst three elements TheNyāya Darśana (pratyakṣa-pramāṇa) kutir . 6 It by isdescribed ere isfi introduction of gavaya (Bos fron- . He debating is deep as“knowl- Upamāna- darśanas re on that that on re gavaya gavaya coe/oebrdcme,21 hinduismtoday october/november/december, 2016 , ver- and . 5 Of ve ve is january/february/march, 2011hinduism today . ,

( To establish theexistenceof Īśvara,theNyāya Darśana presents agreat Nyāyasūtras, Śiromaṇi’s darśanic Darśana that its investigations focused predominantly on thenature of dition. Well-known commentaries on his work include Raghunātha eral justifi expression, theNyāya Darśana gift expositions of the cation, Nyāya Darśana’s exposition on inference, its commentaries and ods ofods characterization, and and fostering structuralizing both inter- of faith inVedic principles with an adeptness instrong reasoning. of thefamous presenting and defending theirown principles. Th andpassed debates arose with other lowed by theendof activity ( its fruits, it is necessary toacceptits it theexistenceof fruits, isnecessary an omniscient Īśvara. the inter-darśanic dialogue. tion isthepermanent cessation of of alltypes misery. this way, rational formulations, but conducting also and evaluating dialogues.As in thedevelopment of arobust for not only constructing rance ( inent tenth-century scholar of Nyāya, principle discusses arguments independent texts on of each of inference the aspects are not only well number of diff knowledge, its analysis and means of acquisition and systematization of never leading finally, occurs; toeverlasting freedom from misery argues that inorder tounderstand therelationship between accepts Īśvaraasomniscient, fl awless and thecause of the world. He achievements. a consequence, Neo-Nyāya It took birth. wasanewform of the Nyāya a sequence by liberation which isattained. He explains that fi rst igno- against theexistenceof Īśvara,refutes themand, inreturn, presents sev- studied, but explicated also intextsproduced by scholars even today. Works Cited 4 1 Footnotes Bhaṭṭa, Annam. Basu, B. D., andGautama, eds. 3 2 5 duḥkha) Nyāya Sūtras of Gotama. Candra Vidyābhuṣaṇa. : Bhūvaneśvara Āśrama, 1913. Print. Among thescholars of Neo-Nyāya, Gaṅgeśa Upādhyāya, theauthor Th By utilizing reasoning for providing theright purposes, precise meth- Īśvara: Birth of Neo-Nyāya: (Nyāyasūtra and Gautama 1.1.3)(Basu 2) (Bhaṭṭa 76–8) (Bhaṭṭa 5) (Nyāyasūtra and Gautama 1.1.1)(Basu 1) (Fowler vii,33,129) ePermanent Cessation of Misery: april/may/june, 2011 hinduismtoday ajñāna) and intra- mountain ison fi clusion isthecomparison; and theconfirmation that “The tration; theapplication of theabove three toestablish thecon- there issmoke” isthereason; “Like inakitchen” istheillus- as follows: “Th statement . cations for theexistenceof Īśvarainhis Naiyāyikas Nyāya isarational defender of .Within Gautama’s 9 Here, liberation isnot about but achieving, rather releasing. Dīdhiti • conclusion Th Because of analysisBecause suchparticular and its universal appli- einference given above can expressed be inthissequence we find clear we references find totheexistenceof Īśvara.He

erent arguments. For instance, Udayanāchārya, a Tarkasaṃgraha. isdestroyed. Th Tattvachintāmani and Mathurānātha’s darśana’s darśanic Trans. Satiśa (followers of Nyāya of (followers at mountain ison fi re” isthethesis; “Because Theearly scholars of Nyāya emphasized the (nigamana): re” isthe conclusion. :

Th e philosophical principles. However, astime dialogue,without tainting thefreedom of pravṛtti) ereaft , wasa ed theworld with many intellectual er, faults ( Fowler, Jeaneane. 9 7 6 8 darśanas . Because of. Because this, ( confirmation of theexamined Māthurī Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Chowkhambha, 2009.Print. Academic Press, 2002.Print. (Nyāyasūtra 1.1.2) (2) (Nyāyasūtra and Gautama 1.1.22)(Basu 7) Agavaya of species ox. isaparticular (Nyāyasūtra 1.1.6)(3) ) In theNyāya Darśana, libera- prominent founder of thetra- are an example of asynthesis doṣa) , eachbecame skilledat . iseventually resulted Nyāyakusumāñjali 8 are eliminated, fol-

Perspectives of : An Gautama presents karma janma) prom- 45 45 and and . In

VAIŚEṢIKA DARŚANA: Vaiśeṣikasūtras, Th dharma saṅgraha, He explains that isrecognized theschool asVaiśeṣika because it off uity, RishiKaṇāda presented theirsystematic formulation inthe elemental of substances. As aresult, it isnot an oversight tostate that ples on taking theform of a larity thoughts on thesubatomic are not exclusive Ever science. tomodern tion astheresult of theirseparation. In thislight, the Vaiśeṣika Darśana them, Praśastapāda isnoteworthy for hiscreation of the ters. Th narration of anticipated world’s themodern understanding of reality. as theconsequence of coming particles together and defi neddestruc- a path from theatom toits subatomic Th parts. since antiquity theIndian mindhasventured into therealm of atoms. 46 eVaiśeṣika Darśana stands asatestament of thisjourney. Sages trod Although this Th This form waslater molded by many followed. who Among eVaiśeṣika Darśana’s name originates from its notion of particu- idimtdy october/november/december, 2016 hinduism today hinduism today april/may/june, 2011 he investigating themostextensive and exploring also themost the astronomical tothesubatomic and at from other times the subtle tothecosmological. Th (viśeṣa) ecreation of thistexteventually resulted intheVaiśeṣika princi- darśanas viśeṣa . Udayanāchārya presents inhis an etymology a textcontaining 370aphorisms spread over ten chap- of India are toconcentrate seen theirattention from darśana’s or distinct entities. or distinct an expository textthatan expository later inspired thecreation darśana principles backtoantiq- can traced be eyhave touched on both spectrums: . ey described creation Kiraṇāvalī THE SCHOOL OF THESCHOOL PARTICULARITY Padārtha- ers a . Vaiśeṣika into one comprehensive Vallabhāchārya) () Nyāyakandalī dharma dharma Bhaṭṭa, thecreator of Pañchānana, theauthor of much later attempts were madeby also many, including Viśvanātha of theentities of theworld, an investigation of of many extensive commentaries. Otherworks including, Śrīdhara’s partitioning theworld into sixdiff prosperity and liberation. the following way: larity inantly dedicated toexplicating and establishing Vai śeṣika’s principles, to theVaiśeṣika, the than tocomprehend thenature of entities. these It that, isinthissense is toinvestigate answers that one must guidance seek of the are well also known inthe from of thebeginning his Th Darśanic Defi Darśanic eWorld of Six: (viśeṣa) . asnot any faith particular system,but rather themeans to , quality 3 Th eaphorisms suggest that sincethe and inherence , Udayanāchārya’s nition of Vedic Dharma: (guṇa) dharma Nyāyalīlāvatī Kaṇāda commenced an investigation of dhārmika Tarkasaṃgraha , action . 2 1 Vaiśeṣikasūtras How is Theaphorisms thencontinue by defining darśana (samavāya) Nyāyasiddhāntamuktāvalī are understood to be “the are tobe understood learned.” and Vyomaśivāchārya’s (karma) Kiraṇāvalī erent entities darśana dharma . Although textswere these predom- , toconsolidate both Nyāya and . He themin thencharacterized , generality that of thepurpose Vaiśeṣika . Kaṇāda makes clear it very to be attained? tobe Th , Śrīvatsa’s known (also as Vedas dharma Vedas (padārthas): (sāmānya) inorder torealize explain thenature isnothing other Vyomavatīṭīkā , and Annaṃ e 4 dharma substance substance , particu- darśana by by

darśanas est substance that divided. Th cannot further be creation occur. Th object andobject its known isalso parts as one of themore notable contributions of both theVaiśeṣika and Nyāya particles based on based anparticles inference division from theexperienced of vis- indivisible, something aslarge asamountain would become thesame ible Followers objects. of Vaiśeṣika argued that although can objects lution of theworld, and subsequently thenature of tence cannot without be theother. Th nitely smallsubstances, natures, it isdiffi guishes. In Vaiśeṣika, it one todistinguish isused particle and mustard would seed equally be madeof an infi nite number infiof - accepting indivisibility, of infi afallacy and sweetness isone of a result, theyconcluded, there must alimit substance can be towhich from another. another. from substance isdependent on thesizeof its and parts both themountain size asamustard Th seed. be divided intobe there parts, must alimit suchdivision be towhich can be divided. Based on divided. thisconclusion,be Based theyargued that can the particle Vaiśeṣika reasoned also that, without acknowledging as theparticle Vaiśeṣika offers that, without understanding sixand these their Inherence Divided to theUndivided:Divided ey identifi (paramāṇukāraṇavāda) wastheirnotion of atoms or asbuilding particles blocks of istherelationship between two entities, one exis- of whose cult tocomprehend thecreation, sustenance and disso- ed thislimit with theparticle samavāya 8 theywould both become identical insize.As eyreasoned that sincethesizeof acreated

pieter weltevrede In addition totheabove categorization, Mahākāla, great time, reigns just above him. (dik) (Nyctanthes arbortritis) tree, with his texts () fi Sage Kaṇāda sits beneath the sacred ocean behind and cosmic bodies in the sky above. on and . His school understanding nature is indicated by the wide wide the by indicated nature is understanding water For instance, there are many ; particles swirling around him. His stress on postulates nine , symbolized by the nine ether call, humanness that identifi esthemas humans. This humanness isan exam- humanness. ple ofit sin- isbelieved generality; tobe types oftypes qualities including color, taste, takes place. direction movementticular inwhich resides insubstance. It isdivided into nine such substances: earth nine suchsubstances: earth gular, sincethere are not two of types and separateness. and reside. action Vaiśeṣika quantifies smell, touch, number, measurement stance. Th stance. but eachhasthesame, what one would ve types, each of which describes apar-ve eachof describes types, which Action Generality Quality Particularity . Th Substance . Th erelationship between cane syrup eydemonstrated the existenceof samavāya , the self , theself e type of etype relationship between an nite regression would arise. (ākāśa) (āpa) . 5

ismovement. Th ere are twenty-four diff isthat resides which insub- 7

, fire stands for property. generic isthat qualities inwhich , time , time . eyargued, that without (ātman) isthat distin- which 6 (paramāṇu)

(tejas) dharma (kāla) and themind , wind is movement . (paramāṇu) , direction : thesmall- (pṛthivī) (vāyu) coe/oebrdcme,21 hinduismtoday october/november/december, 2016 erent january/february/march, 2011hinduism today , ,

Vaiśeṣika Th (duḥkha). (the self) and Paramātman. Although(the self) both are considered Works Cited Nyāyasiddhāntamuktāvalī darśana jīvātman verbal testimony which it experiences, among itwhich experiences, other things, pleasure writer. Similarly, comparison 4 1 Nyāya’s, thetwo are greatly comparable and complementary. Hence Footnotes pramāṇa) diff dent on an inference or of authority thetruthfulness of its speaker or eternal. Because of and Because these othereternal. diff just theopposite. According toit, an eff Bhaṭṭa, Annam. Basu, Major B. D., ed. 3 in its cause, but rather isnewly created. Apot created from clay didnot resides inan unmanifest form inits material cause. lier, theSāṅkhya Darśana believed in in both theNaiyāyika and Vaiśeṣika’s acceptance of tial cause.tial Unlike the instigate its movement. first Vaiśeṣika offers Paramātman asthisini- themselves inactive. As aresult, an independent cause isrequired to inference, of thespoken sincethetruthfulness or written word isdepen- incorporated inverbal testimony or inference. later scholars have categorized these knowledge: perception ness already existintheclay, but from theclay. isdistinct are many ated substance. For example, aclay when pot iscreated, anewsubstance, ated substance iscan an 2 sive stance isnot just acollection of but particles, an altogether newly cre- sion belief thatbelief acreated substance didnot previously exist.As we saw ear- believes the bined theirteachings incollective texts,suchas isParamātman isomniscient, and hisknowledge isconsidered tobe Allahabad: Bhuvaneśvarī Āśrama, 1923.Print. of Kaṇāda. of (Vaiśeṣikasūtra 1.1.4)(Bhaṭṭa 2) (Vaiśeṣikasūtra 1.1.3)(6) (Vaiśeṣikasūtra 1.1.2)(5) (Vaiśeṣikasūtra Th 1.1.1)(Basu, Although Vaiśeṣika’s principles are tosome extent different from Vaiśeṣika creation describes from elemental which particles, Th Two-Fold Ātman: Epistemology Sūtra of Kaṇāda 3) erent from thecollection of its iscreated. particles, Th eCreated Never Before: Existed () (saṃskāra) (dharma) april/may/june, 2011 hinduismtoday (jala) particles comeparticles together tocreate substances, thecreated sub- ticle iseternal. ticle the indivisibility of concluded an theyalso particle, that thepar- tifi es four substances ashaving earth particles: neither created be nor destroyed. Creation of and a destruction nite number of and suchparticles that theycome together tocre- ate we theobjects perceive. It emphasizes also that these when substance, theyclaimed, requires it divisible. tobe Th off are recognized asdistinct. Trans. Nandalal Sinha. Second. jīvātman jīvātman Particles, theBuilding Blocks: Desire . Although, both assimilar theydefine totheNaiyāyikas, jīvātman, ers many diff and theknower. Here, , light ātman

Tarkasaṃgraha. , unrighteousness are qualities allbelieved tobe of also this :

Unlike Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika categorizes only two means of (icchā) (śabda-pramāṇa)

Th is also notis also all-knowing; nor isits knowledge eternal. (tejas) eVaiśeṣika Sūtra to be asubstance that tobe many, iseternal, all-perva- each of isjoined mindby with which adistinct Similar toNyāya, theVaiśeṣika Darśana also jīvātman (pratyakṣa-pramāṇa) erences between thetwo. It believes that there , aversion e Vaiśeṣika avayavin— and wind Varanasi: . (upamāna-pramāṇa) , there only isalso one Paramātman (adharma) () that hasparts. which is understood to be subsumedin tobe isunderstood ātman (vāyu) darśanas Th Bhaṭṭācārya, Viśvanāthapañcānana.Bhaṭṭācārya, 5 7 6 8 ect does not does resideect inany form e signifi Nyāyasiddhāntamuktāvalī. Caukhambā Surabhāratī. Print. Chowkhambha, 2009.Print. satkāryavāda erences, Paramātman and the (Bhaṭṭācārya 129) (Vaiśeṣikasūtra 1.1.7)(19) (Vaiśeṣikasūtra 1.1.6)(18) (Vaiśeṣikasūtra Th 1.1.5)(Basu, Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda 17) Like Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika iden- , eff refers toboth the . It believes there are an infi - and thefaculty of impres- and inference ort ort assimilar and oft

cance of lies thisbelief () Tarka saṃgraha () asatkāryavāda isbelieved tobe : that the created Asatkāryavāda Asatkāryavāda (pṛthivī) jīvātman isnewly cre- Varanasi: and misery and misery ātman , righteous- (anumāna- us, from jīvātman e en com- , water . Th 47 and and 47 , the : the : the

are

e is .

Vedas, PŪRVAMĪMĀṂSĀ DARŚANA: Jaiminī tookit upon himself tosystematically shape theMīmāṃsā Darśana bycreating the visible and invisible, and theexternal internal, and from theindividual shads. Pūrvamīmāṃsā (Mīmāṃsā) and Uttaramīmāṃsā (Vedānta). Hinduism. Without theirauthority, Hindu traditions could nolon- meaning “prior,” indicates aconcern with theearlier portions of the divided into sixtysections, thetext considers roughly a thousand diff ent topics, making it thelargest collection of philosophical aphorisms of establish its clarity and demonstrate theauthenticity of Vedic thought. rituals. tions on topics tointerpretation pertaining and performance of Vedic the to theinfi nite. Th lectual wealth, fi ger survive. Criticismsger of survive. theVeda instigated theneedtomethodically as ancient asthe 48 Unlike theaphoristic textsof theprevious Mīmāṃsāsūtras, aText of Vedic Rituals: ṣaḍdarśana idimtdy october/november/december, 2016 hinduism today hinduism today april/may/june, 2011 Th whereas isthelastpair of the Vedic or “.” Refl is ection at theheart of India’s ancient intel- tionship with the lthough theprevious now commence astudy of two that schools have direct rela- . Th guring prominently in the the in prominently guring uttara, isconstant gave inquiry totwo birth Vedic Vedas etextprincipally occupies itself inproviding exposi- or “later,” refers tothelater portion, the themselves. Th Mīmāṃsāsūtras Vedas darśanas . Mīmāṃsā e ṣaḍdarśana . Spanning twelve chapters and Vedas are rooted inthe Vedas Th off means “deep reflection” e er an inquiry intoer an inquiry the . As such,refl is ection darśanas, . Vedas are thesoul of the Vedas darśanas: Pūr va- Pūr Upani- Purva, , we er-

Vāchaspati Miśra and Pārthasārathi Miśra are well known for theircon- Mīmāṃsāsūtras: Bhaṭṭa’s Bhāṭṭamata, Prabhākara Miśra’s Gurumata, and Murāri Miśra’s īās sūtras mīmāṃsā Murārīmata. three, Ofthese much of thework that followed focused was later divided into three major of schools thought: Kumārila understanding the dent texts,but on based the emphasis on verbal testimony on theexpositions of Kumārila and Gurumata. Maṇḍana Miśra, of Mīmāṃsā’s epistemic investigations. Therefore, despite enumerat- of texts;and these without abasicunderstanding of aphorisms, these it tributions undertheKumārila Śālikanātha, while school; Bhavanātha is nearly impossible tocomprehend the ing six distinct meansing sixdistinct of knowledge, theMīmāṃsā Darśana places great interpretation. Th it defi nes ristic textsand the ristic nature of of nature and Nandīśvara were leading contributors totheteachings of Gurumata. and establishes it inthewords of the A Universal Hermeneutical Theory: In thisVedic characterizing Darśanic Developments:Darśanic THE SCHOOL OFTHE SCHOOL VEDIC RITUALS dharma dharma (aswell asthe “Now commences an investigation of einterpretation of Vedic ispresented inthedeclaration at of thebeginning the asVedic directive. Vedas Vedas are dependent upon one another. , one cannot come toterms with theaphorisms śrutis (śabda-pramāṇa). Mīmāṃsā’s desire tounderstand the Uttaramīmāṃsā sūtras) dharma of the Vedas 2 Mīmāṃsā investigates its cause Vedas , thePūrvamīmāṃsā Darśana is thestudy of Vedas . 4 śrutis . Th . In thisway, apho- these erefore, without some is the primary focus focus istheprimary are not indepen- dharma .” 1 Here, Here, 3

Vedic interpretations becoming more robust. of Because this,even other darśanas with the individual and allof creation, iscontemplated. Mīmāṃsā utilized these methods for methods utilized these interpreting theirown respective texts. uniquely enjoins rights and of duty action. aspects astwo necessary questions have continued us.Th tobewilder external world,external the of oppose who the those off philosophical justifi infallible, and its words aseternal. to come toterms with its notion of identifi to know what we should doand how and we when should Th act. ( lective action the Vedic criticismsthese and establish the as the a means for satisfying our inquiry. In this ble tolive without Life action. itself isnothing but asynonym for col- A School of Refl A School ering suchresponses,ering refute theyalso inconsistencies theseeming of Th Th Because ofBecause Mīmāṃsā’s emphasis on ritualism, not only isthis Fundamental Principles: In addition, Mīmāṃsā off e e particularity and eparticularity practicality of thissystemresulted inMīmāṃsā’s and Karmasūtras darśana ed asKarma-Mīmāṃsā, but its aphoristic referred textisalso to that didnot accept thephilosophical principles of Mīmāṃsā śrutis presents thefollowing fi karma , harmonize themwith one another, and ultimately off ection onection Action (Karma-Mīmāṃsā): (theheavenly and hellish realms) and liberation. cations for of thebeliefs its underlying ritualism. . To understand Mīmāṃsā’s ritualism, it isnecessary ātman ). Hence, throughout theages, we have yearned Vedas and ers the

Mīmāṃsā believes inthereality of the pieter weltevrede (arthavāda): (4) Uniqueness Here, the Sage Jaiminī scribes onto apalm leaf his yājñikas , , fruits, ghee, incense and school’s principles on and . the -like tree to bless and observe. the . Th their ritual has the power to move the forces of fl patti): ment discussion. (5) Fruit (5) Fruit discussion. developed many robust norms to etition of thetopic throughout thetext. or purpose of the topic. (6) Eulogy or of purpose thetopic. (6) Eulogy preting Vedic presentation of thistopic at theendof the following (1) Commence- criteria: tation. Among others, theypresented the principle topic of at discussion the the text.(3) Reiteration to encourage. (7) Demonstration through various arguments. guide and evaluate of theact interpre- need for developing an appropri- ate of method interpretation. As the and henceuniquely found inthepresent ation. (2) Conclusion fruits offruits much investigation, Mīmāṃsā beginning ofbeginning thetextunderconsider- being unknownbeing by some other source, , proponents of the owers. Enhanced by the decorated zebu cow, karma Vedas Mīmāṃsā’s on focus inter- primary 5 Having explicitly stated theposition karma Vedas (upakrama): ve diff establishment of themain topic as both eternal and asboth eternal infallible. In conduct a . It accepts also , yājmana darśana . to be of tobe supreme authority, eMīmāṃsā Darśana off praise or intended criticism erent of types e śrutis (apurvatā): devas couple, the , thepresentation of karma darśana generated agreat (): (upasaṃhāra): have gathered within with off (abhyāsa): , asit isjoined It isimpossi- thetopic as karma respond to purohitā theintent erings of darśana coe/oebrdcme,21 hinduismtoday october/november/december, 2016 : (upa- ese ese ers ers rep- the the er er and and january/february/march, 2011hinduism today Works Cited darśana apūrva mas who offwho 1 karma): tika Footnotes unsupported authority. detail by Mīmāṃsā. Placing estal of inquiry and of reflestal inquiry is ection one themostnotableof contributions cumstances, by whom and for whom theyare performed; what tobe explicitly theintent describe with theyare which performed; the tobe of Mīmāṃsā. other austerities are considered expiatory actions. of of Basu, B. D., ed. harbors great faith inVedic performances that constitute it. Thedetails of ritual these 3 liberation and eventual identifi cation with to come inthepresent tofruition life. (3)Present Action ( (1)Accumulatedtypes: Actions the fruits of completion.the fruits successful Allof are ingreat these described in theascription of fruits. to be fulfito be lled only with completion thesuccessful of themanyritual to bear aft bear to the completion of toexist,yet itself ceases an its theact come act, fruits to as connection and between action itsthe necessary It fruits. referred isalso reason, it not does represent a blind on dependence unexamined and in the narrations, Mīmāṃsā off gives great signifi cance to among the actions of one’s previous lives. (2)Ripened Actions austerities are by undertaken enjoined tobe those inthesacrifi ce; and fruits; and throughfruits; reason and it logic establishes theclaims of that very fruits with needstoexist.Mīmāṃsā action fruits pastceased conceives of 2 specifi same faith. Hence, although Mīmāṃsā may not solely upon depend signifi such Āyadevaand Laugākṣibhāskara, emphasize that these when Jaiminī (Mīmāṃsāsūtra 1.1.3)(1) (Mīmāṃsāsūtra 1.1.2)(1) (Mīmāṃsāsūtra 1.1.1)(B. D. 1) Basu Apūrva, a Necessary Connection: Apūrva, aNecessary Th Yajña, anAct of Sacrifi To theMīmāṃsaka, thesignifi Mīmāṃsā accepts the yajña ese ese Vedic are off are adṛṣṭha cance appears toresemble thenarration of (niṣiddhakarma): (3) Optional Actions(3) Optional c order its inwhich constituent rituals are what performed; tobe cific Occasionscific the effect ofthe effect prohibited performed actions. those performed at performed those rites birth, of passage, and other periodically.to perform Th atory Actions Actions atory and thefire ritual for thefulfi lment someof desire; for instance, the sacrifiperformed ce for obtaining achild.(4) Prohibited Actions Bhagavadgītā april/may/june, 2011 hinduismtoday . Trans. Mohan Sandal. Vol. Lal 1. asfulfi ers the fruits ofers thefruits of isthesubject action, great debate within the theactions that one isundergoing at thepresent moment. (1) Obligatory Actions(1) Obligatory . Many later Mīmāṃsakas acknowledge intervention atheistic are recited; tobe at what location, time, and underwhat cir- , each described ingreat , eachdescribed detail. These er some time; hence,someer some association time; that conjoins future ered toParamātman theyresult inliberation. In one way, this karmas sañchita-karma , or “that isunseen.” which Th

Th lling thisneed.Whether it is eMīmāmasā Sūtras of are alternatively also divided into thefollowing three benefi . (prāyaśchittakarma): actions, suchastheft t inattaining liberation. Th (naimittikakarma): ce: ers narration on anumber of diff (agnihotra) Vedas yajña, yajña, , those actions whose results actions whose , those are destined dharma Among diff these dhārmika (kāmyakarma): (nityakarma): cance of to be supremely tobe authoritative. It also ese include ese bathing, the act of sacrifi act the Based ce. on Vedic (sañcita-karma): Th and theprinciple of . 4 5 eMīmāṃsā concept of

actions suchas Allahabad: Sudhindre 1923. Basu, (2) Obligatory Actions(2) Obligatory for Spe- Print. (Mīmāṃsāsūtra 1.1.6-23)(3–6) (Mīmāṃsāsūtra 1.1.4)(2) eMīmāṃsaka reasons that at actions undertaken toreduce actions undertaken karma apūrva Th and (5) Expi- other crimes. dharma eSacred Books of the XXVII. those actions those performed These actions include These erent those actions those that one is liesits association with yajña karmayoga itself or Paramātman elater Mīmāṃsakas, (prārabdha-karma): Chāndrāyaṇa karmas . theaccumulated Nitya sandhyāvandanā yajña are considered putreṣṭiyāga, karma erent types and , Mīmāṃsā on theped- kriyamāṇa- saṃskāras presented presented apūrva and its its and naimit- 49 49 and and kar- is is a . ,

VEDĀNTA DARŚANA: Vedānta Vedānta asa Āraṇyaka 50 Bādarāyaṇa Vyāsa. His creation of the ual expositions, Vedānta’s establishes principles,” and edge of the on theteachings of the of the pound constructed from joining in its to astheendpart of the the this text,Vyāsa referred isalso to asthe the the also meansalso “concluding .” a systematic representation of its teachings isattributed toMaharṣi Although theprinciples of Vedānta originate from Vedic literature, Prasthānatrayī, aTrinity of Texts: darśana Vedas darśana idimtdy october/november/december, 2016 hinduism today hinduism today april/may/june, 2011 Upaniṣads. darśana he Vedānta Darśana known (also asUttaramīmāṃsā) isone of the of school practiced most the currently and prominent most the Vedas. also refers also tothe ṣaḍdarśana. and the . Each Veda. Each hasthefollowing four parts: Upaniṣads: . Just astheMīmāṃsā’s aphoristic on textisbased Vedic rit- based theirrespective based on theexpositions of Th darśana inthefollowing three ways: (1) ename of the Hence, Upaniṣad. of Vedic philosophy. Since other Th theend . e title Vedānta Brahmasūtras, Vedas Brahmasūtras trayī Among the these, darśana (anta) Vedānta . Hence, Veda indicates “the quantity three.” Th also refers also totheconcluding essence

Th e essence of eessence the (3) When asa understood of the with Prasthāna indicates that its principles rest appropriately this characterizes ādi-āchārya the primary aphoristicthe primary textof Vedānta are on based the anta Brahmasūtras Vedas Vedānta . Th Upaniṣads means “a . (2) In addition, e term refers totheknowl- Saṃhitā, Brāhmaṇa,Saṃhitā, of Vedānta. Vedas isaSanskrit com- āchāryas established Veda are referred isincluded THE SCHOOLOFBRAHMAVIDYĀ Upaniṣads. śāstra darśana, refers to to refers within that anta ere

chapter, through analysis, logical elaborates themeaning of the partitioned into four chapters into four sections in which in which ing topics: Ascription (1) Meaning appear. In doing Brahman it as,among so describes other things, the sustainer of all, all-pervasive, andsustainer of theall-doer. all,all-pervasive, (2) Refutation of Objec- śrutiprasthāna); Prasthānatrayī The Fruits of tarka, elaborates thevarious spiritual endeavors for attaining liberation. (4) Th eration, theliberated, theirdivine powers and thedivine abode. objections tothe mentioned nature of Brahman and refutes objec- those tions tions. (3) Description oftions. Endeavor (3) Description lish theprinciples of Vedānta, theyare collectively identified asthe identifi edasthe known asthe are three sacred textsheldasauthoritative by theVedānta Darśana: Of these, the Of these, Just astheMīmāṃsā aphoristic textwasidentifi Brahmasūtras, anInvestigation of Brahman: Upaniṣads, (Virodhapratikṣepa-adhyāya): or henceidentifi logic, Brahmavidyā ānandamaya . Vedāntasūtras). the Upaniṣads the smṛtiprasthāna; (pāda). Śrīmadbhagavadgītā Śrīmadbhagavadgītā ( , Phala-adhyāya): ākāśa Th are aform of echapters of on thetextfocus thefollow- ed as , Because these three these sacred Because textsestab- prāṇa (adhyāya) and the tarka-prasthāna. thesecond chapter various discusses (Sādhanā-adhyāya): (Samanvaya-adhyāya): , akṣara Th isaform of and the efi nalchapter lib- describes , with each further divided, with eachfurther Brahmasūtras śruti , dahara 1 Th , hencereferred toas ed asthe e Brahmasūtras Brahmasūtras smṛti , sat are aform of Thischapter Karmasūtras, and others 2 , and thus thefirst (also (also śrutis śrutis are are e

Although theNaiyāyikas accepted theauthority of verbal testimony, ātman ātman Brahmasūtras. within it. brahmavidyā man asthe creator of theworld. Th cause ( ence. It seems that thereason for this eff of theinstability and unpredictability of Vyāsa logic. himself clarifi es of Īśvara. In Vedānta, however, despite aware being of theNaiyāyikas’ in the they relied predominately on inference establishing when theexistence this abode, andthis abode, thesupreme entity, Paramātman, tion, realms it clearly establishes verbal testimony the scriptural word. Among thediff that it willdemonstrate the nature of this acknowledges theexistenceof an and eternal sentient age of these sion inthefi rst aphorism, thetextcontinues by describing that this emphasissees on verbal testimony even of inthebeginning the bound by orts, the Vedānta’s metaphysical elaborations present descriptions of the Th ePower of Words: 7 theliberated, from of thecycle and birth death. 4 Brahmasūtras nimittakāraṇa) asthe () karma, darśana ātman asthemeans for attaining never-ending liberation of this . It off also jīvātman Upon fi rst proclaiming Brahman asthetopic of discus- and asaresult endures rebirth. Th 8 emphasizes verbal testimony over that of pure infer- . In addition, it explains themeans for theirlibera- thedivine abode , “Because reasoning, “Because hasnosure basis…” of theworld, and asits all-doer. Vedānta also Th 5 ers adetailed narration of thecause of bond- and asthegovernors eVedānta Darśana recognizes thepower of

pieter weltevrede “That by “That which “Th “ Madhva, Rāmānanuja and Vallabāchārya. (left ( darśanas and philosophically distinct Vedānta schools: Sage Bādarāyaṇa sits in agrove of holy gathered the very fi very the seminal rudrāksha trees, Eleocarpus ganitrus, writing unlike theaphoristic textsof theother man isrooted inUpaniṣhadic reve- define define edge of Brahman edge of offers Brahman asthematerial cause here, at theoutset, the tigation on thenature of Brahman, is the term term lation. Among themeanings of the text’s into enquiry thenature of Brah- this the known astheistic. know Brahman.” also aptlyalso named the attained.” The as no surprise thatas nosurprise acalltoinvestigate Brahmavidyā upādānakāraṇa) upādānakāraṇa) erefore, now commences adesire to Fundamental Principles: Since the to right) Chaitanya, Śaṅkara, Niṃbārka, e nextaphorism explicitly declares erent accepted means of knowledge, Vedāntasūtras, Upaniṣads brahmavidyā rst aphorism of the 9 Upaniṣad, of theliberated, thepath prominence isits understanding brahmavidyā akṣara (śabda-pramāṇa)

, undoubtedly makes itself Brahman through Brahmasūtras. Brahmasūtras āchāryas isthat by theknowl- which and and Upaniṣads it isknown tomean brahmavidyā brahmavidyā 3 (īśvaras It notable isalso that by its dedicated inves- 11 puruṣa isexpressed inthe e smṛti who forever who resides and instrumental ) by clearly stating, Brahmasūtras. of some of the subsequent subsequent the of some of isknown and darśana texts,it comes Brahmasūtras, isobtained.” Brahmasūtras: ) ātman Behind him are are him Behind are on based 6 themselves of different different of as foremost. śāstra. Vedānta identifi 10 (knowl- toward that is coe/oebrdcme,21 hinduismtoday october/november/december, 2016 12

Brah-

One Th es es e january/february/march, 2011hinduism today

Advaita-darśana, Rāmānuja’s Viśiṣṭādvaita-darśana, Madhva’s Dvaita- śāstras: (the seer of(the seer reality). “To master (the form of Parabrahman). Works Cited Vyāsa, Veda. Vedavyāsa. Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad, Śvetāśvatara Darśana isof great even significance today. In thisway, Vedāntic saṃpradāyas world with aunique of school philosophy. with thetitle within theVedānta Darśana, theythemselves became identified Parabrahman.” Indian philosophical tradition, for it became customary these 4 13 12 11 10 1 Footnotes Svāminārāyaṇa’s Akṣarabrahma-Parabrahma-darśana must please himby bowing tohim Śāstrī, Jagadīśa, ed. describes sucha describes darśana, Chaitanyamahāprabhu’s Achintyabhedābheda-darśana, and darśana, Niṃbārka’s Dvaitādvaita-darśana, ’s Śuddhādvaita- obtain that knowledge one must surrender oneself, with off hermeneutics achieveshermeneutics completeness only by accepting the haps it isbecause of this hand, only tothat 3 9 ingful questionsingful later emerged from theteachings of to these threeto these texts.Although these the form of the interpretation of the the Akṣara-Puraṣottama-siddhānta). is nurtured school Each by aunique to have for sucha is Brahman, and steady inParabrahman.” need of a followers of Vedānta the identify 2 5 7 6 8 Goyandakā. Garakhapura: Gītā Press, 2009. Motīlāla Banārasīdāsa, 2006.Print. Print. Vedānta-Darśana. (Brahmasūtra 2.1.11)(108) (Brahmasūtra 1.4.1,1.4.6) (Brahmasūtra 4.3.1-5)(361–4)(78,84) (Brahmasūtra 1.4.1,1.4.6,4.3.3)(78,82,363) (Brahmasūtra 4.4.5-7) (373–4) (Brahmasūtra 3.3.14-24) (264–270) (Brahmasūtra 4.1.1-4.3.4)(336–363) (Brahmasūtra 2.3.18-40) (171–185) (Brahmasūtra 2.3.18) (171) (Brahmasūtra 1.1.1) (Vedavyāsa 1) principles of the By discussing, amongBy discussing, other things, Brahman asthecause of theworld, Sub-Darśanas of Vedānta: Smṛti Śruti “तिद्वज्ञानाथ Vedānta Darśana. Having established thesignifi cance of verbal gurudeva would incomplete. be It irrefutably states that it isnot possible to experience themeaningexperience of the ity of the testimony, Vedānta emphasizes also theimportance of ing thesignifi cance of the ofits interpretation). (theory hermeneutics Without understand- refers toVedic mantras. refers tothat recalls which the april/may/june, 2011 hinduismtoday “One should have thesame devotion for the Guru inVedānticGuru Hermeneutics: सग र्ं

guru Brahmasūtra.

ुरुम Śrīmadbhagavadgītā. े वाऽिभगच्छ toestablish theirphilosophical positions inrelation darśana śrutis tounderstand sacred texts,theVedānta Darśana gift 15 śrutis . To demonstrate this,Vedānta appeals totheauthor- ātman

Here it advises toviewthe Upaniṣatsaṅgraha. guru े (paripraśnena) त . guru सिमत्पािणःश्रोित्रय ् Ed.Harikṛṣṇadāsa guru Prasthānatrayī and asthe . Among them,themostnotable are Śaṅkara’s , liberation and its means, and theunavoidable who hasrealized of who theessence scriptures, who

Vedānta makes clear thesentiments one needs guru-śiṣya inorder meanings torealize of thetrue the smṛtis

ं ब्रह्मिनष्ठम From t From jñānin jñānin Many of schools Vedānta Delhi: Delhi: brahmavidyā, . Th guru guru ।” ् and serving him and serving e presented inextensive commentaries.

(disciple) tradition that theVedānta his, it seems only appropriate that (knowledgeable) and (praṇipātena) Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad Muṇḍaka śāstras as“Gurudeva” or “Guruhari.” Per- 16 15 14 Sadhu, Bhadreshdas. inVedānta, astudy of Vedānta Gorakhapura: Gītāpress, 2016.**Print. University Press, 2016.172–90.Print. Raymond Williams and Trivedi. Oxford Brahmajñāna asAkṣarabrahma-Parabrahma- Darśanam.” Swaminarayan Hinduism. Ed. (Sadhu 172-90) “यस्यद deve tathā gurau। tasyaite kathitā hyarthāḥ “तिद्विद्धप्रिणपात (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 17) 1.2.12)(Śāstrī (“tadvijñānārthaṃ sagurumevāऽbhigacchet samitpāṇiḥ śrotriyaṃ niṣṭham।”) उपद Upaniṣad) 141) (Śāstrī praṇipātena paripraśnena sevayā। upadekṣyanti prakāśante mahātmanaḥ॥”) (Śvetāśvatara प्रकाशन्त te jñānaṃ jñāninastattvadarśinaḥ॥” (Śrīmad - saṃpradāyas bhagavadgītā 4.34)(Vyāsa 89) Prasthānatrayī

े क्ष्यिन्त त Guru-kṛpā 13 े व without surrendering toa महात्मनः॥” (“yasya deve parā bhaktiryathā े Th guru े पराभिक्तय ”

ज्ञान े e the न पिरप्रश्न े ं ज्ञािननस्तत्त्वदिर्शनः॥” (“tadviddhi asNārāyaṇasvarūpa Śrīmadbhagavadgītā Gītā , asking himmean- र् था द (sevayā) guru istheheart of the 16 न स े े व continues, “one े तथाग “Swaminarayan’s are positioned (also known (also as े वया। (saṃpradāyas) asone hasfor explains, “To . Within the tattvadarśin ुरौ। तस्य .” erings erings in 14 guru By the the By ैत किथताह्यथा े guru s the 51 51 in .

ः र् YOGA Joined in yoga, the conquered mind of a yogi is like an unwavering fl ame: ever still in a place without wind. (Bhagavadgītā 6.19)

MĪMĀṂSĀ By dedicating oblation to Paramātman, the devas off er to Him. Th rough association with Paramātman, the devas off er worship to Paramātman.

art by amala chandrasekaran art by (Ṛgveda 1.164.50) NYĀYA Just as an unperceived fi re is inferred by perceived smoke, given the right reason, the unobserved becomes known. (Gautamasūtrabhāṣyam 2.1.46)

CLASSIC ANALOGIES OF THE SIX DARŚANAS SĀṄKHYA Creation spurs from the union of puruṣa and prakṛti. Together they move like the lame guiding the blind. (Sāṃkhyakārikā 21)

VEDĀNTA Th e guru is the bow, the Self is the arrow and Brahman is the target. (Muṇḍakopaniṣat 2.2.4)

VAIŚEṢIK A It is viśeṣa that distinguishes one paramāṇu (atom) from another. Two paramāṇu are distinct from one another because of viśeṣa. (Tarkasaṅgraha) 52 hinduism today