Hinduism (Part - 2): Later Developments
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Central University of Kashmir Nowgam, Srinagar, J&K-190015 www.cukashmir.ac.in MCR-C 201 Hinduism (Part - 2): Later Developments Unit I Medieval Sectarianism External Influences Emergence of Devotional Sects Bhakti Movements Course Title: Hinduism (Part - 2): Later Developments Course Code: MCR- C 201 Department: Religious Studies Year: 2016 Contributor’s Name: Aamir Habib Email: [email protected] Contact: Department of Religious Studies, CUK, Srinagar, Nowgam, Campus II. Cell: +918491023566 Designation: Assistant Professor CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR HINDUISM (PART - 2): LATER DEVELOPMENTS Unit I Section A, B and C Medieval Sectarianism, External Influences and the Rise of Devotional Sects Note: Sections A, B and C are interconnected, therefore these sections will be discussed together. Introduction Modern Hinduism is divided into different devotional sects and the major ones are Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism. Alhough Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism are the most prevalent Hindu sects; among these, Vaishnavism is the largest. The devotional sects do not generally regard other sects as rivals, and each sect freely borrows beliefs and practices from others. As the Vedic god Rudra gained importance from the end of the Rig-vedic period, in the Svetashvatara Upanishad, Rudra is for the first time called Shiva and is described as the creator, preserver, and destroyer of the universe. His followers are called on to worship him with devotion (bhakti). The tendency for the laity to form themselves into religious guilds or societies—evident in the case of the yaksha cults, Buddhism, and Jainism—promoted the growth of devotional Vaishnavism and Shaivism. These local associations of worshipers appear to have been a principal factor in the spread of the new cults. Theistic ascetics are less in evidence at this time, though a community of Shaivite monks, the Pashupatas, existed by the 2nd or 3rd century CE. The period between the fall of the Mauryan Empire (c. 185 BCE) and the rise of the Gupta Dynasty (c. 320 CE) was one of great change, including the conquest of most of the area of Pakistan and parts of western India by a succession of invaders. India was opened to influence from the West as never before, not only by invaders but also through flourishing maritime trade with the Roman Empire. The effects of the new contacts were most obvious in art and architecture. One of the oldest freestanding stone temples in the subcontinent has been excavated at Taxila, near Rawalpindi, Pakistan. During the Ist century BCE the Gandhara school of sculpture arose in the same region and made use of Hellenistic and Roman prototypes, mainly in the service of Buddhism. Hindu temples of the period probably were made of wood, because no remains of them have survived; however, literary evidence shows that they must have existed. By the time of the early Gupta Empire the new theism had been harmonized with the old Vedic religion, and two of the main branches of Hinduism were fully recognized. The Vaishnavas had the support of the Gupta emperors, who took the title paramabhagavata (“supreme devotee of Vishnu”). Vishnu temples were numerous, and the doctrine of Vishnu’s avatars (incarnations) was widely accepted. Of the ten incarnations of later Vaishnavism, however, only two seem to have been much worshipped in the Gupta period (4th–6th century). These were Krishna, the hero of the Mahabharata, who also begins to appear in his pastoral aspect as the cowherd and flute player, and Varaha, the divine boar, of whom several impressive images survive from the Gupta period. A spectacular carving in Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh) dating from about 400 CE depicts Varaha rescuing the earth goddess, Vasudha. Temples in Udayagiri (c. 400) and Deogarh (c. 500) also portray Vishnu reclining on the serpent Ananta (“Without End”). The Shaivites were also a growing force in the religious life of India. The sect of Pashupata ascetics, founded by Lakulisha (or Nahulisha), who lived in the 2nd century CE, is attested by inscriptions from the 5th century; it is among the earliest of the sectarian religious orders of Hinduism. Representations of the son of Shiva, Skanda (also called Karttikeya, the war god), appeared as early as 100 BCE on coins from the Kushan dynasty, which ruled northern India, Afghanistan, and Central Asia in the first three centuries of the Common Era. Shiva’s other son, the elephant-headed Ganesha, patron deity of commercial and literary enterprises, did not appear until the 5th century. Very important in this period was Surya, the sun god, in whose honour temples were built, though in modern times he is little regarded by most Hindus. The solar cult had Vedic roots but later may have expanded under Iranian influence. Several goddesses gained importance in this period. Although goddesses had always been worshipped in local and popular cults, they play comparatively minor roles in Vedic religion. Lakshmi, or Shri, goddess of fortune and consort of Vishnu, was worshipped before the beginning of the Common Era, and several lesser goddesses are attested from the Gupta period. But the cult of Durga, the consort of Shiva, began to gain importance only in the 4th century, and the large-scale development of Shaktism (devotion to the active, creative principle personified as the mother goddess) did not take place until medieval times. Vaishnavism The largest community within the family of religions called Hinduism worships the Supreme under the name of Visnu, ‘the All-pervader’. The Vaisnavas, as they are called, are divided into many smaller communities, often focusing their devotion on one of the avatras, the visible manifestations of Visnu. Besides age-old local traditions that differ from one place to the next, there are historic developments initiated by well-known personalities that have created new branches differing from each other in philosophy, ritual or doctrine. Lord Visnu Among the many deities (devatas) invoked in the Rgveda there is Visnu, described as the younger brother of Indra, the vedic chief deity. Visnu is associated with the sun and its movement across the sky. The oldest known myth is that of Visnu trivikrama, ‘Visnu who takes the three steps’. The story appears in many sources and was later associated with the legend of the Vamana avatara, the ‘dwarf descent’. Balia demon world-ruler, invited gods and kings to celebrate a great sacrifice. Every one of the guests could express a wish which the host would instantly fulfil. Visnu, who had appeared as a dwarf, asked only for a small piece of land – as much as he could cover with three strides. Bali encouraged him to ask for a larger gift, something worthy of a world ruler. The dwarf insisted on his wish. Bali gave in. And before his eyes the dwarf began to grow to huge dimensions. His first step covered the entire earth. The second step reached the sun, and there was no more room for a third step. So Bali offered his head for Visnu’s foot to rest on, thus acknowledging his supremacy. Another vedic myth, found in the famous Purusasukta of the Rigveda, has become the basis of the later Vaisnava doctrine of the universe as God’s body. In it all beings are described as originating from the body of a primordial being, everything in this world being but a transformation of his body. The major sources, however, for Visnu theology are the Puranas and the Samhitas, a class of voluminous writings detailing Visnu worship and its rationale. Among the Puranas, the Visnupurana, in its present form dating from the fifth century CE, occupies a special place. For Vaisnavas it is sruti, a revealed text. It describes the creation of the universe by Visnu as Brahma and the revelation of the Vedas through Visnu. Visnu’s power as saviour of his devotees is illustrated in the famous story of Prahlada, which is often enacted in popular plays. Prahlada was the son of the powerful demon king Hiranyakasipu, who considered himself the greatest. Sending hisson away for schooling, he wanted to find out what he had learned. Prahlada told him he had learned that Visnu was the greatest god, all-powerful and omnipresent. Hiranyakasipu, displeased, changed teachers. Re-examining his son after further years of training, he found that Prahladas answer was unchanged. After several futile attempts to re-educate his son, Hiranyakasipu decided to kill him. He had him submerged, poisoned, thrown from high cliffs – but by the grace of Visnu, Prahlada survived it all, continuing to extol Visnu’s greatness. Hiranyakasipu, beside himself with fury, drew his sword, yelling at Prahlada: ‘Tell your Vishnu to save you now from my sword, if he can! ’Kicking a column in his palace, Hiranyakasipu shouted: ‘Your Visnu will be of as little help to you as this piece of stone.’ But lo and behold, out of the column appeared Visnu in the shape of Narasimha, half man and half lion, devouring Hiranyakasipu and thus saving his devotee Prahlada. For the pious Vaisnava the Prahlada story is the warrant for Visnu’s salvific will and power: Visnu will save his devotees from all dangers, finally rewarding them with eternal bliss in his heaven. Usually Visnu is represented together with his consort Sri or Laksmı, ‘Good Fortune’ or ‘Wealth’. Mediaeval theologians like Ramanuja developed quite an extensive theology of the goddess as well, attributing to her mediatorship between Visnu and his devotees and channelling Visnu’s grace to them. The figure of Visnu shows a small mark on the left side of his chest – the Srıvatsa, the sign of the constant presence of Visnu’ s divine consort. Beautiful hymns praise her as mother of the universe and as saviour from distress. Avatars of Visnu Today’s Vaisnavism is strongly shaped by the devotion to avataras, ‘descents’ of Visnu into bodily forms.