Criminal Behavior: a Psychosocial Approach 9Th Edition

Online Instructor’s Manual With TestBank

for

Criminal Behavior A Psychological Approach

Ninth Edition

Curt R. Bartol, Ph.D. Anne M. Bartol, Ph.D.

Instructor’s Manual and TestBank Prepared by Gina Cook, M.S.W.

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3 Table of Contents Online Instructor’s Manual ...... 1

CHAPTER 1 ...... 17 INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR ...... 17 Learning Objectives ...... 17

Chapter Overview ...... 18

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts ...... 18

Review Questions and Answers ...... 20

Assignment ...... 23

Video ...... 23

Relevant Websites ...... 23

Suggested Additional Readings

Adler, M. J. (1967). The difference of man and the difference it makes. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

23 Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2006). The psychology of criminal conduct, 2nd ed. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson. Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2008). Introduction to Forensic Psychology, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dixon, L. A., & Ray, L. (2007), Current issues and developments in race hate crime. Probation Journal, 54, 109-124. Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychological model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349-371. Eskridge, C.W. (2005).The State of the Field of Criminology: Brief Essay. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21, 296 - 308. Hodgins, S. (2007). Persistent violent offending: What do we know? British Journal of Psychiatry, 190 (Suppl 49), S12-S14. Lauritsen, J. L. (2009). Safeguarding and improving the nation’s statistics on crime and justice. The Criminologist, 34, 3-5. Lerner, M. J., & Miller, D. T. (1978). Just world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1030-1051. Moon, B., Hays, K., & Blurton, D. (2009). General strain theory, key strains, and deviance. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37, 98-106. Snook, B., Cullen, R. M., Bennell, C., Taylor, P. J., & Gendreau, P. (2008). The criminal profiling illusion: What’s behind the smoke and mirrors? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1257-1276. Vold, G. B. (1958). Theoretical criminology. New York: Oxford University Press. Webster, C., MacDonald, R., & Simpson, M. (2006). Predicting Criminality? Risk Factors, Neighbourhood Influence and Desistance. Youth Justice, 6, 7 - 22. Williams, F. P., & McShane, M. D. (2004). Criminological theory (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

24 CHAPTER 2 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: DEVELOPMENTAL RISK FACTORS

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Identify social, family, and psychological developmental risk factors that lead to delinquency and crime. 2. Demonstrate how early preschool experiences can lead to a life of antisocial behavior. 3. Describe the influence of peer rejection on child and youth behavior. 4. Discuss the connection between cognitive abilities and delinquency and crime. 5. Define ADHD and conduct disorders and assess them as possible contributors to delinquent behavior.

Chapter Overview

Participation in illegal behavior—particularly mild offending—is a rite of passage for many adolescents. Although parents and caretakers should not ignore it, it is the more serious, persistent offending that is of most concern to criminal psychologists and that is highlighted in this chapter. The backgrounds of persistent delinquents are littered with numerous impediments to healthy cognitive and social development, Researchers can now point with confidence to a large list of risk factors associated with juvenile delinquency and criminal behavior. No single variable is particularly at fault. In this chapter, we began to examine some of the social and psychological risk factors associated with crime and delinquency. Among the social risk factors discussed in the chapter are poverty, peer rejection, and family dysfunction, parental styles and practices, and a range of pre-school and school-related experiences. Research has demonstrated consistently that antisocial adolescents, particularly those who displayed highly aggressive behavior, experienced significant peer rejection during their childhoods. In girls, substance abuse and other delinquent behaviors in adolescence has been associated with earlier peer rejection in elementary school. Psychological risk factors, those unique to the individual, include but are not limited to cognitive and language deficiencies and impairments, ADHD, and conduct disorder. Instructors should emphasize to students that risk factors rarely exist in isolation and that there is often interaction between social and psychological factors. As just one example, parents or caretakers of children with conduct

25 disorder may adopt parenting styles that encourage the negative behaviors that accompany CD. Instructors also should discuss the equally important protective factors that help insulate vulnerable children from deviant behavior. Examples are warm and nurturing parents or caretakers and community programs that offer resources and alternatives to delinquent activities.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Developmental Perspective All humans follow developmental pathways

Risk factors and protective factors Early identification of factors, particularly risk factors, important

Social Risk Factors Poverty and social class Robust predictor of adolescent offending Caveats All classes commit delinquency Law enforcement may target lower socioeconomic class Poverty also predicts victimization Numerous factors associated Isolation, unsafe living conditions, stress, unemployment Peer rejection and association with antisocial peers Early peer rejection often leads to adolescent delinquency Combination of child’s aggressive behavior and peer rejection strong predictor Disruptive child angers easily, few interpersonal skills Antisocial peers Deviant youth seek deviant friends Nondeviant youth, associating with deviant friends, minor delinquency Aggressive, rejected juveniles associate with similar juveniles Preschool experiences Some researchers say aggressive children identified as early as 3 Early school failure Unsupervised after school care Parental and family problems Single parent, but other factors critical Conflict-free single parent home better than conflict-laden two-parent home Parental styles and practices, process rather than structure Baumrind’s four styles Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative Neglecting Snyder and Patterson 26 Enmeshed and lax styles Importance of parental monitoring Inconsistent and/or harsh discipline problematic

Psychological Risk Factors Cognitive and language deficiencies Language impairment Intelligence and delinquency Inverse relationship, many explanations Psychometric approach Psychometric intelligence (IQ) PI not same as “intelligence” Group differences reflect cultural, social influences Very low PI scores: some association with delinquency and adult offending IQ and ethnicity IQ and adult offenders

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Self-regulation ADHD and criminal behavior

Conduct Disorder Repetitive, persistent misbehavior May be apparent as early as age 3 Distinct from learning disability Childhood-onset and adolescent-onset Significant school problems

Gender Differences in Development of Delinquency Males outnumber females, particularly in violent offending Gender gap closing for some offenses (embezzlement, prostitution, runaways) Reflects socialization effects Processing still harsher for girls for runaway, shoplifting

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answer Key

1. What three categories of risk factors are covered in this chapter? Give examples of any two factors falling into each category.

Social risk factors include peer rejection, preschool experiences, poverty and impoverished resources, antisocial peers. Parental and familial risk factors include inadequate parenting, sibling influences, child abuse. Psychological risk factors include poor interpersonal skills,

27 inadequate cognitive and language ability, a troublesome temperament, inadequate self- regulation skills, and poor interpersonal and social skills.

2. Explain the difference between ADHD and conduct disorder.

Although the two may overlap, they are distinct categories. ADHD is a diagnosis consisting of difficulty staying on task, excessive motor activity, and impulsivity. Children with ADHD often have impaired social skills, but they do not generally display antisocial behavior. Conduct disorder is a cluster of behaviors characterized by persistent and repetitive misbehavior, such as stealing or hurting others. These behaviors often continue throughout adulthood if not dealt with at an early age.

3. Describe the features of ADHD that create problems for the child who has this diagnosis.

A child with ADHD is impulsive, is easily distracted and inattentive, and displays excessive motor activity. These qualities often present a problem in school, as the child has difficulty with task performance, impulse control, and cognitive organization. The child struggles with self- regulation and may not have effective strategies to cope with new information. Furthermore, ADHD children often experience peer rejections because they are perceived as annoying and aversive to those around them.

4. In what ways may preschool experiences influence a life of delinquency and crime?

Poor quality childcare—whether in-home or out of the home—may put children’s development at risk for poorer language, cognitive development, and lower ratings of social and emotional adjustment. The risk for delinquency increases further if the child has a difficult temperament and has extended exposure to aggressive peers in pre-school. High quality infant and preschool care is associated with better school achievement and socialized behavior in later years. Quality child care offers learning opportunities and social and emotional supports that might not otherwise be available. High quality care is most likely to occur if the child has consistent and nurturing caretakers.

5. Describe each of Baumrind’s four parental styles.

Authoritarian parents attempt to shape, control, and evaluate the behavior of their children in accordance with some preestablished, absolute standard. The authoritarian household has numerous rules and regulations which must be rigidly observed, often without question or explanation. Authoritarian parents discourage any verbal exchanges that imply equality between parent and child and expect their children to be obedient and unquestioningly respectful of authority.Permissive parents display tolerant, nonpunitive, accepting attitudes toward their children’s behavior, including expressions of aggressive and sexual impulses. Permissive parents generally avoid asserting authority or imposing social controls or restrictions on the child’s behavior. Authoritative parents try to direct their children’s activities in a rational, issue- oriented manner. There are frequent decision-making exchanges and a general spirit of open communication between parents and children. Authoritative parents expect age-related

28 “mature” behavior from the child, and they apply firm, consistent enforcement of family rules and standards. At the same time, they encourage independence and individuality.Neglecting parents demonstrate detachment and very little involvement in their children’s life or activities. They are neither demanding nor responsive.

6. What is attachment theory? Discuss some differences between the child who is securely attached and the child who is insecure.

Attachment theory postulates that the early relationship between infant and caregiver largely determines the quality of social relationships later in life. Securely attached infants use caregivers as a secure base upon which to explore the world. Insecure attachment may result in a child who is intensely distressed or clingy during separation (anxious/ambivalent). The child may also be hostile or indifferent (avoidant) when separated from the caregiver. Children with insecure attachment may have difficulty developing relationships with others. Infants with anxious/ambivalent attachment usually have parents who are overbearing and inconsistent in their affection and intimacy. These infants never know when and how their parents will respond to their needs. As adults, they want to have close relationships but continually worry about their partners and relationships returning the affection. They tend to become obsessive and preoccupied with their relationships, especially with spouses and partners.

7. Discuss hypotheses and/or findings from recent research that relates attachment theory to juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behavior.

Ward and his associates (Ward, Hudson, Marshall, & Siegert, 1995) hypothesize that many sex offenders probably had parents who were inconsistently affectionate and poor at identifying their child’s needs. In essence, the sex offenders demonstrate the dismissing (avoidant) attachment style in their adult relationships. Gwen Adshead (2002) reports evidence for insecure attachment in her study of violent offenders. She notes that many victims of interpersonal violence are part of the violent offender’s attachment network: a child, a parent, a partner, or ex-partner. Fear of loss or separation can generate strong feelings of anxiety and rage in the offender, often resulting in violent actions. Adshead found that a majority of offenders showed a dismissing attachment style, suggesting a diminished capacity for empathy toward their victims or in their relationships.

Assignment

Brian Smith is a 4-year-old who resides with his mother, father, and younger brother Luke in a four-bedroom home in a comfortable suburban neighborhood. Brian's father is a civil engineer and his mother is a dietitian. As a newborn, Brian was described as a “fussy” baby who did not enjoy being held by others, including his parents. As he grew, Brian’s parents coped by minimizing their interactions with him, often encouraging him to play by himself. Although he is able to talk, he prefers to express his needs by grunting and mumbling. His pediatrician has recommended speech therapy to encourage him to use a greater vocabulary on a regular basis,

29 Brian’s parents are hesitant to “label him” as a “special needs child” at this young age and have declined any intervention at this time.

Brian has had four different childcare providers since he was six months old. For the past year, he and Luke have spent weekdays with their childcare provider, Tracy, who cares for three additional children under age seven, two of whom frequently wrestle, throw food and hit each other during the day. Last year, Brian’s parents decided to enroll him in a pre-school program five days per week. Brian attended exactly two weeks before his parents were contacted over concern that he was constantly hitting others and throwing toys. Rather than work with the pre- school, Brian’s mother decided to return him to Tracy’s house, explaining that the pre-school did not understand the energy level of boys. Tracy describes Brian as exasperating but has been reluctant to discuss her concerns with the Smiths, for fear that they will remove Brian and Luke from her care, and she needs the money.

In addition to his preschool classmates, Brian has been aggressive with his now 2-year-old brother Luke since Luke was an infant. For example, he has hit Luke, smashed toys over his head, and recently ran Luke over with his tricycle. Brian’s father has become increasingly frustrated as he struggles to communicate with his son. He responds to Brian by yelling and demanding that Brian speak clearly. Interactions with his father often result in Brian screeching, biting his own arm, or throwing objects. Brian’s mother attributes much of Brian's behavior to being a “toddler boy.” She disciplines him by attempting to explain the reasons his behavior is “not nice.” Brian’s father has begun implementing time-outs as a means of discipline.

Discuss how the key concepts in the chapter may be used to describe Brian and his family. What additional information be helpful to have about Brian?

Relevant Websites www.splcenter.org/center/tt/teach.jsp The website of the Southern Poverty Law Center’s initiative to promote respect for differences and an appreciation of diversity. www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org The website of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. www.aecf.org The website of the Annie E. Casey Foundation whose mission is to foster programs that meet the needs of vulnerable children and families. www.addiss.co.uk The United Kingdom’s National Attention Deficit Disorder Information and Support Service. Information and resources about ADHD. www.conductdisorders.com Website for loved ones of individuals diagnosed with conduct disorder. www.chadd.org Website of Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Disorder. http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/go/conduct-disorder/ The website of Mental Health America. Information on the etiology and treatment of conduct disorder.

Suggested Additional Readings

30 Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychological model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349–371. Hawkins, J. D., Herrenkohl, T. I., Farrington, D. P., Brewer, D., Catalano, R. F., Harachi, T. W., & Cothern, L. (2000). Predictors of youth violence. Juvenile Justice Bulletin, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention #NCJ 179065. Kupersmidt, J. B., & Dodge, K. A. (Eds.). (2004). Children’s peer relations: From development to intervention. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Lahey, B. B., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (Eds.). (2003). Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency. New York: Guilford. Laird, R. D., Jordan, K., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S. & Bates, J. E. (2001). Peer rejection in childhood, involvement with antisocial peers in early adolescence, and the development of externalizing problems. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 337–354. Laird, R. D., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2003). Parents’ monitoring—relevant knowledge and adolescents’ delinquent behavior: Evidence of correlated developmental changes and reciprocal influences. Child Development, 74, 752–68. Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701. Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Jaffee, S.R., Kim-Cohen, J., Koenen, K.C., Odgers, C.L., Slutske, W. S. & Viding, E. (2008). Research Review: DSM-V conduct disorder: Research needs for an evidence base. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49,3– 27. Reppucci, N. D., Fried, C. S., & Schmidt, M. G. (2002). Youth Violence: Risk and Protective Factors. In Corrado, R. R., Roesch, R., Hart, S. D., & Gierowski, J. K. (eds). Multi- ProblemViolent Youth: A Foundation for Comparative research on Needs, Interventions and Outcomes (pp 3-22). Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press. Mounts, N. S. (2002). Parental management of adolescent peer relationships in context: The role of parenting style. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 58–69. Rasmussen, K., Almvik, R., & Levander, S. (2001). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, reading disability, and personality disorders in a prison population. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 29(2), 186-193 Rowe, D. C., Rodgers, D. C., & Meseck-Bushey, S. (1992). Sibling delinquency and the family environment: Shared and unshared influences. Child Development, 63, 57–67. Shaw, C. R. (1930). The Jack roller: A delinquent boy’s own story. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Woolard, J. L., Fondacaro, M. B., & Slobogin, C. (2001). Informing juvenile justice policy: Directions for behavioral science research. Law and Human Behavior, 25, 13–24.

31 CHAPTER 3 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Explain the genetic and biological aspects of criminal behavior. 2. Provide an overview of twin and adoption studies and their relation to theories of crime. 3. Identify environmental risk factors that play a role in the psychobiological aspects of criminal behavior. 4. Discuss temperament and its effects on the behavior of children and their caretakers. 5. Describe Eysenck’s theory of crime as an interactionist perspective and explain how it emphasizes the role of conditioning in acquiring behavior.

Chapter Overview

Realizing that crime, like all human behaviors, can represent an interaction among heredity, neurophysiology, and environment, this chapter looks at the research on the genetic and biological factors associated with criminal behavior. It is important to stress at the outset that neither genetics nor biology directly “cause” crime. Rather, certain biological or genetic elements may predispose some people to commit violent or otherwise antisocial acts. The chapter first explores the genetic aspects of crime. Twin and adoption studies are covered, along with research on temperament and the in-utero environment. It should be stressed that, while temperament shows up in infancy and continues throughout one’s life, the parent- child interaction is crucial. Parents or caretakers who understand and adapt to an “ill-tempered” child can do much to diminish the effects of this difficult disposition. As in earlier editions of the text, Eysenck’s theory of criminal behavior, is given considerable attention because it remains one of the most testable in psychologically-oriented theories of criminal behavior. Although still in need of considerable refinement, it integrates the biopsychological and social environmental perspectives, thus holding some appeal for proponents of both nature and nurture. Instructors should note that the EPQ is available to give to students; it is self-administered, requires little time, and can easily be scored in a classroom setting. Students are often intrigued to see where they rank in Eysenck’s personality dimensions. Some scientists in recent years have become increasingly interested in exploring the role of biological and neurophysiological factors in behavior, particularly violent behavior, and this

32 chapter attempts to represent this renewed and continuing interest. However, the supposed identification of potentially violent individuals can lead to prevention and control of future behavior through measures that may infringe on liberty. It is recommended that instructors encourage students to recognize the potential value of this research while carefully considering its implications. The material in this chapter also encourages students to consider interconnections among criminology and the natural sciences as well as the social sciences. For example, research on exposure to environmental contaminants and their effect on brain development cannot be ignored. The additional readings include articles that should prompt discussion in this area.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Origins of Criminal Behavior

Biological Factors Interaction of heredity and environment Biopsychologists seek to identify critical variables

Genetics and Antisocial Behavior Twin studies Dizygotic twins (fraternal twins) Monozygotic twins (identical twins) Shared environments and nonshared environments Higher concordance among identicals in most research Heredity may be determinant of intelligence and some mental disorders Summary of twin studies Recent research on twin studies and criminal behavior Adoption studies Few investigations, many methodological problems Adoptive boys Behavior similar to biological father Influence of adoptive father relevant Age at placement, time in temporary care relevant

Psychophysiological Factors Temperament Constitutional basis Appears in infancy Influenced by environment Temperament of parents

Environmental Risk Factors In-utero environment Birth complications

33 Nicotine, alcohol, drug exposure Brain development Plasticity Neuropsychological deficits, especially associated with executive function

Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime Interaction between environment and individual nervous system Emphasis on genetic predispositions Extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism Ambiversion Measurement of Eysenck’s theory

Extraversion Behavioral characteristics and incidence Physiological bases of extraversion-introversion Importance of the RAS Extravert’s RAS does not generate arousal effectively Introvert’s RAS amplifies stimulation input Effects of alcohol on cortical arousal

Neuroticism Neurophysiological bases of neuroticism-stability Intense and lasting reaction to stress

Psychoticism High testosterone; low monoamine oxidase and serotonin Similar to primary psychopathy Cold cruelty, insensitivity, disregard for danger, dislike of others

Crime and conditionability Classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning) Instrumental or operant learning Social learning

Evidence for Eysenck’s theory Extraversion Inconsistent results, no strong support Psychoticism Recent research, strong support Neuroticism Significant relationship with offending, but not as strong as P-scale

Summary and Conclusions

34 Review Questions and Answers

1. Very briefly describe Eysenck’s theory of criminality.

Criminal behavior is the result of an interaction between certain environmental conditions and features of the nervous system. Neuropsychological make-up and unique socialization history of the individual are both crucial when attempting to understand crime.

2. What aspects of Eysenck’s theory of criminality are supported by research and what aspects are not? In general, how strong is the support?

Eysenck's focus on individual differences in the nervous system as a biological basis for personality is an important contribution to criminology. Recent research strongly supports Eysenck’s position that people likely to commit delinquent and criminal behavior will score high on the P-scale. Neuroticism has generally shown a significant relationship with offending, although not as strong as the P-scale The N-scale does well in predicting serious crimes and is somewhat successful in predicting recidivism. Low L scores do show some ability to identify respondents likely to be involved in self-reported delinquency. A high score on the lie scale may reflect those traits that protect some people against offending. The power of the E-scale is more in question. At this point, however, it appears that Eysenck’s emphasis on classical conditioning as a primary explanation of criminality and his tendency to ignore other forms of learning and mediational (cognitive) processes may be the theory’s most damaging weaknesses.

3. Summarize the findings of adoption studies on the interaction between heredity and environment.

Genetic components may contribute moderately to a tendency to become criminal, especially non violent crime. However, environment is also important. Although an individual may be born with a predisposition toward antisocial behavior, environmental factors may inhibit or facilitate the behavior. Heredity may influence one’s susceptibility or resistance to environmental risk factors.

4. Define the following concepts: concordance, RAS, plasticity, ambiversion.

Concordance: The genetics term for the degree to which related pairs of subjects both show a particular behavior or condition. It is usually expressed in percentages. Plasticity: The phenomenon in which both structure and function of the developing brain is profoundly responsive to experience. RAS: Recticular Activating System arouses the cerebral cortex and keeps it alert to incoming stimuli. This is important because all higher level functions, like thinking, memory, and decision making, occur in the cerebral cortex. Ambiversion is the middle range of Eysenck's introversion/extraversion scale. Most people fall in this range and are neither extreme extraverts nor extreme introverts.

35 5. In twin research, what is meant by the term “shared environment” and why is it important in genetic research on crime?

Shared or common environments include prenatal and life experiences affecting both twins in the same way. For example, twins raised by the same biological parents share a common hereditary and home environment. Shared environments in this sense are apt to promote high trait or behavioral similarity between twin pairs. This is especially the case for identical/monozygotic twins, because their pre-birth environment is more closely shared than that of fraternal/dizygotic twins.

6. Explain how temperament plays a role in the development of antisocial behavior.

One’s temperament influences how we interact with the social environment and in reciprocal fashion how the social environment will interact with us. As early as infancy, children with difficult temperaments may elicit less warmth from parents or other caretakers and consequently may become detached from those around them. Children who are moody or irritable are more likely to be rejected by peers and eventually drift into antisocial behavior.

Assignment

Sam and Steve were born on September 15, 1972 to Laura and David Brown. Sam was a jolly baby who smiled and cooed at his parents and others. Steve, on the other hand, cried frequently, did not adapt well to school, and did not enjoy playing with others. For the first five years of the twins’ life, Laura stayed home with the children while David continued working at a local factory. She always seemed to favor Sam and considered Steve her difficult child. David seemed sympathetic to Steve, but the marriage was not a strong one and he increasingly spent less time at home, preferring a local pub. Finances were a struggle for the family and, partly due to David’s drinking, he rarely came home with a full paycheck. Laura eventually took a job as a server in a nearby restaurant to earn extra income for the family, leaving the children with a neighborhood sitter. However, she soon began staying at the restaurant after her shift, drinking heavily. Inebriated, she would come home late at night, often waking the children and demanding that they complete chores such as cleaning their rooms or scrubbing the toilets. She frequently hit both twins but was particularly abusive to Steve, often calling him “worthless” and a “loser.” David continued to spend his days working at the factory and evenings drinking; when Laura abused the boys, he left the house or remained silent. On weekends, he earned extra money as a handy man. The twins attended school and spent after school hours with their grandmother. When the twins were fourteen, Laura left the home. Since her move, she has had contact with neither David nor the twins. The couple subsequently divorced, and David assumed responsibility for the twins with the help of his mother. At age sixteen, after a serious fight with his father, Sam moved in with his grandmother, dropped out of high school, and worked as a bus boy in a local restaurant. Adults in his life encouraged him to re-enroll in school a year later, and he eventually graduated. He reconciled with his father, took out loans to attend college out of state and eventually earned a Bachelor’s degree and

36 a Master’s degree in Education. He is now married, teaches middle school science, and coaches his daughter’s soccer team. Steve has battled substance abuse since age thirteen. He was frequently truant from school and was arrested for vandalizing the school. Although he was never placed in juvenile detention, he was considered an at-risk juvenile and was enrolled in a number of special programs, including counseling, substance abuse, and anger management. Steve had a close network of friends, all of whom had difficult backgrounds and have been in trouble with the law. At age 17, Steve became a father to a girl named Abby, whom he sees on occasion. She is now 3 years old. Recently he tried to use Abby’s name and social security number to obtain credit cards, because his own cards had high balances that he was unable to pay. Steve has never held a job for more than a month.

Explain the differences between Sam and Steve from a neurobiological perspective. What do we know about their biological make-up? What additional information would be helpful to have?

Video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZN4Hod8Clv8 Hans Eysenck interview with Roberta Russell. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzGfZaI6itg University of Pennsylvania webcast. Adrian Raine discusses neuroscience and crime.

Relevant Websites http://www.nchh.org/ The website of The National Center for Healthy Housing. Information on the effects of indoor exposures, including lead exposure. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index88782EN.html Website of The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Provides information on the EPQ, including a free downloadable version. http://www.drugabuse.gov/NIDAHome.html The website of the National Institute for Drug Abuse. Research on twins and drugs. Information about international twin registries. http://www.msutwinstudies.com/ The website of the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Conducts research on twins from a developmental perspective in order to gain understanding of factors that influence psychological functioning and behavior. http://www.nih.gov Website of the National Institutes of Health. The site provides information on twin studies and crime. http://www.a2zpsychology.com/great_psychologists/hans_j_eysenck.htm Information on well- known psychologists, including a biographical sketch of Hans Eysenck.

Suggested Additional Readings

37 Baker, L. A., Jacobson, K. C., Raine, A., Lozano, D.I., Bezdjian, S. (2007). Genetic and environmental bases of childhood antisocial behavior: A multi-informant twin study.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 219-235. Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., Dodge, K. A., & Ridge, B. (1998). Interaction of temperamental resistance to control and restrictive parenting in the development of externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 34, 982-985. Button, T. M., Corley, R. P., Rhee, S.H., Hewitt, J. K, Young, S. E., Stallings, M. C. (2007) Delinquent peer affiliation and conduct problems: A twin study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology.116, 554-564. DeLisi, M. (2009, November). (Ed.). Biosocial criminology. Special Issue, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 1101-1231. Eysenck, H. J. (1994). Personality theory and the problem of criminality. Aldershot, UK: Dartmouth Publishing Co. Eysenck, H. J. (1996). Personality and crime: Where do we stand? Psychology, Crime, and Law, 2, 143–152. Eysenck, H. J., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (1989). The causes and cures of criminality. New York: Plenum. Larsson, H., Viding, E., & Plomin, R. (2008). Callous-unemotional traits and antisocial behavior: Genetic, environmental, and early parenting characteristics. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 197-211. Levine, S. A., & Jackson, C. J. (2004). Eysenck’s theory of crime revisited: Factors or primary scales? Journal of Legal and Criminological Psychology, 9, 135–152. Mednick, S. A., & Moffitt, T. (Eds.), (1993). Biological contributions to crime causation. Dordrect, North Holland: Martinus Nijhoff. Narag, R. E., Pizarro, J., & Gibbs, C. (2009). Lead exposure and its implications for criminological theory. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 954-973. Raine, A. (1993). Psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Rhee, S. H., & Waldman, I. D. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 490- 529. Séguin, J. R., Nagin, D., Assad, J-M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2004). Cognitive-neuropsychological function in chronic physical aggression and hyperactivity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 603-613.

38 CHAPTER 4 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: LEARNING AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Present learning and cognitive factors as key elements in the development of delinquent and criminal behavior. 2. Review the historical background of behaviorism and its contributions to understanding human learning of delinquent and criminal behavior. 3. Define and describe operant conditioning and learning. 4. Review the fundamental principles of social learning and its contributions to understanding antisocial behavior. 5. Introduce frustration-induced crime. 6. Describe the power of the social situation, authority, and deindividuation in instigating criminal actions.

Chapter Overview

In order to understand criminal behavior in some depth, it is crucial that we regard all individuals—whether or not they violate the rules of society—as active problem solvers who perceive, process, interpret, and respond uniquely to their environments. For the moment, consider unlawful behavior as subjectively adaptable rather than deviant. In this sense, unlawful conduct or antisocial behavior is a response pattern that a person has found to be effective, or thinks will be effective, in certain circumstances. The material in the chapter revolves around fundamental concepts in social psychology—e.g., positive and negative reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, punishment—that are relevant to the development, maintenance, and regulation of antisocial behavior. Skinnerian behaviorism, the social learning theories of Bandura, Rotter, and Akers, and the Berkowitz frustration theory are among those covered. Collectively, external reinforcements that bring us material, social, or psychological gain are called positive reinforcements. Behaviors that enable us to avoid unpleasant circumstances are negatively reinforced. Vicarious reinforcement consists of both observed reward and observed punishment. When we observe others (models) receiving rewards or punishments for certain behaviors, we

39 tend to alter our behavior correspondingly. Models are reference points for what we should and can do in a particular set of circumstances. Therefore, they may act as inhibitors or facilitators of behavior. Situational instigators of crime, such as authority figures and the environmental factors involved in the process of deindividuation, are also discussed. In some instances, people engage in illegal or violent conduct because they are told or ordered to do so. In other instances, the personal sense of identity appears to be lost in the excitement of the crowd. Under these deindividualized conditions, people may do things they normally would not do. Students are usually fascinated with this material because they are able to relate it very readily to incidents in their own lives as well as to events in the news. The instructor must help the students shift gears and begin to see criminal behavior from a different perspective than previous chapters indicated. Biological and neurological explanations now give way to social ones. However, the reader should not lose sight of the common thread, the learning of behavior.

Chapter Outline

Behaviorism Began in 1913 with John B. Watson Cognitive processes Stimulus-response (S-R psychology) Skinner chief spokesperson Independent variables Dependent variables

Behaviorism as method of science

Behaviorism as perspective on human nature Situationism Reductionism Operant conditioning Reinforcement, positive and negative Punishment and extinction Operant learning and crime Cognitive learning

Social Learning Social learning theory Expectancy theory Observational learning or modeling, Bandura Imitational learning Differential association-reinforcement (DAR), Discriminative stimuli

40 Frustration-Induced Criminality Frustration Blocked goal, arousal increases, drive to reduce it Socialized offender Learning Conditioning Modeling Individual offender Intense series of frustrations Frustration-induced riots Frustration and crime

Situational Instigators and Regulators of Criminal Behavior Behavior result of interaction between personality and situation Fundamental attribution error Discount influence of the situation Self-serving biases Good things our doing, bad things outside influences Victimology Authority as an instigator of criminal behavior Crimes of obedience Milgram studies Deindividuation Zimbardo research Moral disengagement Crowd violence

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions

1. Describe the process of operant conditioning and give an example of how criminal behavior is acquired.

Operant conditioning (or operant learning) is a fundamental learning process that is acquired (or eliminated) by the consequences that follow the behavior. For example, a temper tantrum by a toddler at the checkout counter when she wants some candy from the nearby shelves may prompt the parent to give in and provide the child with the candy. Next time, at the same or similar checkout aisle, the temper-tantrum strategy will be tried again since it worked the first time. The child has learned the consequences of timely temper tantrums.

2. Explain the difference between differential association theory and differential association-

41 reinforcement theory. Sutherland's differential association theory emphasized that criminal behavior is learned the way all behavior is learned. The crucial factors are with whom a person associates, for how long, how frequently, how personally meaningful the associations, and how early they occur in the person’s development. The messages, not the contacts themselves, are crucial. Furthermore, in order for the person to be influenced toward delinquent behavior, the deviant messages or values from the “bad companions” must outweigh conventional ones. Therefore, Sutherland also believed that criminal behavior may develop even if association with criminal groups is minimal. Differential association-reinforcement theory posits that people learn to commit deviant acts through interpersonal interactions with their social environment. The continuation of behavior will depend greatly on the frequency and personal significance of social reinforcement, which comes from association with others. Akers (1985) tries to correct some of the problems with differential association theory by reformulating it to dovetail with Skinnerian and social learning principles. He proposes that most deviant behavior is learned according to principles outlined in Skinner’s operant conditioning, with classical conditioning playing a secondary role. Furthermore, the strength of deviant behavior is a direct function of the amount, frequency, and probability of reinforcement the individual has experienced by performing that behavior in the past. The reinforcement may be positive or negative in the Skinnerian meanings of the terms. Crucial to the Akers position is the role played by social and nonsocial reinforcement, the former being the more important. 3. Explain the concept of deindividuation and illustrate by describing any one experiment in social psychology. Deindividuation is a complex chain of events in which a person, when in a large group, loses sense of individuality, self-imposed controls, sensiblity, reason, and moral restraint. The person becomes enmeshed in the crowd and essentially forfeits his or her mind to the crowd. The person may not feel accountable for his or her behavior. An example of deindividuation is Zimbardo's prison experiment. 4. What is “frustration-induced criminality”? Provide an illustration. When a behavior directed at a goal is blocked, arousal increases, the behavior is energized. When one employs violence to reduce frustration, the behavior will become more vigorous and this violent behavior will be reinforced. When the verdict in the Rodney King case was announced in Los Angeles, a riot ensued. Individuals of all ages, racial and ethnic backgrounds were stealing food and alcohol to firearms and stereos. The rioting triggered smaller uprisings in several other cities, including San Francisco, Atlanta, Seattle, Las Vegas, and Miami. Authorities concluded that the riots were brought on by frustrations with economic, social, and political inequalities found in many sectors of American society, including the court system. 5. Briefly explain Bandura’s theory of moral disengagement. Individuals internalize moral principles that bring self-worth when they are maintained and self- condemnation when they are violated. These principals are learned through social learning. Moral principles influence the extent to which they will follow immoral or illegal orders. Bandura further supposes that before a person can engage in behaviors that violate their moral principles, he or she has to disengage his or her own moral sanctions to avoid self-

42 condemnation. 6. Compare and contrast the behaviorism promoted by B. F. Skinner with the modern behaviorism promoted by Bandura. Both Bandura and Skinner believed that stimuli elicit responses and behavior produces consequences that influence subsequent responses. Bandura emphasized the importance of social learning and modeling, which Skinner believed irrelevant. 7. What is meant by crimes of obedience? Give examples. An act performend in response to orders from authority that is considered immorall or illegal to themselves or the larger community. The classic example of the influence of authority is the military order to kill indiscriminately or to commit some other atrocity, such as Lieutenant William Calley’s carrying out the massacre of villagers at My Lai in the Vietnam War. An example of crimes of obedience in a political/bureaucratic context is the Watergate scandal, when, on June 17, 1972, a group of men under the auspices of the Nixon administration burglarized the Democratic National Headquarters in the Watergate apartment complex. The concept also comes to mind as the nation is in the midst of scrutinizing the interrogation tactics and the treatment of detainees in the wake of September 11. Crimes of obedience also appear to be widespread 8. Give illustration of fundamental attribution error.

Corrections officers attributing prison inmates’ situation to being lazy, or dispositional factors rather than environmental factors.

Assignment http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29693896/ Read this story about the March 2009 riots in Northern Ireland. IRA members agreed to renounce violence in 2005. What caused these riots to erupt? Apply the concepts of frustration induced criminality to this story.

Relevant Websites http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/bandurabio.html A biographical sketch of Albert Bandura http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0400web/35.html Website of Johns Hopkins University. Information on John B.Watson’s life and career. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhskin.htmlr Biographical sketch of B.F. Skinner.

Video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EXR9Ft8rzhk Video of Skinner’s teaching machine 43 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmwSC5fS40w Video of Zimbardo’s prison study.

Suggested Additional Readings

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations in thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175– 1184. Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York: McGraw- Hill. Huesmann, L. R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C., & Eron, L. D. (2003). Longitudinal relations between children’s exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent behavior in young adulthood. 1977-1992. Developmental Psychology, 39, 201–221. Karmen, A. (2001). Crime victims (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Kelman, H. C., & Hamilton, V. L. (1989). Crime of obedience: Toward a social psychology of authority and responsibility. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371–378. Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). The psychological power and pathology of imprisonment. In E. Aronson & R. Helmreich (Eds.), Social Psychology. New York: Van Nostrand.

44 CHAPTER 5 HUMAN AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Explain the vast array of problems in defining and identifying aggressive behavior. 2. Review the major theories on the development of aggression and violence. 3. Describe the interactions of biology and cognitive processes in aggressive behavior and violence. 4.Define the important key concepts in understanding aggression and violence, such as hostile attribution bias, weapons effect, contagion effect. 5.Compare road rage with aggressive driving and identify the important differences between them. 6. Discuss at least four studies on the effects of electronic and other media violence on aggressive behavior.

Chapter Overview

In this chapter, the authors reviewed the major psychological perspectives on aggression and violence. Most psychologists today believe that aggression is acquired and maintained in the same way that other human behavior is acquired and maintained, with cognitive factors being especially important to consider. However, as more research data are published, this learning perspective becomes increasingly complex, and additional factors must be considered. For example, physiological arousal certainly plays a major role in aggressive and violent behavior. High levels of arousal seem to facilitate (not cause) aggressive behavior in many situations. The different types of aggressive behavior were also discussed in this chapter. Overt and covert forms of aggression must be considered in any discussion of crime. Overt aggression is more likely to be involved in both violent and serious property-economic crimes, whereas covert aggression is more likely to be at work in the less serious property offenses. Students may be interested in topics such as road rage and media violence, especially the violence associated with video games. While most of the research on media violence decries its effects, particularly on young people, instructors should emphasize that there are alternative perspectives. For example, many individuals, including some scholars, believe that playing violent video games has a cathartic effect, allowing young people to get out their aggressions in a 45 socially acceptable manner. Nevertheless, social learning theorists note that the media and the models they provide substantially affect our attitudes, values, and overall impressions about violence. A debate or discussion on the effects of media violence may be a good way to approach this topic, since students invariably have opinions on this issue. Although the two terms are often used synonymously, “road rage” and “aggressive driving” should be distinguished. In recent years, high-profile incidents of road rage have been covered by the media and have even formed the basis of a film starring Samuel Jackson and Denzel Washington. The chapter covers recent research on individuals known to have been involved in road rage incidents. They typically have a history of aggressive behavior and substance abuse. Aggressive drivers, by contrast, usually displace the aggression they feel toward individuals in their lives onto their driving behavior, sometimes on a regular basis. While less serious, aggressive driving is far more prevalent than road rage.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Defining Aggression

Passive-aggressive behaviors Buss classification, based on motive Hostile and Instrumental Aggression Interpretation by Victim Definitions based on victim’s social judgment

Theoretical Perspectives on Aggression Psychoanalytical/Psychodynamic Viewpoint Hydraulic model Ethological Viewpoints Territoriality Ritualized aggression Difference-in-degree Evolutionary psychology Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis Weapons Effect Cognitive-Neoassociation Model Excitation Transfer Theory Displaced Aggression Theory Triggered displaced aggression Rumination

Aggressive Driving and Road Rage Two distinct concepts Studies of road ragers Histories Weapons used

46 Precipitating factors in road rage

Social Learning Factors in aggression and violence Types of Models Observation of aggressive models Observation Modeling Model’s reward or lack thereof important

Cognitive Models of Aggression Cognitive Scripts Model Hostile Attribution Bias

Aggressive Behavior: Simple and Easy to Use Poor social skills, diminished intellectual competence increase likelihood Prosocial solutions more complex than aggressive solutions Role of physiological arousal

Overt and covert acts of aggression Different in behavior patterns, emotions, cognition and development

Gender Differences in Aggression Not documented in infancy Differences emerge in pre-school years Cultural and socialization processes

Effects of Media Violence Studies: video games fantasy violence, violence toward women Heavy use associated with low levels of empathy Some contrary research Contagion effect/Copycat effect

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answers

1. What is any one common definition of aggression? Explain why any definition of aggression is limited.

Aggression is commonly defined as behavior that is intended to harm another person physically or psychologically, or to destroy an object. Any definition is limited because aggression comes in many forms and depends upon the motivation of the supposed aggressor. We cannot necessarily detect aggression in a person’s behavior alone; for example, someone passively sitting on a doorstep may be acting aggressively if he or she intends to block someone’s entry by doing so. On the other hand, a light shove between friends is not aggression; between enemies it

47 is. Furthermore, aggression may or may not be socially acceptable. For these reasons, social psychologists have preferred to focus on categories or types of aggression, such as those covered in the chapter.

2. What accounts for gender differences in aggression? Include relevant research findings in your answer.

Research has shown that gender differences in aggression may be due to cultural and socialization processes that promote different kinds of aggression. Environmental cues are also important in forming cognitive scripts and in the aggressive strategies individuals employ for various situations. For example, the current work of cognitive psychologists suggests that there may be socialized differences in the way girls and boys construct their worlds. Social learning theorists have long held that girls are “socialized” differently than boys, or taught not to be overtly aggressive. According to Campbell (1993, p. 19) “boys are not simply more aggressive than girls; they are aggressive in a different way.” Other researchers concur with this observation (Hawkins, Pepler, & Craig, 2001; Lumley, McNeil, Herschell, & Bahl, 2002; Wood, Cowan, & Baker, 2002). Boys and girls are thought to be born with the potential to be equally aggressive, but girls are socialized not to be overtly aggressive, whereas boys are encouraged to be overtly aggressive “to defend” themselves. Research supports the observation that boys and girls are equally physically aggressive toward their peers when they are toddlers, but that this pattern soon changes as they get older and enter their elementary school years (Xie, Farmer, & Cairns, 2003). Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber (1998) reviewed the research and concluded that gender differences in aggression were not documented in infancy. Only in the preschool years did observable gender differences begin to emerge, with boys displaying more overt aggression than girls. Overt aggression becomes especially prominent in boys from elementary school age onward. Boys are taught to be tough, not to cry, to take on the bullies and physically defend themselves. However, many researchers report that girls are more likely to engage in relationship or interpersonal forms of aggression rather than the physical forms of pushing and hitting (Casey-Cannon, Hayward, & Gowen, 2001; Crick & Zahn-Waxler, 2003; Prinstein, Boergers, & Vernberg, 2001. Researchers also have found that girls and women tend to use more covert, indirect, and verbal forms of aggression, such as character defamation and ostracism. Others report that girls are far more likely to employ relational aggression, such as abandoning one friend in favor of another, spreading malicious gossip, or ridiculing another’s physical traits.

3. Define cognitive scripts and how they may be applied in situations where spontaneous violence could occur.

Cognitive scripts are considered patterns of behavior that people follow when confronted with an unfamiliar or new situation. They may be learned by direct experience or by observing significant others. For a script to become established, it must be rehearsed from time to time. With practice the script will not only become encoded and maintained in memory, but also it will be more easily retrieved and utilized when needed. Spontaneous violence is said to occur when an individual’s cognitive scripts—or what he or she has learned in the past—support violent behavior. This is another way of saying that the person has found that being violent worked in

48 the past, at least from his or her perspective.

4. Define weapons effect and discuss how it may account for some of the violence in today’s society.

The mere presence of an aggressive stimulus (such as a weapon) increases the probability that aggression will occur. Since many individuals associate weapons with violence, the more exposure one has to weapons, the more likely it is that one will engage in aggressive behavior. The availability, accessibility, and visibility of weapons in the U.S. particularly in some neighborhoods may account for the prevalence of violent behavior in some areas.

5. Define hostile attribution bias and discuss how it might explain chronic aggression in young children.

Hostile attribution bias refers to a person’s interpreting the actions of others as hostile toward him or her. Youth and adults prone toward violence are more likely to interpret ambiguous actions as hostile and threatening than are their less aggressive counterparts. Hostile attribution is a stable attribute that continues into adulthood. At its extreme level, the bias represents a cognitive deficit in processing that distorts social information so dramatically that the individual is literally unable to process that information accurately (Fontaine, 2008). In some cases, some people may engage in extreme violence toward others they interpret as trying to do them harm. However, this is distinct from mental disorders, such as paranoid schizophrenia, in which individuals believe others are trying to do them harm.

6. Explain the difference between each of the following: overt and covert acts of aggression, and reactive and proactive aggression.

Overt aggression involves direct confrontation with victims, high level of arousal and violence, and a lack of social cognitions for coming up with nonaggressive solutions. It can begin very early in childhood, especially in boys. Covert aggression is characterized by indirect behavior, less emotion, and cognitive capabilities such as planfulness. Covert aggression is more likely to evolve over time as a strategy for interacting with others or obtaining material goods. Reactive aggression includes anger expressions, temper tantrums, and vengeful hostility, and more generally “hot-blooded,” unplanned aggressive acts. It is used in response to the actions of others or simply not getting one’s way. Proactive aggression, on the other hand, includes bullying, domination, teasing, name-calling, and coercive acts—in other words, more “cold- blooded” aggressive actions. Reactive aggression appears to be a reaction to frustration and is associated with a lack of control due to high states of arousal. In general, reactive aggression is a hostile act displayed in response to a perceived threat or provocation. Proactive aggression, by contrast, is less emotional, and more driven by expectations of rewards.

7. Summarize the two major positions presented in this chapter on the effects of the depictions of violence in the media—including the effect of violent video games—on individual violent behavior.

49 The research community is sharply divided on the long-term effects of violent media on aggressive behavior. To date, the overwhelming bulk of the research suggests that portrayals of violence on television and movies may have a significant effect on the frequency and type of aggressive and violent behavior expressed by America’s youth. However, there are wide individual differences in these responses. Children and adolescents who are already prone to aggressive behavior and who are frequent viewers are more likely to be affected negatively. Media violence appears to influence children more strongly than adults, as they seem to be more susceptible to its long-term effects. Similar to studies on violent film and TV programs, recent research consistently suggests that heavy exposure to violent video games may be significantly linked to increases in aggressive behavior, aggressive thoughts, aggressive feelings, and decreases in helping behavior (Anderson 2004; Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Anderson et al., 2008; Dill & Dill, 1998). Not all researchers agree with this perspective, however, and some suggest that the association between media violence and aggressive behavior has been overstated.

Assignment

As stated in the text, the research community is divided about the relationship between violent media and aggressive behavior. Have students read the following articles—or any other two opposing articles—and discuss their views on this issue.

Ferguson, C.J. (2007). The Good, The Bad and the Ugly: A Meta-analytic Review of Positive and Negative Effects of Violent Video Games. Psychiatric Quarterly, 78.

Carnagey, N. L., Anderson, C.A., & Bushman, B. J. (2007). The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 489-496.

Video http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=710132n CBS story on video game violence http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XnWO09q2nnw&feature=related Research on both sides of video games and aggression. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yx0X61jT5dw Violent Video Games and TV Shows – New Studies http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vvIvMZYaY9M Cheryl Olson and Lawrence Kutner discuss video game violence. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=svP7-L2Zu3M Aggression, violence and the brain.

Relevant Websites

50 http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/publications/PubAbstract.asp?pubi=249751 The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention's report on children's exposure to violence. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/ The website for the National Highway Transportation Safety Association. Information on road rage and aggressive driving. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/21/arts/television/21vide.html Court blocks ruling on video game violence. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16099971/ An MSNBC story on video game violence. http://www.aaafoundation.org/resources/index.cfm?button=agdrtext The American Automobile Association’s information and research on road rage and aggressive driving.

Suggested Additional Readings

Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 772–790. Archer, J. (1995). What can ethnology offer the psychological study of human aggression? Aggressive Behavior, 21, 243–255. Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 193-209. Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 59–73. Berkowitz, L., & LePage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 202-207. Bushman, B. J., Bonacci, A. M., Pederson, W. C., Vasquez, E. A., & Miller, N. (2005). Chewing on it can chew you up: Effects of rumination on triggered displaced aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 969–983. Campbell, A. (1993). Men, women, and aggression. New York: Basic Books. Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social information processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1146-1158. Ferguson, C. J., Rueda, S. M, Cruz, A. M., Ferguson, D. E., Fritz, S., & Smith, S. M. (2008). Violent video games and aggression: Causal relationship or byproduct of family violence and intrinsic violence motivation? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 311-332 Galvoski, T. E., & Blanchard, E. B. (2004). Road rage: A domain for psychological intervention. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 105–127. Giancoloa, P. R., & Mezzich, A. C. (2000). Executive cognitive functioning mediates the relation between language competence and antisocial behavior in conduct-disordered adolescent females. Aggressive Behavior, 26, 359–375 Huesmann, L. R., (1988). An information processing model for development of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 13-24. Huesmann, L. R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C., & Eron, L. D. (2003). Longitudinal relations between children’s exposure to TV violence and their aggressiveness and violent behavior in young adulthood: 1977–1992. Developmental Psychology, 39, 201-221.

51 Lore, R. K., & Schultz, L. A. (1993). Control of human aggression: A comparative perspective. American Psychologist, 48, 16–25. Olson, C. K., Kutner, L. A., Baer, L., Beresin, E. V., Warner, D. E., & Nicholi, A. M. Jr. (2009). M-rated video games and aggressive or problem behavior among young adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 13(4), 188-198. Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. New York: Random House.

52 CHAPTER 6 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Contrast legal, social, and psychological definitions of delinquency. 2. Identify five major categories of juvenile offending. 3. Describe Moffitt’s developmental theory of delinquency. 4. Describe Patterson’s coercion developmental theory. 5. Identify treatment strategies for juveniles as a group. 6. Summarize features of effective treatment programs. 7. Discuss Multisystemic Treatment (MST) as an effective community-based approach

Chapter Overview

The crimes committed by juveniles get considerable media attention, particularly if they are unusual or when they are committed by groups. We begin the chapter with the five categories of unlawful acts committed by youth. Instructors may want to emphasize that, of the five, crimes against persons are the least predominant and those receiving the most extensive media attention —the brutal killings or sexual aggressions—are probably the rarest. Nevertheless, serious, chronic delinquency occurs, and the chapter is most concerned with that serious delinquency and the developmental pathway that leads to that point. The work by Terrie Moffitt and her associates is of crucial importance as a representative of current psychological thinking on this topic. Although research has come a long way since Moffitt first identified the AL and LCP delinquent, primarily by acknowledging that more than two tracks are needed, the two-part division is still empirically sound to characterize a large number of adolescents, and it is intuitively appealing to students. Students often identify themselves or those they know as falling into one of the two categories. It is always important to stress that ALs and LCPs can be indistinguishable in both types and frequency of offending during adolescent years. The chapter includes research on female delinquents and addresses observed differences between male and female juvenile offending. Because juvenile girls are often neglected in research studies, instructors may want to highlight gender-related material in the chapter. For example, does Moffitt’s theory apply equally well to girls and boys? What special treatment programs might be needed for girls compared with boys? As noted in chapter 2 and 3 and again in this chapter, girls and boys share many risk factors but others are gender specific. Students may want to weigh in on whether girls are truly more invested in interpersonal relationships or affected by

53 parental conflict. Serious delinquents (the LCPs) typically begin their antisocial behavior patterns at an early age, and as they grow older, they rarely restrict their behavior to any one offense. Moffitt and others have long indicated that LCPs continue their antisocial behavior well into adulthood —and undoubtedly many inmates in our prisons would qualify as LCPs. Of current interest is our awareness that some ALs continue their antisocial behavior well past adolescence. At a time when much of the public fears crime and is skeptical about the prospect of reforming offenders, research results on some approaches to treating even serious juvenile offenders are promising. The authors highlighted characteristics that programs with good results have in common. At this point in the semester, instructors may want to invite to class a treatment provider for delinquent youth, such as a staff psychologist from a juvenile rehabilitation center or a therapist specializing in MST.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Legal Definitions of Delinquency Child delinquents

Social Definitions of Delinquency

Psychological Definitions

The Nature and Extent of Juvenile Offending Conduct disorder Antisocial behavior Status offenses The serious delinquent

Gender Differences in Juvenile Offending Peer violence Violence within schools. Violence within disadvantaged neighborhoods. Girls in gangs Family violence A further word on status offenses

Developmental Theories of Delinquency Moffitt’s developmental theory Life-course-persistent (LCP) offenders Adolescent-limited (AL) offenders Gender Differences Coercion developmental theory Developmental trajectories Gender differences 54 Other Developmental Theories

Prevention, Intervention, and Treatment of Juvenile Offending Treatment and Rehabilitation Strategies Characteristics of Successful Programs They begin early They follow developmental principles They focus on multiple settings and systems They acknowledge and respect cultural backgrounds They focus on the family first

Classification of Prevention and Intervention Programs Primary or universal prevention Selective or secondary prevention Tertiary prevention or treatment or intervention

Primary Prevention The Enhancement and Development of Resilience

Selective Prevention The Fast-Track Experiment

Treatment Approaches Restrictive interventions Traditional Residential Treatment “Training school” or “rehabilitation center,” Nontraditional Residential Treatment Boot Camps Wilderness and Adventure Programs Community Treatment Multisystemic Therapy MST with Serious Offenders

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answers

1. Summarize the differences between LCP and AL offenders; discuss why more than two tracks or pathways to offending might be needed.

Life-course-persistent offenders usually begin demonstrating signs of problem behavior in their pre-school years. Unless treated early, their behavior becomes progressively worse and by adolescence they display chronic and often serious delinquency. They continue their antisocial behavior well into adulthood and sometimes do not stop offending until well past their 50s.

55 Many adult criminal offenders who go in and out of prison would have qualified as LCPs as adolescents. Adolescent-limited offenders are juveniles who begin their antisocial behavior during their teen years, and usually stop when they reach adulthood. Because their behavior is sometimes serious—e.g., robbery, aggravated assault—they can be undistinguishable from LCPs during these teen years. However, some ALs engage only in non-violent acts, such as larceny or illegal drug use, but the behaviors are chronic. It is now believed that more than two tracks are needed because research has found that some ALs do not stop offending when they reach adulthood. Also, some LCP offenders do not begin offending until their adolescent years. Furthermore, because most research on LCPs and ALs has been conducted with male juveniles, it is unclear how these categories apply to female juveniles. To date, it appears that girls are much more likely to follow the AL pattern than the LCP pattern; although this is also true of boys, the number of LCP boys is much greater than that of LCP girls. In addition, though, some research (e.g., Odgers et al., 2008) indicates that AL girls are at high risk for poor outcomes well into adulthood.

2. Describe Gerald Patterson’s coercion developmental model.

Patterson’s theory places considerable emphasis on the role of parents or caretakers. He believes that poor parental monitoring, inconsistent discipline, and disruptive family transitions contribute significantly to early-onset conduct problems. However, the theory recognizes an interaction between the parent’s and the child’s behavior. Parents adopt coercive, authoritarian styles, and children respond by resisting these approaches and whining or throwing tantrums. Parents become more coercive in response, and children become more coercive in resistance. This style eventually translates to situations outside the home, in the child’s dealing with peers. Children raised in this way are more likely to demonstrate poor social skills, disruptive peer relationships, and low self-esteem.

3. What are status offenses? What has research found relating to gender differences in these offenses?

Status offenses are those behaviors that are forbidden only to juveniles. The primary examples are running away, truancy, incorrigibility, and underage liquor law violations. Status offenses are controversial for many reasons. Some scholars believe they do not represent serious behaviors, while others say many status offenders also engage in more serious offenses. Historically, girls have been taken into custody more than boys for status offenses, particularly running away, and have even been turned over to courts for unmanageability. It is acknowledged that both boys and girls run away, but the reasons are different, with girls being more likely than boys to run away from sexual abuse within the home. There is little research on gender differences in truancy, but research on underage drinking suggests that the gender gap is narrowing, although boys continue to outpace girls.

4. Identify the three categories of delinquency prevention programs and give an illustration of each.

Primary prevention programs are directed at very broad groups of children, not just those who

56 fall into risk categories. These programs are often implemented in a school or pre-school setting. One example is Project Headstart, which targets young children prior to being enrolled in elementary school. Secondary prevention programs—also called selective prevention—are directed at children or adolescents who are at risk of juvenile offending or have already shown some non-serious problem behaviors. Court diversion, and the programs associated with it, are good examples. In some communities, first time non-serious juvenile offenders are placed on informal probation or are assigned to do community service rather than being sent to juvenile court and possibly found delinquent. Another program sometimes associated with diversion is “teen courts,” where they are judged by their peers, some of whom may have gone through teen court themselves. Tertiary prevention, also referred to as treatment, is directed at children or adolescents who are adjudicated delinquents. That is, they have been found to have committed crimes, sometimes serious crimes. Tertiary prevention programs abound in rehabilitation centers for juveniles; they include sex offender treatment, anger management, substance abuse treatment, and victim sensitivity treatment, among many others. Tertiary programs also can occur in the community; good examples are MST and substance abuse treatment programs.

5. What are the strengths of MST as an approach to serious delinquents?

MST involves psychologists or other mental health providers working intensively with delinquents who typically are allowed to remain in their homes rather than be sent to juvenile treatment centers. This approach to treatment sees negative peer influences as a major factor in continuing delinquency; therefore, disassociation with delinquent peers is an important component in the treatment. MST also assumes that strengthening the family unit will be beneficial to all individuals within it. Therefore, therapists work closely will all members of the family, not just the delinquent youth. In addition to the family, the school, non-delinquent peers, and community programs may all be contacted as resources for the delinquent youth. MST is also time limited and intensive, which makes it an appealing option for both delinquent youths and treatment providers. Finally, evaluations of MST have been very positive, including its use with juvenile sex offenders.

Assignment http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/whenkidsgetlife/ Profiles of five juveniles who have been sentenced to life in prison without parole. Instructors should note that the U. S. Supreme Court is expected to rule this term on whether life without parole is cruel and unusual punishment when applied to juveniles. It might also be worthwhile to discuss the Tacoma, Washington shooting of four police officers in late November 2009. The suspect in that case, who was himself killed two days later, had been sentenced to prison for over 90 years at age 17—essentially life without parole, but without that limitation. He was subsequently given clemency, released from prison, and committed a variety of other offenses before the fatal shooting of 2009. http://www.boston.com/news/local/new_hampshire/articles/2009/10/12/in_senseless_killings_so me_see_common_traits_among_defendants/ The story briefly examines the case of four teenagers who murdered Kimberly Cates while she slept. The murder was reportedly a random attack. 57 Have students discuss either one or both of these cases in relation to chapter concepts.

Relevant Websites http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1360282 Michelle Norris reports on girls in a juvenile detention center. http://www.mstservices.com/index.php The website of the Multisystemic Treatment program. http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org/programs/girlsdelinquency.html/ Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Information on girls’ delinquency. http://girlsstudygroup.rti.org/index.cfm/ The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s Girls Study Group project which examines girls delinquency. http://www.safeyouth.org/ The National Youth Violence Prevention Center. Statistics on youth violence and related topics. http://www.adjj.org/content/index.php The website of the McArthur Foundation’s Adolescent Development and Juvenile Justice. http://www.aacap.org/galleries/PracticeInformation/JJmonograph1005.pdf The American Academy of child and Adolescent Psychiatry’s recommendations on juvenile justice reform. http://www2.dsgonline.com/mpg/mpg_program_detail.aspx?ID=327&title=Fast%20Track Details on the OJJDP’s Fast Track Program http://natwc.org National Association of Therapeutic Wilderness Camps http://www.moffittcaspi.com The website of Terrie Moffitt and colleague Avshalom Caspi. Further information about their collaborative research.

Suggested Additional Readings

Dodge, K. A. (2001). The science of youth violence prevention: Progressing from developmental epidemiology to efficacy to effectiveness in public policy. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20, 63–70. Fontaine, N., Carbonneau, R., Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., & Tremblay, R. E. (2009). Research review: A critical review of studies on the developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior in females. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 363-385. Letourneau, E. J., Henggeler, S. W., Schewe, P. A., Borduin, C. M., McCart, M. R., Chapman, J. E., & Saldana, L. (2009). Multisystemic therapy for juvenile sexual offenders: 1-year results from a randomized effectiveness trial. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 89-102. Lightsey, O. R., Jr. (2006). Resilience, meaning, and well-being. Counseling Psychologist, 34, 96–107.

58 Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., & Peterchuck, D. (2003, May). Child delinquency: Early intervention and prevention. Child Delinquency Bulletin Series. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Martens, W. H. J. (2004). Multisystemic therapy for antisocial juveniles: Suggestions for improvement. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 389-394. Moffitt, T. E. (2003). Life-course-persistent and adolescent-limited antisocial behavior: A 10- year research review and research agenda. In B. B. Lahey, T. E. Moffitt, & A. Caspi (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency. New York: Guilford. Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course- persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179-207. McKnight, L. R., & Loper, A. B. (2002). The effect or risk and resilience factors on the prediction of delinquency in adolescent girls. School Psychology International, 23, 186– 198. .Mulvey, E. P., Arthur, M. W., & Reppucci, N. D. (1993). The prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency: A review of the research. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 133– 167. Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432-444. Schaeffer, C. M., & Borduin, C. M. (2005). Long-term follow-up to a randomized clinical trial of multisystemic therapy with serious and violent juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 445–453. Tedeschi, R. G., & Kilmer, R. P. (2005). Assessing strengths, resilience, and growth to guide clinical interventions. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 230–237. van Lier, P. A. C., Vuijk, P., & Crijen, A. M. (2005). Understanding mechanisms of change in the development of antisocial behavior: The impact of a universal intervention. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 33, 521–533. Waaktaar, T., Christie, H. J., Borge, A. I. H.., & Torgerson, S. (2004). How can young people’s resilience be enhanced? Experiences from a clinical intervention project. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 9, 167–183.

59 CHAPTER 7 CRIMINAL PSYCHOPATHY

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Present a special type of offender (the criminal psychopath) who is different emotionally, cognitively, and behaviorally from other offenders. 2. Describe the various measures of psychopathy. 3. Explain the neurobiological aspects of psychopathy. 4. Discuss the evidence for juvenile psychopathy. 5. Identify the ethical dilemmas that juvenile psychopathy presents.

Chapter Overview

The primary psychopath, a clinical designation attributed to psychologist Robert Hare, demonstrates a variety of behavioral and neurophysiological characteristics that differentiates him or her from other groups of individuals. Psychopaths most often function in society as charming, daring, witty, intelligent individuals, high on charisma but low on emotional reaction and affect. They appear to lack moral standards or to manifest genuine sensitivity toward others. Primary psychopaths should be distinguished from people who are psychotic, neurotic, or emotionally disturbed. They also should be distinguished from sociopaths, who are similar in many ways, as well as from individuals with an antisocial personality disorder. As noted in the chapter, though, psychopathy and APD have become almost indistinguishable in much of the literature. Hare has proposed the term criminal psychopath to describe those psychopaths who persistently and repetitively violate the law. In this sense, the criminal psychopath, the sociopath, and the individual with an antisocial personality disorder are similar in their offending patterns. Neurophysiological research suggests that psychopaths are different from the rest of the population on a number of physiological measures. They seem to be underaroused, both autonomically and cortically, a finding that may account for their difficulty in learning the rules of society. There is some evidence to suggest that with adequate incentives, psychopaths may learn societal expectations very well, but for the most part the treatment research in this area is quite pessimistic. Contemporary researchers have devised a large number of psychological measures to assess the presence of psychopathy in specific populations. In addition, current research has focused on juvenile psychopathy and, to a lesser extent, on gender differences in psychopathy. Studies of the psychopath’s childhood indicate commonalities that suggest it can be identified 60 early. However, the topic of juvenile psychopathy is extremely controversial. Some researchers believe the construct does not exist, others believe it is inappropriately measured, and many if not most are concerned about the effects of attaching a pessimistic label to juveniles. Research on female psychopaths suggests that male and female psychopaths do not differ significantly on behavioral characteristics, though there is slightly more emphasis among females on sexual acting-out behavior. This probably reflects a cultural bias, however, since women have been traditionally chastised more than men for behavior deemed inappropriate according to sexual mores. It should be noted that students are often so fascinated with the construct of psychopathy that they tend to see psychopaths everywhere around them. Likewise, estimates of psychopathy, even in incarcerated populations, should be made very guardedly. A major objective of the chapter is to present psychopathy as a neurologically-based clinical construct, characteristic of a very small percentage of the population, and one that continues to attract considerable research attention.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

What is a Psychopath?

Hare’s distinctions Primary psychopath The “true” psychopath Secondary psychopath Emotional problems, inner conflicts Dissocial psychopath— Earned antisocial behavior Antisocial personality disorder (APD) Distinct but very similar

An Example of a Psychopath Demara, the “great impostor” No violent crime, though many psychopaths do commit them

Behavioral Descriptions Research by Quay, Cleckley, Hare Charming and verbally fluent

Psychopaths and mental disorders Not mentally disordered by traditional standard Psychological testing differences; score high Psychopaths and suicide

Other principal traits Flat emotional reactions, inability to give affection, superficial emotions,

61 disregard for truth Alcohol, even in small amounts, prompts vulgarity, loud and boisterous behavior Cardinal trait is lack of remorse or guilt, semantic aphasia Excessive use of instrumental aggression If criminal, typically impulsive acts

Disagreement regarding mental disorder Neuropsychological need for stimulation The Criminal Psychopath Psychopaths who demonstrate wide range of persistent and serious behavior Prevalence Offending patterns Dispassionate violence Sex crimes of psychopaths more brutal, sadistic than other sex offenders Serial murderers with psychopathic features: brutal and sadistic More likely than other murderers to kill strangers

Psychological Measures of Psychopathy Psychopathy Checklist (PCL) Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) P-Scan: Research Version

Core factors of Psychopathy Factor analysis Two behavioral dimensions, possibly three Factor 1 Interpersonal and emotional components Factor 2 Socially deviant lifestyle The three factor position Cooke and Michie The four dimensions position Antisocial behavior

Recidivism Recidivism defined Reoffend faster and violate parole sooner than nonpsychopaths

The Female Psychopath Little research directed at women Prevalence low compared with males May be behavioral differences Less violent and aggressive; lower in recidivism Sexual misconduct, but may reflect cultural biases

62 Racial/Ethnic Differences Most research on white subjects Some research suggests African American less impulsive Other research: no significant racial differences Label may be used in biased manner against minority/disadvantaged Controversial in death penalty cases

Juvenile Psychopathy Rapid surge of research interest Extremely controversial; construct may not exist in juveniles Can juvenile psychopathy be identified? Psychopathic qualities often “normal” adolescent development Term “psychopathic-like tendencies” preferred Instruments developed specifically for pre-adult psychopathy Ethical considerations: Juveniles may be transferred to criminal courts Treatment believed futile Psychopath traits in juvenile delinquents

Measures of juvenile psychopathy PSD, CPS, YPI, PCL:YV

Biological Factors and Psychopathy Genetic factors Neurophysiology and psychopathy Markers Basic neurophysiological concepts and terminology Central nervous system (CNS) differences Hemisphere asymmetry and deficiency Left-hemisphere activation hypothesis Deficits on tasks associated with left-hemisphere Emotional paradox Frontal neuropsychological studies Executive functions Amygdale dysfunction Stimulation seeking Optimal arousal of the cerebral cortex Role of the RAS Excessive habituation Peripheral nervous system research Skeletal and autonomic nervous system Psychopaths difficulty with avoidance learning

Childhood of the Psychopath Common precursors in family backgrounds

63 No strong genetic influence, but may have a biological predisposition Social factors play major role Neglect, abuse, antipathy or indifference Negative school experiences Impulsivity, inattention, conduct problems Similarity to backgrounds of LCPs

Treatment of Psychopaths

Treatment of children and adolescents with psychopathic features

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answers

1. Briefly describe the core behavioral characteristics of the criminal psychopath.

Impulsivity is a key behavioral characteristic of the criminal psychopath, but it is usually cyclical in nature. That is, for periods of time the psychopath may be able to attain goals, but then his or her life begins to unravel as a result of impulsive actions. Nonviolent criminal behaviors may include theft or fraud carried out in an unplanned way. Most of the research on criminal psychopaths focuses on their violent behaviors. They frequently engage in violence as a form of revenge or retribution, or during a bout of drinking. Reactive aggression, in response to provocation or a perceived slight, is rare. According to Hare, et. al., much of the violence is callous and cold-blooded. Research also indicates that rapists who have psychopathic characteristics are more likely to have “nonsexual” motivations for their crimes, such as anger, vindictiveness, sadism, and excessive use of instrumental aggression, or goal-directed, purposeful aggression.

2. Name and describe briefly any five instruments used to measure psychopathy.

Psychopathy Checklist (PCL) assesses the affective (emotional), interpersonal, behavioral, and social deviance facets of criminal psychopathy from various sources. These include self-reports, behavioral observations, and collateral sources, such as parents, family members, friends, and arrest and court records. The PCL-R is the 20-item revision of the PCL. The second edition has been expanded for use with offenders in other countries, and includes updated normative and validation data on male and female offenders. It requires some integration of information across multiple domains, including behavior at work or school, behavior toward family, friends, and sexual partners, and criminal behavior. A score of 30 or above usually qualifies a person as a primary psychopath (Hare, 1996). Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) is the 12- item short form version of the PCL. Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) is the instrument that can be used to appraise psychopathic characteristics in adolescents. P-Scan: Research Version. The P-Scan is a screening instrument that serves as rough screen for psychopathic features and as a source of working hypotheses to deal with managing suspects,

64 offenders, or clients. It is designed for use in law enforcement, probation, corrections, civil and forensic facilities, and other areas in which it would be useful to have some information about the possible presence of psychopathic features in a particular person.

3. Define each of the following as proposed by Hare: primary psychopath, secondary psychopath, dissocial psychopath, and criminal psychopath.

Primary psychopath is a true psychopath. This individual is identified on the basis of psychological and physiological characteristics, such as shallow affect, high need for stimulation, manipulativeness, and callousness or lack of empathy. Secondary psychopaths do not display the same characteristics as primary psychopaths. They commit antisocial or violent acts because of severe emotional problems or inner conflicts. Dissocial psychopaths display aggressive, antisocial behavior that they have learned, such as in their gangs or families. The label “psychopath” is misleading because they do not display the same characteristics as the primary psychopaths. They tend to have high recidivism rates. Criminal psychopaths are primary psychopaths who engage in repetitive antisocial or criminal behavior.

4. Identify some of the ethical problems created as a result of labeling a juvenile a “psychopath.”

Because of the widespread assertion that psychopaths are highly resistant to treatment, an adolescent “psychopath” accused of a crime—or even a youth demonstrating psychopathic characteristics—is more likely to be transferred to the adult court system rather than kept in the juvenile system. In the latter, treatment is more likely to be available once the youth has been adjudicated delinquent. Until very recently, a 16- or 17-year-old juvenile labeled a psychopath also was more likely to be sentenced to death in some states, but in Roper v. Simmons the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty was unconstitutional when applied to juveniles. The label “psychopath” can become a self-fulfilling prophecy with treatment providers who may be unlikely to expend considerable effort on a seemingly hopeless case. However, supporters of the construct of juvenile psychopathy argue that treatment providers should have that information at their disposal, both to make management decisions regarding custody and programming and to fashion the type of treatment that could be effective. Researchers are beginning to identify such treatment (e.g., Spain, Douglas, Poythress, & Epstein, 2004).

5. Describe the three- and four-factor models of psychopathy.

The three-factor model includes a) an arrogant and deceptive interpersonal style, sometimes summarized with the term “impression management”; b) deficient affective or emotional experience, such as little empathy; and c) impulsive and irresponsible behavior. The four-factor or four dimensions position includes each of the above plus a fourth component, antisocial behavior.

6. What are the distinguishing features of the true or primary psychopaths with respect to psychophysiology?

True psychopaths show abnormal brain-wave patterns, mostly of a slow-wave childlike variety,

65 which suggests that their nervous system is immature, at least until middle age. There are indications of more than the usual amounts of positive spikes, which are brain-wave bursts that correlate with aggressive episodes and impulsivity. Furthermore, the psychopath seems to be underaroused, both autonomically and cortically, Neuropsychological indicators, or markers, have been repeatedly found in psychopaths, as reflected in electrodermal (skin conductance) measures, cardiovascular, and other nervous system indices.

Assignment http://www.timesunion.com/specialreports/porco/ Newspaper special report on the case of Christopher Porco, a college student who was convicted of killing his father and attempting to kill his mother with an ax while both lay sleeping. Mental health professionals, community members, and some family asserted he was a psychopath, although it should be emphasized that there is no indication that he was diagnosed as such. Nevertheless, students might be interested in applying information about Porco to the characteristics associated with primary psychopaths. It should also be noted that in November 2009, Porco’s attorney appeared in court to appeal the conviction, on the basis that the mother’s identification of her son as the assailant was tainted. Joan Porco has since stood by her son and maintains she has no memory of the incident.

Video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkfIpMRfNzc A&E Biography of Ted Bundy Parts 1 and 2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCh_9Oe2OA8 Confession of BTK killer Dennis Rader http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ui9C6xVpVf0 Robert Hare discusses psychopathy of corporations. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oaTfdKYbudk MRI of a psychopath

Relevant Websites http://www.hare.org / Website for Robert Hare and his research on psychopathy http://www.aacap.org/ The website of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Information on child psychopathy. http://www.psychopathysociety.org/ The website of the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy

Suggested Additional Readings

Cleckley, H. (1976). The mask of sanity (5th edition). St. Louis: Mosby. Critchton, R. (1959). The great imposter. New York: Random House.

66 Edens, J. F., Skeem, J. L., Cruise, K. R., & Cauffman, E. (2001). Assessment of ‘juvenile psychopathy’ and its association with violence: A critical review. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 19, 53–80. Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Pocket Books. Hare, R. D. (1996). Psychopathy: A clinical construct whose time has come. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23, 25–54. Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 217-246. Holmqvist, R. (2008). Psychopathy and affect consciousness in young criminal offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 209 - 224. Lillienfeld, S.O., and Arowitz, H. (November, 2007). What "Psychopath" Means. Scientific American. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=what-psychopath-means Looman, J., Abracen, J., Serin, R., & Marquis, P. (2005). Psychopathy, treatment change, and recidivism in high-risk, high-need sexual offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 549 - 568. Lynam, D. (1996). Early identification of chronic offenders: Who is the fledgling psychopath? Psychological Bulletin, 120, 209–234. Porter, S., Fairweather, D., Drugge, J., Hervé, H., Birt, A., & Boer, D. P. (2000). Profiles of psychopathy in incarcerated sexual offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 216– 233. Porter, S. & Woodworth, M. (2007). "I'm sorry I did it, but he started it": A comparison of the official and self-reported homicide descriptions of psychopaths and non-psychopaths. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 91-107. Salekin, R. T., Branne, D. N., Zalot, A. A., Lesitico, A-M., & Neumann, C. S. (2006). Factor structure of psychopathy in youth: Testing the applicability of the new four-factor model. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 135–157. Salekin, R. T., & Frick, P. J. (2005). Psychopathy in children and adolescents: The need for a developmental perspective. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 403–409. Salekin, R. T., & Lochman, J. E. (2008). Child and adolescent psychopathy: The search for protective factors. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 159-172. Salekin, R. T., Rosenbaum, J., Lee, Z., & Lester, W. S.,(2009) Child and adolescent psychopathy: Like a painting by Monet. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 7, 239-255. Simourd, D. J., & Hoge, R. D. (2000). Criminal psychopathy: A risk-and-need perspective. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 256–272. Vaughn, M. G., Newhill, C. E., DeLisi, M., Beaver, K. M., & Howard, M. O. (2008). An investigation of psychopathic features among delinquent girls: Violence, theft, and drug abuse. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. Walters, G. D. (2004). The trouble with psychopathy as a general theory of crime. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 133 - 148.

67 CHAPTER 8 CRIME AND MENTAL DISORDERS

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1.Define the concept of mental disorder or mental illness. 2.Provide an overview of the DSM-IV and the diagnoses that are most relevant to criminal behavior. 3.Define and review issues relating to competency to stand trial. 4.Contrast various standards for determining insanity in federal and state law. 5.Discuss special defenses sometimes raised to absolve defendants of criminal responsibility. 6.Discuss the prevalence of mental illness in incarcerated populations. 7. Define risk assessment and identify various tests used for this purpose.

Chapter Overview

This chapter focuses on the relationship between mentally disordered individuals and crime. As a group, the mentally disordered are no more likely than others to commit crime, including violent crime, although there are exceptions within the mentally ill population. For example, instructors may want to highlight recent studies that suggest that individuals with a present serious disorder and a history of violence are in the high-risk category. Nevertheless, despite our difficulty comprehending heinous and bizarre offenses, these crimes are often not perpetrated by mentally disordered individuals. The exception may be the antisocial personality disorder, a catch-all category that tends to be overused when no other clinical diagnosis is appropriate. The authors begin the chapter with discussion of the Andrea Yates case which, while clearly atypical, nevertheless illustrates society’s dilemma when faced with a seriously disordered individual who has committed heart-wrenching acts. Yates is not the cold-blooded psychopathic killer depicted in sensational films. Her journey through the mental health and legal systems is one that instructors can refer to repeatedly as they discuss various concepts covered in the chapter. After introductory material on the definition of mental illness, the authors describe the DSM-IV and DSM-IV-R, reviewing the diagnostic categories that were most likely to accompany serious criminal behavior: the schizophrenic, paranoid, mood disorders (e.g., serious depression) and antisocial personality disorder, the diagnosis that arguably is the most frequently

68 given to defendants and prisoners when a diagnosis is sought. Instructors should note, however, that this disorder is also discussed in Chapter 7 on psychopathy; again it should be stressed that the two are not identical. The present chapter also focuses on the two legal designations used for mentally disordered individuals, Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity (NGRI) and Incompetent to Stand Trial (IST). Students often are unaware of the distinctions between insanity and incompetence to stand trial, and these distinctions should be stressed. Competency evaluations and competency hearings are much more widespread in the criminal justice system than are defenses based on insanity. Instructors may want to note that in late 2009, competency was an issue in two high- profile cases, the Elizabeth Smart case and the Fort Hood shootings. Insanity standards are reviewed, and the chapter covers special defenses that are sometimes used to excuse defendants charged with criminal behavior, particularly but not exclusively, violent behavior. PTSD is of particular relevance today, with increasingly more veterans being diagnosed with the disorder as a result of their experiences in the Persian Gulf, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Instructors who have used this text in the past may note that one of the topics included in this chapter in previous editions—sexual predators—has been moved to Chapter 12. Psychologists generally do not consider sexual predators mentally disordered, although increasingly more are being sent to mental institutions at the end of their prison sentences. This is a controversial issue that will be covered in some detail in the later chapter. The authors have, however, included the topic of risk assessment in the present chapter, even though it applies to numerous offenders, not just those who may be mentally disordered. The main messages of the chapter remain the same as they have in previous editions: Much mythology continues to surround the mentally disordered. Most are not dangerous, although recent research indicates that the combination of past violent behavior and a current serious mental disorder is a strong indicator of possible violence. On the whole, however, mentally disordered individuals are not dangerous to others.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Introduction

The Andrea Yates case Misconceptions about mental illness Media images

Defining Mental Illness Mental illness Implies sickness or disease Mental disorder Used throughout text, least restrictive

Mental retardation/developmental disability Cognitive deficiency that can’t be cured

69 Distinguish between bizarre behaviors and dangerous behaviors

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) The DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR, now more behaviorally anchored

Schizophrenic Disorders Schizophrenia, complex and poorly understood Begins early in life Delusions, false beliefs about the world, are common Hallucinations, most common auditory Five characteristic symptoms Five subtypes Schizophreniform disorder DSM-IV sixth category, temporary

Delusional Disorders Delusional disorders also called paranoid disorders Nonbizarre delusions, at least one month persistence

Depressive Disorders Associated with delinquency, mass murders, workplace violence Affective disorders, mood disorders, bipolar depressive disorders Major depressive disorder most common label Bipolar disorders, depression and mania

Antisocial Personality Disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) diagnosis often criticized Contrast with conduct disorder (children) APD frequent diagnosis of criminal defendants and offenders Validity debated

Competency and Criminal Responsibility Incompetency to Stand Trial (IST) Adjudicative competence, ability to participate in wide variety of proceedings Competency to stand trial, evaluations most common Contrast to insanity Jackson v. Indiana: indefinite confinement violates Constitution Drugs to treat incompetency (Sell v. U.S.; U.S. v. Weston) IST defendants highly similar in background Mentally retarded individuals and adjudicative competence

Criminal Responsibility Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity Distinction with IST important Hinckley verdict prompted change in federal and many state laws

70 System nationwide data lacking

How Successful Is The Insanity Defense? Acquittals seem associated with diagnosis

When Is The Insanity Defense Most Often Used? Foucha v. Louisiana: limits on hospitalization

Insanity Standards Irrationality and compulsion basis M’Naghten Rule (right and wrong test) May be accompanied by “irresistible impulse” Similar to but distinct from “wild beast” test Knowledge of difference between right and wrong Brawner Rule/ALI Mental disorder must substantially and directly influence actions Mental disorder impaired ability to conform conduct to the law Caveat paragraph: disallows defense for criminal psychopaths Durham Rule/Product Test Behavior was a product of the mental illness Gives considerable power to mental health experts If individual is mentally ill, easily excused Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984 Prompted by Hinckley acquittal New federal standard Abolished irresistible impulse (volitional prong) of Brawner Rule Defendant must be “unable to appreciate” wrongfulness of act Guilty but mentally ill Verdict form Supposedly encourages treatment, not reality Goal to reduce number of insanity verdicts Neither achieved goal nor provided treatment

Unique Defenses Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Excusing condition in both violent and nonviolent cases No more successful than other insanity-related defenses May support diminished responsibility Individual claims dissociative state Used to support self-defense in battered woman syndrome cases Pathological Gambler’s Syndrome Compulsive gambling Addictive nature Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) Dissociative state disorder

71 Formerly called multiple personality disorder (MPD) Iatrogenic Validity open to debate Bianchi example Symptoms very subtle Amnesia Complete or partial memory loss Limited amnesia, pathological inability to remember specific episode May be associated with alcoholic intoxication

Mental Disorder and Violence More than three times more prevalent in CJ system than in general population Decrease in services for mentally disordered

Research on the Violence of the Mentally Disordered Majority of mentally disordered do not commit violent offenses Schizophrenia and high scores on PCL-R Schizophrenia and substance abuse MacArthur Research Network Research on potential violence of the mentally disordered

Police and the Mentally Disordered

Mentally Disordered Inmates Diagnosis of mentally disordered inmates

Dangerousness and the Assessment of Risk Concept of dangerousness Risk assessment The Tarasoff Case Duty to warn Duty to protect False positive True positive Predictors of dangerous behavior Best predictor of future behavior is past behavior Risk factors are unique for each individual Current risk assessment measures Dangerous Behavior Rating Scheme (DBRS) Violence Risk Assessment Guide (VRAG) Historical/Clinical/Risk Management scale (HCR-20) LSI-R Static-99

Summary and Conclusions

72 Review Questions and Answers

1. What is meant by a “duty to warn” and a “duty to protect”? And to whom does it pertain?

Duty to warn is the ruling in Tarasoff v. Regents that states when a therapist determines that a patient is a serious danger to another person, the therapist has a duty to warn that person. . Duty to protect is essentially the court’s modification of the duty to warn. In the second Tarasoff case, the court clarified that the therapist need not directly warn the individual, but he or she should take some steps to protect the individual from harm, such as for example by contacting the law enforcement community Although in many states neither doctrine is applied by law, many clinicians use duty to protect as standard practice.

2. What are the conditions under which mentally disordered people may become violent or seriously criminal?

Research suggests that males, diagnosed with present schizophrenia and who have high scores on the PCL-R may become violent. Also, males diagnosed with schizophrenia and who exhibited antisocial behavior at an early age may become violent. Violence is associated with a current serious mental disorder, particularly when a history of violent behavior is also present.

3. Briefly describe four legal standards for insanity and their requirements.

M’Naghten Rule: At the time of the committing act, the individual did not know what her or his actions were wrong. Durham Rule: The accused is not criminally responsible if the unlawful act was the product of a mental disorder. Brawner/ALI Rule: The accused is not responsible if the mental disorder impaired one’s ability to control behavior and influenced the defendant’s mental or emotional process. The Insanity Defense Reform Act: A person may be found NGRI if, due to mental disorder, he or she was unable to appreciate the wrongfulness of conduct at the time of offense.

4. Identify and include symptoms of the four diagnostic categories most relevant to criminal behavior.

Schizophrenic disorders are categorized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized behavior, inappropriate affect, impaired self-care, impaired social interactions, and impaired occupational life. Symptoms must last at least six months. Delusional disorders are characterized by the presence of nonbizarre delusions. These delusions may be persecutory in nature and may be accompanied by anger, resentment, and sometimes violence.

Depressive disorders includes major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and postpartum depression. The individual feels extreme despair, gloom, feelings of worthlessness, slowed psychomotor activity for at least two consecutive weeks. Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterized by a history of continuous behavior in which the rights of others are violated. The 73 person must be at least 18 years old and have had symptoms of conduct disorder before age 15.

5. What are guilty but mentally ill statutes? Why do many legal scholars oppose them?

These statutes offer the court a middle ground for mentally ill defendants. The goal was to hold the defendant blameworthy but recognize the presence of a mental disorder. The statutes were intended to reduce the number of insanity acquittals but also provide treatment for individuals found guilty but mentally ill. Research has shown that the above goals have not been accomplished. In fact, these defendants often receive longer sentences than defendants without mental disorder. Furthermore, although there are exceptions in some states, they are no more likely to receive mental health treatment than defendants without a mental disorder.

6. Give an example of iatrogenic effects in counseling or psychotherapy.

A clinician who firmly believes in a diagnosis such as DID may look for symptoms of the disorder. The therapist may interpret patient’s behaviors as symptoms of the disorder. In turn, the patient believes he or she is afflicted with the disorder. The disorder and its symptoms become very real to the patient.

7. Describe fully and evaluate any three of the unique defenses discussed in the chapter.

PTSD is characterized by flashbacks or nightmares of a traumatic event, feelings of detachment, sleep problems, and difficulty concentrating. These symptoms may not emerge until several months or years after the event. PTSD may be used to support an insanity defense; however, it is more likely to be successful in diminishing responsibility rather than completely absolving someone of responsibility for a crime. Compulsive Gambling is the inability to resist gambling impulses despite the dire consequences. It is often used in defenses involving crimes committed for monetary gain. Dissociative Disorder is the current term for Multiple Personality Disorder. It is characterized by the existence of two or more distinct personalities that recurrently take control of the person’s behavior. It has generally not been a successful defense.

8. Thoroughly explain the difference between incompetence to stand trial (or adjudicative incompetence) and insanity. Include in your answer what researchers have learned about the individuals who receive those legal designations.

Adjudicative incompetence pertains to the inability to participate in a wide variety of court proceedings. It involves two distinct concepts: the competence to proceed and decisional competence. The issue of competency may be raised at any time during the proceedings and refers to one’s mental state or capacity at the time of court proceedings. It is the most common referral for criminally related assessments. Research has shown that individuals who have been designated IST have limited social and occupational skills and a history of prior criminal charges and psychiatric hospitalizations. These individuals are often unmarried, African American, and poorly educated and they have not necessarily been charged with serious offenses. Insanity refers to one’s mental state at a different point in time: the time the crime was committed. If a person was insane at the time of the crime, he or she cannot be held criminally

74 responsible. Defendants who are found not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) are often older female, better educated, single, and have a history of prior hospitalization. However, successful insanity defenses are rare, and since the John Hinckley case most states as well as the federal government have made it more difficult for defendants to claim insanity. Mental illness and insanity are not the same; people who are mentally ill can still be found criminally responsible.

Assignment http://karisable.com/andreayates.htm This website describes the biography, trial and controversy associated with the Andrea Yates case. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/crime/ The story of Ralph Tortorici illustrates a mentally disordered individual’s path through the criminal justice system.

Choose one or both of the above cases and discuss in relation to key concepts in the chapter.

Video http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/11/09/60minutes/main3481145.shtml 60 Minutes report on Gregory Thompson, who is on death row. He is a schizophrenic and psychotic who has been medicated for 23 years http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/asylums/view/? utm_campaign=viewpage&utm_medium=grid&utm_source=grid Video of the mentally ill in prison. Includes discussion of the role of prison staff and law enforcement in caring for this population

Relevant Websites http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org The website of the Death Penalty Information Center. http://www.forensicpsychiatry.ca/risk/instruments.htm The website focuses on Canadian forensic psychiatry. Information on the various risk assessment instruments, including links for further information to the creators. http://www.macarthur.virginia.edu/home.html The website of University of Virginia’s MacArthur Research Network. Information on mental health and law. http://www.psych.org/MainMenu/Research/DSMIV/DSMIVTR.aspx The website of the American Psychiatric Association. Information on the DSM. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml The website of the National Institute of Mental Health http://www.narsad.org/ The website of the Mental Health Research Association. Facts and research information about various mental disorders. http://gainscenter.samhsa.gov/html/conference/default.asp The website of the National GAINS Center. Provides information about effective mental health and substance abuse services for people with co-occurring disorders in contact with the justice system.

75 http://www.cjmh-infonet.org/ The website of the Justice Center’s Criminal Justice/Mental Health Consensus Project. Information to help policymakers, criminal justice professionals and mental health professionals improve response to people with mental illnesses who come into contact with the criminal justice system. http://www.forensicare.vic.gov.au Website of Forensicare, located in Victoria Canada. Provides clinical services, court services, research training and professional education and services for victims of crime.

Suggested Additional Readings

Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2004). Psychology and law: Research and application (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Heilbrun, K., O’Neill, M. L, Stevens, T. N, Strohman, L. K., Bowman, Q, Lo, Y. W. (2004). Assessing normative approaches to communicating violence risk: A national survey of psychologists. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 22, 187-96. Hodgins, S., Alderton, J., Cree, A., Aboud, A. & Mak, T. (2007). Aggressive behaviour, victimisation and crime among severely mentally ill patients requiring hospitalization. British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, 343-350. McGraw, S. L., & Foley, L. A. (2000). Perceptions of insanity based on occupation of defendant and seriousness of crime. Psychological Reports, 86, 163–174. Monahan, J., Steadman, H. J., Robbins, P. C., Appelbaum, P., Banks, S., Grisso, T. et al. (2005). An actuarial model of violence risk assessment for persons with mental disorders. Psychiatric Services, 56, 810-815. Nicholson, R. A., & Kugler, K. E. (1991). Competent and incompetent criminal defendants: A quantitative review of comparative research. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 355–370. Petrila, J. & Redlich, A. D. (2008). Options for diverting persons with mental illness from the criminal justice system. Court Review, 43, 164-173. Porter, S., Birt, A. R., Yuille, J. C., & Herve, H. F. (2001). Memory for murder: A psychological perspective on dissociative amnesia in legal contexts. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 24, 23–42. Simon, R., & Aaronson, D. E. (1988). The insanity defense. New York: Praeger. Slobogin, C. (2000). Mental illness and the death penalty. Mental and Physical Disability Law Reporter, 24, 667–677. Steadman, H. J., McCarty, D. W., & Morrissey, J. P. (1989). The mentally ill in jail. New York: Guilford. Steadman, H. J., Osher, F.C., Robbins, P.C., Case, B., Samuels, S.,(2009). Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates. Psychiatric Services, 60, 761-765. Webster, C. D., Müller-Isberner, R., & Fransson, G. (2002). Violence risk assessment: Using structured clinical guides professionally. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health Services., 1, 2, 43-51. Weiner, I. B., & Hess, A. K. (Eds.), (2006). Handbook of forensic psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.

76 CHAPTER 9 HOMICIDE, ASSAULT, AND FAMILY VIOLENCE

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Define criminal homicide, negligent manslaughter, and aggravated assault. 2. Review the demographics of homicide victims and offenders. 3. Appreciate that criminal homicide is rare compared with other violent offenses. 4. Summarize the available research about juvenile murderers and their victims. 5. Describe and discuss family violence, its dynamics, and its causes.

Chapter Overview

In this chapter, the authors begin to focus on specific offenses. Here, they review the major sociological data on violence, specifically homicide and assault, and summarize empirical and clinical research on family violence. Sociological and official data indicate that homicides are rare compared to the total incidence of violent crime. Nevertheless, because homicides are so serious, police and courts as well as the media give them much attention. The FBI’s UCR program includes a supplementary report on homicides, which some instructors may wish to highlight. In the United States, violent crimes are often committed by young males living in environments that implicitly or explicitly advocate violence for the resolution of conflict. Guns (especially handguns) are commonly used in the crime. Most often, the victim and the offender are family members, friends, or acquaintances, although it should be emphasized that the relationship between victim and offender is often unknown. Instructors should also stress that much violence, particularly assault and sexual assault, never comes to the attention of police. The chapter reviews the national data on family violence in general, spouse abuse, child abuse, elderly abuse, sibling abuse, and child- to-parent abuse. About one of every five criminal homicides in the United States and Canada involves a family member killing another family member. The etiology of family violence is also discussed, with a focus on psychologically-related explanations, including the acquisition and maintenance of violent behavior, frustration, and the offender’s perception of 77 loss of power in the family relationship. Although the authors do not deal with the topic of abusive personalities, some scholars believe such personalities exist. That is, they suggest that there are personality traits common to individuals who engage in serious violence, particularly within their close relationships. For more on this topic, see Dutton (2007), which is included in the list of readings. A major objective of the chapter is to sensitize students to the sheer volume and prevalence of family violence in its many forms. In addition, like all criminal conduct, violence—including violence in the family and between intimate partners—is a complex phenomenon that resists facile explanations and solutions.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Prevalence and incidence of homicide Homicide rare Receives disproportionate attention Availability heuristic

Definitions Criminal homicide Murder Nonnegligent manslaughter Negligent manslaughter Assault Simple assault Aggravated assault

Demographic Factors of Homicide Race and ethnic origin Disproportionate African American, victim and offender Gender differences Highly male Age About half arrested are between 20 and 29 Young also victims Socioeconomic class Relationship to poverty, but official statistics misleading

Circumstances Arguments, process of committing felonies

Weapons 70% homicides involved firearms 78 Juvenile weapon possession Gang members Juveniles able to obtain despite Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act Weapons effect

Sniper attacks FBI studying attacks over 20-year period 96% of snipers were male, 18–24 age group Psychological characteristics unknown Psychological Aspects of Homicide

The FBI Crime Classification Manual Criminal enterprise murder Personal cause murder Sexual homicide Group cause homicide

Roberts, Zgoba, and Shahidullah (2007)’s four classifications General altercation Reactive violence Felony commission homicides Proactive violence

Juvenile Murder Demographics and Psychological Characteristics of Juvenile Murderers Dynamic cascade model Treatment of juveniles who kill

Family Violence Various terms in literature (domestic violence, intimate partner, etc.) Prevalence About 1 in 5 murders and nonnegligent manslaughters Ethnic and minority differences Victims Brief history of modern era of family violence Four major research questions

Incidence, prevalence, and demographics of child abuse and neglect Missing, abducted, runaway, and thrownaway children NISMART Bulletins Munchausen syndrome by proxy Parent seeks medical attention for child Studied as world-wide phenomenon Mortality rate may be as high as 10% of the incidents Shaken baby syndrome (SBS)

79 2/3 perpetrators male Difficult to detect

Infanticide Law, society may treat differently depending on gender Neonaticide Filicide Women mentally disordered, men viewed as cruel Postpartum blues, postpartum depression, postpartum psychosis

Partner and other family abuse Prevalence, incidence and nature of intimate partner abuse Intimate partner violence, 20% of violent crimes against women Battered woman syndrome Sometimes form of PTSD Question whether a single entity: women respond differently Resistance to seeing it as a disorder; victim may be very adaptive Same-sex domestic violence Similar patterns to opposite sex Fewer support services for victims of same sex violence Psychological and demographic characteristics of abusers Motives Alcohol abuse exacerbates, not causes Cuts across socioeconomic, religious and ethnic lines

Prevalence, incidence and nature of abuse and neglect of elderly Complex Interpersonal violence, development issues related to aging Most cases in residential settings Predominant victimization is simple assault Eldercide

Sibling-to-sibling violence Siblicide Sororicide Fratricide

Child-to-parent violence Patricide Matricide Parricide

Multiassaultive families Various violence relationships, husband on wife, sibling on sibling, parent on child, etc. 7% of all families

80 Children high rate of assault against nonfamily members as well

The cycle of violence Coercion theory Violence doesn’t necessarily beget violence

Psychological Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Risk factors must be considered (age, nature of violence, etc.) Overall, more behavioral and emotional problems Both externalized (e.g., aggression) and internalized (e.g., fearful) behaviors Numerous research studies demonstrating negative effects Affect on child’s own cognitive structures, attitudes, critical

The nature and theory of family violence Theories underdeveloped Reciprocal interactionism of family dynamics critical

Cessation of Family Violence Official response and community support both important Neither one highly effective in isolation Male-dominating tradition often seen at root of family violence Efforts to change abuser’s attitudinal system

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answers

1. What is the availability heuristic? How might it account for our perception of violence?

This refers to cognitive shortcuts that people use to make conclusions about their world. With respect to violence, these cognitive shortcuts are often taken after being exposed to frequent and graphic violence presented in the media. One remembers the most frequently publicized and horrific accounts of violence, increasing one’s fear and exaggerating the incidents of violence in their minds. As an example, repeated reports of a home invasion in a community may terrify people and lead them to believe this victimization will happen to them.

2. Briefly discuss the psychological effects of domestic violence on children.

Children who witness domestic violence often exhibit behavioral and emotional problems compared with other children. Research suggests that these children display more aggressive and antisocial behaviors, fearful and inhibited behaviors. Socially they may be less competent. Emotionally they may have lower self-esteem and more depression. In addition, they may believe violence is an acceptable form of conflict resolution and may use violence to solve problems and cope with frustration.

81 3. Define “battered woman syndrome” and briefly state the controversy associated with it.

BWS is a cluster of behavioral and emotional features that are shared by women who have been physically or psychologically abused over a period of time by a dominant male. BWS was first described by Lenore Walker. Symptoms include low self-esteem, depression, and helplessness. The syndrome is controversial because some mental health professionals view it as a separate entity, while others view its symptoms as a form of PTSD. Other mental health professionals do not want this to be considered a “disorder.” They believe that the behavioral patterns of battered women syndrome may in fact represent a woman’s survival and adaptation to a dire situation.

4. Define each of the following: neonaticide, parricide, infanticide, filicide, eldercide, homicide.

Neonaticide is the killing of a newborn within the first 24 hours after birth. Parricide is killing one or more of one’s parents. Infanticide is killing of an infant, but the term is now commonly used to refer to any killing of a young child by a parent. Filicide is the killing of a child older than 24 hours. Eldercide is the killing of an individual over age 65. typically by a relative or caretaker.Homicide is the unlawful killing of a human being by another human being. It is unlawful because it is committed without justification (e.g., self-defense) or excuse (e.g., insanity).

5. Define “weapons effect” and how it might contribute to violence in our society.

The mere site of a weapon (handgun, knife, club, etc.) brings violence related cognitions to mind. Research shows a strong correlation between the presence of a weapon and aggressive behavior. The accessibility and visibility of weapons (aggressive stimuli) in our society, especially in some neighborhoods, is said to promote aggressive behavior and violence.

6. What is the cycle-of-violence hypothesis?

This is the belief that individuals grow up to be abusive because they were abused themselves. For example, children who witness violence in their homes learn to be violent and as adults become violent against others.

7. Compare and contrast shaken baby syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy as specific forms of child abuse.

MSBP is a consistent and chronic form of child abuse in which a parent falsifies or induces injury to a child in order to obtain medical treatment. The abuse is often inflicted by the mother. SBS is abuse involving a parent who shakes a baby so hard that serious head injury results. Research indicates that most perpetrators are male.

Assignment

82 Instructors should be aware that the following is based on an actual incident that was publicized in November 2009. Because numerous details are unknown, students should approach it as a hypothetical case and refrain from attributing facts or guilt to the individuals involved.

Bobby Yurkanin’s 84-year-old father had Alzheimer’s disease. For nearly nine years, Bobby lived with his father, meeting the elder Yurkanins’s needs 24 hours per day, seven days per week. In the years prior to his father’s diagnosis, Bobby had also cared for his mother through her struggle with terminal cancer. Friends describe Bobby as a dedicated caregiver who patiently helped his father through episodes of wandering, combativeness, sudden mood swings and public disrobing. Neighbors and friends reported occasionally hearing Bobby yell or curse at his father in frustration, but nobody had witnessed physical violence. Those familiar with the Yurkanin family history claim that Bobby, an only child, experienced a difficult and traumatic childhood. His father was an alcoholic who reportedly abused Bobby, his mother and his grandmother. In addition, Bobby’s mother suffered frequent psychotic episodes related to a mental disorder. Bobby eventually left the tumultuous home, finished college, spent time in law school and started a paralegal business. In the late 1990s Bobby returned home to care for his ailing mother. Following Mrs. Yurkanin’s death, Bobby and his father sold their New Jersey home and moved to a condo in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. It was on a visit to a Florida beach that Bobby witnessed another episode of his father’s public disrobing. Although witness accounts vary, it appears that an exasperated Bobby dragged his father into waist deep water in an attempt to put his father’s shorts back on. The elder Yurkanin fought Bobby and during the struggle the 84-year-old man’s head went under water. Witnesses report that Bobby eventually pulled his father out of the water but are unsure whether or not Bobby (a skilled life guard) performed CPR once on the sand. However, many witnesses report that Bobby resisted any calls to 911 and refused an ambulance for his father. The next day, Mr. Yurkanin was pronounced dead. An autopsy listed drowning as the cause of death. Several days later, Bobby was arrested on charges of first-degree murder.

Discuss this case in relation to elder abuse and neglect, parricide, eldercide, and the cycle of violence.

Video http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/OnCall/Story?id=6114322&page=1 ABC news report on Maunchausen Syndrome by Proxy http://abcnews.go.com/2020/Astor/ Report on the conviction of Anthony Marshall, son of socialite Brook Astor. An example of elder abuse.

Relevant Websites http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2007/offenses/expanded_information/homicide.html The website of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Provides information and statistics on homicide. 83 http:// http://www.ovw.usdoj.gov/ The U.S. Department of Justice’s Violence Against Women Office. http://www.ncadv.org/ The website for the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence http://ncea.aoa.gov/ncearoot/Main_Site/index.aspx The website of the National Center on Elder Abuse, directed by the U.S. Administration on Aging. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf Canada’s National Clearing House on family violence. http://www.nnedv.org/ Website of the National Network to End Domestic Violence. http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/nismart/04/index.html National Incident Studies of Missing, Abducted, Runaway and Thrownaway children.

Suggested Additional Readings

Dobson, V., & Sales, B. (2000). The science of infanticide and mental illness. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 4, 1098–1112. Duhaime, A., Christian, C. W., Rorke, L. B., & Zimmerman, R. A. (1998). Nonaccidental head injury in infants: The “shaken-baby syndrome.” New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 1822–1829. Dodge, K. A., Greenberg, M. T., Malone, P. S., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (2008). Testing an idealized dynamic cascade model of the development of serious violence in adolescence. Child Development, 79, 1907-1927. Dutton, D. G. (2007). The abusive personality: Violence and control in intimate relationships (2nd ed.). NY: Guilford Press. Dutton, D., & Golant, S. K. (1995). The batterer: A psychological profile. New York: Basic Books. Edleson, J. (1999). Children’s witnessing of adult domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 839–870. Heide, K. M. (2003). Youth homicide: A review of the literature and blueprint for action. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 6–36. Pearl, P. T. (1995). Identifying and responding to Munchausen syndrome by proxy. Early Child Development and Care, 106, 177–185. Plass, P. S. (1993). African-American family homicide: Patterns in partner, parent, and child victimization, 1985 – 1987. Journal of Black Studies, 23, 515–538. Prospero, M. & Vohra-Gupta, S. (2007). Gender differences in the relationship between intimate partner violence victimization and the perception of dating situations among college students. Violence Victimization, 22, 489-502 Reiss, A. J., & Roth, J. A. (Eds.), (1993). Understanding and preventing violence. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Schwartz, J. P., Hage, S. M., Bush, I., & Burns, L. K. (2006). Unhealthy parenting and potential mediators as contributing factors to future intimate violence: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 7, 206–221. Spinelli, M. G. (2001). A systematic investigation of 16 cases of neonaticide. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 811-813. Thomas, C. (2000). The first national study of elder abuse and neglect with contrast from other studies. Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, 12, 1–14.

84 CHAPTER 10 MULTIPLE MURDER, SCHOOL, AND WORKPLACE VIOLENCE

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Define and review research on investigative psychology and profiling. 2. Evaluate the validity of various types of profiling, including psychological autopsies. 3. Summarize what is known about serial killers and their victims. 4. Summarize what is known about mass murderers and their victims. 5. Discuss crime that can lead to multiple murder, including product tampering and school and workplace violence. 6. Review the research on workplace violence and its potential causes

Chapter Overview

This chapter takes a closer look at specific types of criminal homicide that produce multiple victims. We also cover offenses that have the potential for multiple deaths, workplace and school violence. The chapter beings with a review of the investigative methods and criminal profiling used to identify demographic and personality variables and thus narrow the field of suspects. While various forms of profiling have demonstrated little validity, profiling remains a tool used extensively in law enforcement. Most promising is the geographical profile which, interestingly, often receives the least attention. Various forms of multiple murder are first defined then discussed, beginning with serial murder. These offenses are rare, although some researchers suggest that an unknown number of deaths are not recognized as serial murders, primarily because victims are often transients. Serial murderers typically choose specific targets and kill as they become available, rather than out of compulsion. Women serial killers and juvenile serial killers, both very rare, have received recent attention in the literature. Women seem less likely than men to kill strangers; juvenile killings seem prompted by sexual desires. We must be very cautious in drawing these conclusions, though, because the available research was done on very small samples. Mass murders are usually planned and are committed by isolated, disenchanted individuals. Several tragic incidents that occurred in late 2009 after the book went to press should elicit class discussion. The first is the shootings at Fort Hood in Texas, which claimed 13 lives. Although it

85 was initially claimed that the shooter, an Army psychiatrist, was under extreme stress as a result of treating individuals with PTSD, later reports indicated there were many warning signs suggesting sympathy with radical causes and resistance to U.S. involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan. Another incident—a family mass shooting—occurred Thanksgiving weekend when an individual shot several members of his nuclear and extended family. Finally, again on Thanksgiving weekend, a gunman opened fire in a coffee shop near Tacoma, Washington, and killed four law enforcement officers who were working on their laptop computers before going out on their shift. While mass murders of this type typically end in the individual killing himself, in this case the shooter left the scene, was sought by police, and eventually shot to death. Instructors may ask students to compare and contrast what we know about these three separate incidents and apply concepts covered in the chapter. The authors included school and workplace violence in this section, despite the fact that very little of this violence ends in death. However, when it does it receives extensive public attention, such as the school shootings over the past 15 years and the workplace shooting typified by the phrase “going postal.” Students should be reminded that, despite understandable concerns about bullying and violence in schools, young people still are more at risk of being violently victimized outside of the school environment. Likewise, most workplace violence can better be characterized as workplace aggression. Students are often interested in discussing solutions to workplace violence and aggression, focusing upon the types of offenders that have been identified.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Investigative Psychology David Canter, three fundamental questions Crime scene investigative methods Modus operandi Signature Personation Staging Undoing Organized crime scene Disorganized crime scene Mixed crime scene

Psychological Profiling

Criminal Profiling Late 19th century origin; FBI about 1970 Controversial: art or science? Strategy for law enforcement Tries to identify personality traits, demographic variables, behavior patterns Complex; does not identify specific offender, narrows field of suspects Useful in serial offenses; most helpful if psychopathology at scene

86 Little research on utility, reliability, validity Some research professional profilers not better; wide variety of experts

Geographical Profiling Kim Rossmo Analysis of spatial characteristics of crimes Four patterns of serial offenders (hunter, poacher, troller, trapper) Validity not well established, but promising tool Reconstructive Psychological Evaluation (RPE)/Equivocal death analysis Psychological autopsy Used in suspected suicides, other unexplained deaths Reliability and validity debated Reconstruct what occurred in mind/life of deceased

Racial Profiling Highly controversial Based on stereotypical and unjustified views Court cases to challenge (e.g., Wilkins) Particularly applied in drug crime Travel related contexts: roads, airlines No evidence to support valid profile based on race or ethnicity

Multiple Murderers Definitions Serial murder, spree murder, mass murder (classic and family)

Serial Murderers May be increasing, but still very rare Begin offending at later age, 24–40 Average kill: 4 people per year Opportunity and availability rather than urge or compulsion Female serial killers: rare, less likely to kill strangers, health care workers Victimological perspective Victims often transient, less likely to be missed Victims also may be college women and elderly Geographical: most in Western states Ethnic and racial characteristics Juvenile serial murderers: rare, prompted by sexual desires, small samples

Typologies of serial murderers Visionary, mission-oriented, hedonistic, power/control oriented Extensive media coverage Most information based on clinical observations, investigate reports, anecdotes Little systematic study

87 Mass Murderers Classic Frustrated, angry people, helpless about their lives Carefully planned, targets are symbolic of discontent Socially isolated and withdrawn Interest in guns

School Violence Extensive media attention Violence decreasing or staying same; no documented increases Shootings, death resulting, rare Many myths Realities: bullied kids; lack of social support; about half displayed cruelty to animals Guns and weaponry access/fascination; had warned others

Product-tampering Homicide

Workplace Violence Death is atypical; often threats Murder leading cause of death for women at work Murder third leading cause of occupationally-related death Most caused by someone not connected to workplace Four types of offenders Authority homicide; workplace violence vs. workplace aggression Motives: if not robbery, disgruntled workers Authority homicide: white males, depressed, socially isolated

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions

1. Briefly describe the difference between an organized and disorganized crime scene. An organized crime scene indicates planning and premeditation on the part of the offender. The crime scene shows signs that the offender maintained control of himself and the victim. Often, the victim is moved from the abduction area to another secluded area, and perhaps the body is moved to still another area. Furthermore, the offender in an organized crime usually selects victims according to some personal criteria. A disorganized crime scene demonstrates that the offender very probably committed the crime without premeditation or planning. The crime scene indicators suggest the individual acted on impulse or in rage, or under extreme excitement. The disorganized offender obtains his victim by chance, often without specific criteria in mind. 2. Identify and discuss the motives of the four types of serial murders according to Holmes and DeBurger.

88 The visionary is driven by voices or visions that demand that a particular group of people be destroyed and may qualify as psychotic. The mission oriented determines that there is a particular group of people who are undesirable and who must be destroyed or eliminated. There is no evidence of psychosis or mental disorder. The hedonistic strives for pleasure and thrill seeking, and feels that people are objects to use for one’s own enjoyment. The power/control oriented murderer. The crime scene is usually chaotic and has an abundance of physical evidence, often including fingerprints and the murder weapon (Holmes & Holmes, 1998). strives to get satisfaction by having complete life-or-death control over the victim. Sexual components may or may not be present, but the primary motive is the extreme power and control over the helpless victim. These killers also tend to seek specific victims who appear especially vulnerable and easy to victimize. 3. Define geographical profiling, and identify in what ways it is useful to law enforcement. A method of identifying the area of probable residence or the probable area of the next crime of an unknown offender based on the location of and the spatial relationships among various crime sites (Guerette, 2002). It can assist law enforcement by locating the approximate area in which and offender may live, or by narrowing the surveillance and stakeouts to places where the next crime by the offender is most likely to occur 4. Why is the victimology perspective important in understanding serial murder? Victimology focuses on information about the victims in order to apprehend the offender. Examining the opportunity to kill/availability of the victims may tell us important information about the murderer. 5. Define staging, and give examples of when it is most likely to occur. Staging refers to the intentional alteration of a crime scene prior to the arrival of the police, and it is sometimes done by someone other than the perpetrator. 6. Define investigative psychology. The application of psychological research and principles to the investigation of criminal behavior 7. Define racial profiling, and identify the situations it is most likely to occur. Racial profiling is action by law enforcement that relies on the race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than the behavior of an individual. It may occur when people of color travel through predominantly white neighborhoods 8. List and briefly define each of the four categories of workplace violence. Type I. The offender has no legitimate relationship to the workplace or the victim and usually enters the workplace to commit a criminal action such as a robbery or theft. In Type II, the offender is the recipient of some service provided by the victim or workplace and may be either a current or former client, patient, or customer. The Type III offender has an employment-related involvement with the workplace. A Type IV offender has an indirect involvement with the workplace because of a relationship with an employee. 9.What are the psychological characteristics of mass murderers, according to the available research? 89 Mass murderers tend to be frustrated, angry people who feel helpless about their lives. They are usually between the ages of 35–45, and they are convinced there is little chance that things will get better for them. Their personal lives have been a failure by their standards, and they have often suffered some tragic or serious loss, such as a loss of meaningful employment

10. According to the available research, what characteristics are school shooters most likely to have in common? Common characteristics include peer rejection, teasing, bullying, psychological problems, serious depression, aggressiveness, antisocial behavior, and lack of empathy.

Assignment http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/us/22vatech.html?pagewanted=1&_r Read this New York Times article on the background of Virginia Tech shooter Seung-Hui Cho. How may concepts in this chapter help explain his actions?

Relevant Websites http://www.fbi.gov/publications/serial_murder.htm FBI report on serial murderers http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~mlyount/MySites/ForensicPsychology/CriminalProfiling.html Mt.Holyoke site for describing criminal profiling. http://www.fbi.gov/hq/td/academy/bsu/bsu.htm Website of the FBI’s Behavioral Sciences Unit.

Suggested Additional Readings

Alison, L., Bennett, C., Ormerod, D., & Mokros, A. (2002). The personality paradox in offender profiling: A theoretical review of the processes involved in deriving background characteristics form crime scene actions. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 8, 115– 135. Alison, L. J., Smith, M. D., & Morgan, K. (2003). Interpreting the accuracy of offender profiles. Psychology, Crime & Law, 9, 185–195. Canter, D. (1995). Criminal shadows: Inside the mind of the serial killer. London: HarperCollins. Canter, D. (2000). Offender profiling and criminal differentiation. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 5, 23–46. Canter, D., & Alison, L. (Eds.) (1999), Profiling in policy and practice. Dartmouth, UK: Ashgate. Canter, D., & Alison, L. (Eds.) (2000). Profiling property crimes. Dartmough, UK: Ashgate. Duwe, G. (2000). Body-count journalism: The presentation of mass murder in the news media. Homicide Studies, 4, 364–399.

90 Fox, J. A., & Levin, J. (1998). Multiple homicide: Patterns of serial and mass murder. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (Vol. 23). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lance, D. (1988, April). Product tampering. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 20-23. Muller, D. A. (2000). Criminal profiling: Real science or just wishful thinking? Homicide Studies, 4, 234–264. Poythress, N. G., Otto, R. K., Darkes, J., & Starr, L. (1993). APA’s expert panel in the Congressional review of the USS Iowa incident. American Psychologist, 48, 8-15. Snook, B., Canter, D. V., & Bennell, C. (2002). Predicting the home location of serial offenders: A preliminary comparison of the accuracy of human judges with a geographic profiling system. Behavioural Sciences and The Law, 20, 109-118. Snook, B., Cullen, R. M., Bennell, C., Taylor, P. J., & Gendreau, P. (2008). The criminal profiling illusion: What’s behind the smoke and mirrors? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1257-1276. Woodworth, M., & Porter, S. (2002). In cold blood: Characteristics of criminal homicides as a function of psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 436–445.

91 CHAPTER 11 PSYCHOLOGY OF TERRORISM

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Compare several definitions of terrorism and explain the difference between domestic and international terrorism 2. Evaluate the motives of terrorists and goals of terrorist groups. 3. Describe the lone wolf terrorist. 4. Identify the social contexts that spawn and promote terrorism. 5. Present a typology of terrorism in order to emphasize the multidimensional features of persons who engage in it. 6. Identify psychological concepts that contribute to the understanding of terrorist activity.

Chapter Overview

Despite the long history of terrorist acts worldwide, there is no question that terrorism became most salient in the United States in the 1990s and has captured the most attention since the events of September 11, 2001. Although the authors begin the chapter with a working definition of terrorism, readers should be aware that there are many other definitions as well as multiple interpretations of what qualifies as a terrorist act. It may be a revealing class exercise to have students find alternate definitions or commentaries. A variety of typologies and classifications of terrorists have been offered in the literature. The authors presented the FBI’s classifications of terrorist groups, but it is critical to keep in mind that these classifications do not capture the full complexity of terrorist activity. It seems most helpful to classify individuals or terrorist groups according to their motivations, but in many cases the motivations can only be presumed. Terrorists and terrorist groups do not subject themselves to empirical research. Most scholars and law enforcement agencies would probably agree that the United States has more to fear from domestic than international terrorism, despite the horrors associated with September 11. Radical extremists—particularly at the right-wing fringes—exist and congregate in many locations throughout the country and often operate under the radar of law enforcement. Instructors interested in pursuing this topic with their students are referred to several of the additional readings cited below. In addition, two journals (Criminology and Public Policy and

92 Criminal Justice and Behavior) published special issues on terrorism and homeland security in August and December 2009, respectively. For many, if not most individuals, the decision to engage in terrorist acts probably requires some degree of cognitive restructuring. The extensive planning needed and the horrifying nature of terrorism requires that one find a way of setting aside one’s typical standards of behavior and justifying the violence that results. Social psychologists note that those who engage in terrorism disengage themselves from their internal codes of conduct through the use of euphemistic language, dehumanization of the victims, and—if they do not act alone or in a small group—obedience to the authority that directs their actions. Many of these same strategies can be applied to a discussion of violence in general, not just terrorist activity. The use of euphemistic language is a good case in point, and students often enjoy proposing their own candidates to illustrate this. (“Women don’t dump me, they move on,” one student wryly commented.) This point is made in the second half of the chapter, when the authors focus on some of the psychological research directed at understanding violence.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Definitions Vast array of definitions in literature Common ground: violence toward civilian populations, instill fear May be perpetrated by individuals, groups, governments Domestic and international Noteworthy examples in U.S.: Oklahoma City, events of September 11

Classification of Terrorist Groups FBI system: political leanings Radical environmental, special interest extremists, NBC, bioterrorism

Terrorist typology (Terrorism Research Center) Rationally motivated: want to get message across; destroy infrastructures Psychologically motivated: failure and inadequacy; social alienation Culturally motivated: threat to way of living or culture

Psychosocial Context of Terrorism Characteristics/attitudes that facilitate terrorist recruitment Cultural devaluation: a group selected as scapegoat Perceptions of inequality, relative deprivation, injustice Strong hierarchy, obedience to authority, strong respect for authority Motives and Justifications No single motive Cognitive restructuring needed (three processes) Moral justification, allowing one to engage in reprehensible conduct Euphemistic language: terms that seem innocuous Advantageous comparison: way of life superior to target group’s

93 Additional Disengagement Practices Dehumanization (target less than human) Displacement/diffusion of responsibility (following orders) Characteristic of crimes of obedience Similar to deindividuation

Psychological Factors in General Violent Crime Impulsivity Violence more likely to be learned response to dealing with conflict Habit strength; learned behavior comes immediately to the forefront Subculture may advocate Emotional arousal inhibits cognitive processing

Overcontrolled and undercontrolled offenders (Megargee) Undercontrolled personality Few inhibitions against aggressive behavior Aggression is a behavioral pattern Habitual response Overcontrolled personality Socialized or oversocialized individual Punishment for violating rules Frustration and provocation may overwhelm Eruption in violence Violent offenders likely differ along continuum Above personalities may be seen in non violent populations as well Learned helplessness concept; nothing can be done

Cognitive self-regulation Self-regulator mechanisms (or lack thereof) Sophisticated cognitive structures, evaluate behavior in complex ways Simple cognitive structures, simplistic beliefs Violence may reflect simplistic beliefs Also may result from disengagement from one’s personal standards under high arousal Disengagement from personal standards Under high arousal If dehumanization of others occurs With displacement of authority

Deindividuation and Crowd Violence Powerful effect of crowds on individual behavior Simulation research documents effect (e.g., Zimbardo, Diener) Anonymity and features of the victim manipulated Normal standards set aside

94 Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answers

1. How are terrorist groups classified?

Terrorist groups are classified according to their political leanings. Right-wing terrorists have an antigovernment or racist ideology, and they often engage in hate crimes or violence. Left- wing terrorists may arise out of legitimate protest activities; they often agitate against government policies and become terrorists when they use violent means, such as bombings, to publicize their messages. Special-interest extremists are dedicated to one issue, such as being anti-abortion or against taxation. Radical-environmental groups are concerned about activities of the government or corporations that threaten the environment. Finally, NBC terrorists capitalize on the public’s fear of nuclear/biological harm; they use dirty bombs or chemical or biological agents to carry out their illegal activities.

2. Summarize the three-part typology of the individual terrorist presented in the chapter.

The rationally-motivated terrorist is concerned about the goals and consequences of his or her actions. This terrorist tries to avoid loss of life but focuses on destroying buildings or other symbolic structures to get a message across. Activities of this terrorist are carefully planned. Psychologically-motivated terrorists are driven by a need for revenge. They generally associate with a group that will provide a collective identity and that has a charismatic leader, but the exception is the lone wolf terrorist, who does not require this group identification. Culturally- motivated terrorists are concerned about threats to their culture, religious identity, or way of life.

3. What are the main characteristics of the lone wolf terrorist?

Lone wolf terrorists usually operate outside the direct influence of a leader, although they may claim to be acting on behalf of a special interest group. They rarely belong to organized terrorist groups or networks. They carefully plan their attacks and usually act alone, although they may use the help of one or two other individuals. They demonstrate poor interpersonal and social skills and often live alone. They are more likely than other terrorists to be emotionally disturbed or mentally disordered in the clinical sense.

4. Define moral justification and how it may play a part in terrorist acts.

Moral justification is a way in which individuals tell themselves that actions they would normally disapprove of are necessary for a greater good. For example, killing others is justified to preserve a way of life or fight oppression. Moral justification is one aspect of the cognitive restructuring process, and it is typically engaged in times of war or even in carrying out the responsibilities of one’s employment, such as a police officer killing in the line of duty. While we accept moral justification in these areas, we generally do not accept it when it is used to justify 95 terrorist activities.

5. Define cognitive restructuring, with particular emphasis on how advantageous comparisons play an important role in the development of terrorism.

Cognitive restructuring is the general term to cover the processes that occur when individuals have to convince themselves to do something that is out of their normal sphere of behavior. It includes such processes as moral justification, euphemistic language, and advantageous comparison.

6. Define euphemistic language and advantageous comparison, and identify how they are linked to terrorism.

Both terms refer to processes used in cognitive restructuring. A euphemism is a “nice” way of saying something that isn’t so nice. We employ euphemistic language to avoid language that is less appealing. For example, in everyday language, we say someone “passed” rather than “died,” or we refer to “pre-enjoyed vehicles” rather than “used cars.” Euphemistic language refers specifically to the terms that may be used to make one’s actions more acceptable and less reprehensible. In advantageous comparison, individuals are convinced that their ideology or way of life is better than those of their enemies or those they are attempting to defeat. They also believe their enemies have engaged in cruelty and inhumane activities, which justifies their own actions that normally would be considered reprehensible. It is believed that terrorism training camps employ many euphemistic terms to justify what would otherwise be considered reprehensible behavior. They are also used extensively in military operations, such as “serving the target” or “collateral damage.”Likewise, terrorists make liberal use of advantageous comparison to recruit young people to their cause. Recruits are persuaded that the targets of terrorist activities are evil or have historically oppressed them.

Assignment http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2009330156_holocaustshooting12.html A Seattle Times report on James von Brunn, who walked into the U.S. Holocaust Museum and opened fire. What type of terrorist is von Brunn?

Relevant Websites http://www.bt.cdc.gov/bioterrorism/ The Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s bioterrorism information. http://www.interpol.int Interpol http://www.fbi.gov : The Federal Bureau of Investigations official website. http://www.nihap.net: The website of the National Institute for Homeland Security and Anti- Terrorism Preparedness (NIHAP) http://www.terrorism.com: The website of the Terrorism Research Center (TRC) 96 Suggested Additional Readings

Freilich, J. D., Chermak, S. M., & Caspi, D. (2009). Critical events in the life trajectories of domestic extremist white supremacist groups: A case study analysis of four violent organizations. Criminology and Public Policy, 8, 497-530. Levant, R. F. (2002). Psychology responds to terrorism. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33, 507–509. LoCicero, A., & Sinclair, S. J. (2008). Terrorism and terrorist leaders: Insights from developmental and ecological psychology. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 31, 227- 250. Moghaddam, F. M., & Marsella, A. J. (Eds.). (2004). Understanding terrorism: Psychosocial roots, consequences, and interventions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Sternberg, R. J. (2003). A duplex theory of hate: Development and application of terrorism, massacres, and genocide. Review of General Psychology, 7, 299–328. Sike, A. (2008). Holy warriors: Exploring the psychological processes of Jihadi radicalization. European Journal of Criminology, 5, 99-123. Useem, B., & Clayton, O. (2009). Radicalization of U.S. prisoners. Criminology and Public Policy, 8, 561-592. Victoroff, J. (2005). The mind of the terrorist: A review and critique of psychological approaches. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49, 3-42.

97 CHAPTER 12 SEXUAL ASSAULT

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Define rape and its many legal complexities. 2. Examine the psychological effects of rape on victims. 3. Briefly review legislation to deter sex offending. 4. Describe in detail the Massachusetts Treatment Center’s classification system of rapists to highlight the heterogeneity of rape offenders. 5. Describe the Groth typology of rape offenders. 6. Identify attitudes toward rape and the extent of rape myths in society. 7. Evaluate the effects of violent pornography on sex offending.

Chapter Overview

This chapter deals with rape, particularly rape of adult women. (Sex offenses against children, and other sex offenses, are covered in Chapter 13.) Although the term “sexual assault” is preferred in much of the research as well as in statutes, government statistics continue to be collected on “rape”—as defined in the UCR, and researchers continue to identify and refine rape typologies. Throughout the chapter we use the male pronoun to refer to the offender because by all indications, rapists are overwhelmingly male. Nevertheless, research is beginning to address the phenomenon of both adult and juvenile female sex offending, including rape. The authors begin the chapter with various definitions of rape and statistics on its incidence and prevalence. Rape is known to be widely underreported, especially in official data. Victimization data provide a better sense of its prevalence, with some studies suggesting that a woman has a one in five chance of being raped during her lifetime. It is important to stress that current research suggests that women have a better chance of avoiding a completed rape if they employ resistance strategies, as well as to highlight those strategies that have been found to be ineffective (e.g., pleading). Rape is committed for a variety of reasons by a variety of offenders. Major motivations appear to be to control, harm, derogate, or embarrass the victim (some prefer to be called survivors). In some situations, the rapist may interpret his behavior as harmless, believing that his victims enjoy being “roughed up.” Nevertheless, the effect is invariably the opposite. The psychological

98 and social damages to the victims are incalculable. Sexual assault by husbands, dates, friends, and acquaintances is more frequent than commonly supposed. The chapter covers in some detail the Massachusetts Treatment Center typology of rapists, which has been revised (MTC: R-3) to take better account of rapist motivations. The authors also covered the Groth typology, primarily because it is still commonly used, particularly in clinical practice. However, the MTC scheme is the most heavily researched and is subjected to continuing revision, facts that should be emphasized with students. It is also important to stress that typologies should always be approached with caution—individuals do not necessarily fit neatly into the groupings. Nevertheless, they are useful ways of organizing our cognitions and, for clinicians, helpful in developing treatment strategies. In this chapter and the one following the authors attempt to develop in the student an appreciation of the many different forms of sexual offending, together with a realization that offenders differ, not only in behaviors, but also in motivations and amenability to treatment. Treatment of sexual offenses can be highly successful if the offender wants to change. Treatment must not only focus on the cessation of the unacceptable sexual conduct, but also on maintenance of a non-offending lifestyle.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Introduction Variety of offending; sexual offenders not a homogeneous group Recent attention to juvenile sexual offending Adolescents, particularly males, some attention to females Pre-pubescent children more commonly than supposed Instrumental sexual aggression Expressive sexual aggression Devastating effect on victims

Legislation on Sex Offenders Federal and virtually all states Sex offender registration and notification laws; vary in requirements Wetterling Act, Megan’s Law, Lynchner Act discussed VAWA; child sex tourism; Child Pornography Prevention Act

Rape Definitions Forcible rape Statutory rape Rape by fraud Date rape (acquaintance rape): widely underreported, as is rape in general Classification of rape offenses

Incidence and prevalence of rape

99 Impact on victims

Rape offender characteristics Young, often in conflict with society High recidivism Victims of past abuse, but less so than child molesters Occupationally, blue collar or unemployed

Assumptions why men rape: Various attributions Uncontrollable or irresistible impulse, mental illness or disease (e.g., sexual addition), Drugs, Victim provocation Admitters and deniers Just world hypothesis revisited Self-reported reasons Classification of Rape Patterns Massachusetts Treatment Center classification Displaced aggression, displaced anger, anger-retaliation rapists (same) Compensatory rapists Sexually aggressive/sadistic rapist Impulsive/exploitative rapist The MTC:R3 Revision of above classification; 4 major types, 9 subtypes Focus on motivations (opportunity, pervasive anger, sexual gratifications, vindictiveness) Importance of social competence (high and low) Heavily researched classifications Strategies of resistance The Groth Typology Little empirical testing; still widely used in clinical settings Anger rape Power rape Above two are about evenly divided

Sadistic rape—smallest proportion Etiology or causes of rape Sexual socialization Immaturity hypothesis Attitudes and beliefs support male dominance Association of aggression and violence with sexual arousal Role of fantasy and imagination Rape and pornography Pornography can facilitate aggressive, sexual behavior toward women Reaction of depicted victim relevant

100 Levels of violence are crucial For some, depictions of pain are arousing Violent pornography: redeeming social value? Harmful effects difficult to document Rape myths Attitudes widely held, false Misogynistic attitudes often accompany

Sexual Assault and Pornography Two Presidential commissions studied effects; different conclusions Strong support for causal link lacking Under some conditions, pornography facilitates aggressive, sexual behavior Extremely violent stimuli, whether or not pornographic Reactions of victims crucial; if women “enjoy,” rape myths encouraged

Review Questions and Answers

1. Briefly describe the actions taken in the past decade by federal and state lawmakers to protect potential victims from sexual offenders.

Most legislative changes fall under the general category of registration and notification laws. For example, federal and state laws require classify sex offenders into levels or tiers and require them to register with law enforcement officials after conviction or after release from prison. The length of the registration period (e.g., every year for five years or every year for life) varies with the seriousness level of the offender’s crime. Lists of registered sex offenders are now widely available on the Internet. When a sex offenders moves into an area, notification provisions vary according to the seriousness of the offender’s crime. In some cases, active notification of persons in the neighborhood are required, while in other cases law enforcement notifies certain institutions, such as schools and day care centers. In addition to registration and notification, ordinances in some communities restrict where sex offenders live or limit the number of offenders who can reside in an apartment building. All of these laws are controversial, and some scholars argue that they violate rights or give a false confidence to the community.

2. Describe four common attributions used by rapists to justify their sexual behavior.

The uncontrollable impulse attribution suggests that a sex drive is so intense that the individual is powerless over his behavior. Mental illness attribution suggests that the individual has a deep-rooted mental disorder or aberration, is sick, and is in need of help. It is a “disease model” of sexual behavior. Drug attribution is a third belief; in this, the individual argues that he was under the influence of alcohol or illegal drugs that had a disinhibiting effect on his behavior. In victim attribution, the offender argues that the rape was the fault of the victim, who provoked him, led him on, or let things get out of hand.

3. What is date rape, and what is the estimated incidence?

101

Date rape, also called acquaintance rape, is sexual assault that occurs during a date or other social occasion. It is nonconsensual intercourse that may be, but is not necessarily, facilitated by alcohol or the ingestion of drugs specifically intended to disable the victim. It is a controversial topic; victims are more likely to blame themselves for the rape than they would in the case of a stranger rape. Furthermore, the alleged rapist’s main defense is typically that the victim consented. It is believed that many if not most victims of date rape do not report the incident because they fear ridicule, repercussions, or that they will not be believed.

4. What is the just-world hypothesis, and how might it enter into sexual assault?

The just world hypothesis was proposed by Lerner, who identified individuals who believe people get what they deserve: good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. A person who is a “just worlder” is likely to believe that others bring misfortune upon themselves. Therefore, a crime victim may have done something to provoke the assault or the victimization. Researchers have found that “just worlders” tend to be socially conservative and authoritarian in their thinking. Thus, they are more likely than non-just-worlders to believe that the victim of a sexual assault was at fault. Similarly, the rapist who is a “just worlder” probably believes the victim lead him on, really wanted to be rape, or otherwise deserved the attack.

5. Define and provide examples of rape myths.

Although some recent research suggests that rape myths are disappearing, particularly among the young, there is still evidence that they exist. Rape myths are wrongly held beliefs about the crime of rape and its victims. Some examples of rape myths are the following: women really want to be raped; it’s impossible to rape someone who doesn’t want to be raped; rape does not hurt, particularly if the victim is sexually active; men cannot control their sexual urges, therefore women must take responsibility for leading men on; women who dress provocatively or hang out in bars are asking for it.

6. How did Groth classify rapists? Be sure to describe all of his classifications.

Groth classified rapists based on their motivations, and he believed that the motivation was never only sexual. He offers three categories. In anger rape, the offender is motivated by contempt for women or the victim, often prompted by a previous conflict with that individual or with other women. He engages in acts that will degrade or humiliate the victim. In power rape, the offender wants to establish control over the victim and will use only the amount of force necessary to have her submit. In sadistic rape, the offender has both sexual and aggressive motivations. He is aroused by his victim’s distress and torment, and his crime often involves bondage, torture, or other forms of injury.

7. Does pornography play a crucial role in sex crimes against women and children?

It appears from the research that pornography that is violent and/or degrading has a strong negative influence on some individuals, and therefore plays a role in sex crimes. “Soft

102 pornography,” that is neither violent nor degrading does not have this influence. In addition, child pornography, depicting sexually explicit images of actual children, is both illegal and is believed to affect child sex offenders.

Assignment http://crime.about.com/od/murder/p/homolka.htm Read about the case of Karla Homolka A woman convicted of raping, drugging and torturing young women, including her sister. How would she be classified according to the MTC:R3 and the Gross typology?

Media http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4722938.ece Austian survivor Elizabeth Fritzl testifies about the years of physical, sexual and emotional abuse she suffered after being kidnapped by her father.

Relevant Websites http://www.rainn.org The official homepage of the Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network. http://www.ovw.usdoj.gov/: The Office on Violence Against Women of the Department of Justice. http://www.atsa.com The Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers.

Suggested Additional Readings

Becker, J. V., Hall, S. R., & Stinson, J. D. (2001). Female sexual offenders: Clinical, legal, and policy issues. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 1, 29–50. Gretton, H. M., McBride, M., Hare, R. D., O’Shaughnessy, R., & Kumka, G. (2001). Psychopathy and recidivism in adolescent sex offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 427– 449. Hanson, R. K., & Harris, A. J. R. (2000). Where should we intervene? Dynamic predictors of sexual offense recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 6–35. Laws, D. R. (Ed.), (1989). Relapse prevention with sex offenders. New York: Guilford. Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133–164. Marshall, W. L. (1996). Assessment, treatment, and theorizing about sex offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23, 162–199. Marshall, W. L. (1999). Diagnosing and treating sexual offenders. In A. K. Hess, & I. B. Weiner (Eds.), The handbook of forensic psychology, 111, 329–339.

103 Seto, M. C., Maric, A., & Barbaree, H. E. (2001). The role of pornography in the etiology of sexual aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 35-53. Ullman, S. E. (1997). Review and critique of empirical studies of rape avoidance. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 24, 177-204. Ullman, S. E. (1999). Social support and recovery from sexual assault: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 4, 343-358. Ullman, S. E. (2007). A 10-year-update of “Review and critique of empirical studies of rape avoidance.” Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 411-429.

104 CHAPTER 13 SEXUAL ASSAULT OF CHILDREN AND YOUTH AND OTHER SEXUAL OFFENSES

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Define pedophilia and related concepts. 2. Describe the demographic and other characteristics of child molesters. 3. Discuss the research literature on classification systems of child molesters. 4. Summarize what is known about the recidivism rates of adult and juvenile child molesters. 5. Discuss the sexual deviations of exhibitionism, voyeurism, and fetishism. 6. Identify treatment approaches to reducing sex offender recidivism

Chapter Overview

This chapter follows upon the previous one, with discussion of sexual offenses against children and coverage of other sexual offenses, specifically exhibitionism, voyeurism, and fetishes. Instructors should note that, although the offenses covered in this chapter are crimes, the authors use clinical terminology, including pedophilia and the other paraphilias. It is also crucial to emphasize to students that the paraphilias do not necessarily result in criminal actions. Each topic begins with definitions and a summary of available statistical information. Data obtained from official records, offender self-reports, victimization data, and studies on treatment dropouts all indicate that the sexual abuse of children widespread. In each section the authors discuss the characteristics of the offenders and any relevant typologies, situational factors associated with the crime, and theoretical explanations. The MTC:CM3 system and the Groth typology were again discussed, this time with reference to the sexual assault of children. The sex offenders discussed in this chapter have similarities but also many differences from the rapists discussed in the previous chapter. Aggressive pedophiles have many of the same characteristics as rapists who victimize adults. The cognitive skills of pedophiles are typically lower than those of the general population and lower than those of rapists who victimize adults. As a group, pedophiles tend to be older, and most do not use physical violence in perpetrating their assaults. Nevertheless, regardless of the level of coercion or of violence used, victims of these sexual assaults endure considerable psychological trauma, sometimes throughout their lives.

105 Juvenile sex offending, including offending by girls, has received quite a bit of attention in recent years. It is a topic that also holds considerable interest for students. Juveniles account for a high proportion of the sex crimes against young children; in some, but certainly not all cases, this represents a continuation of a cycle that began when the offender was himself or herself a victim. The sexual abuse of children is a sensitive topic and one which may strongly affect students, some of whom were invariably abused themselves. It is important to emphasize that stranger abuse is rare compared with abuse that occurs within the home, either by relatives or caretakers. It should also be emphasized that treatment programs for both adult and juvenile sex offenders are continually being implemented, revised, and evaluated. Several articles on MST with juvenile sexual offenders are included in the list of additional readings.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Pedophilia—Introduction Pedophilia and pedophile defined DSM-IV Hebephilia, extrafamilial and intrafamilial child molestation, paraphilia

Incidence and Prevalence of Pedophilia Like other sex offenses, underreported Children sexually victimized at higher rates than adults Both victimization and self-report data indicate considerable offending Recent meta-analysis: 13% of male children, 30–40% of female children victimized

Situational and Victimization Characteristics Offender usually male Heterosexual pedophilia most common Small minority chooses victims from both sexes Stranger victimizations rare

Types of sexual contact Not always physical coercion Violence (as traditionally defined) not always involved

Psychological effects Produces long-term psychological damage Both violent and non-violent offending Depression most common effect; also tension, anxiety, sleep problems, fears Younger children most susceptible to trauma Type of abuse (fondling, fellatio, etc.) not significant

Offender Characteristics Similarities with rapists 106 Alcohol; school failure; unstable work histories; low socioeconomic class No single “profile” Gender: predominantly male; in some cases women passively allow it to occur Age: pedophiles older than rapists (75% over 30) Older pedophiles prefer immature children (10 or under) Attitudes toward children Low self-control, but more than rapists Cognitive functions; IQ lower in pedophiles, not rapists Occupational and socioeconomic status; unskilled, semiskilled Interpersonal and social skills: generally below average

Classification of Child Offender Patterns MTC: four types Fixated/immature pedophile Regressed pedophile Exploitative pedophile Aggressive/sadistic pedophile The MTC:CM3 Revision in recent years: level of fixation and social competence The Groth Classification Model Immature or fixated offenders Regressed offenders Sex pressure Sex force (exploitative and sadistic) Female Sex Offender Typology Heterosexual nurturers Noncriminal homosexual offenders Female sexual predators Young adult child exploiters Homosexual criminal Aggressive homosexual offenders

Juvenile Sex Offenders Almost always victimize own age or younger Divided into rape and molestation Up to 50% of molestation may be committed by juveniles Child molesters socially isolated; limited interaction with peers More likely than rapists to have been molested themselves

Female juveniles sex offenders: prevalence under-reported Victims much younger, 5 years or more Child care or babysitting High percentage had history of being abused Depressed, poor self concept, suicide ideation

107 Recidivism of Pedophiles Difficult to confirm Re-offending studies, ranges from about 20% to about 40% Research on treatment dropout suggest higher

Recidivism of Juvenile Sex Offenders less likely to re-offend; age out and/or effective treatment

Theories of Potential Causes Emotional congruence theories Sexual arousal theories Blockage theories Disinhibition theories

Exhibitionism Primarily Western phenomenon Situational Characteristics Offender Characteristics Onset after age 30 is rare, except organic brain damage or senility Average intelligence, education, work histories, interests Many considered socially and sexually inadequate by self and others No evidence of mental disorder May have previous sex offenses, e.g., voyeurism Motivation: sexual exceitement Learned behavior pattern

Voyeurism and Fetishism Fetishism Partialism Learned behaviors Fetishism: privacy of home Problem when commit crime to obtain fetish items (e.g., burglary)

Treatment of Sex Offenders Risk, need, responsivity (RNR) Evocative Therapy Psychoeducational counseling Drug treatment Cognitive behavior therapy Relapse Prevention (RP)

Treatment of Juvenile Sex Offenders Important to recognize heterogeneity of offenders Cognitive behavioral programs Evaluation of Treatment Programs

108 Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answers

1. Define partialism and paraphilia.

Paraphilia is a broad term that consists of recurrent, sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving nonhuman objects, humiliation of oneself or partner or with children or other nonconsenting persons, that occur over a period of at least 6 months. Partialism refers to a sexual interest in a body part not commonly associated with sexual arousal.

2. What are the major differences between extrafamilial pedophiles and intrafamilial pedophiles?

Extrafamilial pedophiles have sexual contact with a minor outside the immediate family. Intrafamilial pedophiles have sexual contact with a minor within the immediate family.

3. List four demographic characteristics of pedophiles. Pedophiles tend to be older, have a high rate of high school failure and dropout, unstable work histories, and come from low socioeconomic class.

4. Outline the pedophile typologies of the MTC and the Groth system. Which is better supported by the research literature?

The MTC classifies pedophiles as (1) the fixated type, (2) the regressed type, (3) the exploitative type, and (4) the aggressive or sadistic type. The typology was then revised to include the following changes: (1) Divide the regressed and fixated types into three separate factors— degree of fixation on children, the level of social competence achieved, and the amount of contact an offender has with children, (2) incorporate into the scheme a new narcissistic offender type, and (3) partition the violence of the sexual assault into physical injury and sadistic components

Groth classifies offenders as immature-fixated child offender and regressed child offender. He futher divided child offenders according to intention-sex pressure and sex force offenders. Sex force are futher divided into exploitative and sadistic type. The MTC is better supported in the research literature.

5.List some of the justifications that pedophiles use for their sexual behavior. Emotional congruence, sexual arousal, blockage and disinhibition.

6. In what major way does a fixated pedophile differ from a regressed pedophile?

A fixated pedophile has a long history of preferring children, both sexually and socially. He feels more comfortable with children and has inadequate adult relationships. The regressed

109 pedophile had a relatively normal adolescence and social relationships but later developed feelings of masculine inadequacy. Factors such as divorce, alcohol abuse and unstable work history are common.

7. What three treatment principles are represented in the acronym RNR? Briefly define each. Risk: Treatment that targets the offender who is likely to reoffend Need: Treatment that targets characteristics related to reoffending Responsivity: Treatment that is matched to the offenders learning styles and abilities

Assignment

The following hypothetical is based on an actual case and court proceeding, although some of the details have been changed.

A federal district court judge recently allowed an individual convicted of child sexual assault and possessing child pornography to spend the holidays with his family before beginning to serve a prison term. Prosecutors had argued that the offender was a danger to the children of the community and asked for his immediate confinement. The offender told the judge he had been sexually abused as a child, and that this was the reason for his transgressions. He also indicated that he had been receiving treatment for his sexual behavior and now understood why he had behaved as he did. The judge told the offender that the past victimization was not the explanation for his crimes; rather, he was “genetically programmed” to prefer children. The judge also indicated that he had “no faith in psychiatrists and their theories.” Respond to the comments made by the judge, basing your responses on concepts and research covered in this chapter.

Video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TY6tQiMlD8Y Dateline NBC’s interview with Debra LaFavre, a teacher who had sex with an underage student. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/33062980/ns/dateline_nbc-crime_reports/ MSNBC investigates the Jaycee Duggard case, including the history of Phillip Garrido.

Relevant Websites http://www.csom.org The website of the Center for Sex Management, sponsored by the Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice http://www.1in6.org Website designed to assist men who have experienced abusive sexual experiences in childhood live healthier, happier lives. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/ U.S. Department of Justice’s Office for Victim’s of Crime

110 http://www.actforkids.org Website of ACT for Kids, a program of the Sexual Assault and Family Trauma (SAFeT) Response Center in Spokane, Washington, distributes resources to prevent and heal sexual abuse and other forms of family and social trauma. http://www.ncsby.org The website of the National Center on Sexual Behavior of Youth http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org The website of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention www.atsa.com The Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers.

Suggested Additional Readings

Borduin, C.M., Schaeffer, C.M., & Heiblum, N. (2009). A randomized clinical trial of multisystemic therapy with juvenile sexual offenders: Effects on youth social ecology and criminal activity. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 77, 26-37. Freeman, N. J., & Sandler, J. C. (2008). Female and male sex offenders: A comparison of recidivism and risk factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1394-1413. Gannon, T. A., & Polaschek, D. L. L. (2006). Cognitive distortions in child molesters: A re- examination of key theories and research. Clinical Psychology and Review, 26, 1000- 1019. Gannon, T. A., & Rose, M. R. (2008). Female child sexual offenders: Towards integrating theory and practice. Aggression and violent behavior, 12, 402-416. Hanson, R. K. (2001). Age and sexual recidivism: A comparison of rapists and child molesters. Ottawa, ON: Solicitor General Canada. Henggeler, S.W., Letourneau, E.J., Chapman, J.E., Borduin, C.M., Schewe, P.A., & McCart, M.R. (2009). Mediators of change for multisystemic therapy with juvenile sexual offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 451-462. Hunter, J. A., Figueredo, A. J., Malamuth, N. M., & Becker, J. V. (2003). Juvenile sex offenders: Toward the development of a typology. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 15, 27-48. Knight, R. A., Carter, D. L., & Prentky, R. A. (1989). A system for the classification of child molesters: Reliability and application. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 3-23. Letourneau, E. J., & Armstrong, K. S. (2008). Recidivism rates for registered and nonregistered juvenile sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 20, 393- 408. Letourneau, E.J., Henggeler, S.W., Schewe, P.A., Borduin, C.M., McCart, M.R., Chapman, J.E., & Saldana, L. (2009). Multisystemic therapy for juvenile sexual offenders: 1-year results from a randomized effectiveness trial. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 89-102. Prentky, R. A., Knight, R. A., & Lee, A. F. S. (1997). Child sexual molestation: Research issues. NIJ Research Issues. Rockville, MD: National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Available: www.NCJRS.ORG/txtfiles/163390.txt. Vandiver, D. M., & Walker, J. T. (2002). Female sex offenders: An overview and analysis of 40 cases. Criminal Justice Review, 27, 284-300.

111 CHAPTER 14 PROPERTY AND PUBLIC ORDER CRIME

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Provide an overview of property crimes. 2. Sketch burglary, including property cues, motives, demographics, and cognitive processes of burglars. 3. Discuss the psychological effects of burglary on victims. 4. Examine motor vehicle theft, including carjacking and the motives and decision making of offenders. 5. Discuss the prevalence of shoplifting along with motives and other psychological factors. 6. Review the definitions and typologies of “white-collar crime.” 7. Review issues relative to prostitution and sexual trafficking.

Chapter Overview

Property crime, although less dramatic and often less interesting to the student, is perhaps far more important than violent crime in the lives of most of us. Much property crime is also referred to as economic crime, because it is primarily carried out for the purpose of improving one’s economic status. A very large majority of the general population is victimized in a variety of ways by such crime. If we are not victimized directly, then the prices of retail goods are certainly affected by shoplifting, cybercrime, and employee theft. Insurance rates are influenced by crimes like auto theft and burglary. Corporate crime, a topic rarely addressed in the psychological literature, can threaten public health and safety, limit employment opportunities, and siphon public money away from human services and into corporate coffers. The chapter looks at the psychological effects on victims, who may experience not only stress and fear but also a sense of a trust being violated. There are very few studies on the perpetrators of these crimes. However, psychological profilers have become involved in this area, noting that offenders try to communicate to both victims and police investigators. Thus, it should be stressed to the student that profiling is simply not limited to the serial killer or rapist, but is potentially useful for solving burglaries, and the robberies and arsons to be discussed in Chapter 15. One of the main themes of the present chapter centers on the ways property or economic offenders minimize, neutralize, deny, and justify their actions to themselves and

112 others. Perceived control of the environment is a secondary theme, and is characteristic of many economic offenders. Instructors will have observed by now that the specific crimes discussed in the text are not organized according to typical categories. A good example of this is the authors’ decision to include prostitution in the present chapter; some would prefer to place it with crimes of intimidation or with sexual offenses. This would be particularly valid with juvenile prostitution or with sexual trafficking. Nevertheless, prostitution is also both an economic enterprise and a public order offense. Discussion of the decriminalization and/or the legalization of this offense usually engages students, particularly as they look for solutions to the concomitant exploitation of juveniles and other individuals who are coerced into this lifestyle.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Introduction Definitions, lack of physical aggression Dehumanization of victims Crimes against the public order Robbery included, though it is violent crime Large proportion of Part I crimes Relative deprivation often cited Cognitive motivators must be considered

Burglary Definitions Unlawful entry With or without force Intent to commit crime

Incidence, prevalence, patterns

Who Commits Burglary?

Burglary cues and selected targets

Burglar cognitive processes Cognitive scripts Rational reconstruction

How Far Do Burglars Travel?

Do They Usually Work Alone? Sole versus partner Gender Differences in Methods and Patterns

113 Use of Alcohol and Other Substances

Property Taken and Disposed

Motives Adaptive behavior May reflect need for excitement Supplement income

A Burglar Typology Repeat burglar Good burglar Expressive burglar

Psychological Impact of Burglary Burglar may intend to produce response Distress levels of victims high, especially if personal space violated

Burglary profiling: promising enterprise

Larceny and Motor Vehicle Theft Motor Vehicle Theft Carjacking Concentrated in particular areas; many male victims Alert opportunism

Fraud and Identity Theft Various forms of fraud Identity theft in public consciousness; high victimization Research on victim effect rather than on perpetrators

Shoplifting Who shoplifts? Not limited to women and adolescents Motives Classic study: boosters and snitches Kleptomania: fact or fiction? Nonsensical stealing rather than diagnosis Very little evidence Depression may be common

White-Collar and Occupational Crime Problems with defining white-collar crime Sutherland’s concept Respectability

114 High social status Green’s conception of occupational crime Organizational occupational crime Professional occupational crime State-authority occupational crime Individual occupational crime Prevalence and incidents of occupational crime Data hard to come by National White Collar Crime Center (NWC3) White-collar trend today Occupational—individual gain Corporate—corporation’s gain

The Prevalence and Incidence of Occupational Crime Corporate crime High costs, wide variety of offenses Neutralizing strategies common Little empirical data

Individual occupational crime Largely solitary pursuit Most research on employee theft

Prostitution Attention in psychological literature Victims as well as offenders, prostitutes frequent victims of violence Myths and misconceptions Exploitation of juveniles Motives often financial, some social rewards Early studies unwarranted conclusions Behavior of males who solicit rarely examined Human trafficking

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answers

1. Define larceny and burglary. How are they different from each other?

Larceny, often called larceny/theft, is the unlawful taking of property from the possession of another without force or the threat of force. It covers a very broad range of offenses, including shoplifting, pickpocketing, and stealing money from an office mate’s purse. Burglary is the unlawful entry into a structure for the purpose of committing a crime, such as taking electronic equipment. Both are nonviolent offenses, but the essential difference is that burglary involves the

115 breaking in or unauthorized entry onto property.

2. Briefly describe Green’s occupational crime typology, and give an example of a crime following into each category.

Green’s typology covers crimes that are committed through opportunity provided by one’s legal occupation. They include organizational, professional, state-authority, and individual occupational crimes. Organizational crimes are committed by individuals acting on behalf of their organization or corporation. In these crimes, the organization is the direct benefit. An example is the illegal dumping of hazardous waste by a major corporation. Professional occupational crimes are committed by people who belong to a profession, such as a physician, lawyer, or engineer. A therapist who commits rape by fraud is guilty of professional occupational crime. State-authority crime is committed by individuals vested with public duty, such as politicians, police officers, or correctional officers. The politician who accepts a bribe is guilty of this category. Finally, individual occupational crimes is a catch-all category to cover a range of crimes committed by individuals in the realm of their employment. A good example is the secretary who embezzles from an employer or the bank executive who commits fraud.

3. What is meant by the term rational reconstruction?

Rational reconstruction was a term used by Cromwell and associates in their study of burglars. Burglars interviewed in prison looked back on their offenses and reinterpreted them in a way that described what made sense to them, not necessarily what really did occur. A good example would be recalling that they had planned the offense carefully (when evidence indicated that it was spontaneous) or that burglary victims made it easy for them by hiding a key in an obvious place, which suggests that the victims was to blame.

4. Define expressive burglars and describe each type of burglary associated with the term.

Expressive burglars are those for whom the challenge of committing the crime and the satisfaction derived from it are as important as the obtaining of goods. In interviews with burglars, Walsh found three types of expressive burglars: the feral threat, the riddlesmith, and the dominator. The feral threat burglar got satisfaction from doing great damage to the property in the process of burglarizing, such as slashing clothing or vandalizing cars. The riddlesmith set up puzzles or booby traps for the victims, such as writing strange words on mirrors or nailing a drawer shut. The dominator sought to frighten victims, and therefore might break into a home while someone was sleeping, but would escape before confronting the victims.

5. Define kleptomania and describe the empirical support for the phenomenon.

Kleptomania refers to an irresistible impulse to steal unneeded objects. It is often associated with shoplifting, but it would also occur in other contexts, such as stealing from a neighbor’s purse. According to the DSM, the person experiences increased tension before stealing and feels pleasure or relief once the crime is committed. There is very little empirical support for this phenomenon, and if it does exist it is believed to be very rare. Although apprehended shoplifters

116 may say they did it for the thrill or the challenge, there is scant evidence of a compulsion or irresistible impulse to steal.

6. Give some examples of crimes against the public order.

Crimes against the public order include crimes such as public intoxication, disturbing the peace, shouting obscenities, and loitering. In some jurisdictions prostitution is considered a crime against the public order. They are crimes that are considered offensive to the public and that threaten good order in the community. They are generally considered minor offenses and rarely involve jail time, although suspects may be held overnight.

7. Choose any two crimes covered in this chapter, and briefly discuss them from the perspective of the psychological effects on their victims.

Burglary is not a violent crime, but it may have a major psychological effect on its victims, who know that their personal space was invaded. This is particularly the case if the burglar was “expressive,” such as by damaging property or leaving puzzles or riddles. Victims of burglary report sleeplessness, fear of being in their homes alone, or of re-entering their homes at the end of the day.

White-collar offenses as a group may have major psychological effects on their victims. This may be especially true of those that involved a violation of trust, such as a public official or an employee who embezzles from a kindly employer. White collar offenses such as bank fraud or investment scams may deplete victims of life savings and cause severe hardship as well as emotional stress.

Assignment http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/madoff/view/? utm_campaign=homepage&utm_medium=top5&utm_source=top5 The history and detailed information on Bernie Madoff and the world’s first global Ponzi scheme. Apply information in the video to the concept of cognitive scripts.

Video http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/422/index.html A report on child prostitution in Atlanta, Georgia.

Relevant Websites http://www.justice.gov/criminal/ceos/innocencelost%20FACTFINAL_121605.pdf

117 http://www.nw3c.org/ The website of the National White Collar Crime Center http://www.justice.gov/criminal/ceos/trafficking.html Human trafficking http://www.ojp.gov/bjs/glance/burg.htm Statistics on burglary http://www.ncpc.org/ The website of National Crime Prevention Council

Suggested Additional Readings

Hinduja, S. & Patchin, J. W. (2008). Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to Offending and Victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29, 1-29. Lambie, I., McCardle, S., & Coleman, R. (2002). Where there’s smoke there’s fire: Firesetting behaviour in children and adolescents. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 31, 73-79. Putnam, C. T., & Kirkpatrick, J. T. (2005, May). Juvenile firesetting: A research overview. Juvenile Justice Bulletin (NCJ 207606). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Ritvo, E., Shanok, S. S., & Lewis, D. O. (1983). Firesetting and nonfiresetting delinquents. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 13, 259–267. Stadolnick, R. F. (2000). Drawn to the flame: Assessment and treatment of juvenile firesetting behavior. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Press. Viljoen, J. L., O’Neill, M. L., & Sidhu, A. (2005). Bullying behaviors in female and male adolescent offenders: Prevalence, types, and association with psychosocial adjustment. Aggressive Behavior, 31, 521-536. Wright, R. T., & Decker, S. (1997). Armed robbers in action: Stickup and street cultures. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Zigler, E., Taussig, C., & Black, K. (1992). Early childhood intervention: A promising prevention for juvenile delinquency. American Psychologist, 47, 997-1006.

125 CHAPTER 16 SUBSTANCE ABUSE, ALCOHOL, AND CRIME

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, students should be able to: 1. Summarize the effects of the psychoactive drugs that have been most connected to crime and delinquency. 2. Emphasize the many individual differences in reactions to drugs and alcohol. 3. Define and explain drug tolerance and dependence. 4. Describe the extent of juvenile substance and alcohol use. 5. Describe the illegal drugs most commonly used by American culture. 6. Explain and discuss “club drugs.” 7. Discuss the effects and extent of marijuana use, because this is the most popular illicit drug today. 8. Sketch the relationship between alcohol abuse and crime and delinquency. 9. Explain the tripartite conceptual model and experimental substance use.

Chapter Overview

This chapter reviews the relationship between crime and a number of drugs commonly associated with criminal behavior. Four major drug categories are identified: (1) the hallucinogens; (2) the stimulants; (3) the opiate narcotics; and (4) the sedative-hypnotics or depressants. Rather than discuss most of the drugs in each category, we consider only those commonly believed to be connected with criminal conduct. Moreover, we do not examine the crimes of drug distribution or possession. We are mainly concerned with whether the substance itself facilitates illegal action, especially violence, and what damage the drug does to the user. In other words, are persons under the influence of marijuana more violent than they are normally? And how does marijuana affect the health of users? Or, to what extent does alcohol directly contribute to loss of control or reduce self-regulatory mechanisms? Of increasing concern are the so-called “date rape drugs,” some of which are also “club” or “disco” drugs that are prevalent at adolescent and young adult gatherings. Because they are

126 usually odorless and tasteless, they can be given to unsuspecting victims of sexual assault who then may experience amnesia about the incidents that follow. Students may be surprised at the association between alcohol and crime—that of all drugs discussed in the chapter, alcohol is the most likely to facilitate illegal actions, such as assault, sexual assault, and driving while intoxicated. Without discounting the negative effects of other substances, instructors should stress that their association with crime is, nevertheless, more indirect. For example, considerable violence is associated with the drug trade, but the use of cocaine or heroin is less likely to result in violence than the use of alcohol. Likewise, a robber may rob to support his or her habit, but the drug itself does not prompt the user to rob. The relationships between crime and all the drugs discussed in this chapter are complex, involving interactions among numerous pharmacological, social, and psychological variables. It appears at this point in our knowledge that substance abuse is as much as—if not more—a health problem as a “crime problem.” Individuals who are chronic, persistent criminals are often polydrug users, but it is unlikely that the drugs they ingest directly cause them to engage in criminal activity. It is more likely they are prone to violence or other antisocial conduct prior to and independent of polydrug use. On the other hand, there is substantial crime—including violent crime—associated with the production, distribution, and sale of illegal drugs.

Chapter Outline and Key Concepts

Introduction Government response Relationship between drugs and crime Health problem versus crime problem

Juvenile Drug Use Extent of drug use Decline or leveling off Still widely prevalent Patterns of use changing Less cocaine, more synthetic narcotics

Who is selling to juveniles? Drug sales peers, often hired by older dealers Gender differences in drug use Gender differences different trajectories and consequences

Consistent Research Findings Predominant offense in jails and prisons Arrestees often test positive (ADAM program) Offenders often under influence during offense Some commit property crime to support habit 127 Violent crime accompanies trafficking Drug-crime relationship difficult to identify and measure Consider pharmacological effect of the drug Psychological characteristics of individual Psychosocial conditions under which taken Interaction with other drugs Tripartite conceptual model Psychopharmacologically driven crime Rare and difficult to support Systemic crime Associated with drug trafficking Economically compulsive crime Support drug habit

Major Categories of Drugs Psychoactive drugs Controlled substance Hallucinogens Psychedelics Stimulants Opiate narcotics Sedative-hypnotic Tolerance and Dependence

The Hallucinogens Marijuana most prevalent Use prevalent among 15-25; drops off after 34 Historical background Preparation, THC content Psychological effects subjective; numerous exceptions Cannabis and crime—efforts to outlaw Users less inclined to violence No solid evidence promotes violent or non-violent crime Phencyclidine (PCP) Barbiturate-like downer effect Wide variations in purity Behavior may be unpredictable Delusions not uncommon Considered dangerous illicit drug Users polydrug users

The Stimulants Amphetamines Methamphetamine

128 Synthetic compounds Rapid assimilation; slow metabolism Dosage crucial Cocaine and its derivatives Statistics on one-time, occasional, and regular use Expensive Psychological effects Adverse physical effects with regular use Stimulants, cocaine, and crime Do not cause violence May increase likelihood that person already predisposed to violence will be violent Arrested individuals: high rate of testing positive for cocaine Large doses, negative psychological effects Do not cause or facilitate crime in most users Crack cocaine Freebasing, most common method of cocaine smoking Instantaneous psychological effect Question whether most highly addictive drug Decline in use since early 1990s Crack: doesn’t cause normally non-violent person to be violent Violence associated with production, distribution, sale MDMA Ecstasy; synthetic Increasing at alarming rate Experimental drug

Narcotic Drugs Derivatives of opium plant Relief of pain, relaxation, sleep, highly addictive No typical opium user Natural narcotics Grown opium Semisynthetic narcotics, Chemically prepared heroin Synthetic narcotics, Wholly prepared chemically methadone, meperidine, and phenazocine.

Heroin Most heavily used Widely available, purity varies Association between heroin addiction and money-producing crime Fentanyl: similar to heroin but 50 times more potent; often mixed

Other narcotic drugs

129 Oxycontin abuse Significant increase in pharmacy-related crime

The Club Drugs: Sedative Hypnotic Compounds GHB and Rohypnol: the club drugs Teenagers and young adults Effects rapid, may last six hours Used in conjunction with other drugs, especially alcohol Both associated with date rape Rohypnol manufactured to turn blue; still uncolored pills on market Ketamine Replacement for PCP in veterinary medicine Increasingly social rather than medical uses Odorless and tasteless (like GHB) Induces amnesia and helplessness

Alcohol Still #1 drug of abuse Responsible for more deaths and violence than others combined Psychological effects Alcohol and crime Believed to instigate aggressive behavior High alcohol use among persons arrested and convicted offenders Facilitates aggression, doesn’t cause Disinhibitory model and social-cognitive models

Substance or Alcohol Abuse and Violence Does not cause violence Violent behavior usually precedes drug use (e.g., aggressive behavior in children) Experimental substance use (ESU) not uncommon Theories of ESU, not tested Heavy use of marijuana Belief of little harm

Inhalants Numerous household products, intoxicating effect Similar to alcohol intoxication Most states restrict sales to minors Not considered gateway drugs Danger is in potential side-effects

Summary and Conclusions

Review Questions and Answers

130 1. What are the four main categories of drugs discussed in this chapter? List their main effects, and provide one example of a drug from each category.

Hallucinogens or psychedelics are chemicals that lead to a change in consciousness involving an alteration of reality. They sometimes generate hallucinations. Examples include LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, phencyclidine, ketamine, marijuana and hasish Stimulants stimulate the central nervous system. Examples include amphetamines, antidepressants, cocaine, MDMA, caffeine and nicotine.Opiate narcotics have sleep inducing and analgesic effects. Heroin is an opiate narcotic.Sedative-hypnotics or depressants sedate the nervous system and reduce anxiety and tension. Alcohol and club drugs are examples.

2. Describe and explain briefly Goldstein’s tripartite conceptual model for understanding the drug/crime relationship. ).

Goldstein identifies three main types of drug-related crime: Psychopharmacologically driven crime presupposes that some individuals, as a result of short-term or long-term ingestion of specific drugs or chemical substances, become excitable, and/or irrational and demonstrate violent behavior. In other words, it is assumed that some drugs cause some people (even usually nonviolent ones) to become violent and engage in a variety of criminal behaviors. The prevailing view about psychopharmacological violence, however, is that it is rare and attributable mostly to alcohol rather than illicit drug.Systemic crime hypothesizes that crime arises out of the system of drug trafficking and distribution. Examples of this component include disputes over territory between rival drug dealers and threats, assaults, and murders committed within and by drug- dealing organizations. Essentially, it refers to the violence inherent in the enterprise of drug trafficking and distribution. Economically compulsive crime is criminal behavior that supports an expensive drug addiction. Robbery committed by drug users to support a costly drug habit is an example. Compulsive drug seeking and use is presumably an overwhelming drive, even in the face of negative health and social consequences, and the individual sometimes turns to crime in order to procure the drug.

3. Briefly list the common psychological effects of any three of the following: cocaine, MDMA, heroin, alcohol, metamphetamine.

Cocaine may cause increased wakefulness, alertness vigilance, omproved concentration feeling of clear thinking, elvation of mood,mild euphoria increased socialbility in large doses effects may be irritability, hypersensitivity, delirim, panic aggression hallucinations and psychosis. MDMA may cause confusion, depression, anxiety, sleeplesness, drug cravings, and paranoia. Heroin may cause mental clouding, dreamlike states, and a general feeling of sublime contentment.Alcohol’s effect depends on myriad variables. In general, it creates initial feelings of euphoria and social warmth. However, moderate or high quantities can impair concentration, result in depressed mood.Metamphetamine causes an increase in alertness and decrease in appetite. In high doses, it may cause violent behavior, anxiety, insomnia, paranoid behavior, and mood swings.

131 4. Describe Rohypnol and gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB). What are they used for? What are some of the effects? How might they be involved in crime?

Rophynol is often used in sexual assault. It mentally and physically incapacitates the vicitm. The pills are now manufactured to turn blue to increase invisibility for potential victims. The limitation to this is that the pills are still camouflaged by tropical drinks and the clear pill is still available.GHB is a pleasure enhancer that produces a rapid state of intoxication. It may cause nausea, drowsiness, delusions, vertigo, and amnesia. Since there is no standard, the effects are often unpredictable. It is often combined with alcohol to be used as a date rape drug. Its also given to heavily sedate victims prior to a robbery.

5. Of all the substances (drugs and alcohol) discussed in the chapter, which substance is most closely connected to crime? Why do you think this is?

Although all of the substances discussed in this chapter have some connection with crime, alcohol is the substance that is most likely to facilitate criminal activity. That is, excessive alcohol use is most likely to lead to crimes such as simple and aggravated assault, rape, and driving while intoxicated. Incidents of family violence and acquaintance rape are closely connected to the use of alcohol. Although individual reactions differ, for many people alcohol has a disinhibiting effect, giving its users “permission” to act in ways they would not normally act. Nevertheless, the relationship between alcohol and crime is a complicated one, and we cannot assume that using alcohol causes people to be violent.

6. State six conclusions researchers have reached in recent years regarding the relationship between illicit drugs and crime. What implications can be drawn from these conclusions? 1. More individuals are incarcerated or held in jails and prisons for drug offenses than for any other offense. 2. Arrestees frequently test positive for illicit drug use. 3. Arrestees and incarcerated offenders were often under the influence of illicit drugs when they committed their offenses. 4. Some offenders commit property crime to support their drug habit. 5. Drug trafficking often engenders violent crime. 6. The drug-crime relationship is difficult to identify and measure. Together, these conclusions provide evidence for the drug-crime connection, even though it is a complicated one. The conclusions indicate that many people use drugs to give them courage to commit crime or to support ongoing drug use. They also suggest that illicit drugs are a major contributor to jail and prison crowding and they highlight the need for substance abuse treatment programs for inmates. In addition, if society recognizes drug use as a health problem at least as much as a crime problem, prevention efforts have a better chance of succeeding.

7. Define and describe the three types of narcotics (based on their manufacture) and give an example of each.

132 Natural narcotics are naturally grown. Opium is one example. Semi-synthetic narcotics are chemically prepared. Heroin is a semi-synthetic narcotic. Synthetic narcotics are wholly prepared chemically. A good example is methadone.

8. What is the difference between tolerance and dependence? What is psychological dependence?

Drug tolerance occurs when the person has become psychologically and physiologically habituated to the drug. The person requires a larger dose of the drug to reach the desired effect. Dependence may be physical or psychological, or both. In simple terms, physical dependence refers to the physiological distress and physical pain a person suffers if he or she goes without the drug for any length of time. Psychological dependence is difficult to distinguish from physical dependence, but it is characterized by an overwhelming desire to use the drug for a favorable effect. The person is convinced that he or she needs the drug to maintain an optimal sense of well-being. The degree of psychological dependence varies widely from person to person and drug to drug. The person who is extremely psychologically and/or physically dependent is an addict.

Assignment http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/features/jan-june00/ghb.html# The story of Samantha Reid, a teenager who died in 2000 after being given GHB at age 15. Discuss in relation to key concepts in the chapter. http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/s/diane_schuler/index.html New York Times article on Diane Schuler, a 36-year old wife, mother and cable executive who died— along with seven others—after she drove the wrong way on the Taconic State Parkway in upstate New York. A subsequent toxicology report revealed that Schuler's blood-alcohol level was 0.19%, more than twice the state legal limit and the equivalent of 10 shots of 80-proof liquor. She also had elevated levels of THC, the chemical in marijuana.

Instructors should note that the driver’s family denies her use of illegal drugs, and that some indicate that other factors, including prescription medication, could have affected the toxicology report. Therefore, the case study should be considered a hypothetical for discussing concepts and terms encountered in this chapter.

Video http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/meth/view/? utm_campaign=viewpage&utm_medium=grid&utm_source=grid 2006 Frontline video on the methamphetamine epidemic.

Relevant Websites

133 http://www.dea.gov The website of the Drug Enforcement Administration. http://www.tresearch.org Website of the Treatment Research Institute, a non-profit organization dedicated to science-driven reform of substance abuse treatment and policy. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/topics/drugs/adam.htm National Institute of Justice’s homepage offers additional information on ADAM , including ADAM annual reports. http://www.mediacampaign.org/ The website of the National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign, the nation’s largest anti-drug media campaign targeting teens. The campaign is managed by the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy. www.ncjrs.gov/App/topics/Topic.aspx?TopicID=93 The National Criminal Justice Reference Service’s section on drugs. The site is administered by the Office of Juvenile Programs. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/dcf/contents.htm. This site summarizes U.S. statistics about drug- related crimes, law enforcement, courts, and corrections from Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) and non-BJS sources http://www.nccd-crc.org/ Website for the National Council on Crime and Delinquency http://www.samhsa.gov/ Website for the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, a component of the Department of Health and Human Services. http://www.justice.gov/ndic/ Website of the National Drug Intelligence Center, a component of the Department of Justice.

Suggested Additional Readings

Allen, M., Donohue, W. A., Griffin, A., Ryan, D., & Mitchell Turner, M. M. (2003). Comparing the influence of parents and peers on the choice to use drugs: A meta-analytic summary of the literature. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30, 163–186. Bean, P. (2001). Violence and substance abuse. In P. Bean (Ed.), Clinical assessment of dangerousness: Empirical contributions (pp. 216–237). New York: Cambridge University Press. Collins, J. J. (Ed.), (1981). Drinking and crime. New York: Guilford. Deitch, D., Koutsenok, I., & Ruiz, A. (2000). The relationship between crime and drugs: What we have learned in recent decades. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 32, 391–397. Goldstein, P, J. (1985). The drugs-violence nexus: A tri-partite conceptual framework. Journal of Drug Issues, 15, 493–506. Hart, C., Ksir, C. & Ray, O. (2008). Drugs, society and human behavior (13th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. Julien, R. M. (2001). A primer of drug action (11th edition). New York: Henry Holt. Pope, E., & Shouldice, M., (2001). Drugs and Sexual Assault. Trauma,Violence and Abuse, 2, 51-55. Tedeschi, J. T., & Felson, R. B. (1994). Violence and aggression: Coercive actions. Washington, DC: APA.

134 Criminal Behavior: A Psychosocial Approach 9th Edition

Test Bank

135 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Multiple Choice

1. Criminal behavior is best defined as: a) antisocial behavior. b) deviant behavior. c) an intentional act in violation of a criminal code. d) behavior that impedes the criminal process. e) forbidden behavior.

2. Psychological criminology is the science of trying to determine how criminal behavior is: a) acquired. b) evoked. c) maintained. d) a and c only. e) all of the above.

3. The narrow range of offenses that do not require criminal intent are called: a) non-index crimes. b) unintentional offenses. c) Part II crimes. d) status offenses. e) strict liability offenses.

4. Which of the following is least consistent with the developmental approach in the study of crime? a) Searching for factors that place a child at risk of engaging in serious delinquency b) Identifying the age of onset of antisocial behavior c) Searching for protective factors in a child’s life d) Obtaining a child’s IQ score as he or she enters adolescence e) Examining a child’s pre-school experiences.

5. According to the text, our inability to prevent crime is largely due to: a) a declining interest in the field of criminology. b) the difficulty in defining crime. c) the complexity of the issue. d) the paucity of experts studying crime. e) the lack of funding available for research.

136 6. The belief that most people deserve the misfortune that happens to them is known as the: a) fairness doctrine. b) equal justice doctrine. c) rationalizing attitudes. d) just world hypothesis. e) self-fulfilling prophecy.

7. Which one of the following would psychological criminology be most concerned with? a) Demographic features of offenders who participate in burglary. b) How violent individuals learn their aggressive behavior. c) The gender of murder victims. d) The time of day when burglary most often occurs. e) The unequal power distribution between various members of society.

8. Which is not a characteristic of a good scientific criminal theory? a) It uses precise, unambiguous terms. b) It provides a general explanation. c) It presents systematic view of phenomena. d) It connects only one variable to a specific behavior. e) It is supported by well-executed research.

9. _____ is to positivist theory as _____ is to classical theory. a) Determinism; free will b) Jurisprudence; behavior c) Cognition; biology d) Biology; environment e) Predictability; prevention

10. The _____ perspective on crime is closely linked with the humanistic perspective. a) conformity b) strain c) social learning d) social control e) nonconformist

11. The basic premise of strain theory is that crime occurs when: a) there is a discrepancy between the materialistic values and goals cherished in our society and the availability of legitimate means for reaching these goals. b) a society’s values are too materialistic. c) there is not enough value placed on doing the “right thing.” d) the economically and socially disadvantaged give up on the American dream. e) one’s level of stress far outweighs one’s coping mechanisms.

12. Social control theory is an example of: a) the conformity perspective.

137 b) the confirmation perspective. c) Merton’s strain perspective. d) the nonconformist perspective. e) the learning perspective.

13. Which one of the following would not be a primary concern of sociological criminology? a) Personality characteristics of rapists b) Age characteristics of murderers c) Gender of victims of aggravated assault d) Relationship of victim to offender e) The victim characteristics of hate crimes.

14. The psychodynamic approach explains behavior in terms of: a) motives and drives. b) personality traits. c) free will. d) logic. e) heredity and family history.

15. Social control theorists contend that crime occurs when: a) an individual’s ties to the conventional order are weak. b) an individual’s ties to normative standards are nonexistent. c) an individual behaves indiscriminately. d) both a and b. e) all of the above.

16. The process of identifying personality traits, behavioral tendencies, geographical location and demographical variables of an offender based on characteristics of the crime is called: a) forensics. b) forensic science. c) psychometrics. d) gerontological assessment. e) criminal profiling.

17. Three disciplines that have traditionally dominated the study of crime are: a) sociology, psychology and psychiatry. b) psychology, sociology and anthropology. c) psychology, anthropology and economics. d) psychology, anthropology and medicine. e) medicine, psychology and criminal justice.

18. Freud is most associated with which of the following fields? a) Traditional psychiatric criminology b) Sociological criminology c) Psychological criminology

138 d) Contemporary psychiatric criminology e) All of the above.

19. According to the text, psychological criminology has recently shifted its focus to a more _____ and _____ approach to the study of criminal behavior. a) forensic; scientific b) trait-focused; instrumental c) personality; biological d) cognitive; developmental e) sociological; psychiatric

20. The difference-in-kind perspective argues that humans are distinctly different from animals in which of the following ways? a) Spiritually b) Mentally c) Psychologically d) a and c e) All of the above

21. Actions which only juveniles are prohibited from committing such as violations of curfew, incorrigibility, running away, and truancy are called: a) offenses against the public order. b) Part I crimes. c) status offenses. d) age-related crimes. e) juvenile violations.

22. Official crime statistics, such as those produced by the FBI: a) normally overestimate the true incidence of crime. b) have been found to be highly accurate. c) report approximately the same amount of crime as victimization surveys. d) normally underestimate the true incidence of crime. e) overestimate the number of sexual offenses.

23. Compared with the UCR, the NIBRS: a) provides information on international crime. b) is older. c) provides more detailed information of a criminal event. d) includes conviction data as well as arrest data. e) is more reliable.

24. Criminal homicide, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault are all examples of what kind of crime, according to the FBI? a) Victimization crimes b) Part I crimes

139 c) Part II crimes d) Masculine crimes e) Heinous crimes

25. Which of the following data are not found in the Uniform Crime Reports? a) Crime rates b) Arrests for Part II crimes c) Clearance rates d) Conviction rates e) Homicide rates

26. Self-report studies of criminal behavior: a) usually have been found to be more accurate with female subjects. b) are typically inaccurate in most areas studied. c) usually attempt to measure only prior involvement in felonies. d) suggest that crime is committed by all socioeconomic classes. e) All of the above.

27. The first state to allow psychologists to prescribe psychoactive drugs was: a) California b) Florida c) New Mexico d) New York e) Psychologists are not legally allowed to prescribe medication.

28. Which is not a method of measuring crime? a) UCR b) self-report studies c) PCL-R d) National Victimization Studies e) Supplementary homicide report

29. When one person is arrested for a crime, charged with the offense and remanded to the court for prosecution, the offense is considered to be: a) stipulated as detected. b) cleared by arrest. c) adjudicated. d) mandated in hierarchy. e) remanded by exceptional means.

30. ADAM, Monitoring the Future, and NHSDA are all examples of surveys dealing with: a) drug use. b) hate crime. c) sex offending. d) juvenile crime.

140 e) juvenile violent crime.

True or False

1. This text is based on the premise that there is an all-encompassing psychological explanation for crime. 2. Free will is the hallmark of classical theory. 3. Criminal profiling is restricted to serial murders. 4. Criminology is the psychological study of crime. 5. The most cited source of U.S. crime statistics is the Uniform Crime Reporting Program. 6. The great majority of crime in the United States and other countries is neither serious nor violent. 7. In general, individuals sentenced to prison accurately represent the “true” criminal population. 8. Most antisocial behaviors go undetected by law enforcement. 9. According to crime experts, the dark figure represents the most violent crimes. 10. The text primarily focuses on mentally disordered offenders.

Essay

1. What is the Matthew Shepard Act? Describe how its passage strengthens existing federal hate crime laws. 2. How does Robert Merton’s Strain Theory explain crimes of the rich and powerful? 3. Explain the difference between psychological criminology and sociological criminology. 4. What is the hierarchy rule and how does it impact how crime is reported in the UCR? 5. List the strengths and weaknesses of self-report surveys. 6. Briefly explain the developmental approach to explaining delinquency and criminal behavior. 7. Why do some psychologists prefer to refer to and study antisocial behavior rather than criminal behavior? 8. Compare and contrast the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports and the National Crime Victimization Survey, focusing on: a) how the data are obtained and b) what type of information is available from each. 9. Discuss the differences in education, training and perspective between psychologists and psychiatrists. What are their similarities? 10. Describe the three perspectives of human nature found in theories of crime.

141 CHAPTER 2 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: DEVELOPMENTAL RISK FACTORS

Multiple Choice

1. The developmental perspective on crime and antisocial behavior views the life course of all humans as following a: a) series of distinct age-related stages of development. b) developmental pathway. c) trajectory of moral and physical development. d) series of sequential stages of caring and empathy. e) series of discernible stages of emotional development.

2. Those influences in a person’s life that are believed to increase the probability that an individual will engage in criminal behavior are called: a) self-regulatory factors. b) criminogenic needs. c) criminogenic determinants. d) impulsive drives. e) risk factors.

3. Poverty is an example of a(n) ____ risk factor a) social b) familial c) economic d) psychological e) self-fulfilling

4. According to Goldstein et al. (2001), aggressive tendencies at age____ predict later aggressive behavior. a) three b) twelve c) eighteen months d) eighteen e) seven

5. The diagnostic term which represents a cluster of behaviors in children characterized by repetitive and persistent misbehavior is called: a) conduct disorder. b) ADHD. c) antisocial personality disorder.

142 d) psychopathy. e) aggression.

6. Strategies employed by parents to achieve specific academic, social, or athletic goals are called parental_____; whereas parental attitude toward the child and the emotional climate of the parent-child relationship refers to parental _____. a) styles; practices b) intervention; customs c) hopes; care d) tactics; disciplinary beliefs e) practices; styles

7. When parents see an unusually large number of minor problems in their children as problematic, and then resort to authoritarian strategies to deal with the problems, it is called the: a) authoritarian approach. b) authoritative style. c) enmeshed style. d) permissive practice approach. e) neglecting approach.

8. _____ refers to parents’ awareness of their child’s peer associated, free time activities, and physical whereabouts when outside the home. a) Parental watchful participation b) Parental mindfulness c) Parental watchdog approach d) Parental monitoring e) Parental observation

9. The ability to control one’s own behavior, especially in children, is called _____ by professionals. a) personal control b) self regulation c) impulse modulation d) impulse restriction e) personal monitoring

10. Poor quality preschool daycare places children at risk for: a) poor language skills. b) inadequate social skills. c) poor cognitive development. d) all of the above. e) none of the above.

11. When examining the relationship between single-parent homes and delinquency, it is important to consider:

143 a) socioeconomic status. b) the past criminal behavior of the primary caregiver. c) the number of children in the home. d) the number of responsible adults in the home. e) process rather than structure.

12. Snyder and Patterson’s (1987) enmeshed parenting style is similar to Baumrind’s: a) laissez –faire style. b) lax style. c) authoritarian style. d) neglecting style. e) authoritative style.

13. Research has shown that children who are both physically aggressive and _____ have a high probability of becoming serious delinquents. a) living in poverty b) emotionally aggressive c) socially rejected by peers d) struggling in school e) living in a single parent home

14. Several studies suggest that parental monitoring is especially important between the ages of _____ to _____. a) nine to sixteen b) six weeks to five c) five to eighteen d) twelve to seventeen e) thirteen to sixteen

15. Research on sibling influence on delinquency indicates: a) the risk of delinquency is lower when the delinquent sibling is closer in age b) older siblings reinforce antisocial behavior regardless of the relationship between the siblings. c) older siblings reinforce antisocial behavior only when the siblings have a close relationship. d) the delinquent sibling reinforces antisocial behavior when siblings are of the same gender. e) a and c.

16. Rudy rarely cries when his mother leaves the room and shows no reaction when his mother picks him up. Rudy is displaying: a) avoidant attachment. b) secure attachment. c) ambivalent attachment. d) enmeshed attachment.

144 e) a and d.

17. Language impairment: a) has not been found to be related to delinquency. b) refers to problems expressing or understanding language. c) is a natural stage in childhood development. d) is directly related to one's cultural experiences. e) all of the above.

18. According to Virginia Douglas (2004), the core problem in ADHD children involves: a) executive function skills. b) not knowing. c) self-regulation. d) overprescribed stimulant drugs. e) a and c.

19. Which of the following is not central to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? a) Easily distracted b) Fidgety c) Impulsiveness d) Poor self-regulation e) Poor language development

20. In the DSM IV-R, the central feature of conduct disorder is the ____ and ____ pattern of behavior that violates the basic rights of others. a) cruel; unusual b) aggressive; repetitive c) persistent; aggressive d) repetitive; persistent e) antisocial; aggressive

21. Hodgins, Cree and Mark (2008) found that conduct disorder present prior to age 15 is: a) effectively treated with medication. b) strongly associated with violent behavior into middle age. c) strongly associated with crime in males. d) effectively treated with psychotherapy. e) correlated with school failure.

22. One of the strongest predictors of later antisocial behavior is: a) peer rejection. b) low-quality pre-school. c) lack of family cohesion. d) lack of exposure to nature/outdoors. e) excessive television exposure.

145 23. According to attachment theory, infants who cling anxiously to their mother without much exploration when placed in new environments are displaying: a) avoidance attachment. b) normal attachment. c) clinging reaction. d) anxious/ambivalent attachment. e) minimal exploration response.

24. A mother who feels helpless that her 12-year-old son is using marijuana and therefore allows the behavior to continue is exhibiting: a) intermittent punishment. b) authoritative parenting style. c) internal locust of control. d) persuasive denial. e) lax style of parenting.*

25. Low parental monitoring is associated with: a) higher levels of antisocial behavior. b) higher levels of violence. c) earlier initiation of drug abuse. d) earlier initiation of alcohol abuse. e) all of the above.

26. ADHD frequently co-occurs with which diagnostic category? a) Mental disorder b) Conduct disorder c) Status offenses d) Psychopathy e) Substance abuse

27. The ability to understand another’s emotions is called: a) cognitive empathy. b) learned helplessness c) affective empathy. d) personal efficacy. e) emotional sympathy.

28. Mental disorder is _____ impairment, whereas mental disability is _____ impairment. a) emotional; cognitive b) social; intellectual c) learned; innate d) developmental; social e) neurological; psychological

29. Which one of the following statements is correct?

146 a) The exact nature of the relationship between poverty and violence is not well understood. b) It is quite clear that poverty is the major cause of crime and delinquency. c) Poverty does not appear to be a risk factor in the development of crime. d) The current research suggests that there is no relationship between poverty and crime. e) Poverty, in combination with low IQ score, puts one at significant risk for ADHD.

30. Of the following, which is associated with a high probability of delinquent behavior in high school? a) Parental divorce. b) Lower socioeconomic class. c) Rejection by peers in elementary school. d) Below average intelligence. e) Lack of involvement in team sports.

True or False

1. IQ refers to a broad, all encompassing ability. 2. The cause of ADHD is unknown. 3. All criminal behavior has its origins in childhood. 4. It is rare for an individual to possess both affective and cognitive empathy. 5. Children from lower socioeconomic status are more likely to be represented in crime statistics as opposed to those from higher socioeconomic status. 6. Research on IQ and delinquency has not supported the relationship between the two. 7. ADHD is currently the leading psychological diagnosis for American children. 8. Parental alcoholism and depression elevates a child’s risk of engaging in antisocial behavior. 9. Affective empathy usually develops in middle adulthood. 10. Several studies have found a strong association between animal cruelty and violent behavior.

Essay

1. According to Coie (2004), what are the three important differences between rejected and non- rejected boys? 2. Explain conduct disorder, ADHD and learning disability. What are the similarities and differences? Why are the three often used interchangeably in the school system? 3. Why must we be cautious when interpreting the relationship between delinquency and learning disabilities? 4. Discuss the relationship between poverty and violence. 5. Differentiate between crime that begins in childhood and crime that begins in adulthood. 6. Describe at least five characteristics of a peer rejected child. Include reasons why this child may be rejected. 7. How can day care centers and after school programs make a positive difference in the delinquency trajectory? 147 8. Explain and provide examples of the four types of parenting styles. Explain the shortcomings of this model. 9. Discuss the three perspectives on the influence of peer groups on delinquent behavior. 10. How and why is language development relevant to the study of antisocial behavior?

148 CHAPTER 3 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Multiple Choice

1. According to the text, most children display aggression in preschool and kindergarten but reduce these behaviors during early school years primarily due to: a) socialization. b) strict parental discipline. c) developmental maturity. d) fear. e) psychological maturity.

2. Early onset persistent antisocial behavior seems influenced by _____ while late onset offending is influenced by _____ factors. a) biological; social b) social; biological c) parental; educational d) parental; socioeconomic e) protective; resiliency

3. Most contemporary biopsychologists believe: a) genetic and neuropsychological variables play a part in criminal behavior. b) genetic components are the sole causal agents of human behavior. c) understanding the social environment is irrelevant in studying criminal behavior. d) criminal behavior is an evolutionary throwback to an earlier stage in the evolution of man. e) antisocial behavior is explained by somatyping.

4. According to noted biopsychologist Adrian Raine: a) there have been a paucity of studies on the relationship between antisocial behavior and crime. b) there is no evidence to suggest that genetics influence antisocial behavior. c) antisocial behavior is innate. d) there is evidence to suggest that antisocial behavior may eventually affect one’s genetic make-up. e) there is clear evidence that genetics influence antisocial and aggressive behavior.

5. The term dizygotic twins is synonymous with: a) fraternal twins. b) identical twins. 149 c) dichorionic. d) unifertilization. e) none of the above.

6. Sarah and Rebecca developed from a single egg, shared the same membrane enclosing the embryo, currently live at 517 Huckleberry Lane, and attend the same school. They are examples of: a) monozygotic, monochorionic, identical twins who share an environment. b) monozygotic, dichorionic, nonshared twins. c) identical, dichorionic, shared siblings. d) unichorionic, unizygotic, concordant, monoenvironmental siblings. e) monochorionic, identical , concordant twins who shared a membrane.

7. Concordance rate is usually expressed in: a) degrees. b) ectograms. c) pairs. d) percentages. e) liters.

8. Which statement most accurately summarizes findings of twin and adoption studies? a) One’s environment significantly impacts the frequency and severity of criminal behavior. b) Genetic factors have little impact on antisocial behavior. c) The environment in which a child is raised has little impact on the likelihood of antisocial behavior. d) Genes may influence one’s susceptibility or resistance to environmental risk factors. e) Genes do not significantly impact one’s susceptibility to environmental risk factors.

9. Heartbeat, blood pressure and digestion are all regulated by: a) the autonomic nervous system. b) the cardiovascular system. c) the endocrine system. d) breathing. e) stress levels.

10. The autonomic arousal theory of crime hypothesizes that: a) chronic offenders will exhibit low levels of autonomic arousal across a wide variety of situations and conditions. b) the autonomic system controls criminal behavior. c) chronic offenders will exhibit high levels of autonomic arousal across situations. d) low levels of autonomic arousal promote positive social interactions. e) disproportionate cortical levels promote antisocial behavior.

150 11. Which substance has not been shown to correlate with in-utero experience and criminal behavior? a) Lead exposure b) Alcohol c) Caffeine d) Marijuana e) None of the above

12. In their study involving 4,000 Danish babies ages birth to 34, Raine, Brennan and Mednick (1997) found that: a) birth complications combined with early maternal rejection predicted careers of violent crime. b) there was no correlation between birth complications and antisocial behavior. c) early maternal rejection predicted non-violent crime. d) birth complications predicted drug use. e) marital discord predicted non-violent crime.

13. The small group of nerve cells in the brain involved in aggressive behavior is called the _____and is part of the _____system. a) amygdale; limbic b) frontal lobe; central nervous c) hippocampus; limbic d) atempora; activating e) lafleur; peripheral nervous

14. A father who reads and sings to his daughter is improving what aspect of his daughter’s brain? a) Intelligence quotient. b) Elasticity. c) Durability. d) Plasticity. e) Central nerve.

15. Which statement is characteristic of Hans Eysenck’s criminological theory? a) Criminal behavior is primarily determined by environment. b) Individuals are born criminal. c) Criminal behavior is primarily determined by heredity. d) Criminal behavior is caused by a combination of poverty and personality. e) Criminal behavior is the result of an interaction between environment and nervous system.

16. According to Eysenck, the personality most likely to engage in antisocial conduct is the: a) neurotic introvert. b) stable introvert. c) stable extrovert.

151 d) neurotic extravert. e) psychopathic introvert.

17. The fundamental basis for criminality, according to Eysenck, is: a) the overreactive RAS. b) personality differences in conditionability. c) material gain for the criminal behavior. d) instrumental conditioning. e) parental influences.

18. The neurological mechanism which appears to be primarily responsible for extraversion- introversion is the: a) RAS. b) thalamus. c) hypothalamus. d) cortex. e) retinal accommodating system.

19. Alcohol would likely cause an extravert to: a) fall sleep. b) dance on the table. c) become violent. d) eat a pizza. e) become sexually aroused.

20. An individual who demonstrates a high need for stimulation would be a (n): a) extravert. b) neurotic. c) introvert. d) ambivert. e) psychotic.

21. An individual who tends to overreact to stress would be a (n): a) extravert. b) introvert. c) neurotic. d) stable. e) psychopath.

22. According to Hans Eysenck, the physiological basis of the neuroticism personality dimension resides in the: a) central nervous system. b) lymphatic system. c) RAS. d) limbic system.

152 e) endocrine system.

23. The personality dimension that empirical research finds most consistently associated with crime is: a) extraversion. b) neurotic extraversion. c) neuroticism. d) psychoticism. e) antisocialism.

24. Using Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire, most people can be classified as: a) ambiverts. b) extraverts. c) neurotics. d) antisocials. e) introverts.

25. According to Eysenckian theory, _____ are the most difficult to condition. a) introverts b) stables c) psychotics d) extraverts e) neurotics

26. Emotionality, activity and self-regulation are strong indicators of: a) temperament. b) extraversion. c) psychoticism. d) psychological stability. e) psychopathy.

27. Research has suggested that which brain chemical may play a significant role in aggression and violence? a) Serotonin b) Epinephrine c) Dopamine d) Insulin e) Cortisol

28. The research on environmental risk factors during infancy indicates that: a) lead exposure may be linked to antisocial behavior. b) trans fats are closely associated with delinquent behavior. c) junk foods often lead to persistent and violent criminal behavior. d) an organic diet can greatly reduce likelihood of antisocial behavior. e) high sugar intake before age two is linked to criminal behavior.

153 29. Which is not a type of learning, discussed in the chapter? a) Classical conditioning. b) Instrumental learning. c) Pavlovian conditioning. d) Eysenckian learning. e) Social learning.

30. Which of the following would be considered a callous-unemotional trait? a) Lack of guilt b) Absence of empathy c) Persistent pattern of anti-social behavior d) Callous use of others. e) All of the above.

True or False

1. Violence following a seizure is rare. 2. Studies examining crime concordance rates between twins have generally indicated a higher concordance rate for fraternals as opposed to identical. 3. There is strong support for a causal relationship between temporal lobe epilepsy and crime. 4. Brain stimulation after age five has shown to be ineffective for growth and development. 5. Most of Eysenck’s research on crime focused on extraversion and neuroticism only. 6. Temperament is determined largely by genetics. 7. Neurological dysfunction due to faulty brain development is strongly linked to pathological violence. 8. The term extrovert is synonymous with Eysenck’s extravert classification. 9. According to Eysenck, extraverts often learn societal norms much more readily than introverts or ambiverts. 10. Research on twin studies has shown that, as twins age, the influence of a shared environment increases while the influence of a nonshared environment wanes.

Essay

1. Present and discuss Hans Eysenck’s theory of personality and crime. Is the theory supported by empirical research? Why is it given such attention in the chapter? 2. Discuss the terms dizygotic and monozygotic twins. What is a chorion? How does a chorion relate to twin studies and the contributions of genes to criminal behavior? 3. Why is heredity and biology often dismissed as a cause of crime? What is the concern with “heredity as destiny” when studying criminal behavior? 4. Describe one of the cases involving an extra y chromosome and violent behavior that was discussed in the chapter. Has the xyy chromosome defense been successful? 5. List and describe Thomas and Chess’ nine characteristics of temperament. 154 6. What does the research tell us about the relationship between neurotransmitters and aggressive behavior? What treatments may be the most effective and what caution should one consider when considering this treatment? 7. What were some concerns with the high concordance rate found among monozygotic twins? Explain how at least one of these concerns can be addressed today. 8. Discuss the relationship between birth/pregnancy complications, psychosocial environment and antisocial behavior. What effect does one’s psychosocial environment have on neurological deficits? 9. Describe how the case of Phineus Gage illustrates the effect of frontal lobe damage on violence. 10. What is psychoticism and how does it play a role in criminal behavior?

155 CHAPTER 4 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: LEARNING AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Multiple Choice

1. Operant and social learning originated from a school of psychological thought called: a) psychoanalysis. b) socioperant conditioning. c) social learning. d) behaviorism. e) determinism.

2. An essential difference between the behavior theory of Watson and Skinner is: a) Watson recognized the existence of private mental events, whereas Skinner did not. b) Skinner recognized the existence of private mental events, whereas Watson did not. c) Skinner believed that the primary goal of psychology is the control of behavior, whereas Watson did not. d) Watson believed that the goal of psychology is the prediction of behavior, whereas Watson did not. e) Skinner emphasized the importance of independent and dependent variables, whereas Watson did not.

3. Which of the following is a social learning theorist? a) B. F. Skinner b) Eysenck c) Cloward d) Rotter e) Watson

4. The chief spokesperson for frustration-induced criminality is: a) Bandura. b) Rotter. c) Milgram. d) Berkowitz. e) Skinner.

5. The process whereby people lose their identities and feel less responsible in a crowd is called: a) deindividuation. b) mob-angry reaction. c) reciprocal interaction. d) crowd masking.

156 e) mob effect.

6. Milgram, in his studies, found that _____ of people are willing to shock a victim with high levels of electric shock primarily on the basis of request from an experimenter. a) a majority (or about two-thirds) b) a small portion (less than 10%) c) about 25 percent d) about half e) none of the above

7. In order for frustration to occur, the person must have: a) some hope for goal attainment. b) a specific frustration gene. c) lived under dire poverty conditions. d) a history of extensive failure. e) an idea where to direct his or her aggression.

8. One of the problems with classical conditioning explanations of criminal behavior is that they: a) have not been empirically supported. b) do not account for situational factors. c) conceive of the person as being empty-headed. d) do not consider biological factors. e) none of the above.

9. The concept that there is a continual exchange of influences between the environment and the person is called: a) nature-nurture interface. b) deindividuation. c) mutual interaction. d) envirohumanism. e) reciprocal interaction.

10. A behavioral scientist who maintains that human behavior, including criminal behavior, is acquired primarily through observational learning or modeling is: a) Julian Rotter. b) Albert Bandura. c) Ronald Akers. d) John Watson. e) Erik Erikson

11. According to Akers’ “differential association reinforcement theory,” criminal behavior develops primarily as the result of: a) frustration. b) heightened expectancies. c) social reinforcements given by significant others.

157 d) classical conditioning. e) modeling.

12. Akers’ differential association reinforcement theory is based largely on the criminological theory of: a) Edwin Sutherland. b) Albert Bandura. c) Albert Cohen. d) Walter Miller. e) B.F. Skinner.

13. According to Julian Rotter, whether a particular pattern of behavior will occur depends on: a) operant conditioning. b) classical conditioning. c) our ability to control biological drives. d) biological programming. e) our expectancies and how much we value the outcome.

14. A common human tendency to discount the influence of a situation and explain behavior by referring to the personality of an actor is called: a) reductionism. b) type I error. c) ecological error. d) fundamental attribution error. e) type II error.

15. Milgram’s famous studies on obedience to authority indicate that: a) people pay little attention to authority figures once they become adults. b) in general, Americans are not obedient or conforming. c) most people are obedient to authority even if it causes pain to others. * d) children are less obedient to authority than adults. e) adults are more obedient to authority than children.

16. Which of the following conclusions is supported by Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment? a) Situational variables are powerful determinants of behavior. b) An individual’s personality is more important than situational factors in determining behavior. c) Most people remain true to their principles, even when put into psychologically compelling situations. d) People do not easily become deindividuated. e) One's spiritual beliefs largely determine behavior.

17. Behaviorism is to _____ as social learning is to _____. a) biological drives; socialization

158 b) objectivity; subjectivity c) reinforcement; environmental stimuli d) past; present e) environmental stimuli; cognition

18. According to Sutherland’s theory of differential association: a) criminal behavior can be learned only by associating with others who are criminal. b) violent behavior is biologically determined. c) criminal behavior is learned like any other behavior. d) criminal behavior is learned primarily through classical conditioning. e) none of the above.

19. If Bandura’s position is essentially correct, then aggressive and violent behavior can be substantially reduced by: a) providing appropriate models. b) physically punishing children for aggressive behavior. c) allowing children to blow off steam in socially desirables ways. d) controlling the sale of guns and weapons in our society. e) reducing high school truancy.

20. The position that complex human behavior can be best understood by first studying simple behavior patterns is known as: a) the ecological fallacy. b) reductionism. c) fundamental attribution error. d) empiricism. e) none of the above.

21. The theorist most associated with S-R psychology is: a) Watson. b) Bandura. c) Pavlov. d) Wundt. e) Eysenck.

22. The internal processes we generally refer to as thinking and remembering are called _____ by social learning theorists. a) mnemonics b) cognitive variables c) mental processes d) cognitions e) pneumococcal memories

23. Acts performed in response to orders from authority considered illegal or immoral by the larger community are called:

159 a) bystander apathy. b) reductionism. c) crimes of obedience. d) fundamental attribution error. e) status offenses.

24. The most important aspect of whether criminal behavior is maintained is the: a) personality of the person. b) biological makeup of the person. c) amount of reinforcement. d) degree of social pressure. e) nature of the reinforcement gained.

25. Increasing desired behavior by distributing rewards is: a) discipline. b) negative reinforcement. c) punishment. d) extinction. e) positive reinforcement.

26. According to Akers’ theory, groups tend to adopt certain rules of conduct concerning what is bad, right or wrong, justified or unjustified. These group attitudes are called: a) discriminative stimuli. b) ecological norms. c) normative definitions. d) neutralizing stimuli. e) group dynamics.

27. Berkowitz’s two criminal personality classifications are: a) psychopathic/nonpsychopathic. b) violent/nonviolent. c) greedy/altruistic. d) socialized/individual. e) pyschopathic/sociopathic.

28. When we specifically attribute good aspects about ourselves to dispositional factors, and bad things to the environment, we are demonstrating: a) fundamental attribution error. b) self-serving bias. c) reactance. d) wrongful attribution. e) self-fulfilling prophecy.

29. According to Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory, signals that communicate that certain behaviors are encouraged and reinforced are:

160 a) neutralizing stimuli. b) justifying discriminative stimuli. c) neutralizing stimuli. d) social reinforcements. e) positive discriminative stimuli.

30. In his recent theory, Bandura states that before people can engage in behavior that violates their moral principles they must: a) learn the techniques of that behavior. b) believe that the reward outweighs the punishment. c) reject their moral principles. d) accept a higher authority. e) disengage from their moral principles.

True or False

1. B. F. Skinner is considered the father of behaviorism. 2. Skinner argued that the most effective way to eliminate behavior was through extinction. 3. Becoming part of a group encourages feelings of anonymity. 4. Any entity that can be measured is called a variable. 5. The scientific study of the causes, circumstances, individual characteristics, and social contexts of becoming a victim of a crime is called criminology. 6. B. F. Skinner believed there were no differences between humans and animals when attempting to modify behavior. 7. John B. Watson believed that a rigid scientific approach was crucial to understanding human behavior. 8. Under the frustration-induced theory of criminality, individuals who commit larceny during riots are motivated by revenge. 9. Increasing behavior by avoiding an unpleasant stimulus is called punishment. 10. According to the text, in order to fully understand criminal behavior, it is important to regard all individuals as passive participants in their environment.

Essay

1. Describe the process of operant conditioning and give an example of how criminal behavior is acquired. 2. Explain the difference between Sutherland’s differential association theory and Akers’ differential association-reinforcement theory. 3. Explain the concept of deindividuation and illustrate by describing any one experiment in social psychology. 4. What is “frustration-induced criminality?” Provide an illustration. 5. Briefly explain Bandura’s theory of moral disengagement.

161 6. Compare and contrast the behaviorism promoted by B.F. Skinner with the modern behaviorism promoted by Bandura. 7. Describe and discuss the situational factors that can influence criminal behavior. In addition to those mentioned in this chapter, what others might be identified? 8. Provide a summary of Sutherland’s differential association theory. 9. Describe Zimbardo’s prison experiment? How does it pertain to deindividuation? 10. Define deindividuation, authority, and moral disengagement. How do these terms help explain some types of criminal behavior?

162 CHAPTER 5 HUMAN AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following behaviors represents an example of passive-aggressive behavior? a) Slapping someone b) Refusing to speak to someone c) Shouting at someone d) Shooting someone e) Robbing someone

2. Which of the following crimes is associated with instrumental aggression? a) Larceny b) Manslaughter c) Rape d) Vandalism e) Vehicular homicide

3. In hostile aggression, the perpetrator’s primary goal is to: a) ridicule the victim. b) kill the victim. c) make the victim suffer. d) obtain an item of value. e) avenge a wrong.

4. According to the text, which of the following is included in a definition of aggression? a) a behavior perpetrated to destroy an object. b) a behavior perpetrated with the intention of harming another individual physically. c) a behavior attempted with the intention of harming another individual psychologically. d) a behavior attempted to destroy an object. e) all of the above define aggression.

5. Most forms of “white collar” crime would fall into which of the following categories of aggressive behavior? a) Instrumental b) Hostile c) Passive-aggressive d) Functional e) Ambivalent

6. Lorenz believed that a principle purpose of aggression in animals is to:

163 a) keep the species population down to a survival level. b) kill other species. c) defend and protect “staked out” territory. d) demonstrate which species is the most powerful and controlling. e) reproduce.

7. The perspective of human nature that argues that humans are intimately tied to their animal ancestry in important and significant ways is known as the ______perspective. a) difference in degrees b) difference in kind c) medical model d) parataxis e) difference in cognition

8. If you were a TV producer and wanted an argument to support your position of the value of violence on television, you would probably rely on which of the following theoretical positions? a) Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic. b) Social learning. c) Frustration-aggression. d) Behaviorism. e) Modeling.

9. Freud believed the causes of aggression to be basically: a) instinctive. b) learned. c) an interaction between biological and environmental factors. d) biochemical. e) all of the above.

10. The frustration-aggression hypothesis was first proposed by: a) Berkowitz. b) the Dollard group. c) Bandura. d) Lorenz. e) Freud.

11. The theory that states that humans have outdistanced the evolutionary process of natural inhibition against destructive and violent behavior was proposed by: a) Freud. b) Lorenz. c) Ardrey. d) Calhoun. e) Berkowitz

164 12. The psychodynamic approach to the treatment of aggressive behavior would most likely emphasize: a) appropriate modeling. b) reinforcement. c) reduction of aggressive energy through supervised aggressive behavior. d) avoidance of aggressive-provoking stimuli. e) none of the above.

13. The social learning approach to the reduction of aggressive behavior would most likely emphasize: a) appropriate modeling. b) reinforcement for nonaggressive behavior in situations where aggressive behavior was previously demonstrated. c) punishment of aggressive models. d) all of the above. e) none of the above.

14. According to the social learning position, the manifestation of aggressive behavior depends on: a) what happens to the model as a consequence of his or her behavior. b) the reinforcement gained as a result of the behavior. c) the attention and cognitive ability of the observer when watching the model. d) all of the above. e) a and b only.

15. Malicious gossip is an example of what variety of human aggression? a) Direct active verbal b) Indirect active verbal c) Direct passive verbal d) Indirect passive verbal e) Directive instrumental

16. Cognitive scripts are _____ behavioral patterns for certain situations that are _____ to change. a) available; relatively easy b) persistent; resistant c) innate; impossible d) aggressive; relatively easy e) simple; impossible

17. The tendency of a variety of people across the country to model or copy particular criminal activity portrayed by the entertainment media is called: a) contagion effect. b) copy-cat syndrome. c) escalation.

165 d) circular imagining. e) media modeling.

18. The tendency to perceive hostile intent in others even when it is totally lacking is called: a) hostile preference. b) Meckel’s syndrome. c) hostile attribution bias. d) inductive bias. e) grisi siknis.

19. During early stages of frustration or general arousal, cognitive processes appear to have little influence beyond the immediate appraisal that the situation is aversive. This description outlines a stage of what model of aggression and violence? a) Cognitive expectancy theory b) The neo-frustration-aggression model c) The cognitive neoassociation model d) The weapons effect model e) The cognitive scripts model

20. The type of aggression that includes anger expressions, temper tantrums, and vengeful hostility, and more generally “hot-blooded” aggressive acts is called: a) proactive aggression. b) mediated aggression. c) aggressive mimicry. d) reactive aggression. e) expressive aggression.

21. After getting into a physical altercation with a co-worker at his job site, George tailgates two cars on the drive home and throws a cell phone at his wife when he arrives home to find that dinner is not ready. The above scenario is an example of : a) excitation transfer theory. b) Medea complex. c) road rage. d) rumination. e) weapons effect.

22. The weapon used in road rage is: a) a gun. b) a knife. c) one’s fist. d) obscene gestures. e) the vehicle.

23. Which statement most accurately reflects research findings on gender differences in aggression?

166 a) Boys are generally more aggressive than girls. b) Gender differences in aggression are primarily due to biology. c) Gender differences are due to cultural and socialization processes that promote different kinds of aggression. d) Girls are more aggressive than boys during the pre-school years only. e) Boys are more overtly aggressive than girls during the pre-school years, then aggression rapidly decreases.

24. The term defined as an incident in which an angry, impatient, or aroused motorist intentionally injures or kills, or tries to injure or kill, another motorist, passenger, or pedestrian, in response to a traffic dispute, altercation, or grievance is called: a) aggressive driving. b) hostile driving. c) immature driving. d) road rage. e) vehicular aggression

25. Overt and covert aggression are different in: a) behavioral patterns. b) cognitions. c) development. d) all of the above. e) none of the above.

26. The tendency to attack space violators is referred to as: a) territoriality. b) hydraulic model of aggression. c) passive violence. d) animality. e) instinctual violence.

27. _____ refers to self-focused attention toward one’s thoughts and feelings. In other words, the person keeps thinking about an incident long after it is over. a) Expressive aggression b) Rumination c) Nodal behavior d) Antinodal behavior e) Subliminal foci

28. An approach in psychology that views human cognition and behavior in a broadly Darwinian context of adaptation to evolving physical and social environments is called: a) Darwinian psychology. b) adaptation psychology. c) positive psychology. d) evolutionary psychology.

167 e) psychodynamic psychology.

29. According to Berkowitz, high levels of arousal _____ aggressive behavior in certain situations. a) completely dissipate b) cause c) slightly reduce d) dramatically reduce e) facilitate

30. Research on media effects of violence suggests that which of the following should have the least negative effect on a child? a) A violent scene in which the child identifies with perpetrator b) A scene in which the perpetrator is punished for violent behavior c) A scene in which the perpetrator is rewarded for violence d) Violence in cartoons e) a and c

True or False

1. Aggressive behavior is always criminal. 2. Horn blowing is an example of road rage. 3. Results of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment emphasized the importance of the contagion effect. 4. Territoriality is a central concept in Lorenz’s theory of aggression. 5. According to the text, domestic violence is a common precipitating factor in road rage. 6. Modeling is an example of the hydraulic model. 7. The research community is sharply divided on the long-term effects of violent media on aggressive behavior. 8. All violent behavior is aggressive behavior. 9. Bullying is an example of reactive aggression. 10. Recent research de-emphasizes the importance of environmental cues in aggressive behavior.

Essay

1. What accounts for gender differences in aggression? Cite relevant research findings. 2. Explain the difference between a) overt and covert acts of aggression; b) reactive and proactive aggression. 3. What does the current research suggest about the effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior? 4. Discuss the various theoretical perspectives on aggression, including the research in support of or refuting these perspectives. 5. Review the research presented in this chapter on the effects of the mass media on violence. 168 6. Why would it be considered pessimistic to view violence and aggression as a genetically programmed aspect of human nature? 7. Explain the difference between road rage and aggressive driving. 8. Discuss the difficulties in adequately defining aggression. 9. Compare and contrast the cognitive scripts model and the hostile attribution model. 10. Elaborate on the sentence: Aggression is a simple, direct method of solving immediate conflicts.

169 CHAPTER 6 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following is not a status offense? a) Running away b) Incorrigibility c) Underage drinking d) Truancy e) Cocaine use

2. The status offense that has substantially increased in recent years is: a) Running away. b) Incorrigibility. c) Underage drinking. d) Truancy. e) Cocaine use.

3. The term juvenile delinquency: a) is a legal term defined by the court. b) is often ambiguous and imprecise. c) has multiple definitions and meanings. d) all of the above. e) none of the above.

4. Which state(s) allow juveniles to be tried as adults in criminal courts, under certain conditions and for certain offenses? a) New York, Illinois, Ohio and California b) All fifty states c) Texas, Ohio and South Carolina d) Florida e) New York

5. A child delinquent is between the ages of: a) 7 and 12. b) birth and 7. c) 6 and 13. d) birth and 14. e) 3 and 13.

6. According to Loeber et al. (2003), child delinquents ______compared to adolescents who begin offending in their teens. 170 a) are two to three times more likely to become serious violent and chronic offenders b) commit more serious offenses. c) are twice as likely to have a diagnosed mental disorder. d) are three times more likely to have an undiagnosed mental disorder. e) commit less serious offenses.

7. Psychological definitions of delinquency usually include: a) conduct disorder and antisocial behavior. b) habitual behavior and violent behavior. c) cruelty to animals and fire setting. d) status offenses and antisocial behavior. e)antisocial personality disorder and habitual misbehavior.

8. Which of the following is not one of the five major categories of unlawful acts committed by delinquents? a) Drug offenses b) Unlawful acts against property c) Sexual offenses d) Status offenses e) Offenses against the public order

9. The statute that allows the detention or supervision of a juvenile presumed to be in need of protection is called: a) Status Protection b) Brawner Rule c) the Smith-Carlson Act d) Incorrigibilty Rule e) PINS

10. Research suggests that serious juvenile offenders: a) demonstrate poor social skills. b) have high recidivism rates. c) have low motivation to change their behavior. d) are involved in a variety of offenses. e) all of the above.

11. When examining gender differences in status offenses, research shows: a) girls are taken into custody less often than boys. b) girls are more likely to run away because of victimization in the home. c) girls are more likely to be considered incorrigible. d) girls are more likely to be involved in underage drinking than boys. e) girls are more likely to be truant than boys.

12. A boy who hits at age three, shoplifts at age ten, commits burglary at age 19 and rapes at 26 would be considered a(n):

171 a) life-course persistent offender. b) ADHD offender. c) adolescent limited offender. d) antisocial offender. e) incorrigible.

13. Which of the following features of an intervention program is most likely to lead to effective change in the long run? a) Includes a medication regimen b) Is very structured and formalized c) Begins early in the developmental trajectory of the child d) Uses peer groups as models for change e) Includes psychotherapy

14. Most of the crime of the young is committed by: a) AL offenders. b) LCP offenders. c) psychopaths. d) gang members. e) ADHD offenders.

15. _____ are often characteristic of the childhoods of LCP offenders. a) Conduct disorders b) ADHD c) Poor interpersonal skills d) Difficult temperaments e) All of the above

16. The age at which an individual is no longer considered a juvenile offender: a) is 16. b) varies from state to state. c) is 17. d) is 18. e) ranges from 5 to 13.

17. _____ prevention consists of working with children and adolescents who demonstrate some early signs of aggressive, antisocial, conduct disorder, or delinquent behavior but have not yet been formally classified as delinquent. a) Primary b) Multisystemic c) Tertiary d) Indicated e) Secondary

18. Which of the following statements is not correct?

172 a) The number of prevention, intervention, and treatment programs that have been tried with delinquents and children at risk over the past three decades is overwhelming. b) Serious forms of antisocial behavior in school-aged children and adolescents have been particularly resistant to change. c) To date, virtually no prevention programs have been highly successful in eliminating antisocial behavior and reducing delinquent behavior. d) Crisis-oriented programs emphasizing counseling or social casework chiefly to deal with a presenting problem have been ineffective. e) Treatment strategies that develop resilience in children havethe best chance of reducing juvenile offending.

19. A program designed to prevent delinquent behavior before any signs of the behavioral pattern emerge is called: a) secondary prevention. b) early-onset prevention. c) tertiary prevention. d) selective prevention. e) universal prevention.

20. A theoretically-based, multi-site, multicomponent prevention program for young children believed to be at high risk for long-term antisocial behavior is the: a) fast-track project. b) boot camp. c) wilderness program. d) adventure program. e) MST program

21. A program designed to work with specific children and adolescents who are at high risk and who display some early signs of antisocial behavior but have not yet been classified or adjudicated delinquent by the court is called: a) targeted prevention. b) universal treatment. c) tertiary prevention. d) selective prevention. e) restrictive treatment.

22. Prevention and treatment programs that are designed to foster and maintain resilience in youth are also known as: a) strength-based programs. b) power-based programs. c) selective programs. d) individual-oriented programs. e) resiliency-focused programs.

23. Secure institutional treatment of juveniles who have committed serious offenses is known as:

173 a) MST. b) restrictive intervention. c) strength-based programs. d) boot camp programs. e) juvenile detention programs

24. Waaktaar et al. (2004) conducted a study to explore how resilience or protective factors could be used to help at risk youths. The researchers targeted four resilience factors for therapeutic intervention. What were these four factors? a) Positive family relations, self-esteem, creativity, and interpersonal skills b) Positive peer relations, self-efficacy, creativity, and coherence * c) Positive family relations, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and coherence d) Positive peer relations, creativity, self-esteem, and academic skills e) Positive peer relations, academic skills, positive family relations and self-esteem

25. A school curriculum designed to promote self-esteem, self-efficacy, and improved problem- solving skills in inner-city fourth-grade Black children through a culturally based curriculum is known as Project: a) GAIN. b) Culture. c) Attainment. d) SELF. e) Green Light.

26. _____ is the stage of development described in Moffitt's 2002 follow-up study in which young people flounder, choosing not to occupy traditional adult roles such as marriage or parenthood. a) Advanced life-course persistent b) Adolescent extension c) Early onset persistent delinquent d) Delayed maturity e) Emerging adulthood

27. The traditional form of treatment where youths are incarcerated for extended periods of time and often until they reach adulthood is known as: a) residential treatment. b) the training school. c) the rehabilitation center. d) all the above. e) none of the above.

28. Scott Henggeler and his colleagues have designed a treatment approach for serious juvenile offenders that is responsive to many of the social systems influencing the child's delinquent behavior. This treatment approach is called: a) multisystemic therapy.

174 b) restrictive intervention. c) Gestalt therapy. d) rehabilitative intervention. e) a and c.

29. A system of “shock incarceration,” which is designed to be an intensively structured, short- term alternative to prison, is also known as: a) wilderness programs. b) boot camps. c) adventure programs. d) reform school. e) ECT

30. Patterson's Coercion Developmental Theory places more emphasis on _____, whereas Moffit's Developmental Theory emphasizes _____. a) parenting; characteristics of the child b) violent offenses; status offenses c) boys' delinquency; girls' delinquency d) treatment; prevention e) developmental trajectories; societal influences

True or False

1. There is good evidence that most serious, persistent delinquency and crime patterns usually begin early and worsen with age. 2. We know far too little about girls’ crime, the reasons it is committed, and the social and developmental factors that precipitate it. 3. There is growing evidence that biology is a significant factor in explaining gender differences in offending. 4. Under federal law, juveniles may be prosecuted under the criminal law at age 15. 5. Status offenses are behaviors prohibited by juveniles which are against the criminal code. 6. The typical juvenile is far more likely to be the victim than the perpetrator of a violent crime. 7. Programs designed to deal with serious, already involved delinquents are called tertiary programs. 8. Juveniles as a group are responsible for a small percentage of arrests compared with adults, although they are arrested disproportionately compared with other age groups. 9. In studies examining gender differences and juvenile crime, recent research has shown that the gender gap for drug and violent offenses is getting smaller. 10. The AL delinquent is most likely to be involved in offenses that symbolize adult privilege.

Essay

1. Briefly describe the three categories of prevention and give an example of each. 175 2. What are the legal, social, and psychological definitions of delinquency? 3. Provide a brief history of juvenile justice, including the date of its origin in the United States. 4. Describe the characteristics of MST. Discuss the research 5. List and describe the characteristics of successful prevention and treatment programs for juvenile and criminal behavior. 6. Compare and contrast Moffitt's Developmental Theory with Patterson's Coercion Theory. 7. What are the pros and cons of removing status offenses from state juvenile courts? 8. Why is it so difficult to gather complete data on the national incidence of juvenile delinquency? 9. Discuss what we know about the differences (if any) between girls delinquency and boys delinquency. What does research show about the gender difference in status offenses. 10. Discuss how “mental age” and “chronological age” affect criminal responsibility in the court.

176 CHAPTER 7 CRIMINAL PSYCHOPATHY

Multiple Choice

1. The core factors of psychopathy have been identified by a statistical method called: a) correlation. b) multi-analysis. c) analysis of variance. d) factor analysis. e) regression analysis.

2. The primary psychopath is: a) usually neurotic. b) a violent criminal. c) usually violent and destructive. d) usually highly emotional. e) a true psychopath.

3. Which of the following behaviors is not characteristic of the psychopath? a) Superficial charm b) Extreme self-centeredness c) Worry and anxiety about the future d) Irresponsibility e) Impulsivity

4. According to Hare, individuals who are often sensationalized in the media as psychopathic killers are more accurately: a) secondary psychopaths b) acting-out neurotics c) neurotic delinquents d) symptomatic psychopaths e) any of the above. *

5. Primary psychopaths who engage in repetitive antisocial behavior are called ___ psychopaths. a) heinous b) criminal c) secondary d) callous e) typical

177 6. According to Cleckley, which absolute unchanging characteristic is always present in the psychopath? a) reactive aggression b) lack of remorse c) impulsivity d) pathological lying e) egocentricity

7. Criminal psychopaths are often more_____ compared to nonpsychpathic offenders. a) violent b) persistent c) sadistic d) all of the above e) none of the above

8. Currently, Hare’s PCL-R is the best measure available of identifying criminal psychopaths. According to Hare, what score must a person receive on this scale to be considered a criminal psychopath? a) 20 b) 25 c) 22 d) 30 e) 18

9. The Psychopathy Checklist was specifically designed to identify: a) secondary psychopaths. b) potential psychopaths during childhood. c) only those psychopaths without criminal tendencies. d) only those psychopaths who engage in violent or sadistic acts. e) psychopaths in male prison populations.

10. Quay has said that psychopaths “know the words but not the music” in reference to their lack of real emotion. This is also known as: a) tone deafness. b) emotional vacuity. c) pathological emotional deficiency. d) semantic aphasia. e) apraxia.

11. Those psychopaths who commit antisocial or violent acts because of severe emotional problems or inner conflicts are referred to as: a) primary psychopaths. b) mentally disordered psychopaths. c) secondary psychopaths. d) psychotic psychopaths.

178 e) disassociative psychopaths.

12. Robert Hare’s research focuses on the _____ of the psychopath. a) family background b) neurological features c) socioeconomic status d) intelligence e) antisocial tendencies

13. The behavior of the psychopath appears to be primarily an attempt to: a) receive sexual satisfaction. b) obtain adequate stimulation. c) relive his or her childhood. d) avoid punishment. e) get back at society.

14. The childhood of the psychopath is often characterized by: a) hyperactivity. b) cruelty to animals. c) enuresis. d) fire setting. e) poor school performance.

15. Criminal psychopaths make up about what percent of the male inmate population in a maximum security prison? a) 5–8% b) 10–25% c) 85–0% d) 45–55% e) 30-43%

16. A psychopath would most likely explain his criminal behavior by saying: a) “I did it because everyone else was doing it.” b) “I did it for the hell of it.” c) “I did it because it is what I do best.” d) “I did it for the money.” e) “I did it because I’ve been wronged.”

17. The core behavioral dimension that reflects a socially deviant life style, such as impulsiveness, excessive needs for stimulation, and lack of realistic goals is referred to as psychopathic: a) factor I. b) factor II. c) factor III. d) factor IV.

179 e) asymmetry.

18. According to research by Robert Hare, criminal psychopaths appear to be deficient in: a) linguistic processing. b) common sense. c) intelligence. d) logic. e) boundary apathy.

19. Psychopaths demonstrate normal appraisal of emotional cues and situations in the abstract (i.e., verbal discussion), but they are deficient in using emotional cues to guide their judgments and behavior in the process of living. This phenomenon is referred to as: a) emotional paradox. b) emotional imbalance. c) habituation. d) narcomania. e) callous unemotionality.

20. Recent research using factor analysis on the behavioral characteristics suggests that there appear(s) to be _____ that adequately describe(s) the behavioral dimensions of psychopaths. a) only two factors b) three or more factors c) hundreds of factors d) two or three factors e) one central factor

21. APD stands for: a) antisocial psychopathic disorder. b) asocial personality disorder. c) antisocial personality disorder. d) atypical personal depression. e) asymmetrical personality disorder.

22. Criminal psychopaths, compared to criminal nonpsychopaths, are more likely to kill: a) males who are strangers. b) females who are strangers. c) males who they know well. d) females who they know well. e) children under age ten.

23. Those researchers who argue for a fourth core factor in psychopathy argue that ____ should be included with the three core factors. a) low intelligence b) arrogance c) lack of guilt

180 d) impulsiveness e) antisocial behavior

24. According to Quay, psychopaths behave the way they do because they: a) receive an abundance of sensations from the environment. b) do not receive the full impact of sensations from the environment. c) have learned the behavior from watching others. d) do not interact with their environment. e) haven't learned consequences of their behavior.

25. Which of the following statements about juvenile psychopathy is correct? a) There are no instruments available for measuring juvenile psychopathy. b) Juvenile psychopathy as a construct clearly does not exist. c) Many researchers fear the negative implications of labeling juveniles as psychopaths. d) Juvenile psychopaths display behavior identical to that of adult psychopaths. e) Juvenile psychopathy is correlated with sexual aggression.

26. Female psychopaths, compared with male psychopaths: a) commit more property crime. b) have higher recidivism rates. c) are less aggressive and violent. d) have lower recidivism rates. e) receive higher PCL-R scores.

27. Neuropsychological indicators have been repeatedly found in psychopaths, as reflected in electrodermal (skin conductance) measures, cardiovascular, and other nervous system indices. These indicators are called: a) confluence. b) markers. c) cloaca. d) neuroindicators. e) CVAs.

28. Research and theory suggest that the psychopath has a pathological need for stimulation and excitement because of some deficiency in the: a) RAS. b) hypothalamus. c) thalamus. d) cerebral cortex. e) hippocampus.

29. Generally speaking, the autonomic nervous system of the psychopath appears to be: a) deformed. b) insufficient.

181 c) ineffective. d) overreactive. e) underaroused.

30. Research by Robert Hare on the orienting response suggests that psychopaths: a) do not habituate to stimuli easily. b) give larger orienting responses to stimuli than nonpsychopaths. c) usually exhibit no discernible orienting response to stimuli. d) are less sensitive and alert to their environment. e) have difficulty adjusting to new situations.

True or False

1. Research indicates that the recidivism rate associated with psychopaths is very high. 2. Psychopaths are usually neurotic. 3. Psychopathy Screening Device or the PSD is one of the measures specifically designed to identify youths with psychopathic characteristics. T 4. Current research on gender differences of psychopaths suggests that women outnumber men. 5. Hemisphere asymmetry refers to the observation that most psychopaths have superior language ability. 6. Some research suggests that psychopathy and bipolar disorder are on the same spectrum of disorders. 7. Secondary psychopaths are more likely to be found in a maximum security prison. F 8. The core behavioral dimension that reflects the interpersonal and emotional components, such as callousness and manipulation of others, is referred to as psychopathic factor I. 9. Suicide is common in psychopaths. 10. Research suggests that the psychopath displays a deficiency in conditionability.

Essay

1. Briefly describe the core behavioral characteristics of the criminal psychopath. 2. What behavioral differences have been found between male and female psychopaths? 3. Name and describe five instruments used to measure psychopathy. 4. Define each of the following as proposed by Hare: Primary psychopath; secondary psychopath; dyssocial psychopath; criminal psychopath. 5. What has been learned about a) recidivism and b) treatment of the criminal psychopath? 6. How is the psychopath different from the non-psychopath on psychophysiology? Thoroughly discuss all relevant features. 7. After summarizing the research on “juvenile psychopathy,” explain why this construct is so controversial. 8. List and describe briefly the four hypothesized dimensions of psychopathy. 9. Describe at least one concern about using the PCL-R across racial and ethnic backgrounds. 10. Compare and contrast the terms sociopath and psychopath. 182 CHAPTER 8 CRIME AND MENTAL DISORDERS

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following statements is most accurate? a) Most criminals are mentally ill. b) Most criminals have a mental disorder. c) Most mentally disordered individuals are not violent. d) Most murderers cannot help themselves because of mental illness. e) Most murderers are paranoid schizophrenics.

2. A developmental status attributable to a cognitive impairment is called: a) developmental readiness. b) developmental amblyopia. c) developmental dysfunction. d) developmental disability. e) cognitive dysphasia.

3. Disorganized, catatonic, paranoid, undifferentiated, and residual are all subtypes of: a) schizophrenia. b) paranoia. c) obsessive-compulsive disorder. d) delusional disorder. e) bipolar disorder.

4. Which is not a symptom of antisocial personality disorder as specified in the DSM-IV? a) Emotional intelligence b) Impulsivity c) Irritability d) Deceitfulness e) Failure to conform to social norms

5. Which of the following clinical diagnoses is the most frequently found in criminal offenders? a) Clinical depression b) Psychopath c) Delusional disorder d) Histrionic personality disorder e) Antisocial personality disorder

6. The research shows that violent people: a) fantasize more than nonviolent people. b) exhibit the violence triad more frequently than nonviolent people. 183 c) have violent daydreams daily. d) usually have a history of violence. e) often have a history of mental disorder.

7. What is the most common type of forensic assessment conducted for the criminal courts? a) Assessment of sex offenders b) Assessment of sanity c) Assessment of dangerousness at sentencing d) Assessment of competency to stand trial e) Risk assessment

8. The insanity defense is used in approximately what percent of felony criminal offenses in the United States? a) About 1% b) 5% to 10% c) 11% to 15% d) About 20% e) Between 20% and 27%

9. All of the following characterize persons found incompetent to stand trial (IST) in the U.S., except that they: a) are usually married. b) are usually uneducated. c) usually have a history of prior criminal charges. d) usually have a history of psychiatric hospitalization. e) none of the above.

10. What was the essential ruling in Jackson v. Indiana? a) Psychoactive medication could not be given to incompetent defendants. b) Psychoactive medication could not be given to defendants found insane. c) Incompetent defendants could not be hospitalized indefinitely if no progress was made to restore them. d) Persons found insane could not be hospitalized indefinitely. e) The deinstitutionalization of all psychiatric patients.

11. Delusional disorders are also called: a) paranoid disorders. b) psychotic disorders. c) believe disorders. d) schizophrenia. e) paranoid schizophrenia.

12. If the court determines that an individual was robbed of her or his own free will at the time of a homicide because of mental disease or defect, the individuals would most likely be judged: a) IST.

184 b) incompetent to stand trial c) mentally ill. d) guilty but insane. e) NGRI.

13. All of the following standards or rules to determine insanity are or have been represented in various state or federal legal systems except the: a) Dayton Rule. b) M’Naghten Rule. c) Brawner Rule. d) Product Test. e) Durham Rule.

14. When the M’Naghten Rule is applied, the essential inquiry is whether: a) the act was the result or product of a mental defect. b) the person was able to distinguish between right and wrong at the time of offense. c) the act was the result of an “irresistible impulse.” d) the act was the result of an addiction. e) the person intentionally planned to do harm.

15. The core of the insanity defense involves which of the following issues? a) Competency to stand trial b) Whether the person can be rehabilitated c) Criminal responsibility d) Past psychiatric history e) Current mental status

16. _____ trial generated so much public outcry that Congress passed the Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984. a) Ted Bundy’s b) John Hinckley’s c) The “Son of Sam’s” d) The BTK Killer’s e) O.J. Simpson’s

17. DSM-IV-R stands for: a) Dissociative Somatic Manual, 6th Edition, Revised. b) Diagnoses of Serious Mentality, 4th Edition, Revised. c) Douglas Simpson Manual, 4th Edition, Retroactive. d) Diagnostic Statistical Manual, 4th Edition, Revised. e) none of the above.

18. Some states supplement the _____with the “irresistible impulse test.” a) M’Naghten Rule b) Brawner Rule

185 c) ALI Rule d) Durham Rule e) NGRI

19. In the Brawner Rule, the “caveat paragraph” intends to exclude _____ from using the insanity defense. a) defendants under the influence of alcohol at the time of the offense b) psychopaths c) defendants under the influence of drugs at the time of the offense d) defendants who refuse to undergo psychiatric evaluation e) developmentally disabled

20. In general, the U.S. federal court system currently uses what insanity standard? a) The Durham Rule b) The M’Naghten Rule c) ALI/Brawner Rule d) Insanity Defense Reform Act e) Amicus curiae

21. In Foucha v. Louisiana, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that defendants found NGRI could: a) not be retried once they were no longer insane. b) not remain hospitalized once they were no longer mentally disordered. c) be hospitalized for as long as they remain dangerous. d) be given medication to treat their disorder. e) not be given medication to treat their disorder.

22. A rare but severe mental disorder believed to be linked to childbirth and similar to serious bipolar depression is postpartum: a) blues. b) psychopathy. c) delusions. d) psychosis. e) depression.

23. IST stands for: a) invasive sexual treatment. b) intrusive sexual treatment. c) incompetent to stand trial. d) incentive system targets. e) intensive schizophrenic treatment.

24. The right and wrong test refers to which one of the following insanity defenses? a) Magna Carta b) The M’Naghten Rule * c) ALI/Brawner Rule

186 d) Insanity Defense Reform Act e) The Durham Rule

25. The most common result of a PTSD defense has been one of: a) diminished responsibility. b) guilty, but mentally ill. c) not guilty by reason of insanity. d) incompetent to stand trial. e) none of the above.

26. When a mental disorder or syndrome is unintentionally caused by a clinician or practitioner in a patient, this phenomenon is called: a) iatrogenic. b) tautological fallacy. c) projection syndrome. d) symptom substitution. e) transference.

27. Which diagnostic label has been associated with the iatrogenic phenomenon in recent years? a) Paranoid schizophrenia b) Histrionic personality disorder c) Post-traumatic stress disorder d) Delusional disorders e) Dissociative identity disorder

28. In the Supreme Court ruling Sell v. U.S. (2003), the Court ruled that: a) in cases that did not involve violence, courts should be very careful in ordering medication to treat mentally disordered offenders who refuse the medication. b) mentally disordered offenders should be sedated in the courtroom. c) psychoactive drugs should not be ordered by any court against the wishes of the defendant, even if the mentally disordered offender tends to be violent. d) mentally disordered offenders should be institutionalized until cured. e) none of the above.

29. Which disorder has been referred to as the “UFO of psychiatry” (Ondrovik & Hamilton, 1991)? a) Multiple Personality Disorder b) Postpartum Psychosis c) Dysthymic Disorder d) Bipolar II Disorder e) Borderline Personality Disorder

30. What form of amnesia is the most widely used justification for an insanity defense or mitigation of criminal responsibility in the U.S. courts today? a) Chronic organic amnesia

187 b) Alcohol-Induced Persisting Amnestic Disorder c) Wernicke’s amnesia d) Limited amnesia e) Anxiolytic-Induced Persisting Amnestic Disorder

True or False

1. Insanity is a legal term that refers to a defendant’s state of mind at the time of the crime. 2. MPD stands for Multiple Psychosis Disorder. 3. Adjudicative competence is now the standard term for not guilty by reason of insanity. 4. The use of amnesia as a defense has been largely unsuccessful in the United States. 5. Ken Bianchi, the Hillside Strangler, was diagnosed as a psychopath. 6. In Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California (1974), the Supreme Court of California held that a psychotherapist has an obligation to use reasonable care to protect potential victims of a patient. 7. Statistics show that more than half of all prison and jail inmates might benefit from mental health treatment. 8. According to the text, the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior. 9. Andrea Yates was convicted but was later found not guilty by reason of insanity. 10. Clinicians are now able to predict dangerousness with great accuracy.

Essay

1. Briefly describe four legal standards for of insanity and their requirements. 2. Describe the essential features of antisocial personality disorder. What is the relationship between antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy? 3. Identify and include symptoms of the four diagnostic categories most relevant to criminal behavior. 4. What are guilty but mentally ill statutes? Why do many legal scholars oppose them? 5. State the key ruling in each of the following court decisions: Jones v. U.S., Tarasoff v. Regents of California, and Sell v. U.S. 6. Describe fully and evaluate any three of the unique defenses discussed in the chapter. 7. Discuss the role of law enforcement and mental health courts in deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill. 8. Discuss the controversy associated Dissociative Identity Disorder. Define the term iatrogenic and discuss how this term relates to this debate. 9. Choose one of the risk assessment measures discussed in the chapter. Describe the instrument, explain what the instrument is designed to predict and list two cautions to consider when using the instrument. 10. How have the media affected public perception of mental disorder and violence? Include information on the history and prevalence of mental disorder and violence.

188 CHAPTER 9 HOMICIDE, ASSAULT, AND FAMILY VIOLENCE

Multiple Choice

1. “The intentional inflicting of serious bodily injury on another” is a sufficient definition of which of the following offense(s)? a) Simple assault b) Aggravated assault c) Assault with a deadly weapon d) Murderous assault e) Simple malice

2. Homicides consistently account for about ____% of all violent crimes reported to the FBI. a) 12 b) 18 c) 25 d) 40 e) 1 or 2

3. The most frequently reported violent crime in the U.S. is: a) homicide. b) arson. c) aggravated assault. d) manslaughter. e) rape.

4. Negligent manslaughter is killing another: a) as a result of recklessness. b) with malice aforethought. c) as a result of uncontrollable passion. d) in self-defense when danger of serious bodily injury exists. e) without just cause.

5. Which group has a rate of criminal homicide that significantly exceeds its numbers in the general population, both as offenders and victims? a) Native Americans b) Latinos c) British Americans d) Asian Americans e) African Americans

189 6. The term _____ refers to the cognitive shortcuts people use to make quick inferences about their world. a) coercion b) cognitive reframing c) signatories d) cognitive ease e) availability heuristics

7. The phenomenon whereby the mere presence of a gun or other weapon can stimulate violence is called: a) confirmation bias. b) stimulus provocation. c) weapons effect. d) weapons focus. e) iatrogenic effect.

8. About one of every _____ murders and nonnegligent manslaughters in the U.S. involve a family member killing another family member. a) two b) five c) three d) ten e) thirteen

9. Which of the following is not one of the three kinds of maltreatment that comprises emotional abuse? a) Spanking or slapping b) Close confinement c) Verbal assault d) Withholding food e) Emotional assault

10. Approximately how many cases of physical abuse result in the death of a child in the U.S. each year? a) 700 b) 1500 c) 5500 d) 500,000 e) 550

11. The most common form of intrafamilial violence involves: a) siblings. b) spouses. c) parent acting violently toward a child. d) child acting violently toward a parent.

190 e) step-child acting violently toward step-parent.

12. In family violence, the term “battering” is generally reserved for: a) heterosexual physical violence. b) psychological abuse. c) emotional abuse. d) physical violence. e) sexual violence.

13. Lizotte & Sheppard (2001) report that gun ownership is related to: a) gang membership. b) violent crime. c) drug selling. d) antisocial behavior. e) all of the above.

14. The likeliest candidates for elder abuse appear to be: a) African American women ages 75–85, upper class. b) African American women ages 55–65, lower class. c) white women ages 75–85, upper class. d) white women ages 75–85, lower class. e) African American males ages 75-85.

15. Terrorist activity is often included in which of the FBI's category of homicide? a) Group cause homicide b) Criminal enterprise murder c) Personal cause murder d) Sexual homicide e) Politically motivated homicide.

16. The most effective way of breaking the wife-abuse cycle appears to be to: a) change the abuser’s attitudinal system. b) change an abuser’s social network. c) use legal sanctions. d) use all of the above. e) none of the above.

17. When a caregiver fabricates or intentionally causes symptoms in those they are caring for in order to seek and obtain medical treatment, it is usually a case of: a) the woozle effect. b) phanerothyme. c) Munchausen syndrome by proxy. d) Landau-Kleffner syndrome. e) Guillain-Barre syndrome.

191 18. Research on family violence indicates: a) participants in family violence were themselves childhood victims of family violence. b) no clear or consistent evidence that individuals who violently attack family members were themselves childhood victims of family violence. c) spouse batterers have a history of being physically and sexually abused as children. d) none of the above. e) all of the above.

19. Alcohol and drug abuse appear to: a) play a causal role in family violence. b) play a role as an exacerbator but not a cause in family violence. c) be the chief cause in child abuse but not spouse abuse. d) be the chief cause in spouse abuse but not child abuse. e) a and d only.

20. The most common abuse of the elderly by caretakers is: a) physical abuse. b) emotional abuse. c) neglect. d) a combination of emotional abuse and neglect. e) financial abuse.

21. In an important study of American children by Ullman and Straus (2003), it was discovered that approximately _____ percent of adolescents participated in child-to-parent violence during the previous 12 months. a) 20 b) 25 c) 5 d) 10 e) none of the above

22. Filicide refers to the killing of: a) an infant. b) a child older than 24 hours. c) a child by the mother. d) a child within the first 24 hours after birth. e) a sibling.

23. What was the title of the article that led to serious child abuse being “rediscovered”? a) Reviving Ophelia b) A New Look at the Neglect and Abuse of Children c) Child Abuse: Taking a Stand d) The Battered Child Syndrome e) A Child Called It

192 24. Families that are characterized by continuous cycles of physical aggression and violence inside the family are called: a) multiassaultive. b) genetically imbalanced. c) dysfunctional. d) maladaptive. e) multigenerational aggressives.

25. Symptoms thought to frequently accompany Battered Woman Syndrome include all of the following except: a) narcissism. b) feelings of selflessness. c) feelings of low self-esteem. d) feelings of helplessness. e) feelings of depression.

26. As a clinical diagnosis, Battered Woman Syndrome is thought to be a form of: a) clinical depression. b) paranoid disorder, undifferentiated type. c) post-traumatic stress disorder. d) bipolar disorder. e) personality disorder.

27. A sibling killing a sister is called: a) matricide. b) particide. c) parricide. d) sororicide. e) filicide.

28. Neonaticide refers to the killing of: a) an infant. b) a child older than 24 hours. c) a child within the first 24 hours after birth. d) a child by the mother. e) a fetus.

29. George and Bill walk into a bar, order a drink and begin playing pool. Several minutes later, one of the bar's regulars, Steve, hollers across the bar and calls Bill a sissy girl. Bill punches Steve and a fist fight ensues. This scenario depicts an example of: a) emasculated jealousy. b) reactive aggression. c) alcohol induced violence. d) conduct disorder. e) none of the above.

193 30. Which of the following phenomenon is more likely to occur with males as perpetrators? a) Munchausen Syndrome by proxy b) Neonaticide c) Elderly abuse d) Filicide e) Shaken baby syndrome

True or False

1. There is strong research evidence that women who kill their children are emotionally detached from their offspring. 2. In the United States, the victims of homicide are mostly male. 3. The weapon most commonly used in homicides in the U.S. is a knife. 4. Studies of homicide have shown that murderers rarely know their victims. 5. Spousal and child abuse appears to occur primarily in economically disadvantaged families. 6. Infanticide refers to the killing of an infant. 7. Studies investigating the sociological correlates of criminal homicides have found that most murderers are under the age of thirty. 8. The cycle of violence theory posits that coercive and punitive tactics in parenting increase the likelihood of later aggressive behavior and potential domestic violence. 9. Incidence refers to the total number of cases per year. 10. A youth who has been thrown away from the home by a parent or caretaker is called a thrownaway.

Essay

1. List and describe the four categories of homicide generated by Roberts, Zgoba, and Shahidullah (2007). 2. What is the availability heuristic? How might it account for our perception of violence? 3. What are the psychological effects of domestic violence on children? 4. Define “Battered Woman Syndrome” and briefly state the controversy associated with it. 5. What is the dynamic cascade model? Provide of an illustration of how this model explains violent behavior across childhood, adolescence and beyond. 6. Compare and contrast Shaken Baby Syndrome and Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy as specific forms of child abuse. 7. What are some of the factors that make elder abuse such a complex issue? What does research tell about the perpetrators and victims. 8. Discuss the relationship between guns and crime. Describe how the weapons effect may impact gang violence and neighborhood crime. 9. What are some of the factors that make the family so difficult to study? 10 What prompted the FBI to study sniper incidents from 1982-2001? What did this study tell us about sniper attacks, including their prevalence? 194 CHAPTER 10 MULTIPLE MURDER, SCHOOL, AND WORKPLACE VIOLENCE

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following is not a fundamental question of investigative psychology? a) What are the important behavioral features of the crime that may help identify the perpetrator? b) Are there any other crimes that are likely to have been committed by the same person? c) What are the important behavioral features of the crime that may help prosecute the perpetrator? d) What inferences can be made about the characteristics of the offender that may help identify him/her? e) Does the victim’s body show signs of ossification?

2. The modus operandi: a) is an unusual pattern that is not necessary to commit the offense. b) refers to the procedures an offender engages in to successfully commit a crime. c) is a consistent, unchanging behavior the offender uses across all crimes. d) is a crucial link investigators must focus on when linking crimes. e) all of the above.

3. In investigative psychology, any behavior that goes beyond what is necessary to commit the crime is called (the): a) restructuring. b) undoing. c) staging. d) signature. e) modus operandi.

4. The primary difference between staging and undoing is: a) the relationship between offender and victim. b) the reason behind the action. c) the level of aggression involved in the crime. d) the amount of clothing left on the victim e) the placement of the victim’s body.

5. In which type of crime scene is there evidence that the offender used planning and premeditation? a) Reconstructive crime scene b) Spontaneous crime scene

195 c) Mixed crime scene d) Organized crime scene e) Disorganized crime scene

6. Psychological profiling has its roots in: a) professional sports. b) psychometrics. c) psychoanalysis. d) politics. e) behaviorism.

7. Investigative psychology is to _____ as profiling is to ______. a) the crime scene; the offender. b) criminal analysis; criminal tendencies. c) forensics; anthropology d) anthropology; forensics e) the offender; the victim

8. _____ profiling is often used in the search for property offenders. a) Residential b) Racial c) Geographic d) Equivocal e) Ethnic

9. The term reconstructive psychological evaluation is synonymous with: a) criminal profiling. b) identity assessment. c) psychological autopsy. d) psychological profiling. e) none of the above.

10. What kind of offender would be most likely to engage in undoing a murder scene? a) sadistic b) shy c) psychopathic d) emotionally distraught e) troller

11. According to the text, criminal profiling is currently most useful in identifying the perpetrator of what type of offense? a) serial homicide. b) drug-induced crime. c) political crimes. d) serial rape.

196 e) aggravated assault.

12. The tendency to gather evidence that confirms one’s pre-existing expectations, while failing to seek contradictory information is called: a) biased profiling. b) pre-existing orientation. c) tunnel effect. d) skewed reconnaissance. e) confirmation bias.

13. A serial violent offender who does not specifically search for victims is using which one of which one of Rossmo’s four hunting patterns? a) Poacher b) Scavenger c) Trapper d) Hunter e) Troller

14. A term coined by Havelock Ellis that refers to self-arousal and the self-gratification of sexual arousal is: a) autoeroticism. b) authochthonous. c) autoplasty. d) autophagy. e) autopagnosia.

15. The primary difference between what qualifies as serial murders and what qualifies as mass murders is: a) premeditation. b) the selection of victims. c) a cooling-off period. d) the number of victims. e) the weapons used.

16. The murders at Virginia Tech in 2007 is an example of: a) domestic terrorism. b) spree murder. c) serial murder. d) classic mass murder. e) b and d.

17. The strongest determining factor of victim selection for most serial murders is the _____ the victim. a) availability of b) appearance of

197 c) relationship to d) psychological characteristics of e) social isolation of

18. Which of the following is not listed in the text as a motive of male serial murderers? a) Domination b) Sexual excitement c) Media attention d) Material gain e) Game playing

19. Jenkins’ 1988 study of serial killers in England found that: a) serial killers had a long history of violent offenses before caught. b) serial killers began killing at a late age. c) serial killers had extensive juvenile records. d) many were divorced. e) the majority were former police officers.

20. What practice accounts in part for the fact that ethnic minorities are disproportionately represented in arrest statistics? a) Racial profiling b) Geographic profiling c) Psychological autopsy d) Criminal profiling e) None of the above

21. According to La Fon (2002), the two basic types of psychological autopsies are: a) suicide and equivocal death. b) empirical and anecdotal. c) compensatory and reconstructive. d) testimonial and random e) aggressive and non-aggressive

22. Which of the following is not one of Holmes and DeBurger’s (1988) classifications of serial murderers? a) Classic b) Visionary c) Power oriented d) Hedonistic e) Mission-oriented

23. According to the above typology, which type is often characterized by an abundance of physical evidence at the crime scene? a) Classic b) Visionary

198 c) Power oriented d) Hedonistic e) Mission-oriented

24. Research by Fox and Levin found that most mass killings are motivated by: a) profit. b) fear. c) power. d) anger. e) revenge.

25. When victims are chosen because the killer associates them with a primary target against whom revenge is sought, this is called: a) murder by proxy. b) associative murder. c) associative selection. d) loyalty murder e) none of the above.

26. The two most consistent characteristics of school shooters are: a) cruelty to animals and easy access to weapons. b) desire for revenge and history of drug use. c) interest in unusual hobbies and history of drug use. d) peer rejection and social rejection. e) current depression diagnosis and history of violent behavior.

27. The weapon of choice in product tampering is: a) razor blades. b) metal. c) glass. d) cyanide. e) syringes.

28. Which worker would be least at risk for Type I workplace violence? a) Sandy, who works 6 p.m. until closing at the Burger King counter. b) David, who works the midnight shift at the Mobil Station. c) Gretchen, who works 3-11 p.m. as a nursing assistant at the hospital. d) Al, who owns his own liquor store and often works alone 3 p.m.-midnight. e) Tony, who drives a taxi at night.

29. An incident in which the offender commits serious physical or bodily harm to several workers within an organization is called: a) workplace violence. b) workplace aggression. c) occupational violence.

199 d) occupational aggression. e) all of the above.

30. Geographical profiling was initially designed to: a) help investigations of arson. b) help investigations of murder. c) help investigations of rape. d) all of the above. e) none of the above.

True or False

1. Psychological profiling is the psychological description of criminal and noncriminal persons. 2. Serial murder by children or adolescents is an exceedingly are event. 3. Investigations of school shooters have consistently found that the two characteristics that emerge are peer rejection and social rejection. 4. Cruelty to animals was prominent in the backgrounds of over 90% of school shooters. 5. Research shows that criminal profiling should be restricted to serial murder and serial sexual assaults. 6. Kraemer, Lord, and Heilbrun (2004) found that serial offenders often prefer guns, while single victim offenders prefer hands on killing. 7. Criminal profiling has been successful practice in providing the offenders specific identity. 8. There has been an overabundance of research directed at mass murderers. 9. Students are more likely to be victims of violence away from school, as opposed to in school. 10. The majority of mass murderers plan to die at the crime scene.

Essay

1. Why is the case of Jack the Ripper so relevant to criminal profiling? 2. Discuss the differences in motive, victim selection and method of killing between male and female serial killers. 3. According to the research discussed in the text, what would be an effective approach to reducing serial murder? 4. Describe some of the differences between serial and single-victim killers, as discussed in the chapter? 5. Explain why serial murderers are especially difficult to identify. 6. How is confirmation bias often apparent in racial profiling by law enforcement? 8. What type of psychological autopsy are insurance companies interested in and why? 9. List two flaws in modern profiling discussed in the text. 10. Discuss the usefulness of organized, disorganized, and mixed crime scene classification.

200 CHAPTER 11 PSYCHOLOGY OF TERRORISM

Multiple Choice

1. Compared to other violent criminals, research shows that terrorists are often: a) reactive. b) aggressive. c) emotionally stable. d) mentally disordered. e) psychopathic.

2. The majority of terrorist attacks that occur in the U.S. have been carried out by: a) former military personnel. b) international terrorist organizations. c) al-Qaeda. d) anti-abortionists. e) lone wolves.

3. Which of the following is not included in Marsella’s (2004) definition of terrorism? a) It is a recent phenomenon. b) It involves the use of force or violence. c) It is performed by individuals or groups. d) Its intention is to instill fear. e) It is used as a means of coercing individuals or groups to change social positions.

4. The FBI classifies terrorists according to: a) country of origin. b) motives. c) religious beliefs. d) political leanings. e) typology.

5. An individual who joins a terror group to lash out against dire circumstances is displaying the _____ response pattern to helplessness. a) reproach b) attack c) avoidance d) reactive depression e) last-resort

201 6. Which of the following would likely be characteristic of the childhood of a terrorist? a) Good student b) Active in community c) Stable family d) All of the above e) None of the above

7. An individual’s indoctrination to fully embrace a terrorist group’s ideology and mission is called: a) radicalization b) social modeling c) self-censure d) group affiliation. e) social marginalization.

8. The textbook describes the process of becoming a terrorist as: a) gradual. b) personally conflictual. c) intense. d) fraught with violence. e) isolating.

9. Cognitive restructuring involves: a) moral justifications. b) euphemistic language. c) advantageous comparisons. d) a and b. e) all the above.

10. A terrorist who writes a good-bye letter to his parents immediately prior to carrying out a suicide mission is engaging in: a) a fail-safe procedure. b) living martyrdom. c) “point of no return” ritual. d) disengagement. e) childhood regression.

11. Bandura believes that terrorists justify their horrific acts in what way? a) Through a process of cognitive restructuring b) By associating themselves with religious zeal c) By accepting responsibility for their actions d) By denying that their actions are truly harmful e) Through a process of learned helplessness

202 12. A process that reduces human beings to the level of nonhuman animals without individuality, dignity or autonomy is known as: a) animal morphism. b) deferred prosecution. c) dehumanization. d) degradation. e) deindividuation.

13. Terrorists may view their actions as stemming from the dictates of authorities and leaders rather than from their own personal responsibility. This process is called: a) dehumanization. b) deindividuation. c) dichotomy of the identity. d) disassociation. e) displacement of responsibility.

14. Diffusion of responsibility is similar to the concept of: a) deindividuation. b) risky shift. c) authority conformity. d) moral destruction. e) maturation-degeneration hypothesis.

15. When a person lacks motivation to act after exposure to unpleasant events over which the person feels he has not control, he is probably experiencing: a) learned helplessness. b) learned aversion. c) proactive depression. d) nuchal rigidity. e) Erickson’s Industry versus inferiority stage of moral development.

16. Highly violent antiabortion activists are placed in which of the FBI terrorists groups? a) Radical environmental groups b) Religious radicals c) Psychologically motivated terrorists d) Radical psychological terrorists e) Special interest extremists

17. When terrorists are convinced that their way of life and fundamental cultural values are superior to those they attack, this process is specifically referred to as: a) moral justification.

203 b) euphemistic language. c) advantageous comparison. d) cultural comparison. e) cultural conviction.

18. According to research by Borum and Gelles (2005), which of the following is not a characteristic of al-Qaeda today? a) Strategically adaptive b) Far reaching c) Evolving d) Fanatical e) Organized

19. The tendency of a group to develop beliefs and make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members is called: a) risky shift. b) group persuasion. c) extreme terrorism. d) group think. e) group hyperbole.

20. Which process, identified by Ervin Staub, occurs when a group or culture is selected by another group or culture as a scapegoat or an ideological enemy? a) Relative deprivation b) Targeted selection c) Targeted scapegoating d) Cultural deprivation e) Cultural devaluation

21. The procedure of trying to mimic an event under laboratory conditions is called: a) simulation. b) mimicry experimentation. c) mimicry situationalism. d) paraexperiment. e) trialing.

22. The main characteristics of lone wolf terrorists include all of the following except that: a) they operate individually. b) they act without the direct influence of a leader. c) their acts of violence are not planned. d) they demonstrate poor interpersonal and social skills. e) they are more likely than other terrorists to be emotionally disturbed.

204 23. Some terrorists convince themselves that their actions are socially worthy and have an ultimate moral purpose. This process is called: a) moral absolutism. b) moral consistency. c) social determinism. d) moral justification. e) civil disobedience

24. Which of the following is not one of Staub’s characteristics of terrorist groups? a) Cultural devaluation b) Perceptions of inequality, injustice, or relative deprivation c) Strong hierarchy or respect for authority d) Randomized violence e) None of the above

25. Theodore Kazynski is presented in the text as an example of a: a) lone wolf terrorist. b) mentally disordered terrorist. c) religious radical. d) both a and b. e) all of the above.

26. In 1846, Henry David Thoreau refused to pay six years of delinquent taxes in opposition to the Mexican-American War and slavery. Thoreau was engaging in: a) moral conformism. b) anarchal passivity. c) civil disobedience. d) moral righteousness. e) passive resistance.

27. The chapter takes the position that domestic terrorism: a) does not exist. b) is more violent than international terrorism. c) can be understood in much the same way as international terrorism. d) involves radically different psychological principles than international terrorism. e) causes more psychological damage than international terrorism.

28. The anthrax scare of 2001 is considered an act of: a) nuclear terrorism. b) ABC terrorism. c) international terrorism. d) chemical warfare. e) bioterrorism.

29. An individual in Kohlberg’s late preconventional stage would likely be focused on: 205 a) avoiding punishment. b) satisfying his/her own needs. c) self-chosen, consistent ethical principles. d) conformity and others’ approval e) respect and dignity of all human beings.

30. Which one of Bandura’s strategies of disengagement is most apparent in incidents of group violence? a) Advantageous comparison b) Euphemisms c) Cognitive restructuring d) Dehumanization e) Diffusion of responsibility.

True or False

1. In general, terrorists are a heterogeneous group. 2. Most terrorists have a diagnosed mental disorder. 3. All terrorist activities are criminal. 4. The primary similarity between terrorists and other violent offenders is their history of antisocial behavior. 5. Lone wolf terrorists are more likely to be mentally disturbed than other terrorists. 6. Al-Qaeda would be considered a cohesive group with loyal members. 7. Peer influence is often the primary reason for joining a terrorist group. 8. Research shows that an aggressive military approach is the most effective method of ending terrorism. 9. By definition, an individual who terrorizes is a terrorist. 10. The attack on the world trade center remains the deadliest domestic terrorist incident ever committed on U.S. soil.

Essay

1. Define the three major disengagement practices often employed by terrorists to justify their actions. 2. What affect has globalization had on a) the incidence of terrorism and b) the power of terrorist organizations? 3. Describe the reasons why a terrorist might volunteer for a suicide mission. 4. List and describe the three motivational categories of terrorism. Discuss the motives and justification that are characteristic of terrorists. Provide examples of each. 5. Describe the process of becoming a terrorist. 6. List and describe briefly the characteristics of lone wolf-terrorists. Provide an example. 7. What is cognitive restructuring and how does it relate to both perpetrators and victims of terrorism? 206 8. Describe Bandura's six disengagement practices. 9. What are the FBI's four classifications of terrorist groups? Provide an example of each. 10. Compare and contrast Piaget and Kohlberg's stages of moral development. How may these stages explain terrorist activity.

207 CHAPTER 12 SEXUAL ASSAULT

Multiple Choice

1. The category of sexual aggression in which the offender becomes sexually aroused by physical or psychological brutality is called: a) eroticized aggression. b) expressive sexual aggression. c) coercive sexual aggression. d) instrumental sexual aggression. e) systemic sexual aggression.

2. Which of the following is not a provision of the Adam Walsh Child Protection Act? a) Establishment of a national database system for reporting by states b) Increased penalties for sex trafficking of children c) Tier 3 offenders must update their location every three months for the rest of their lives. d) Tier 1 and Tier 2 must update their location every three months for 3 years. e) Failure to register and update whereabouts is a federal felony.

3. _____ is the term used by the FBI in the gathering of crime reporting and arrest statistics for Part I crimes. a) Sexual offense b) Sexual assault c) Criminal sexual conduct d) Unlawful intercourse e) Forcible rape

4. Martin, Taft, and Resick (2007) estimate that 10-14% of _____ have experienced rape. a) males under age 17 b) married women c) female college students d) females under age 17 e) male high school students

5. The UCR includes statutory rape in its statistical data of rape if: a) the girl is underage and force is used. b) the boy is underage and force is used. c) the girl is under age, regardless of whether or not force is used. d) a and b e) none of the above

208 6. Which of the following is not one of the popular assumption about why men rape? a) Irresistible impulse b) Mental illness or disease c) Influenced by effects of drugs or alcohol d) Victim was seductive/at fault e) Misogyny, or hatred of women

7. Which of the following is not one of the four primary motivations of rapists outlined in the revised MTC:R3 classification scheme? a) Sexual gratification b) Pervasive anger c) Pervasive hatred d) Opportunity e) Vindictiveness

8. In the revised scheme, the primary motivations are sometimes subdivided according to: a) social competence. b) secondary motivations. c) history of offending. d) responsivity to treatment. e) emotional state at time of assault.

9. The rapist motivated by anger-retaliation in the MTC:R3 is similar to the ____ type described in the original MTC. a) Compensatory b) Impulsive c) Sexually-aggressive d) Displaced-aggression e) Sadistic

10. Of the four strategies of resistance to rape, which generally leads to an increased probability or rape completion and has no effect in reducing physical injury? a) Forceful physical resistance b) Forceful verbal resistance c) Nonforceful physical resistance d) Nonforceful verbal resistance e) None of the above are effective.

11. Which of the following is one of Groth’s three categories of rape? a) Control rape b) Forceful rape c) Anger rape d) Opportunity rape e) Juvenile rape

209 12. According to Groth, the smallest percentage of rapists (about 5%) fall under what category? a) Control rape b) Power rape c) Anger rape d) Sadistic rape * e) Impulsive rape

13. According to the dominant contemporary theories of the etiology of rape: a) rapists are mentally disturbed. b) sexual socialization plays a crucial role in sexual assault. c) rapists have compulsive physiological urges to rape. d) women socialize boys to be aggressive and dominant. e) most rapists have had abusive childhoods.

14. The Los Angeles Epidemiological Catchment Area found that about _____ percent of the individuals interviewed had been victims of sexual assault during their lifetimes. a) 25 b) 7 c) 13 d) 67 e) 45

15. Recent statistics suggest that about _____ percent of all forcible rapes are committed by husbands or dates. a) 25 b) 40 c) 13 d) 67 e) 7

16. Victimization data indicate that approximately ____ of rapes go unreported. a) one-third b) two-thirds c) one-half d) three-quarters e) one-fourth

17. Which of the following is an example of rape by fraud? a) A 20-year-old male having sexual relations with a 13-year-old female b) A male slipping a date-rape drug into the drink of a female, then having sexual relations with her c) A male having sexual relations with a consenting female under an assumed name d) A therapist having sexual relations with a consenting patient under the guise of effective treatment e) A 14-year-old who pretends to be 19 in order to have sex with a 20 year old.

210 18. According to the “just world hypothesis”: a) rapists should be executed. b) rapists deserve to be chemically castrated. c) rapists should never receive parole from prison. d) women who are raped deserve it. e) rapists are sick.

19. Research by Scully and Marolla found that most “admitters”: a) saw themselves as nice guys. b) blamed an unhappy childhood for their behavior. c) saw themselves as bad guys. d) saw nothing wrong in their rape behavior. e) blamed the woman for the attack.

20. Research on rape reveals that, in general, men who rape: a) are addicted to sex. b) have uncontrollable or irresistible impulses to rape. c) are suffering from various forms of mental illness. d) suffer from displaced anger at their mothers e) none of the above.

21. Research by Scully and Marolla on deniers and admitters found five major themes running through deniers’ explanations for their rape behavior. Which one of the following was not one of them? a) Attractive women are more seductive in their behavior than unattractive women. b) Women mean “yes” when they say “no.” c) Most women eventually relax and enjoy it. d) Nice girls don’t get raped. e) It’s no big deal because the women weren’t hurt.

22. The sexual-addiction approach to explaining offending is an example of a(n) _____ assumption about why men rape. a) drug b) victim c) disease d) irresistible impulse e) c and d

23. The Groth rape typology is similar to the original MTC typology, except that Groth: a) emphasizes the motives for the rape. b) has more categories of rape behavior than the MTC. c) has better behavioral descriptions of the categories. d) emphasizes victim reactions. e) includes homosexual rape.

211 24. Research by Goldstein suggests that most rapists: a) have had considerable exposure to pornography during childhood. b) have pervasive preoccupations with sexual matters. c) act out their sexual desires rather than fantasize them. d) are physically small and unattractive. e) are involved in a relationship at the time of the rape.

25. Most adult rapists: a) regularly view pornography. b) subscribe to attitudes and ideology that encourage men to dominate and control women. c) are mentally disordered. d) have considerable facial hair. e) are married.

26. Abel and his associates found that men convicted of rape: a) show high and nearly equal sexual arousal to portrayals of both violent, nonconsenting sexual acts and nonviolent, consenting sexual acts. b) were more sexually aroused toward attractive victims than nonattractive victims. c) felt they had little control over their sexual impulses. d) have a very limited ability to fantasize. e) were using drugs at the time of the crime.

27. MDSO stands for: a) manic depressive sex offender. b) mentally disabled sex offender. c) multiple diastolic sex offender. d) morally dissuaded sex offender. e) mentally disordered sex offender.

28. Which statement most accurately describes male rape? a) Compared to females, males are often less traumatized by rape. b) Male rape victims don’t exist. c) Male rape is not considered a crime. c) Male rape survivors are as traumatized by rape as female survivors. d) Male rape survivors often enjoy the experience. e) None of the above.

29. Research shows that a major motivation for rape is to: a) harm or derogate the victim. b) instigate sexual arousal in the victim. c) act out a sexual fantasy. d) satisfy a biological impulse. e) show the victim who's boss.

212 30. According to the text, although myths about rape are changing, college students continue to hold myths about _____ rape. a) date b) marital c) homosexual d) statutory e) forcible

True or False

1. Sex offenders are a homogenous group, markedly similar in age, race and socioeconomic status. 2. Most adolescent sex offenders have a diagnosed mental disorder. 3. The United States has the highest reported incidence of rape in the world. 4. There is a direct causal relationship between pornography and sexual aggression. 5. Many mental health clinicians do not consider sex offenders to be clinically mentally disordered. 6. Rape is widely believed to be the most underreported crime. 7. The terms sexually violent predator and sexual psychopath are synonymous. 8. The original MTC had five major classifications and ten subtypes. 9. Attempting to reason with the attacker often reduces physical injury during rape. 10. Most rapists are between 35-45 years old.

Essay

1. What steps have law enforcement agencies taken to ease a rape victim’s ordeal when dealing with the criminal justice system? 2. Why might sex offender registries be unwise public policy, especially for Tier 1 and Tier 2 offenders? 3. Choose one of the laws passed in the last two decades to deter sex offenders and discuss in detail. 2. How did Groth classify child molesters? Describe all of his classifications. 3. Describe admitters and deniers. 4. What does research tell us about resistance and rape. 5. Discuss what we know about the relationship between pornography and sexual assault 6. Contrast the Massachusetts Treatment Center’s original classification of rapists with its most recently revised version. 7. What are the common factors in the etiology of sex offending, and what factors are unlikely to account significantly for this offending? 8. How do some rapists justify their crime? What is just world hypothesis and how does it play a role? 9. Describe three of the rape myths discussed in the chapter. 213 10. Define the SVPA and describe the controversy associated with it.

214 CHAPTER 13 SEXUAL ASSAULT OF CHILDREN AND YOUTH AND OTHER SEXUAL OFFENSES

Multiple Choice

1. According to the DSM-IV, _____ pedophiles are sexually attracted to children, while _____ pedophiles are sexually attracted to both children and adults. a) intrafamilial; extrafamilial b) exclusive type; nonexclusive type c) immature; mature d) prepubertal; postpubertal e) latent; indiscriminant

2. _____ is the type of child molestation most commonly perpetrated by men who molest their daughters or stepdaughters. a) Projective b) Indiscriminant. c) Familial d) Incestual e) Intrafamilial

3. Most estimates of the distribution of pedophiles in the general population are derived from: a) arrest data. b) prison data. c) self-report data. d) data from treatment programs. e) a and b

4. Recent research on pedophilia indicates all of the following, except: a) sexual abuse in childhood produces long-term psychological problems in many children. b) heterosexual pedophilia is more common than homosexual pedophilia. c) female offenders are almost never (less than .05 percent) involved in child molestation cases. d) the average age of convicted pedophiles ranges between 36 and 40. e) pedophiles do not usually intend to kill their victims.

5. The most common type of pedophilia appears to be: a) adult males against young boys. b) adult males against young girls.

215 c) priests against young boys. d) adult males who choose victims from both sexes. e) homosexual pedophilia, with both male and female perpetrators

6. Donna Vandiver and Glen Ketcher have proposed a clinically useful typology of female sex offenders. How many categories did they identify? a) three b) four c) six d) ten e) fourteen

7. The individual who had a normal adolescence and heterosexual experiences but then later develops feelings of sexual inadequacy and seeks the frequent companionship of children is called (according to the MTC) the: a) fixated pedophile. b) retrograde pedophile. c) exploitative pedophile. d) immature pedophile. e) regressed pedophile*

8. The pedophile most likely to kill his victims would be the: a) fixated. b) regressed. c) exploitative. d) aggressive. e) expressive.

9. Which of the following is not part of the revised MTC child molester classification scheme? a) The offender’s level of fixation on children. b) The offender’s social competence. c) The offender’s sadistic behavior as opposed to physical injury. d) b and c. e) No answer is correct.

10. Groth identifies two major types of pedophiles. They are: a) sex pressure and sex force offenders. b) heterosexual and homosexual offenders. c) discreet and indiscreet. d) aggressive and nonaggressive offenders. e) discriminate and indiscriminate.

11. According to Finkelhor and Araji (1986) which of the following is one of the four explanations for pedophilia? a) Domination theories.

216 b) Sexual deficiency theories c) Blockage theories d) Emotional drainage theories e) Submission theories

12. While fetishism is not itself a criminal offense, the desire for fetishes often leads to: a) rape. b) voyeurism. c) burglary. d) robbery. e) homicide.

13. Which of the following statements most accurately characterizes exhibitionists? a) Most begin their behavior at around age 30. b) They generally display well-developed social skills. c) They are frequently plagued by mental disorders. d) They often express a desire to change their deviant behavior. e) both c and d

14. Current research suggests that_____ of child molestation offenses (known and unknown) may be committed by adolescents. a) 30 to 50% b) 60 to 75% c) 30 to 40% d) 10 to 25% e) 7 to 13%

15. According to clinical studies, _____ may have been an integral part in the development of both normal and deviant sexual behavior. a) an embarrassing early sexual experience b) masturbatory conditioning c) adequate communication skills with members of the opposite sex d) poor relationship with parent of the opposite sex e) sexual fantasy

16. In Groth’s typology, the MO that is characterized by threat of harm or use of physical force is: a) fixated. b) sex pressure. c) sex force. d) sex demanded. e) sadistic.

17. In Finkelhor’s explanations for pedophilia, blockage refers to: a) factors preventing the offender from meeting his needs.

217 b) biological factors present in the offender. c) the offender's ability to suppress sexual drives. d)the offender's inability to attain sexual arousal. e) the offender's inability to control sexual impulses.

18. Sexual contact with immature family members by individuals from outside the family is called: a) extrafamilial child molestation. b) intrafamilial child molestation. c) hebephilia. d) paraphilia. e) perversion.

19. A sexual disorder in which unusual or bizarre fantasies or behavior are necessary for sexual excitement is called: a) hebephilia. b) paraphrenia. c) pornography. d) paraphilia. e) voyeurism.

20. When a person obtains sexual arousal form contact with a body part of the sexual partner other than the usual erotic areas, it is called a: a) subversive stimuli. b) partialism. c) nyctophilia. d) nympholpesy. e) fetishism.

21. When a person gains sexual arousal from observing unsuspecting people who are nude, or in the act of undressing, or engaging in sexual activity, it is referred to as: a) nyctophilia. b) partialism. c) voyeurism. d) parorexia. e) pornography.

22. Which of the following statements is/are correct? a) Juvenile sex offenders are significantly less likely to re-offend than adult offenders. b) Female juveniles who sexually offend are far more likely to have been sexually abused themselves than male juvenile sex offenders. c) When female juveniles sexually offend the victim is usually a child younger than themselves by 5 years or more. d) All the above are correct. e) None of the above are correct.

218 23. When pedophile offenders claims that poor impulse control, excessive use of alcohol and drugs, and an assortment of stressors in his life lead him to sexually molest children, he is using what theory of pedophilia? a) Disinhibition theory b) Blockage theory c) Emotional congruence theory d) Sexual arousal theory e) Diffusion of responsibility theory

24. According to the DSM-IV those individuals who are drawn to children and adults for sexual gratification are diagnosed as pedophiles: a) exclusive type. b) nonexclusive type. c) mixed age type. d) combination type.

25. Recent research on pedophilia suggests: a) substance abuse is rare in perpetrators. b) pedophiles tend to have an extremely high recidivism rate, especially those who demonstrate no age preference of victim. c) pedophiles are generally younger in age than rapists. d) Younger pedophiles are more likely than older pedophiles to seek out younger children. e) A vast majority of pedophiles do not kill or physically harm their victims.

26. The term pedophilia is from the: a) Spanish word for children. b) Latin word for love of feet. c) Greek word for child lover. d) French word for paraphilia.

27. Research on the victims of pedophiles indicates that: a) sexual abuse produces long-term psychological problems in many children. b) they recover quickly without any long-lasting effects. c) boys recover quickly without psychological effects, but girls show long-lasting effects. d) “mild” abuse does not generate any long-lasting effects.

28. Sexual attraction to inanimate objects is referred to as: a) ontoanalysis. b) neuroglia. c) fetishism. d) spasmodic fixation. e) pidgin.

219 29. Evocative therapy is a treatment approach for sex offenders that focuses on: a) helping offenders understand their motivations for sexual behavior. b) increasing their empathy for their victims. c) increasing their social competence. d) a and b e) a and c

30. Of the following treatment approaches, which has shown the most promise in the overall treatment of sexual offenders? a) Behavior modification b) Reality therapy c) Implosive therapy d) relapse prevention e) psychoeducational counseling

True or False

1. Hebephilia is a distinct, diagnostic category of pedophilia. 2. Female adolescents with persistent antisocial behavior have often experienced child sexual abuse. 3. Alcohol abuse is common in pedophelia. 4. Most individuals diagnosed with pedophilia commit myriad crimes against children. 5. Many psychologists believe the most effective treatment methods with sexual offenders are those that follow the principles of risk, need, and responsivity. 6. When juvenile females sexually offend, it is usually against a female child 10 years younger than themselves. 7. The overwhelming majority of exhibitionists prefer strangers for victims. 8. Most exhibitionists rarely expose themselves more than once to the same victim. 9. The MTC:CM3 has four categories and twelve subcategories. 10. Fetishism is not a criminal offense.

Essay

1. Describe the psychological effects of child sexual victimization. 2. Describe the cognitive and intellectual characteristics of child molesters. 3. Briefly describe the Groth classification model of child molesters. 4. Identify some of the notable characteristics of male juvenile sex offenders and their victims. 5. Identify some of characteristics of female juvenile sex offenders and their victims. 6. Outline the demographic and psychological characteristics of child molesters. 7. Discussed the child offender patterns and classification system identified by the Massachusetts Treatment Center (MTC). 8. Compare and contrast three theories of explanations of why certain adult males prefer children for sexual gratification. 220 9. Discuss the difficulties in obtaining data on pedophilia. 10. Compare and contrast effective treatment for juvenile sex offenders and adult sex offenders.

221 CHAPTER 14 PROPERTY AND PUBLIC ORDER CRIME

Multiple Choice

1. The most common Part I property crime is: a) motor vehicle theft. b) burglary. c) larceny-theft. d) shoplifting. e) road rage.

2. Burglaries are most likely to involve: a) private residences. b) warehouses and storage facilities. c) convenience and liquor stores. d) supermarkets. e) fast food restaurants.

3. Of the following offenders, which are most likely to carefully select their targets and their victims? a) Auto thieves b) Robbers c) Pickpockets d) Burglars e) Arsonists

4. Research by Bennett and Wright found that: a) almost all burglaries are planned. b) burglars generally have an irresistible or constant urge to steal or burglarize. c) dogs and burglar alarms did not influence the decision to burglarize a residential property. d) increased police patrols were major deterrents in decisions to burglarize. e) most burglars live within thirty miles of their target.

5. According to Shover, all of the following are characteristics of a “good burglar,” except: a) technical skill. b) derives most of his or her income from burglary. c) is skilled in the use of violence when necessary. d) maintains a good reputation for personal integrity among other criminals. e) has feelings of self-satisfaction and accomplishment.

222 6. Past behavior through which the actor recasts activities in a manner consistent with “what should have been,” rather than “what was,” is referred to by Cromwell et al. as: a) rational reconstruction. b) dysfunctional reorganization. c) dysfunctional reconstruction. d) cognitive scripts e) none of the above.

7. The best predictor that an individual will burglarize is: a) the person’s criminal record. b) the person’s age. c) physical abuse as a child. d) lower-class background. e) social skills.

8. Which of the following is not considered a type of larceny/theft in the UCR? a) Shoplifting b) Purse snatching c) Pickpocketing d) Bicycle theft e) Softlifting

9. In addition to the other negative effects of victimization, victims of fraud and identity theft are most likely to experience: a) post-traumatic stress. b) feelings of self-blame. c) uncontrollable anger. d) clinical depression. e) all of the above.

10. Kleptomania: a) is highly prevalent among female shoplifters. b) is highly prevalent among male shoplifters. c) has not been strongly substantiated by the available research. d) leads to high recidivism among shoplifters. e) is often a manifestation of childhood trauma.

11. Available research on shoplifting indicates that it is: a) almost exclusively a female offense. b) neurotically motivated. c) performed principally by teenagers. d) largely due to spontaneous impulses rather than careful planning. e) performed by those in need.

223 12. Which of the following factors does not appear to be a determining factor in whether a person is arrested for shoplifting? a) The value of the item stolen b) The address of the shoplifter c) The gender of the shoplifter d) The shoplifter’s resistance to being apprehended e) None of the above

13. In Moore’s study of 300 convicted shoplifters, over half were designated as: a) amateurs. b) emotionally disturbed. c) semi-professional. d) impulse shoplifters. e) older women.

14. Prostitution is illegal in all states except: a) New York. b) Nevada. c) Virginia. d) Idaho. e) Florida.

15. It appears that the primary motivation behind prostitution is: a) the financial reward. b) sexual gratification of unfulfilled sexual desire. c) the opportunity to meet powerful individuals. d) the social and status rewards. e) revenge.

16. Research indicates that most street prostitutes: a) are juveniles. b) are emotionally disturbed. c) have been raped or physically assaulted in their work. d) have been imprisoned at least once. e) earn an excellent living.

17. What prostitution-related phenomenon has been receiving increasing attention in recent years and is often associated with a number of additional illicit activities? a) Juvenile prostitution b) Pornography c) Human trafficking d) Drug dependency e) Male prostitution

18. Which of the following individuals first used the term “white collar crime?”

224 a) Peter Letkemann b) Edwin Sutherland c) Gresham Sykes d) Nelson Rockefeller e) Marvin Wolfgang

19. The essential difference between the two categories of white collar crime, occupational crime and corporate crime is: a) occupational crime involves large sums of money. b) whether an individual or the corporation benefits. c) one is illegal, the other is really not. d) the social class of the offender. e) all of the above.

20. Green’s concept of occupational crime would include all of the following except: a) a bank officer embezzling funds. b) a corporation illegally dumping hazardous waste. c) a police officer using excessive force against a suspect. d) a restaurant employee stealing food from the restaurant. e) No answer is correct.

21. The standards, perceptions, and values the work group establishes for itself with or without approval by the organization is referred to as: a) work ethic. b) employee principle. c) unionization. d) normative support. e) subversive culture.

22. Which of the following is a category of cues used by burglars? a) Routine cues b) Poverty cues c) Habituation cues d) Layout cues e) All of the above

23. Prostitution, gambling, vagrancy, disorderly conduct, public drunkenness, and drug use are: a) immoral crimes. b) crimes against the public order. c) crimes of indecency. d) Part I crimes. e) amoral offenses

225 24. A concept that refers to the perceived discrepancy between what an individual has and what he or she would like to have is called: a) restrictive opportunity. b) discrepant distribution of wealth. c) relative deprivation. d) displacement of needs fallacy. e) status inequality.

25. When someone shoplifts for someone else because that person asked or demanded them to shoplift, it is called: a) shoplifting by proxy. b) Machover larceny. c) Mesoskelic theft. d) shoplifting in absence. e) horizontal transmission.

26. The FBI classified burglary into three categories. Which of the following is not one of them? a) Unlawful entry where no force is used b) Unlawful entry where a lock was picked c) Forcible entry d) Attempted forcible entry e) No answer is correct

27. Recent research indicates that _____ percent of all software installed on computers in 2006 were pirated versions. a) 10 b) 5 c) 35 d) 60 e) 75

28. A person who knowingly buys stolen merchandise for the purpose of resale has been traditionally called the: a) pawn shark. b) fence. c) go-between. d) theft mediator. e) brick.

29. The burglar that engages in destructive, malicious vandalism during the break-in is referred to as the _____ burglar. a) riddlesmith b) dominator c) Z-destroyer 226 d) feral threat e) antisocial

30. Research by Merry and Hansent found that the psychological impact of burglary for victims is especially severe if the invasion involves: a) bedrooms. b) closets. c) chests-of-drawers. d) bathrooms. e) all of the above.

True or False

1. Property crimes often involve physical aggression. 2. The psychological distance between what people perceive they have now and what they feel they can realistically attain is referred to as relative deprivation. 3. Two thirds of burglary cases involve commercial establishments. 4. Burglaries are more likely to occur in January and February, after the holidays. 5. Carjacking most commonly occurs in rural, isolated areas. 6. Shoplifting is an underreported crime. 7. Much of sex trafficking is international. 8. According to the text, it may be oversimplistic to assume that the primary motive for prostitution is money. 9. Subversion techniques are often used by prostitutes to convince themselves that their behavior was not truly criminal. 10. Shoplifting is primarily committed by females.

Essay

1. If you were a security consultant to a large department store, what would you tell them about the psychological and demographic characteristics of shoplifters? 2. Describe how dehumanization makes victimization by offenders easier. Give two examples. 3. Describe the psychological effects of burglar on victims and how some burglars enhance these psychological effects. 4. Describe burglary cues and how burglars select their targets. In addition, describe the burglar cognitive (decision making) processes. 5. Some burglars use drugs during burglarizing a home or business. What drugs to they usually use and why? 6. Summarize the characteristics of carjacking. Also describe the motives and the decision making processes of those individuals who most often commit these offenses. 7. What does the current research suggest about kleptomania? 8. Define and describe corporate crime. 9. What are some of the motives for women to engage in prostitution? 227 10. Discuss the conceptual difficulty in defining white collar crime.

228 CHAPTER 15 VIOLENT ECONOMIC CRIME AND CRIMES OF INITIMIDATION

Multiple Choice

1. Refusal by hostages to do what captors expect during a hostage situation is called: a) Stockholm syndrome. b) Markov syndrome. c) Paris syndrome. d) London syndrome. e) Korsakoff’s syndrome.

2. In hostage-taking situations, those hostages who, after release, have considerable difficulty dealing with the after-effects of the incident are called: a) survivors. b) PTSD victims. c) masked depressed survivors. d) Maslach burnouts. e) succumbers.

3. A major difference between robbery and other property crime is that: a) robbery involves direct contact with a victim. b) robbers are less likely to be apprehended. c) robbers are more likely to rationalize their behavior. d) on average, robbery brings in more money for the offender. e) robbery rarely harms humans.

4. It is generally acknowledged that approximately ______percent of the fires set by juveniles is reported. a) 10 b) 20 c) 25 d) 30 e) 60

5. What are the two favored targets for robbery? a) Thespians and tourists b) University professors and bankers c) Fast-food restaurants and convenience stores d) Convenience stores and liquor stores e) Resorts and banks 229 6. Approximately, _____ percent of the known arson fires in the United States are set by juveniles. a) 11 b) 27 c) 43 d) 59 e) 34

7. According to Miron and Goldstein’s typology of hostage-taking offenses, a hostage taker who kidnaps a child and holds him or her for ransom is demonstrating: a) instrumental conduct b) expressive aphasia. c) receptive conduct. d) expressive conduct. e) none of the above.

8. Which pattern of firesetting is often linked with covering traces of other crimes? a) Instrumental-object pattern b) Expressive-object pattern c) Intentional-expressive pattern d) Expressive-person pattern e) Instrumental-person

9. A serious mental disorder characterized by abnormal fascination with fire is called: a) firesetting. b) arson obsession. c) anhedonia. d) pyromania. e) arson disorder.

10. It appears that the most effective strategy for an individual to take in a hostage situation is: a) play the subordinate role and not attract attention to oneself. b) attempt to reason with the hostage takers. c) be assertive and argumentative. d) plead for mercy. e) attempt to overtake the hostage taker(s).

11. In dealing with a barricade situation, which of the following is not recommended to hostage negotiators? a) Denying the hostage taker’s desired excitement or stimulation b) Calm handling c) Threatening to involve the hostage-taker’s family in negotiations 230 d) Providing minimum media attention e) Prolonging the negotiation if necessary as long as some progress is being made

12. .Which of the following is not one of the FBI’s categories of hostage takers? a) Prisoners b) Criminals c) Politicals d) Terrorists e) Mentally Disordered

13. The primary motive for adult arsons appears to be: a) revenge. b) crime concealment. c) financial gain. d) vandalism. e) fame.

14. The primary motive for juvenile arsons appears to be: a) parental revenge. b) crime concealment. c) financial gain. d) vandalism. e) fame.

15. _____ stalkers do not seek a personal relationship with their targets. a) Love obsession b) Possessive c) Vengeance d) Erotomania e) Simple obsession

16. Recent research on repetitive arsonists is beginning to identify some common characteristics. Which of the following is not one of them? a) They feel they have little control over their environments. b) They are usually from a socially disadvantaged segment of the population. c) Their educational achievement is below average. d) They have a discernible pattern of sexual deviations. e) They often began firesetting in childhood.

17. Persistent, youthful firesetters tend to exhibit all of the following, except: a) hyperactivity. b) impulsiveness. c) conduct problems. d) violence and destructiveness other than the firesetting. e) cruelty to animals.

231 18. The backgrounds of persistent firesetters reveal that they were often: a) the target of punishment where fire was used as the painful stimulus. b) from families with alcoholic parents. c) sexually abused. d) from broken homes. e) the youngest child in the family.

19. The psychiatrist who contends there is a “bomber personality” is: a) Miron. b) Bromberg. c) MacDonald. d) Lunde. e) Lindell.

20. Which type of robbery is occurs in urban areas and is less likely to be planned? a) Commercial robbery b) Bank robbery c) Street robbery d) Amateur robbery e) Strong-arm robbery

21. Compared with arsonists, bombers as a group seem to be more intent on: a) making a political statement. b) destruction and injury. c) being caught. d) justifying their actions. e) social protest.

22. Which of the following is one of the developmental stages of persistent firesetting outlined by Gaynor (1996)? a) Fire experimentation b) Arson obsession c) Fireplay d) Pyromania e) Extinction

23. Compared to nonfiresetters, research has shown that persistent firesetters are more likely to demonstrate: a) attention deficit hyperactivity disorders. b) poor impulse control. c) cruelty to animals and other children. d) poor interpersonal skills. e) all of the above.

232 24. Current research has revealed that a large portion of the persistent firesetters are boys at a ratio of ___ to 1 to girls. a) 10 b) 3 c) 9 d) 5 e) 34

25. A robbery in which the main weapon used is one’s own body rather than guns, knives, or other weapons is called _____ robbery. a) street b) strong-arm c) assault robbery d) tertiary e) kinesthetic

26. This category of stalking accounts for the majority of stalking and is depicted in the comment, “If I can’t have you, nobody will.” a) Possessive stalking b) Vengeance stalking c) Love obsession stalking d) Erotomania stalking e) Simple obsession stalking

27. The use of the Internet or other forms of online communications to threaten, frighten, or engage in unwanted advances toward another person is specifically called: a) Internet crime. b) Internet abuse. c) cyberstalking. d) cybernetics. e) computer stalking.

28. Doris Hall (1998) reports that the experience of being stalked for an extended period of time is akin to: a) mind-game playing. b) bullying. c) rape. d) psychological terrorism. e) emotional abuse.

29. The impetus for California’s 1990 antistalking legislation was: a) the stalking of seven celebrities. b) the murder of actress Rebecca Schaeffer. c) the stalking of actress Rebecca Schaeffer.

233 d) the murders of four Orange County women who were killed in different incidents despite the issuance of restraining orders against their assailants. e) the stalking and homicide of two government officials, Peter Brown and Louise Cooke.

30. The fastest growing computer crime is: a) child pornography. b) hacking. c) fraud. d) cyberbullying. e) theft.

True or False

1. From a psychological perspective, many arsonists have no intention of harming people. 2. The most frequent and identifiable motive for bombings is financial gain. 3. The UCR considers arson a violent crime. 4. Most bank robberies are carried out by a single offender. 5. Cyberbullying is not considered a form of cybercrime. 6. The Stockholm syndrome is rare. 7. Research suggests hostage-taking incidents are rarely perpetrated by mentally disordered individuals. 8. Both criminal and prisoner hostage-taking situations are instrumental in nature. 9. Next to deaths caused by motor vehicle accidents, fires are the leading cause of death among young children. 10. A relatively new phenomenon in which students send via email harmful, threatening, or cruel text to another students is specifically called internet fraud.

Essay

1. What are the six primary motives for arson? What additional category was suggested by Douglas et al.? 2. What are the psychological characteristics of a) repetitive fire setters and b) bombers, as identified in the research? 3. Define Stockholm Syndrome and London Syndrome. Provide examples of each. 4. Describe street robbery, including the motivations and the situational dynamics behind it. Discuss the research by Wright and Decker in your answer. 5. Who was George Metesky? What was he responsible for? What does he have in common with Theodore Kaczynski? 6. Describe the differences between instrumental and expressive hostage taking. 7. Choose any three crimes covered in this chapter and discuss them from the perspective of the psychological effects on their victims.

234 8. Choose any three crimes covered in this chapter and discuss the psychological research on the offenders. 9. Does research support pyromania? Explain. 10. Compare and contrast cyberstalking and cyberbullying. How do both of these crimes differ from bullying and stalking?

235 CHAPTER 16 SUBSTANCE ABUSE, ALCOHOL, AND CRIME

Multiple Choice

1. LSD, mescaline, psyilocybin, marijuana, and hashish are classified as: a) stimulants. b) opiate narcotics. c) sedative-hypnotics. d) hallucinogens. e) psychedelic relaxants.

2. When an individual exhibits a progressively decreased responsiveness to a drug, this phenomenon is called: a) dependence. b) psychosocial adaptation. c) abuse. d) drug immunity syndrome. e) tolerance.

3. The psychoactive properties of marijuana are found principally in the: a) resin of the plant. b) stem of the plant. c) stasis of the plant. d) flowers of the plant. e) roots of the plant.

4. Available evidence on cannabis indicates: a) a moderate relationship between cannabis and crime. b) a strong relationship between cannabis usage and crime. c) no significant relationship between cannabis and crime. d) a weak, but significant relationship between cannabis and crime. e) none of the above.

5. The drug which has shown the strongest relationship to criminal behavior, especially violent behavior, is: 236 a) alcohol. b) heroin. c) cocaine. d) the amphetamines. e) marijuana.

6. Following a “run” of speed, the person often feels: a) violent. b) deeply depressed. c) hyperactive. d) paranoid. e) exhausted.

7. One of the very strong reinforcements of amphetamine intravenous injections appears to be: a) the hallucinations. b) physiological arousal. c) the relaxation. d) the concomitant hyper-alertness. e) the flash.

8. At high doses (more than 4 ounces) alcohol acts as a: a) depressant. b) stimulant. c) motivator. d) hallucinogen. e) narcotic.

9. Cocaine is classified typically as a central nervous system: a) hallucinogen. b) opiate-narcotic. c) depressant. d) stimulant. 237 e) none of the above.

10. Which of the following statements is supported in the text? a) Cocaine is a synthetic compound. b) Cocaine taken orally (other than smoked) is poorly absorbed by the body. c) Cocaine tends to be less expensive than the amphetamines. d) Cocaine often produces paranoia in those who use it. e) Cocaine use is on the rise.

11. Which of the following effects is produced by narcotics? a) Hyperactivity b) Sleepiness c) Restlessness d) Inability to concentrate e) Elation

12. Heroin is usually classified as a: a) semi-synthetic narcotic. b) synthetic narcotic. c) pseudo-narcotic. d) polymorphous substance. e) natural narcotic.

13. PCP may be classified as a central nervous system: a) depressant. b) tranquilizer. c) hallucinogen. d) all of the above. e) none of the above.

14. Some experts regard _____ as the most addictive drug available on the street, but other experts have questioned this assumption in recent years.

238 a) crack b) heroin c) dexedrine d) PCP e) marijuana

15. Which is not one of the four categories of drugs reported to the Department of Justice? a) Opium b) Synthetic narcotics c) Dangerous nonnarcotics d) Marijuana e) Alcohol

16. The most heavily used illegal narcotic in the U.S. is: a) cocaine. b) PCP. c) heroin. d) crack e) marijuana

17. A condition where persistent use of a drug significantly diminishes the effects of a drug. This condition is called: a) dependence. b) tolerance. c) habituation. d) accommodation. e) addiction.

18. Methylphenidate is also known as: a) Ritalin. b) ephedrine. c) cocaine.

239 d) Ativan. e) aspirin.

19. Recent research has indicated that an unknown number of youth experiment with drugs but do not continue with regular use. This process is called: a) experimental substance use. b) adolescent drug experimentation. c) gateway drug curiosity. d) curiosity substance abuse. e) temporary experimentation.

20. The Drug Induced Rape Prevention and Punishment Act of 1996 was designed to prohibit the use of: a) ecstasy. b) marijuana. c) Rohynpnol. d) gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB). e) oxycodone.

21. A volatile drug that has effects that highly similar to alcohol intoxication, including slurred speech, loss of motor coordination, distortion in perceptions, headache, vomiting, or nausea is most probably: a) marijuana. b) crack. c) an inhalant. d) cocaine. e) ecstasy.

22. Which of the following statements best characterizes the relationship between alcohol and violence? a) The majority of crimes are caused by alcohol use. b) There is no relationship between alcohol use and violence. c) There is no empirical research linking alcohol and violence.

240 d) Alcohol facilitates aggression e) Long term and excessive alcohol consumption is linked to violent behavior

23. The street names “liquid ecstasy,” “scoop,” “liquid X,” “grievous bodily harm,” or “Georgia home boy” refer to: a) ketamine. b) OxyContin. c) fentanyl. d) GHB. e) painkillers.

24. Recent evidence suggests a relationship between: a) heroin addiction and money-producing crime. b) amphetamine addiction and violence. c) marijuana use and family violence. d) cocaine use and sexual assault. e) marijuana use and inhalants.

25. In general, heavy drug users: a) are polydrug users. b) are not involved in criminal activity. c) are usually women. d) do not use alcohol. e) become drug sellers.

26. Which statement most accurately reflects the relationship between crack and violent behavior? a) Crack, by itself does not seem to cause violent behavior in nonviolent people. b) The production, distribution and selling of crack is associated with violence. c) The use of even small doses of crack promotes violent behavior. d) Long term use of crack promotes violent behavior, especially in regularly nonviolent individuals. e) a and b. 241 27. The Arrestees Drug Abuse Monitoring Program (ADAM) collects data through: a) urinalysis of arrestees and self report data. b) autopsies. c) local and federal police reports. d) the Federal Bureau of Prisons. e) prisons and treatment centers.

28. Which of the following is a type of crime identified by Goldstein (1985) in his tripartite conceptual model? a) Romantically induced crime b) Economically compulsive crime c) Conditional crime d) Drug induced crime e) None of the above

29. Methamphetamine produces an increase in _____ and a decrease in _____. a) alertness; appetite b) appetite; alertness c) productivity; appetite d) crime; alertness e) feelings of well-being; depression

30. _____ are tablets that have been manufactured to turn blue in a drink to increase visibility and thus be more visually detectable to potential victims of sexual assault. a) Fentanyl b) GHB c) Ketamine d) Rohypnol e) PKU

True or False 242 1. Drug courts are designed to be a first step in diverting nonviolent offenders with drug problems into treatment and other community-based programs. 2. According to the text, juveniles who occasionally sell drugs to friends frequently become involved in serious delinquency. 3. Most research on drug and alcohol abuse has focused on males. 4. More individuals are incarcerated in jails and prisons for drug offenses than for any other offense. 5. Cocaine is an opiate narcotic. 6. Psychedelics is another name for hallucinogens. 7. Research overwhelmingly suggests that drug use is a major cause of violent crime. 8. The available evidence indicates that PCP users tend to be polydrug users. 9. In 2009, cocaine use was on the rise. 10. Pseudo-narcotic is a major classifications of narcotic drugs.

Essay

1. What are the four main categories of drugs discussed in this chapter? List their main effects, and provide one example of a drug from each category. 2. Describe and explain briefly Goldstein’s tripartite conceptual model for understanding the drug/crime relationship. 3. Briefly list the common psychological effects of any three of the following: cocaine, MDMA, heroin, alcohol, metamphetamine. 4. Describe Rohynpnol and Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB). What are they used for? What are some of the effects? What has the government done in response to the problems related to these drugs? 5. Define and explain drug tolerance and dependence. 6. Summarize and discuss the six main conclusions researchers have reached in recent years regarding the relationship between drugs and crime. 7. Other than alcohol, which drug in your opinion has the strongest association with crime? Support your answer by describing the drug and its effects as well as the available research. 8. Discuss the relationship between alcohol and crime. 9. Why is the drug-crime relationship difficult to identify and measure? List and describe the fourfold interaction discussed in the chapter. 10. Discuss the issues involved in addressing illegal drug use as a health problem. What are the implications for prisons and jails?

243 Criminal Behavior: A Psychosocial Approach 9th Edition

Answer Key

244 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Multiple Choice

1. c 16. e 2. e 17. a 3. e 18. a 4. d 19. d 5. c 20. e 6. d 21. c 7. b 22. d 8. d 23. c 9. a 24. b 10. a 25. d 11. a 26. d 12. d 27. c 13. a 28. c 14. a 29. b 15. d 30. a

True or False 1. F 6. T 2. T 7. F 3. F 8. T 4. F 9. F 5. T 10. F

245 CHAPTER 2 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: DEVELOPMENTAL RISK FACTORS

Multiple Choice

1. b 16. a 2. e 17. b 3. a 18. e 4. a 19. e 5. a 20. d 6. e 21. b 7. c 22. a 8. d 23. d 9. b 24. e 10. d 25. e 11. e 26. b 12. c 27. a 13. c 28. a 14. a 29. a 15. c 30. c

True or False

1. F 6. F 2. T 7. T 3. F 8. T 4. F 9. F 5. T 10. T

246 CHAPTER 3 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Multiple Choice

1. a 16. d 2. a 17. b 3. a 18. a 4. e 19. a 5. a 20. a 6. a 21. c 7. d 22. d 8. d 23. d 9. a 24. a 10. a 25. d 11. c 26. a 12. a 27. a 13. a 28. a 14. d 29. d 15. e 30. e

True or False

1. T 6. T 2. F 7. T 3. F 8. F 4. F 9. F 5. T 10. F

247 CHAPTER 4 ORIGINS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: LEARNING AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Multiple Choice

1. d 16. a 2. b 17. e 3. d 18. c 4. d 19. a 5. a 20. b 6. a 21. a 7. a 22. b 8. c 23. c 9. e 24. e 10. b 25. e 11. c 26. c 12. a 27. d 13. e 28. b 14. d 29. e 15. c 30. e

True or False

1. F 6. T 2. T 7. T 3. T 8. F 4. T 9. F 5. F 10. F

248 CHAPTER 5 HUMAN AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE

Multiple Choice

1. b 16. b 2. a 17. a 3. c 18. c 4. e 19. c 5. a 20. d 6. c 21. a 7. a 22. e 8. a 23. c 9. a 24. d 10. b 25. d 11. b 26. a 12. c 27. b 13. d 28. d 14. d 29. e 15. b 30. b

True or False

1. F 6. F 2. F 7. T 3. F 8. T 4. T 9. F 5. T 10. F

249 CHAPTER 6 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Multiple Choice 1. e 16. b 2. c 17. e 3. d 18. c 4. b 19. e 5. a 20. a 6. a 21. d 7. a 22. a 8. c 23. b 9. e 24. b 10. e 25. d 11. b 26. e 12. a 27. d 13. c 28. a 14. a 29. b 15. e 30. a

True or False

1. T 6. T 2. T 7. T 3. F 8. T 4. T 9. T 5. F 10. T

250 CHAPTER 7 CRIMINAL PSYCHOPATHY

Multiple Choice

1. d 16. b 2. e 17. b 3. c 18. a 4. e 19. a 5. b 20. b 6. e 21. c 7. d 22. a 8. d 23. e 9. e 24. b 10. d 25. c 11. c 26. c 12. b 27. b 13. b 28. a 14. a 29. e 15. b 30. d

True or False

1. T 6. F 2. F 7. F 3. T 8. T 4. F 9. F 5. F 10. T

251 CHAPTER 8 CRIME AND MENTAL DISORDERS

Multiple Choice

1. c 16. b 2. d 17. d 3. a 18. a 4. a 19. b 5. e 20. d 6. d 21. b 7. d 22. d 8. a 23. c 9. a 24. b 10. c 25. a 11. a 26. a 12. e 27. e 13. a 28. a 14. b 29. a 15. c 30. d

True or False

1. T 6. T 2. F 7. T 3. F 8. T 4. T 9. T 5. T 10. F

252 CHAPTER 9 HOMICIDE, ASSAULT AND FAMILY VIOLENCE

Multiple Choice

1. b 16. d 2. e 17. c 3. c 18. b 4. a 19. b 5. e 20. d 6. e 21. d 7. c 22. b 8. b 23. d 9. a 24. a 10. b 25. a 11. a 26. c 12. d 27. d 13. e 28. c 14. d 29. b 15. a 30. e

True or False

1. F 6. T 2. T 7. T 3. F 8. F 4. F 9. T 5. F 10. T

253 CHAPTER 10 MULTIPLE MURDER, SCHOOL AND WORKPLACE VIOLENCE

Multiple Choice

1. e 16. e 2. b 17. a 3. d 18. d 4. b 19. b 5. d 20. a 6. b 21. a 7. a 22. a 8. c 23. b 9. c 24. e 10. d 25. a 11. d 26. d 12. e 27. d 13. e 28. c 14. a 29. a 15. c 30. d

True or False

1. T 6. F 2. T 7. F 3. T 8. F 4. F 9. T 5. F 10. T

254 CHAPTER 11 PSYCHOLOGY OF TERRORISM

Multiple Choice

1. c 16. e 2. e 17. c 3. a 18. d 4. d 19. a 5. b 20. e 6. d 21. a 7. a 22. c 8. a 23. d 9. e 24. d 10. c 25. d 11. a 26. c 12. c 27. c 13. e 28. e 14. a 29. b 15. a 30. e

True or False

1.T 6. T 2. F 7. T 3. T 8. F 4. F 9. F 5. T 10. F

255 CHAPTER 12 SEXUAL ASSAULT

Multiple Choice

1. b 16. b 2. d 17. c 3. e 18. d 4. b 19. a 5. a 20. e 6. e 21. a 7. c 22. e 8. a 23. a 9. d 24. b 10. d 25. b 11. c 26. a 12. d 27. e 13. b 28. c 14. c 29. a 15. b 30. b

True or False

1. F 6. T 2. F 7. T 3. T 8. F 4. F 9. F 5. T 10. F

256 CHAPTER 13 SEXUAL ASSAULT OF CHILDREN AND YOUTH AND OTHER SEXUAL OFFENSES

Multiple Choice

1. b 16. c 2. e 17. a 3. e 18. a 4. c 19. d 5. b 20. b 6. c 21. c 7. e 22. d 8. d 23. a 9. e 24. b 10. a 25. e 11. c 26. c 12. c 27. a 13. e 28. c 14. a 29. d 15. b 30. d

True or False

1. F 6. F 2. T 7. T 3. T 8. T 4. F 9. F 5. T 10. T

257 CHAPTER 14 PROPERTY AND PUBLIC ORDER CRIME

Multiple Choice

1. c 16. c 2. a 17. c 3. d 18. b 4. a 19. b 5.c 20. e 6. a 21. d 7. a 22.d 8. e 23. b 9. b 24. c 10. c 25. a 11. d 26. b 12. c 27. c 13. a 28. b 14. b 29. d 15. a 30. e

True or False

1. F 6. T 2. T 7. T 3. F 8. T 4. F 9. F 5. F 10. F

258 CHAPTER 15 VIOLENT ECONOMIC CRIME AND CRIMES OF INTIMIDATION

Multiple Choice

1. d 16. d 2. e 17. d 3. a 18. a 4. a 19. c 5. c 20. c 6. c 21. b 7. a 22. c 8. a 23. e 9. d 24. c 10. a 25. b 11. c 26. e 12. c 27. c 13. a 28. d 14. d 29. d 15. c 30. e

True or False

1. T 6. T 2. F 7. F 3. F 8. T 4. T 9. T 5. F 10. F

259 CHAPTER 16 SUBSTANCE ABUSE, ALCOHOL AND CRIME

Multiple Choice

1. d 16. c 2. e 17. b 3. a 18. a 4. c 19. a 5. a 20. c 6. b 21. c 7. e 22. d 8. a 23. e 9. d 24. a 10. b 25. a 11. b 26. e 12. a 27. a 13. d 28. b 14. a 29. a 15. e 30. d

True or False

1.T 6.T 2. F 7. F 3.T 8.T 4.T 9. F 5. F 10. F

260