ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost, in order to complete the training program and to assess student’s the results of learning as well as making the condition for student in investigation and scientific research, I have conducted the thesis under the permission of the Vietnam Forestry

University, the Faculty of Forest and Environment Management with thesis’ name: The impact of selected ecological factors on plant diversity in Ben En National Park in Thanh Hoa Province.

In particular, I would like extend my grateful thanks to both my supervisor, including:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hoang Van Sam and Dr. Tobias. They have supported me throughout the research process as well as during the period of completing the thesis. Besides, I would also like to thank Dr. Lee Macdonald who comes from professor Colorado State University in judging and fixing the controversial issue in my thesis. Last but not least, I sincerely thank for the board of directors and staff in Ben En National Park helped me to deal with this topic.

Eventually, this is initially familiar with scientific research and as the results of poor experiments which lead to get the unavoidable errors. I look forward to receiving suggestion from teachers and friends.

1

ABSTRACT

The thesis have provide the fundamental information in the plant species diversity and vegetation types as well as some factors influencing on the plant diversity in Ben En National

Park. The thesis recorded about 363 vascular plant species belonging to 70 different families.

Besides, there are two main types of vegetation which witnessed in National Park, including moist tropical evergreen and secondary lowland limestone forests, moist tropical evergreen lowland forests and secondary forest after mining on other soils with heavily and slightly disturbed subtypes illustrating the impact of human activities on. In terms of the first vegetation type, it consist of some subtypes which are slightly disturbed, heavily disturbed and shrub-land on lime stone, while the second main one is tropical evergreen lowland forest on other soils with slightly disturbed forest on ferralitic or alluvial soil, heavily disturbed forest on ferralitic soil and shrub-land on ferralitic soil. Moreover, there are plenty of high conservation species living in Ben En National Park, among which I have found and recognized a number of 7 species are listed in the Red list of IUCN (2015) and 9 species belong to the Red data Book of Vietnam (Ban 2007) as well as many plant species are in the face of extinction. Last by not least, the overview of the impact of ecological factors on the plant diversity in the distribution and the development showed up in this thesis with some such dominant ecological factors as: the canopy cover, shrub and herb cover and the elevation.

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLE

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER I. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 3

CHAPTER II. OBJECTIVES, SCOPES OF THE STUDY AND METHODOLOGY ...... 7

2.1. Objective ...... 7

2.2. Subjects and scope of research ...... 7

2.3. Content ...... 7

2.4. Methodology ...... 7

2.4.1. Material inherited and preparation method...... 7

2.4.2. Field investigation method...... 8

2.4.3. Non-field investigation method...... 11

CHAPTER III. RESERCH AREAS ...... 14

3.1. Geographical Location ...... 14

3.2. Topography ...... 14

3.3. Climate and Hydrology ...... 16

3.4.Forest resource ...... 16

3.5.Characteristics of social economy...... 17

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 18

4.1. Vegetation types in Ben En National Park and its characteristics ...... 18

4.1.1. Moist Tropical evergreen in lowland limestone forests ...... 18

3

4.1.2. Moist tropical evergreen lowland forests ...... 20

4.1.3 Plantation forest ...... 23

4.1.4 Agricultural land ...... 24

4.2. Conservation of plant species status in Ben En National Park ...... 24

4.3. The impact of some ecological factors on plant diversity in Ben En National Park ...... 24

4.3.1. Impact of elevation factor on plant diversity in Ben En National Park ...... 24

4.3.2. Effect of the canopy cover to plant diversity ...... 29

4.3.3. Effect of shrub and herb cover to plant diversity ...... 30

CONCLUSION ...... 32

REFERENCE

4

LIST OF TABLE

Table 4.1. Fluctuation number of plant species and families by evelation in Ben En National

Park ...... 25

Table 4.2. The relationship between elevation and the index ...... 28

Table 4.3. Familiar level in species composition in vegetation structure among different altitude ...... 28

Table 4.4. The impact of canopy cover on regeneration density...... 29

Table 4.5. the result of surveying shrub and herb layer...... 30

Table 4.6. the impact of shrub and herbs cover on regeneration species ...... 31

5

INTRODUCTION

It is universally acknowledged that tropical rainforests are terrestrial ecosystem on

Earth illustrating the abundance of species diversity, but nowadays, we are witnessing about the disappearance of species at a dizzying pace because lands are renovated by timber, agriculture, and other uses (Fimbel et al. 2001; Meijaard et al. 2005). Vietnam’s forests are extremely biodiverse (Thin 1997) and Vietnam is one of the nations ranked the 16th in global bio-diverse (WCMC 1992). The abundance of plant diversity is one of the most characteristics in tropical rainforests, which cover less than 10% of the total land areas; there are more than 50 percent of earth’s plant species found in tropical rainforests (Wilson 1988;

Mayaux et al. 2005). Unfortunately, the majority of Vietnam’s forests have significantly decreased during the last 60 years (Chien 2006). Around 6 million ha of tropical forests have been lost (Achard et al. 2002). As a result, the forest cover witnessed a downward trend in

1985 and 1995 at 30 percent and 28 percent, respectively (Lung 2001; Hoang et al. 2008 a). In

1998, the Vietnamese government deployed the 5 million ha Reforestation Program with the aim of planning 5 million ha of forests in 2010 as well as restoring the cover of forest to reach of 43 percent (Lung 2001).

Plants are the world’s biodiversity as well as demonstrating its essential resource on the earth (GSPC 2012). There are many thousands of wild plants used with the aim of economic and providing food, medicine, fuel shelter for humans around the world in over period of time. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity noted that:

“Biological resources probably contribute into world’s economy and the poor’s demands at about 40 percent and 80 percent, respectively (Convention 2011). Also, the more life’s diversity, the more popular opportunity for medical discoveries, economic development and facing to such new challenges as: climate change. Unfortunately, many plant species are threatened by habitat transformation, over-exploitation, pollution and climate change.

1

Ben En National Park is known as the ecological complex of mountain, river, lake with more than 16.000ha of area and the plentiful plants and animals system. It is homeland of the famous green ironwood in Vietnam. According to researching of scientists, Flora in this park includes 58 species were listed in IUCN Red Book, 46 species belongs to Viet Nam Red

Book in 2007. The Red List species in Ben En National Park were identified based on the Red

Data Book of Vietnam (IUCN 2006, Ban 2007) and their conservation status was assessed using the frequent appearance of species including trees and stump which is found during the field inventory (Hoang et al. 2008a, b, c). Obviously, there are the plenty of research which related to the case of plant diversity in Vietnam.Although, there are several studies on the environmental characteristics, natural distribution of some such species as

Erythrophloeumfordii, Melienthasuavis Pierre or Garciniafagraeoides, there is less research on the effect of ecological factors (topography, soil physical characteristics and human) to the distribution and the development of plants in Ben En National Park. In recent decades, research on plants diversity has become more and more important. Protected areas contribute to the protection as well as conservation of the biodiversity and provide diverse public goals like socio-economic development. With the aim to study the impact of ecological factors on biodiversity of flora species in the study area, so I conducted this thesis: “The impact of ecological factors on plant diversity in Ben En National Park”.

2

CHAPTER I. LITERATURE REVIEW

Environmental factor or ecological factor or eco-factor is any factor, including abiotic or biotic influencing living organisms (Gilpin, A. 1996). Abiotic factors are the non-living components of the ecosystem which play a critical role in biology of the ecosystem. There are several abiotic factors which exert huge impact on plants, namely: topography, temperature, light, moisture, soil nutrients, and the percentage of canopy cover. Normally, abiotic factors definitely influence on the distribution of plant diversity and its abundance (Hotra et. al 2003).

Besides, there are plenty of studies illustrated that abiotic environment factors, such as topographic parameters can cause changes of plant diversity (Bennie et al., 2006; Marini

Lorenzo et al., 2007). Grassland diversity is heavily affected by environment factors; e.g. soil and topography (Cristofoli, 2010; Marini Lorenzo et al., 2007). At least, since the 1890s, it is obvious that the local vegetation situation affected by the topography through the subject interactions which is recognized (Warming 1895). In terms of temperature, the vast majority of seedlings distribute to the forest with dark closed canopy condition, leading to the necessary of examining the impact of temperature on seedlings growth not only in bright conditions but also in dark conditions (Koi Takahashi et al. 2011). Besides, according to (Yin et al. 2008) reported that seeds growth of Betula albo-sinensis rose in the warm condition with

0.510C higher than the ambient air condition.

On the other hand, the biotic factors are living organisms including competing species, parasites, predators and humans or in other word macro- and micro- organisms (Muoghalu JI.

2003). Moreover, they will affect plant growth and development through different ways.

Specially, the morphology of plants is one of the genetic factor influenced by those organisms

(Ben G. Bareja, 2011). Certainly, human not only exerts positive and negative impact on the environment, humans but also have transformed 40–50% of the ice-free land surface, changing prairies, forests and wetlands into agricultural and urban systems (F. Stuart Chapin et al. 2000).

3

Plants are influenced by human activities which can change the interaction among species in the community (Huston 1994; Acharya 1999). Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation are currently the most important threats to biodiversity (Primack 1993). In contrast, a coin has two side, so human activities also have different influences on biodiversity (Putz et al. 2000). For instance, numerous studies have shown that although logging can cause numerous damage to the forest ecosystem, logged-over forests would maintain original biodiversity (Whitmore & Sayer 1992; Cannon et al. 1998; Meijaard et al. 2005).

Ecological factor plays a significant role for the ecological development as well as the biological diversity of species in the whole ecosystem. Fortunately, humans in general became increasingly concerned about the impact of environment on habitat. Viet Nam is not only one of the countries with one of the highest biodiversity in the world with plentiful source of natural ecosystem, but Viet Nam also contains many rare genes with a variety of endemic species due to the complexity of the terrain, climate, creating suitable conditions for various ecosystems. In addition, there is also evidence that environmental factors or ecological factors such as soil nutrients, canopy openness, slope and herb cover affect the distribution of tree species and forest composition (Duivenvoorden 1995, Potts et al. 2002).

Plant biodiversity in Vietnam

There is a variety of diverse flora in Vietnam with around 28% of its total endemic species. (Thin 1997). Moreover, Vietnam is considered as one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world and the percentage of precious and endemic species of fauna and flora that probably are concentrated mostly in Vietnam. However, a few decades, there are the plenty of species recognized as endemic species in Vietnam and it also appears in 3 countries including China, Laos, or Thailand (Hoang et al. 2004). According to the statistics, Vietnam has 11,373 plant species that belong to 2524 genera , 378 families and 7 major plant groups

(Table 2.1) (Thin 1997).

4

Besides, A few years later, according to some estimation illustrating the number of flora in Vietnam reach to 12,000 species (Thin 2000). A number of preliminary estimates offer figures of about 600 indigenous species of vascular plants in Vietnam (Tolmachev 1974;

Nguyen Nghia Thin 1997; Phan Ke Loc 1998). The total number of species belongs to vascular plants known in Vietnam for the time being is about 10,350 species in 2,256 genera and 305 families (Phan Ke Loc 1998). Certainly, the flora of Vietnam is extremely diverse with ranging from general species to endemic species. The rate of endemic species has been variously recorded, ranging from 20% (Pocs 1965) to as high as 50% (Thai Van Trung 2000).

It is universally acknowledged through a more conservative estimate that there are approximately about 10% of species and 3% of genera well-known as Vietnam’s endemic (Vo

Quy 1995). Among 305 vascular plant families reported for Vietnam, the highest levels of endemism occurs in the Acanthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Araceae,

Arecaceeae, Asclepiadaceae, Celastraceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fagaceae, Myrsinaceae,

Rubiaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, Theaceae and Zingiberaceae (Schmid 1974; Takhtajan

1986; Rundel 1999). Recently, an inventory of the orchid species in Vietnam showed that the uniqueness of the family is 20% (Averyanov&Averyanova 2003).

On the other hand, The Vietnamese government has established a system of protected area with the aim of protecting the threatened biodiversity as well as conserving the main ecosystems present in Vietnam and the vital landscapes for culture, ecology and biodiversity

(Tai 1995; Vn 2003; Chien 2006). Initially, the first National Park in Vietnam is Cuc Phuong established in 1962 with the aim of forest production and conservation (Thu 2002 ).

Afterward, gradually, Vietnam’s the national park and nature reserve has developed in a sudden way. In 2015, Vietnam had 164 regions of special purpose with different goals and its total area of 2.2 million hectares which constitute 6.8 percent of the total area in Vietnam

(VNForest 2015)

5

Ben En Natural Park

In particular, one aim is to better understand the plant species diversity and recognized the value of plants species. The thesis has chosen Ben En national park. Ben En National

Park, one of the 30 National Parks in Vietnam (Forest Protection Department 2006). Ben En

National Park is situated in NhuThanh and NhuXuan districts of the ThanhHoa province in

Vietnam 190 30’ to 19040’ N by 105021’ to 105035’ E. The park was established by the decision amount 33 dated 27 January 1992 of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of

Viet Nam, with the purpose of conservation of natural ecosystem, restoration of endanger species, tourism development, settle down the buffer zone’s local people and at the same time, mobilizing people join management protection and sustainable development. The majorities of the people who are living in the National Park belong to the Kinh, Thai, Muong and Tay ethnic groups; besides there are still a small number of Tho people. Furthermore, the livelihood of local people still depend on forest resources, specially timbers and Non Timber

Forest Products (Hoang et al. 2008 b & c). Human exploitation exerts a huge impact on the vegetation of Ben En National Park (Khoi 1996; Hoang et al. 2008 a). Unfortunately, since

1992, human activities such as illegal logging, trading and hunting have been continuously exploiting until now (Tordoff et al. 2000; Hoang et al. 2008 a & c). The effects of former logging activities were still evident in the plots established for this study and some of the stumps counted as indicators of human disturbance probably dated back from before 1992.

Ben En National Park has 1389 vascular plant species belonging to 650 genera and 173 families (Hoang et al. 2008a).

6

CHAPTER II. OBJECTIVES, SCOPES OF THE STUDY AND METHODOLOGY

2.1. Objective

-Determining the vegetation types and high conservation value of plant Ben En

National Park.

-Determining how ecological factors impact on plant diversity in Ben En National Park.

2.2. Subjects and scope of research

Subjects: Plants species in Ben En National park

Scope: The thesis focus on determining the vegetation type’s characteristics and conservation status of plants species as well as having an overview of some ecological factors influencing on plant diversity in the Park.

2.3. Content

Assessment of the status of high conservation plant species value in Ben En National

The characteristic of vegetation types in limestone and in others soil.

Study the impact of some ecological factors on plant diversity in Ben En National Park.

2.4. Methodology

2.4.1. Material inherited and preparation method.

2.4.1.1. Looking for scientific research, report, student thesis proposal, books which related to the flora in Ben En National Park.

-Find out ecosystem, habitat types, nature condition of the study area.

-Economic and living condition of local people who have affected directly to the ecosystem.

-Evaluation of maps of Ben En National Park

-List of plants species in Ben En National Park.

-Document, report, scientific research, student thesis proposal which related to rare flora in Ben En National Park: the number of species, genus, families….

7

2.4.1.2. Preparation

-Prepare tools: Compass, calipers, camera, GPS, tapes…

-Prepare document and maps relate to natural condition, social, economic in Ben En

National Park.

2.4.2. Field investigation method.

2.4.2.1. Transect line method.

Supporting for studying and assessing these objectives as well as determine the area of the studied population and the amount of each individual in the population. We established 30 sample in Ben en National Park with the same size of 500m2 or 25 meters in length and 20 meters in width. The longer side of these plots has to be perpendicular with the slope of the topography. In sample plots, determining the structure of the studied species and study some physiological characteristics of the species.

Inside each plot, we set up 5 5x5m subplots, 4 at 4 corners of the plot and the remaining one at the center of the plot. Investigate and measure individual species in selecting areas to find out regeneration status of each species, characteristics of shrubs and herbs, and some others. In each 30 plots, we just take trees with a dbh ≥ 5cm to identify and ignore the rest of species. However, we also identify the trees with dbh <5cm and h ≥ 1m in each subplots.

Generally speaking, we established the sample plots at transect line associating with distinctive region. In Dien Ngoc area, we started establishing the sample plots at the regions namely Dong May, K1 – TK 636 and ending with Khe Ba Nui. in Song Chang region, we began the sample plots at the regions including L1-K6-TK 619, Lan Chay region- K4- TK

619, road segments to Thung Sen and culminating in Thung Sen. Next, as for Xuan Bai region, the sample plots are created ranging from Xuan Bai forest station to K1-TK 622- Eo

Ba Ky.. In terms of the places used to establish the sample plots in Xuan Binh station, this transect line from Khe Ngon to K4-TK633 (patrol road) and ending in K8-TK 633( patrol

8

road). The last station used to survey is Xuan Thai station with the transect line ranging from

K2-Tk634a - Cổng trời to L15-K1-TK626-Khe Chuồn and to L16-K1-TK626 - Khe chuồn.

2.4.2.2. Field investigation.

a) Estimate the distribution and density of species at some selected areas.

b) Based on observation and some characteristics of studied areas to determine

what vegetation types in the study site are.

c) Investigate and estimate some influencing factors which could affect the

environment, ecosystem and habitat of species.

2.4.2.3. Data collection

2.4.2.3.1. Investigation of high individual species.

Investigate, collect specimen, calculating all of the individuals precious species found in diameter at breast height (D1.3) greater than or equal to 5cm.

D1.3 measured by calipers glasses.

Measuring tree height (Hvn) and the high under branch (Hdc) by Blume-leiss measure

Measuring canopy diameter (Dt) by tape in two dimensions East-West and south.

For the tree difficult to measure (due to difficult terrain), using empirical observation position from the tree was measured.

Table: Investigation of species in transect line

Transect line…

Forest type…..

Height… Steepness …. Slope direction

No. Areas Species D1.3(cm) Hvn(m) Dt(m) Height Status Note

1

9

2.4.2.3.2. Investigation of reproduction species.

Investigation of natural reproduction plant species along the transect line. Observe the status of those species, specially the species near parent trees.

Table: Investigation of reproduction trees in transect line

Transect line...

Forest type...

Height… Steepness …. Slope direction

Days of investigation surveyor

Source of No. Species Height of trees ( cm ) Status reproduction

<50 50-100 >100 Seeds Buds A B C

Note :

A : Good

B : Normal

C : Bad

2.4.2.3.3. Investigation of shrub and herb species.

There are several criteria of collecting the data associating with shrub and herb, such as: dominant species, the average of height, the percentage of cover, the number of cluster.

Table: Investigation of shrub and herb species

Height… Steepness …. Slope direction

Days of investigation surveyor

Location

No. Species N(cluster) N(trees) %(cover) Note

10

2.4.3. Non-field investigation method.

2.4.3.1. Data processing and analysis.

 Determine the density of reproduction trees : Density (N) is calculated using the formula:

N = (N / S) × 10000 (trees / ha)

We have :

N: the number of counted trees in the area of S (tree)

S: measurement area (m2)

 Using a paired comparison method to assess results

 Using an assessment of Vietnam's Red Book, 2007 (Part II-Plant), the evaluation criteria of the IUCN (2015)

 A diversity index is a mathematical measure of species diversity in a community. It illustrates several information of community composition such as: the number of species present, the percentage of individuals that belong to X species, so on. Moreover, a quantitative measure that reflects how many different types in a dataset, and simultaneously be likely to take into account how all the basic entities (such as individuals) to be distributed among those types. There are the couple of diversity index but basically, three indexes below are suitable for calculating and estimating the impact of ecological factors on plant diversity in Ben En National Park.

Shannon index (H species’ biodiversity index)

The diversity trait is a statistical algorithm combining with 2 factors: the number of species’ composition and the possibility of appearance of individual in species (Shannon and

Wiener, 1963, Alekseiev, 2007). H index does not only depend on the number of species but also the number of individuals and the probability of occurrence of individuals in each species. To specify, H is defined by the following formula below:

H= - ∑ ( ) =- ∑

11

Where:

 H: Shannon’s diversity index

 S: Total number of species in the community (richness)

 Ni: the number of i species

 N:The number of all trees

 Pi: The proportion of individuals belonging to the ith

species

Simpson index (Concentration of dominance)

The Simpson index was introduced in 1949 by Edward H. Simpson. Simpson’s diversity index is a measure of diversity. In ecology, as for habitat, it is argue that this index can be used to quantify the biodiversity of a habitat such as the number of species present, and the abundance of each species. Furthermore, this index has a value between 0 and 1 (0 ≤ D ≤

1) that means lower values indicate more diversity while higher values depict less diversity.

D = ∑ (n/N)2

Which: D - Simpson index; n - the number of trees of a species; N - the number of all trees.

Sorensen’s index (Index of similarity)

The Sorensen index is a statistic used for comparing the similarity of two samples. SI is determined by the following formula

SI=

Where: C = number of species occurring in both samples, A: the number of species in

A region, B: the number of species in B region

2.4.3.2. Interview.

Working with the experts about natural conservation, resources and environment in local community and professionals specially in Ben En National Park

12

Interviewing local people and officials to evaluate the effect of local people on forest plants and forest products

In addition, a set of questionnaires will be conducted to know where rare species, also in this area in the past, whether the appearance of rare species have been planted or regenerated, and whether policies in relation to rare species management and development are in use this area

13

CHAPTER III. RESERCH AREAS

3.1. Geographical Location

Ben En National Park is situated in districts of Nhu Thanh, and Nhu Xuan, Thanh Hoa

Province. The park is 46 kilometers southwest of Thanh Hoa city. The coordinates is: 19028’ to 19043’ North and 105025’ to 105038’ East.

Total area is 16.634 hectares, including 16 sub-region, Muc Lake and Hai Van limestone areas, of which primitive forest covers 8.544 hectares, the core zone of the National

Park covers 15.800 ha, while the buffer zone covers around 12.000 ha. The park features a

3.000 hectares lake with 21 islets.

3.2. Topography

Ben En National Park is known as the ecological complex of stream, mountain, river, lake and valleys with more than 16.000 ha of area and the plentiful plants and animals system.

14

This is the homeland of the famous green ironwood in Viet Nam. In general, we clearly observe some kinds of topography such as:

- Low mountain terrain.

Small areas, mainly appears in West, Southwest and East in the park. That is peak of a range of mountains, namely Bu Dang – Nui Truong – Nui Dam – Nui Soa. The highest top is

Dam Mountain at 497m, and others are from 300 to 350m. The average slope about 250 – 300, this terrain is relatively craggy with steep associate with limestone which has abundance of caves and forest covers. Song Chang belongs to this topography.

- The slight slope of hill terrain

This terrain occupies the largest area of region and gathers mainly in the East, the

North and the West. The average slope is from 150 to 200, however, to the south and along the sides of 15-highway, the topography becomes more steeply, at a mere 100 or lower than 100.

- Lake and Valley terrain

This one includes both Muc Lake and the valleys related to low mountains and hills.

In particular, Muc Lake is center for visiting, tourism the landscape in the Eastern Ben En

National Park. Moreover, the water level of lake ranges from 13m to 33m. The area of lake’s surface about 2000- 3000ha and the average area is 2.281 ha. The lake is green all year round, and it is quite and contains mysterious legends. It is said that when the earth and heaven were chaotic, there was a giant squid, which was a the child of the King of the Sea coming here and played until she forgot about time. When the water receded, the squid tried to get out but she was trapped and the left point is available until now. Place of the dead squid created the Lake

Muc Ben en and the tentacle of the squid are the springs around. That is why the Lake is named Song Muc with 4000 ha wide, tens of meters deep, with 21 islands to created the fascinating landscape.

15

3.3. Climate and Hydrology

According to the data from General Department of Meteorology and monitoring station of hydro-meteorology in Nhu Xuan, Thanh Hoa province illustrates that: Ben En

National Park’s climate belongs to center of sub mid-land climate regions.

There are two distinctive season in each year: Rainy season begins in May and ends in

November that makes up 90 percent of the amount of rain in a year. Dry season starts in

December and culminates in April of next year. In general, from in April to June, Ben En often is under the influence of Laos’ dry and hot wind which last about 19 or 22 days. The winter monsoon starts in November and ends in March of next year. Besides, the southwest monsoon is from April to October.

Ben En has two main rivers, namely Chang river in the West and Muc river in the

East. Basically, rivers and streams in Ben En have some such personal characteristics as:

Narrow and deep river-bed, flow’s velocity witnesses a significant growth in flood season and gradual decrease in dry season.

The amount of water volume in Muc lake ranges from 250 to 400.000.000m3. This is original of 2 big river and numerous rivers in around the area. Besides, the lake is not only have a large area about 2.281 ha, but also it contributes to water to more than 10000 ha agricultural lands which belong to Nhu Thanh, Nong Cong commune at downstream. In addition, apart from controlling the water in upstream and providing irrigation or running water in downstream, Muc Lake is where the preservation of cultural heritage, aquaculture and valuable ecotourism development.

3.4. Forest resource

According to the scientific research of flora in Ben En in 2000, a total of 1357 vascular plant species were recorded in Ben En National Park, belonging to 902 genera and

195 families with sixth of higher plant sector such as: Psilotum nudum ( Psilotophyta),

16

Lycopodiella cernua (Lycopodiophyta), Equisetopsida or Sphenopsida ( Equisetophyta), Fern

( Polypodiophyta), the Flowering plant or angiosperms ( Angiospermae), Gymnosperm

(Gymnospermae).

Studies found that there are the couple of rare species in this park. So far, recovered were 1.389 species of plants, 462 varieties of flora in the park, and 125 orders. Fauna

Several studies have been conducted to survey on the fauna of Ben En National Park.

There are 1.004 species of animals, 91 species mammals, 261 species of birds, 54 species of reptiles, 31 species of amphibians, 68 species of fish and 499 species of insects ( Tordoff, A; et al. 2000).

3.5. Characteristics of social economy.

There are two main towns, namely Yen Cat and Ben Sung in Ben En National Park with combining 16 communes and 7 Armed Forces around the towns.

The total number of people in the park is about 41.672 people, belonging to 8.023 households. Meanwhile, male make up 48,5 percent and female occupy 51.5 percent. The vast majority of people are belonged to King ethnic at about 50.2 percent, King’s people live mainly with building brick houses. In addition, there are an abundance of their cultivation such as: making garden, making crops, grazing cattle. This is followed by Thai people who make up a mere 17.1 percent. However, Thai people also have the plenty of experience about using water resource to serve swidden cultivation and specially, stilt house is a part of historical and traditional relics. The third and the fourth position belong to Muong people and

Tho people, at 10.8 percent and 7.6 percent, respectively. The least number are other ethnic, at negligible 4.3 percent with the average population density is 57 per capita/ km2. The population growth rate is 2.9 percent.

17

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Vegetation types in Ben En National Park and its characteristics

It is argue that the highest peak in Ben En National Park is merely about 490m, which lead to all vegetation in the Parks belongs to lowland forest types (UNESCO 1973; Trung

2000; Lan et al. 2006). Obviously, there are huge distinctive between limestone’s vegetation and other soil types’ vegetation, however, the vast majority of vegetation is significantly influence by human activities. There are 4 main vegetation types in Ben En National Park:

Moist Tropical evergreen in lowland limestone forests, Moist tropical evergreen lowland forests, Plantation forest and Agricultural land

4.1.1. Moist Tropical evergreen in lowland limestone forests

Slightly disturbed subtype

This forest types appears in the limestone hills at 450m where local people are unauthorized for cutting and transporting timber trees because of the topography in here is relatively dangerous with steep slopes and sharp edges. Specially, rare species settle down in limestone hills which are located in Red Book of Vietnam as well as Red List of IUCN 2015 and they could face up with the verge of extinction. This forest type covers about 90 ha and normally, foot paths in this forest type are extremely rare. Furthermore, this type can be found in Thung Sen. Structure of this forest type includes four layers: the canopy layer is formed by many trees with over 15m tall. There are several dominant species such as: Actinodaphne obovata (Nees) Blume*, Caryodanophsis tonkinensis, DysoxylumcauliflorumHiern*,

Ecliptaprostrata L, Saraca dives Pierre, Spondiaslakoensis Pierre*, Canarium album

Rausch.* ,Duabangagrandiflora (Roxb. Ex DC) Walp, Paviesia annamensis Pierre*,

Alangiumbarbatum (R. Br.)Baill. *, Symplocos poilanei, Castanopsis indica A.DC,

Castanopsis tonkinensis, Aglaia silvestris, Aphanamixis grandiflora and Aglaia spectabilis.

The sub-canopy layer is witnessed through small and moderate trees with the height of

18

ranging from 1.5 m to 15m. These species are shade tolerant species, namely:

Paviesiaannamensis Pierre*, Caryodaphnopsis tonkinensis (Lecomte) Airy Shaw,

Diospyroseriantha Champ. ex Benth.* , Ecliptaprostrata L . Diospyroseriantha

Champ.exBenth.*, Randiapycnantha Drake*, Aglaiaspectabilis (Miq.) S.S. Jain &Bennet*,

Saraca dives Pierre, Cinnamomum ovatum Allen, Litsea verticillata Hance, Sterculia Alata

Roxb, Actino daphnepilosa(Lam.) Merr, Canarium Bengalensis Guill, Canarium album

Rausch.*, Nephelium chryseum, Litsea baviensis Lecomte,Hudnocarpusanthelmintica Pierre,

Euphorbia tirucalli, Acanthus leucostachyus, Lithocarpus pseudosundaicus, Antidesma hainanensis, Callicarpa dichotoma, Diospyros Montana, Acanthus leucostachyus, Knema confert, Melientha suavis, Antidesma hainanensis, Antidesma acidum, Antidesma montanum,

Streblus macrophylla, Streblus indicus and Phoebe macrocarpa. Next, the shrub layer includes only few species, like Dracaena cambodiana, Dracaena cochinchinensis, Antidesma bunius, Streblus macrophylla, Miliusabalansae, Diospyros hirsuta, Litsea impressa,

Cryptocarya lenticellata and Millettia boniana. As for the herb layer is a combination of a few species belonging to Balsaminaceae, Acanthaceae, Urticaceae, and Euphorbiaceae.

Heavily disturbed subtype on limestone

This forest type normally occurs in the limestone at 100m ~250m where the local people could easily assess or transport after harvesting, e.g at Thu Lon Mountain region- Song

Chang, Ba Bai and some small areas in the center of the Park. As for the layer of the forest, the forest’s structure consists of three distinctive layers, including the canopy layer, the shrub layer and the herb layer. It is interesting that the canopy layer and the sub-canopy layer are quite hard to distinguish. In terms of the canopy layer, it is composed mainly of Callicarpa macrophylla, Callicarpa dichotoma, Acanthus ilicifolius, Diospyros montana, Lagerstroemia calyculata, Pterospermum truncatolobatum, Pterospermum heterophyllum, Antidesma montanum, Acanthus leucostachyus, Diospyros hirsuta, Koilodepas longifolium,

19

Hydnocarpus anthelmintica, and Machilus bonii. Meanwhile, the shrub layer established by a few speceis, namely: Streblus macrophylla, Antidesma bunius, Sterculia lanceolata, Randia oxyodonta, Streblus macrophylla, Heritiera littoralis, Dracaena cambodiana, Dracaena cochinchinensis, Acanthus leucostachyus, Diospyros hirsuta, and Aidia acuminatissima. The last is the herb layer with a few species which belong to Acanthaceae, Balsaminaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, and Smilacaceae. Although the stands of this forest type have been exploited dramatically in over period of time, the appearance of numerous efforts with the aim of protecting the forest resource leading these gradually become stable.

Shrub-land associated with sparse timber trees on limestone.

In terms of shrub-land on limestone, the forest ranger and the staff in Ben En National

Park mentioning this vegetation type is not only the outcome of a heavy logging, but it is influenced significantly by those activities as well. It takes place along the old logging road, near village and distribute in Nui Dau Lon – Xuan Thai and Thu Lon – Song Chang.

Although the area of this forest type is quite small, at about 40 ha, the abundance of plant species is relatively enormous. Some dominant species are Dracaena cambodiana, Dracaena cochinchinensis, Memecylon edule, Ixorabalansae, Randia pycnantha, Callicarpa arborea,

Vitex trifolia, Acanthus ilicifolius, Desmos cochinchinensis, Uvaria micrantha, Alchornea tiliifolia, Psychotria montana, Aporosa microcalyx and a few species belong to Urticaceae

4.1.2. Moist tropical evergreen lowland forests

Slightly disturbed subtype on ferralitic or alluvial soil

The formation of this forest type is related to some areas at ~250m where it is too tough to transport the timber after exploiting because of the influence of topography or the appearance of a station of the forest ranger. Basically, this forest type covers about more than

2000 ha. There are some signs of collecting Non-Timber-Forest-Products. This forest type was found mainly in Thung Sen, Rung Giong region, Thu Lon and some areas in the Bo Cung

20

Mountain. In terms of characteristic of layers, there are obviously four layers, including: the canopy layer is formed by trees over 15m tall. Peltophorum tonkinensis, Erythrophleum fordii, Saraca dives, Pavieasia annamensis, Aphanamixis grandiflora, Actinodaphne obovata, Phoebe paniculata, Dysoxylum caudiflorum, Pterospermum truncatolobatum,

Duabanga grandiflora and Alangium barbatum, This is followed by the construction of small timber trees below 15m tall, called the sub-canopy layer with dominant species namely:

Diospyros montana, Diospyro shirsuta, Antidesma motanum, Diospyros hirsute, Litsea monopetala, Sterculia lanceolata, Litsea Glutinosa, Phoebe macrocarpa, Koilodepaslongifolium,

Hydnocarpusanthelmintica,Syzygiumwightianum,Cryptocaryalenticellata,

Gironnierasubaequalis, and Randiapycnantha. Then, the shrub layers is composed of many species, with as dominant ones Antidesma bunius, Mallotus decipiens Diospyros hirsuta,

Milius abalansae, Koilodepas longifolium, Litsea verticillata, Chloranthus erectus,

Psychotri fleuryi, and Zingber zerumbert. The herb layer is composed mainly of species belonging to the families Zingiberaceae, Poaceae, Acanthaceae, Rutaceae, Rubiaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae.

Heavily disturbed subtype on ferralitic soil

Based on the document and interviews the local people, this vegetation type take place in many years ago at the lowland influenced by local people through some activities like cutting trees and transporting timber trees at around 100m Besides, this forest type distributes mostly in the Park’s stands and so far, it probably has become more stable. Basically, this is the most dominant forest type in Ben En National Park (about 4000ha). However, this forest type is not similar with some others as they have three layers. Firstly, it is canopy layers consisting of many trees over 15 m tall with some dominant trees, including: Syzygium wightianum, Litsea balansae, Ficus hispida, Alangium chinense, Cryptocarya chiensis,

Diospyros hirsuta, Koilodepaslongifolium, Machilus bonii, Microcospaniculata,

21

Machilusbonii, Litsea rotundifolia, Pterospermum truncatolobatum, Mallotus paniculatus,

Ilex cymosa, Flacourtiabalansae, Lithocarpus pseudosundaicus, Machilusgrandifolia,

Dysoxylum cauliflorum, Mischocarpus pentapetalus, Canarium album, Canarium tramdenum, Erythrophleumfordii, , Endorspermum chinense, Gironniera cuspidata,

Peltophorum tonkinensis, Saraca dives and Pterospermum jackianum. The shrub layer is formed by some species such as: Diospyrós hirsute, Dalbergia lanceolaria. The herb layer often witnesses the appearance of Zingiberaceae, Poaceae, Anonaceae, Rubiaceae and

Euphorbiaceae.

Shrub-land on ferralitic soil

These vegetation types occur at several places in Ben En National Park such as: Xuan

Thai, Duc Luong, Xuan Binh, Dong Tho and Xuan Ly. As for the structure of this forest type, it has only the species of shrublands with dominant speceis are: Breynia fleuryi, Smilax corbularia, Wikstroemia indica, Melastoma candidum, Thysanolaena maxima, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Cleistanthus petelotii, Mallotus barbatus, Macaranga denticulata, Desmodium heterocarpon, Tephrosia indica, Senna tora, Cratoxylum polyanthum, Cratoxylum prunifolium, Antidesma scandens, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Aporosa microcalyx, Saccharum spontaneum, Saccharum arundinaceum, and Imperata cylindrica. Besides, this kind of forest was also found around Muc Lake with Mimosa pigra being a dominant species. On the other hand, specially, this vegetation type is the consequence of extreme logging, shifting cultivation and other agricultural activities in the Park and the stands of this vegetation are contributed sparsely in the Park with the total area recording at about 2950ha.

Secondary bamboo mixed with timber trees

This forest type is normally secondary forest and the formation of evergreen forest and semi-deciduous forest. Furthermore, there are the couple of human activities such as burning trees, releasing toxic chemicals that have a negative impact on forests leading to open canopy

22

of forest and create the appearance of bamboo inside the forest, besides there maybe, the extraction of trees would promote the development of natural bamboo. To specify, this vegetation covers enlarged area in Ben En National Park, at about 3800 hectares with appearing in Song Chang, BaiLan, Xuan Thai, XuanBinh and some areas in the center of the

Park, respectively. Also, there are places with the number of timber trees are higher than bamboos one, whereas, in other areas where have merely timber trees within the bamboo stands. The bamboos consist of some such dominated species as: Schizostachyum funghomii,

Bambusa flexuosa, Indosasasibataeoides, Bambusaprocera and Indosasasinica. Moreover, the plenty of timber trees species tend to be mixed with the bamboo forest, among which those are some special one namely: Pterospermum heterophyllum, Beilschmiedia balansae,

Machilus bonii, Lagerstroemia calyculata, Endospermum chinense, Mallotus paniculatus,

Aglaia spectabilis, Saraca dives, Phoebe paniculata, and Actinodaphne obovata.

Moreover, Zingiberaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Amaranthaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae,

Acanthaceae,and ferns, all of them build the ground layer. Bamboo stands dominated by

Schizostachyum funghomii, Schizostachyum pseudolima and there is no emergence of herbs.

4.1.3 Plantation forest

After surveying partly as well as interviewing and collecting the data from the staff in the Park that indicates the characteristics of this vegetation type. The forest type occurs negligibly in Ben En National Park, it takes place in Dong Tho, XuanBinh, Trai Bo, Bai village and Doc Khoan with the total area of more than 40 hectares. It is obvious that they often plant some species with its characteristics such as easily planting, high productivity and improving lands texture. Several species are namely: Acacia auriculaeformid, Acacia mangium, Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Heveabrasiliensis, Magnolia conifera, and Micheliamediocris. Besides, through observation, the structure of vegetation type is quite such a simple, including the trees layer or canopy cover and a ground layer with mainly

23

weedy species which belong to Asteraceae, Poaceae, Amaranthaceae, Rubiaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Piperaceae, Arecaceae and ferns.

4.1.4 Agricultural land

Generally speaking, agricultural land in Ben En National Park is not received much attention from local people, the evidence of that is the area of agricultural land is quite small and close to the villages in the park. However, the government has enacted the policy called

“Land allocation”, so there are approximately 650ha of home gardens and forest land that is allocated to individual household for protection and re-plantation. The plant species are grown on this land, including sugar cane, cassava, beans, peanuts, vegetables and fruit trees such as mango, banana, jack fruit, papaya, and orange. Besides, this is not to mention, paddy rice grown in irrigated fields along the Muc river and in some areas close the households.

4.2. Conservation of plant species status in Ben En National Park

There is the abundance of plant species in Ben En National Park, however, so far, the number of species is decreasing due to harsh environmental condition or human activities such as over-exploiting and deforestation putting rare species into dangerous situation. Based on the criteria for evaluating the level of rare species which have the risk of being threatened in the List of IUCN (2015), identified the flora with high conservation value in the Park. It is obvious that the park plays a significant role in preservation of rare plants genetic resource.

A total of 96 plant species with high conservation value in Ben En National park, of them 48 plant species listed in the IUCN Red Data (2015), and 44 species belong to the Red

Data book of Vietnam (Ban 2007), 24 species in Decree 32/2006/ND-CP of Vietnamese government (Appendix B)

4.3. The impact of some ecological factors on plant diversity in Ben En National Park

4.3.1. Impact of elevation factor on plant diversity in Ben En National Park

There are several disparities species’ distribution and structure associating with changing elevation. On the one hand, in Ben En National Park, the consequence of study illustrated that the number of species witnessed a moderate growth in the elevation.

24

Furthermore, as can be seen that at the elevation 450m, the number of species were found in the Park at 130 species- the highest number. This was followed by the elevation at 250m, the number of species were 148 species. Besides, at 100m, the numbers of species were the lowest with 85 species

Table 4.1. Fluctuation number of plant species and families by evelation in Ben En

National Park

Elevation (m) Number of species Number of families

100 85 15

250 130 22

450 148 33

 At elevation 100m

There are 85 species which recorded in our plots. At this height, the kinds of specie are relatively abundant with illustrating dominant species are: Erythrophleum fordii ,

Gironniera cuspidata Kurz , Elaeocarpus dubius Aug. DC.* Bridelia tomentosa Blume,

Canarium album Rausch.* Prunus arborea (Blume) Kalkman* Gironniera subaequalis

Planch.* Peltophorum tonkinensis Pierre* Schefflera alpina Grushv. & Skvortsova

Symplocos laurina Wall.*, and Prunus arborea (Blume) Kalkman*

At this elevation, it is interesting that the appearance of big trees is of popularity.

Normally, in terms of low elevation like that, the studied areas perhaps are likely to reduce the number of rare or conservation plants. Moreover, those species belong to heavily disturbed subtype both in limestone and other soils. However, there is still some conservation plants also found in this elevation such as: Aphanamixis grandifolia Blume, Amesiodendron chinense (Merr.) Hu*, Erythrophleum fordii Oliv, Peltophorum tonkinensis Pierre and Aglaia spectabilis.

25

Shannon index Simpson index Soil type Canopy cover (%) Slope

Oxisols fixed with

2.92 0.72 weathered soils in 89 200

limestone.

 At elevation 250m

The total of 130 species were recognized in our plots inventory, including dominant

species such as: Chukrrasia tabularis, Sacara dives, Archidendron balansae, Machilus bonii,

Wrightia annamensis, Macaranga, Mallotus barbatus, Litsea cubeba, Michelia mediocris,

Litsea baviensi, Dysoxylum cauliflorum Hiern*, Parashorea chinensis Wang Hsie*,

Caryodaphnopsis tonkinensis (Lecomte) Airy Shaw, Hudnocarpus anthelmintica Pierre and

Diospyros eriantha Champ. ex Benth.*.

At this elevation, human probably can not impact on the forest due to some obstacles

like topography, natural factors. Hence, it is easy to observe that the quality of forest is totally

good with strong development of many plants species in here. Besides, the main vegetation in

here is slightly disturbed subtype belonging to moist tropical evergreen lowland forest. The

rate of finding the trees with big diameter as well as absolute height is popular. Obviously, at

this elevation, the trees with high conservation value are more diverse than at lower. Also,

there are several high conservation value found in this area such as: Actinodaphne obovata

Blume, Canarium tramdenum Chan Din Dai & Yakovlev*, Dysoxylum cauliflorum Hiern,

Garcinia fagraeoides A. Chev, Parashorea chinensis Wang Hsie*Vatica subglabra Merr.,

Markhamia stipulata Seem. ex Schum.* Aglaia spectabilis (Miq.) S.S. Jain & Bennet* and

Michelia mediocris.

Shannon index Simpson index Soil type Canopy cover (%) Slope

Rhodic ferralsols fixed with 3.26 0.65 83 230 weathered soils in limestone

26

 At elevation 450

The total of 148 species recorded in the study site. They were mainly Castanopsis tonkinensis, Terstroemia japonica Thunb, Castanopsis indica A.DC, Castanopsis lecomtei

Hickel & A. Camus, Castanopsis kawakamii Hayat, Elaeocarpus balansae, Elaeocarpus varunua Buch.-Ham.*, Litsea baviensis, Syzygium balsamineum, Machilus sp., Aglaia perviridis,

Castanopsis indica, Acer laeviegatum, Eberhardtia aurata, Peltophorum tonkinensis, Michelia balansea, Michelia mediocris, Lithocarpus bacgiangensis (Hickel &. A. Camus) A. Camus,

Lithocarpus pseudosundaicus (Hickel & A. Camus) A. Camus* Lithocarpus hemisphaericus

(Drake) Barnett, Hopea chinensis, Pometia pinnata, Madhuca pasquieri, Chukrasia tabularis,

Litsea glutinosa, Machilus odoratissima, Sacara dives, Wrightia levis, Syzygium cumini,

Dracotomelum dao, Canarium album, Machilus bonii, Caryodaphnopsis baviensis, Maglietia conifer, Cleistocalyx operculatus Merr. & L.M. Perry*, Aglaonema modestum Schott ex Engl,

Euodia meliaefolia Benth.*, Miliusa balansae Finet & Gagnep.*

At this elevation, it is a certain fact that forest probably was not likely to be impacted by humans. In addition, the main forest type is slightly disturbed subtype which belongs to moist tropical evergreen and secondary lowland forest. Hence, the diversity of plants was extremely high with the appearance of many rare, big and high conservation trees such as: Garcinia fagraeoide A. Chev, Dysoxylum cauliflorum Hiern, Markhamia stipulata Seem. Ex Schum,

Meliantha suavis Pierre, Hopea hainanensis Merr. & Chun*, Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.

Parashorea chinensis Wang Hsie* and Vatica subglabra Merr.

Shannon index Simpson index Soil type Canopy cover (%) Slope

3.43 0.51 Limestone and 89 250

Rhodic ferralsols

On the other hand, as can been seen from the table that at different elevation associating with the disparities of both the Shannon index and the Simpson index. In particular, Shannon

27

Index has an upward trend with starting with 2.92 at 100m, 3.26 at 250m and ending with 3.43 at the 450m. Hence, it is obvious that Shannon index increase at higher elevation. In contrast, the

Simpson index experience slight drop from low to higher elevation. At 100m, Simpson index is

0.72 and the second and the third belong to 200m and 400m at 0.65 and 0.51, respectively. It means that the higher elevation, the more plant biodiversity.

Table 4.2. The relationship between elevation and the index

Elevation (m) Shannon Index Simpson index

100 2.92 0,72

250 3.26 0,65

450 3.43 0,51

After collecting thedata, we used Sorensen index to make a comparison of familiar level of speceis composition among different altitude. Obviously, Sorensen index depicted that the species similarity between 100m and 250m were the highest with 81% of species appear on both elevation and the lowest between 450m and 250m that is merely 67% species distribution in both areas

Table 4.3. Familiar level in species composition in vegetation structure among different

altitude

Altitude 100 250 450

100 1 0.81 0.72

250 1 0.67

450 1

Based on the table we can realize that the disparity of plants’ distribution and composition at different altitude are insignificant. Actually, from 100m to 250m elevation, there is certain fact the percentage of similar species’ appearance is quite high, at 81 percent, due to there are numerous same thing associating with that different elevation. Besides, it is easy to

28

know that 67 percent is a number illustrating the relationship between 450m elevation and 250m elevation. Although the difference of two these elevation are relatively low, there may be a clear difference in natural condition such as the canopy cover, shrub cover and elevation.

4.3.2. Effect of the canopy cover to plant diversity

In this case, we will focus on the regeneration species circumstance associating with the canopy cover. It is argue that the canopy cover probably affect a little to regeneration species’ density and the quality in study side. The reason is because regeneration species are capable of shade-enduring with the same level, less differentiation and competition, however, as for a number of being eliminated regeneration plants, the competition and the readjustment to light are more of popularity. In the remaining forest canopy condition, if the regeneration is to survive, it has to adapt to the storage of light. This is a necessary step for the development of plants in preparing for the keen competition stages in the future.

Table 4.4. The impact of canopy cover on regeneration density.

Elevation Canopy Height of regeneration trees N(tree/ha)

cover (%) <50cm 50 – 100 >100cm

100 75 128 187 387 5105

250 83 139 155 328 4523

450 89 83 93 283 4590

The results showed the relationship between the number of regeneration species and the canopy cover of forest. Obviously, there are witnessed a fluctuating trend at different elevation.

At 100m elevation, the number of generation trees per hectares are 5105, while at 250m, the number of regeneration ones are only 4523 trees/ha. Afterwards, the number of regeneration plant species are upward trend at 450m with 4590trees/ha. Unfortunately, perhaps, in the field trip, I have established the sample plots at 450m lower than that at 100m and 250m, which cause the number of regeneration species at 450 m are higher than those are at 250m. However, it still

29

can not denying the fact that the canopy cover also exerts an impact on regeneration plant species. Besides, they also depend on some other ecological characteristic such as human, animals, soils condition and so on.

4.3.3. Effect of shrub and herb cover to plant diversity

To deal with this problem, we also concentrate on the relationship between shrubs, herb and regeneration situation of plant species. First and foremost, we conducted the measurement of tree species in the regeneration period as well as determining the shrub and herb cover in each sub-plot having the area of 25m2.

Table 4.5. the result of surveying shrub and herb layer.

Studied Specific name Number of Cover area cluster (m) percentage (%) Di n Ngoc Calamus balansaeanus, Dryopteris 83 1.45 62.5 subtriangularis, Lisianthus calycinus, Schizostachyum funghomii, Tinospora sp…. Song Chang Canarium album, symplocos 564 1.2 38.5 cochinchinensis, Garcinia fagraeoides, Dimocarpus fumatus, Psychotria fleuryi,… Xuan Bai Dryopteris subtriangularis, Clausena 15 1.59 82.6 duniana, Albizia chinensis, Psychotria fleuryi,… Xuan Binh Ardisia crenata, Clausena duniana, 330 1.3 46.8 Maessa balansae, Selaginella argentea, Lophatherum gracile, Tetracera scandens,… Xuan Thai Dryopteris subtriangularis, Strychnos 72 1.54 73.7 angustifolia, Lasianthus calycinus, Melastoma candidum, Alpinia globosa, Piper chaudocanum,…

30

Table 4.6. the impact of shrub and herbs cover on regeneration species

Study site Cover (%) No of regeneration species Number of species

Song Chang 38.5 1047 549

Xuan Binh 46.8 319 163

Dien Ngoc 62.5 209 152

Xuan Thai 73.7 150 81

Xuan Bai 82.6 123 53

The table illustrates the relationship between s the shrub, herb cover and the total of regeneration species. Generally speaking, the total of regeneration species witnesses a downward trend associating with increasing of shrubs and herbs cover.

To specify, the highest number of regeneration individuals is 1047 species, at Song

Chang related to the smallest shrubs cover is about 38.5%. This number is triple as many as that of Xuan Binh, at 319 individuals. The third and the fourth position belong to the number of regeneration ones in Dien Ngoc and Xuan thai, at 209 and 150, respectively. Besides, the shrubs cover that belongs to those is quite high with 62.5% and 73.7%, respectively. The least the total of regeneration species are Xuan Bai, at a negligible 123 species even thought the shrub cover is the highest (82.6%). It is obvious that, shrubs, herb in the study site exerts a huge impact on the regeneration individuals. In some areas like Xuan Bai, Xuan Thai and Dien Ngoc, the average covers of shrubs have restricted the natural regeneration processes of plants, ranging from 62.5% to 82.6%.

31

CONCLUSION

There are 4 main vegetation types in Ben En National Park: Moist Tropical evergreen in lowland limestone forests, Moist tropical evergreen lowland forests, Plantation forest and

Agricultural land: Moist Tropical evergreen in lowland limestone forests with 3 dominant subtypes, namely: Slightly disturbed subtype, heavily disturbed subtype on lime stone and

Shrub- land associated with sparse timber trees on limestone. Basically, these vegetation types have different layers regarded as canopy cover, shrub layer and herb layer with several dominant species. Then, the second main vegetation type is moist tropical evergreen lowland forests, which consists of slightly disturbed subtype on ferralitic or alluvial soil, heavily disturbed subtype on ferralitic soil, shrub-land on ferralitic soil and secondary bamboo mixed with timber trees. Almost of layers structure from this type are similar with first one at some distinctive layers. The third vegetation type determined in our study belonged to Plantation forest which has simple the structure of vegetation, including canopy cover and a ground layer with mainly weedy. The last one, agricultural land is observed and estimated by our work.

Plant species in Ben En not only diversity but also high conservation value. A total of

98 plant species with high conservation value in Ben En National park, of them 48 plant species listed in the IUCN Red Data (2015), and 44 species belong to the Red Data book of

Vietnam (Ban 2007), 24 species in Decree 32/2006/ND-CP of Vietnamese government.

Ecological factor affect to plant diversity in Ben En National Park: Numerous plants distribution and composition have the tight relationship to altitude. It is argue that at 450 elevations, the distribution and composition of plants are more diverse than that at 100m and

250m. In addition, the application of three indexes including: Shannon index, Simpson index and Sorensen index into this thesis, which illustrate that the relationship between elevation and plant diversity. It means that the more higher the elevation is, the more plants diversity is.

32

The canopy cover and shrubs, herb cover are the next factors. In general, two factor both influence on the plant diversity. However, the impact of the canopy covers on the development as well as on the distribution of regeneration plants is negligible, while the shrubs cover has a strong effect on in the study site. The number of regeneration species has an upward trend when decreasing of shrubs cover and in contrast, those that witness a gradual growth at high shrubs cover. Last but not least, the percentage of herbs also affect to the total number of regeneration species, especially expected species.

33

REFERENCE

Achard, F., H.D. Eva, H.J. Stibig, P. Mayaux, J. Gallego, T. Richards, & J.P.

Malingreau. 2002. Determination of deforestation rates of the world’s humid tropical

forests. Science 297: 999 - 1002.

Aldon, E.F. 1978. Endomycorrizae enhance shrub growth and survival on mine spoils. P. 174-179. In: R.A. Wright (ed.), The reclamation of disturbed arid lands. Univ. of New Mexico press, Albuquerque.

Acharya, B. 1999. A spatial analysis of tree species diversity in Nepal. Enschede, the

Netherlands (PhD thesis).

Averyanov , L. V. & A .L . Averyanova . updated Checklist of the Orchids of Viet nam . Viet nam National University Publishing House, Ha noi. 2003 , 101 pp. (in English and

Vietnamese ).

Bennie, J., Hill, M., Baxter, R. and Huntley, B. Influence of slope and aspect on long- term vegetation change in British chalk grasslands. J. Ecol. 2006; 94:355–368.

Bowen, G.D., and S.E.Smith. 1981. The effects of mycorrhizae on nitrogen uptake by plants. P. 237 – 247. In: F.E. Clark and T. Rosswall (ed.) Terrestrial nitrogen cycles.

Ecological Bull. Vol. 33, Swedish Natl. Sci. Res. Council, Stockholm.

Ben G. Bareja, January 2011. “Abiotic Factors Affecting Plant Growth: Topography and Soil.” CropsReview.com, N.p., Jan 2011. Web. 15 Mar. 2015. Biotic Factors and Their

Interaction with the Plant

Ban, N.T. (ed.). 2007. Red data book of Vietnam. Vol. 2. Science and Techniques.

Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam (in Vietnamese).

Chien, P.D. 2006. Demography of threatened tree species in Vietnam. Utrecht, The

Netherlands (PhD thesis).

34

Convention on biological diversity (2011). Retrieved, 2011, from http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/biodiversity/convention biodiversity/convention-faqs/index.html

Cristofoli S., Monty A. and Mahy G. Historical landscape structure affects plant species richness in wet heathlands with complex landscape dynamics. Landscape Urban

Plann. 2010;98:92–98

Clarkson, D.T., and J.B. Hanson. 1980. The mineral nutrition of higher plants. Ann.

Rev. Plant Physiol. 31:239 – 312.

Cannon, C.H., D.R. Peart, & M. Leighton. 1998. Science 281: 1366 - 1368.

Call, C.A., and C.M. McKell. 1984. Field establishment of fourwing saltbush in processed oil shale and disturbed native soil as influenced by vesicular- ar-buscular mycorrhizae. Great Basin Nat. 44:363-371.

Duivenvoorden, J.F. 1995. Tree species composition and rain forest-environment relationships in the middle Caquet i area, Colombia, NW Amazonia. Plant Ecology. 120: 91 – 113.

Fimbel, R.A., A. Grajal, & J.G. Robinson. 2001. Logging and wildlife in the tropics

In: R.A. Fimbel, A. Grajal, & J.G. Robinson (eds.), The cutting edge: conserving wildlife in logged tropical forest: 667 - 695. Columbia University Press, New York, USA.

Fischer, F.M., L.W. Parker, J.P. Anderson, and W.G. Whit ford. 1987. Nitrogen mineralization in a desert soil: interacting effects of soil moisture and nitrogen fertilizer. Soil

Sci. Soc. Am. J. 51: 1033-1041.

F. Stuart Chapin III, Erika S. Zavaleta, Valerie T. Eviner, Rosamond L. Naylor, Peter

M. Vitousek, Heather L. Reynolds, David U. Hooper, Sandra Lavorel, Osvaldo E. Sala, Sarah

E. Hobbie, Michelle C. Mack & Sandra Día. Review article “Consequences of changing biodiversity”. Nature 405, 234- 242. 11 May 2000.

35

Forest Protection Department. 2006. Forest protected areas system in

Vietnam.Vietnam (in Vietnamese).

Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: 2011-2020. Recommended citation:

Convention on Biological Diversity, 2012. Botanic Gardens Conservation International,

Richmond, UK. September 2012.

Gilpin, A. 1996. Dictionary of Environment and Sustainable Development. John

Wiley and Sons. 247 p

Gerdemann, J. W. 1975. Vesicular-arbuscular my corrhizae. P. 575-591. In: G. Torrey and

D.T. Nicholson (eds.), The development and function of roots. Academic Press, New York.

Green, N.E., M.D. Smith, W.D.Bevis, and E.F. aldon. 1983. Influence of vesicular- abuscular my – corrhizal fungi on the nodulation and growth of sub-clover. J. Range Manage.

36:576-578.

Hoang, S.V. 2008 (a). A species of Myristica Gronov. A new record for Flora of

Vietnam. Vietnam Journal of Forest Science 1: 526 - 529.

Huston, M.A. 1994. Biological diversity: the coexistence of species in changing landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Hoang, S.V., P. Baas, & P.J.A. Keßler. 2008 (c). Uses and conservation of plant species in a National Park - a case study of Ben En, Vietnam. Economic Botany 62: 574 - 593.

Hoang, S.V., P. Baas, & P.J.A. Keßler. 2008 (b). Traditional medicinal plants in Ben

En National Park, Vietnam. Blumea. 53: 569 - 601.

Hoang, S.V., P. Baas, & P.J.A. Keßler. 2008 (a). Plant biodiversity in Ben En National

Park. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam.

Harper, J.L. 1977. Population biology of plants. Academic Press, New York.

Hoang, S.V., P.J.A. Keßler, & K. Nanthavong. 2004. Trees of Laos and Vietnam; A field guide to 100 economically and ecologically important species, Blumea 49: 201 - 349.

36

IUCN. 2006. The Red list of Threatened Species. Available from http://www.redlist.org/info/tables/table6a.

James, D.W., and J.J . Jurinak. 1978. Nitrogen fertilization of dominant plants in the northeastern Great Basin desert. P. 219-231. In: N.E. West and J. Skujins (eds.), Nitrogen in desert ecosystems. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania.

Khoi, L.V. 1996. Studies on the biodiversity of a typical ecosystem: the ecosystem of

Ben En National Park, Hanoi, Vietnam (in Vietnamese)

Lung, N.N., 2001. The status of forest resources in Vietnam: matter of environment, economy, society and resolutions. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development 12: 891 -

893 (in Vietnamese).

Larissa, H., Ellen, K., and Jenna Voss: Abiotic Factors Influencing the Abundance and

Distribution of Marsh Marigolds Along Carp Creek. Undergraduate students, University of

Michigan Biological Station, MI 49769, USA 6/13/03

Meijaard, E., D. Sheil, R. Nasi, D. Augeri, B. Rosenbaum, D. Iskandar, T. Setyawati,

M. Lammertink, I. Rachmatika, A. Wong, T. Soehartono, S. Stanley, & T. O’Brien. 2005.

Life after logging: Reconciling wildlife conservation and production forestry in Indonesian

Borneo, CIFOR. Bogor, Indonesia

Mayaux, P., P. Holmgren, F. Achard, H. Eva, H-J. Stibig, & A. Branthomme.

2005.Tropical forest cover change in the 1990s and options for future monitoring.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 360: 373 - 384.

Marini L., Scotton M., Klimek S., Isselstein J. Pecile A. Effects of local factors on plant species richness and composition of Alpine meadows. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.

2007;119:281–288.

Morrow, L.A., R.J. Lorenz, and G.A. Rogler , 1978. Using nitrogen fertilizer to renovate overgrazed mixed prairie grasslands in the Northern Great Plains. P. 675-677. In:

D.N Hyder (ed.) Proc. First Int. Rangeland Congress. Soc. Range Manage. Denver, Colo.

37

Mosse, B. 1973. Advances in the study of vesicular- arbuscular mycorrhiza. Ann.

Rev. Phytopathol. 11: 171-196

Muoghalu J.L. 2003. Priority parameters: abiotic and biotic components.

Environmental Monitoring – Vol. 1 - Priority parameters: abiotic and biotic components.

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Nigeria

Nguyen Nghia Thin. (1997). Manual on Research of Biodiversity. Agr. Publ. House,

Ha Noi.

Nguyen Minh Quang et al. 2015. The environment factors affect plants at Ba Vi

National Park.

Owensby , C.E., R.M. Hyde, and K. Anderson. 1970. Effects of clipping and supplemental nitrogen and water on loamy upland bluestem range. J. Range Manage. 23:341- 346

Potts, M.D., P.S. Ashton, L.S. Kaufman, & J.B. Plotkin. 2002. Habitat patterns in tropical rain forests: a comparison of 105 plots in northwest Borneo. Ecology 83 (10) 2782 - 2797.

Primack, R.B. 1993. Essentials of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates,

Sandarland, MA

Putz, F.E., K.H. Redford, J.G. Robinson, R. Fimbel, & G.M. Blate. 2000. Biodiversity

Conservation in the Context of Tropical Forest Management. The World Bank Environmental

Department, USA

Phan Ke Loc. (1998). On the systematic structure of the Vietnamese flora. In: A.

Zhang andS. Wu (eds.), Floristic Characteristics and Diversity of East Asian Plants. Beijing and Berlin

Pocs, T Analysea ire -géographiqueet écologiquedela flore du Viet nam Nord Acta

Acaci. Paed. Agriens (Eger), nouư. sér. 3(1965), pp. 395 -452 .

Ricklefs, R. E. 2001. The Economy of Nature. W. H. Freeman and Co. New York.

Fifth Edition.

38

Rundel. I* w . Const ri (lỉton prionties In ỉndochina WWF Desk Study. Forest habitats and fĩoratn Lao PỈ)H, Cambodia , and Vietnam , World VVide Fund for Nature , ỉndochina

Programme OíTkc. Hiinoi 1999, 194 pp.

Schmici, M. Vẽịỉetntion du Vietnam: le M assif Sud-Annamitique et les rẻgions ỉim

ỉtro p k e s, M é m . O R S T O M 74, P a ris , 1974, 243 pp.

Takahashi, K., Kobori, H., and Seino, T(2011). Effects of Temperature and Light

Conditions on Growth of Current-Year Seedlings of Warm-Temperate Evergreen Tree

Species and Cool-Temperate Deciduous Tree Species, Global Warming Impacts - Case

Studies on the Economy, Human Health, and on Urban and Natural Environments, Dr.

Stefano Casalegno (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-785-7,

Thin, N.N. 1997. Manual for biodiversity research. Agricultural Publishing House,

Hanoi, Vietnam (in Vietnamese).

Tai, N.M. (ed.). 1995. National Parks and nature reserve areas in Vietnam. Agriculture

Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam (in Vietnamese).

Thin, N.N. 2000. Biodiversity and resources of plant heredity. National University

Press, Hanoi, Vietnam (in Vietnamese).

Tolmachev, A.I. (1974). Introduction to the plant Geography. Leningrad Univ. Publ.

House, Leningrad.

Thai Van Trung. The Tropical Forest Ecosystems in Vietnam , Science and Technic

Publ. House . Ho Chi Minh City branch (2000). 276 pp (in Viet namese , summary in French).

Takhtajan , A ., KỉorìstU' Regions the World. Univ. Caliíornia Press, Berkeley, Los

Angeles , Lon don , 1986, 522 pp

Tai, N.M. (ed.). 1995. National Parks and nature reserve areas in Vietnam. Agriculture

Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam (in Vietnamese).

39

Thu, N.B. 2002. System of nature reserve areas in Vietnam - Status and Demand that needs to be changed. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development 7: 627 -628.

Tordoff, A., E. Fanning, & M. Grindley (eds). 2000. Ben En National Park, Society for Environmental Exploration, London.

Vo Quy . Conservation ofílora .íauna , and endangered species in Viet nam , Tropical

Forest Ecosystems / BIOTROP Special Publication 55 (1995). pp. 139*146.

VN - Socialist Republic of Vietnam. 2003. Management strategy for the system of nature conservation areas in Vietnam to 2010. Hanoi, Vietnam (in Vietnamese)..

Vũ Văn Vụ, Vũ Thanh Tâm, Hoàng Minh Tấn. 1998. Sinh lý học thực vật. NXB Giáo dục

WCMC - World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 1992. Development of a national biodiversity index. A discussion paper prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring

Centre, Cambridge, UK.

Wilson, E. O. 1988. Biodiversity. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC

Warming, E. 1895. Plantesamfund – Grundtr æ k af den ø kologiske plantegeografi . –

P. G. Philipsens Forlag.

Wight, J.R. 1976. Range fertilization in the Northern Great Plains. J. Range Manage.

29:180-185

Whitmore, T.C. & J.A. Sayer. 1992. Tropical deforestation and species extinction.

Chapman and Hall, London, UK.

Yin, H., Lai, T., Cheng, X., Jiang, X. & Liu, Q. (2008) Warning effect on growth and physiology of seedling of Betula albo-sinensis and Abies faxoniana under two contrasting light conditions in subalpine coniferous forests of western Sichuan, China. Journal of Plant

Ecology, 32, 1072-1083.

40

APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRES

A. Survey and Questionaires local people

Make a list of question and questionnaire

Name :…………………….. Address : …………………………….

Jobs :………………………………

1. Which is the most important ecological factor that influence on plant diversity?

2. Has the budget for the research on genetic diversity of plant stayed the same, risen or fallen during the last five years?

3. In the few decades ago, have actions have been take in your local, to protect or preserve the plant diversity?

4. What do the local people do in protecting plant diversity from negative impact of ecological factor?

B. Survey and Questionaires local officials

Make a list of question and questionnaire

Name : Address :

Jobs : Position :

1. What do you think about the status of plant diversity in The Nation Park ?

2. Do you know about local people taking forest product and cutting tree?

3. What will you do to improve the conservation of plant diversity?

4. Do you often observe or assess the relationship between environmental factor and plant diversity?

5. Where is mainly focus on rare plant species?

6. What do you think about the policy enacted by the government? Is it good or bad?

If it is good, whether the local authorities can apply those policies for protecting and preserving the plant diversity or not?

7. Can the local government manage and conserve the plant diversity?

41

APPENDIX B:

Table 01: List of high species in Ben En National Park

Common Conservation value No. Families Specific name name IUCN Red Book of Decree 2015 Vietnam 2007 32/2006

Enicosanthellum Nhọc trái Annonaceae LR EN B1+2b,c 1 petelotii (Merr.) khớp lá mác

Ban VU A1a,d, Goniothalamus Màu cau VU A1a 2 B1+2b,c,e macrocalyx Ban trắng

Alternanthera Amaranthaceae Rau rệu LC 3 sessilis (L.) R. Br.

ex Roem. Schefflera EN CR Alc,d, Araliaceae palmiformis Chân chim 4 B1+2c Bl+2b,c. Grushv. et

Skvortsov Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris Sữa LR 5 (L.) R. Br. Holarrhena Hồ liên lá to LC 6 pubescens Wall.

ex G. Don Rauvolfia Ba gạc vòng VU A1a,c 7 verticillata

(Lour.) Baill.* Calamus VU Arecaceae Song mật 8 platyacanthus A1c,d+2c,d

Warb. ex Becc. 9 Livistona saribus Cọ DD

42

(Lour.) Merr. ex A. Chev. Acoraceae Thủy xương LC EN Bl+2b,c 10 Acorus calamus L bồ Acorus gramineus Thạch xương LC 11 Soland. bồ Podophyllum Berberidaceae Bát giác liên EN A1a,c,d 12 tonkinense

Gagnep Markhamia Bignoniaceae stipulata (Wall.) Đinh giả VU B1+2e IIA 13 Seem. ex K.Schum. Cephalotaxacea Cephalotaxus VU A2 VU A1,c,d, IIA 14 Đỉnh tùng e mannii Hook. f. c,d B1+2b,c Cycadaceae Cycas chevalieri Nghèn NT IIA 15 Leandri Cycas immersa VU A2 IIA 16 Tuế chim Craib c,d Cycas balansae Thiên tuế VU Ala,c IIA 17 Warrb Garcinia Clusiaceae Trai lý IIA 18 fagraeoides A.

Chev. Gynostemma Cucurbitaceae Dần toòng EN A1a,c,d 19 pentaphyllum

(Thunb.) Makino Convallariacea Disporopsis Hoàng tinh VU A1c,d IIA 20 e longifolia Craib hoa trắng Ophiopogon Xà bì bắc bộ VU B1 + 2b,c 21 tonkinensis Rodr. Peliosanthes teta Sâm cau VU A1c,d 22 Andr.

43

Polygonatum Hoàng tinh EN A1c,d IIA 23 kingianum CoIl. vòng

& Hemsl. Dipterocarpace Hopea chinensis CR Sao hòn gai 24 ae (Merr.) Hand.- A1cd+2c

Mazz d, C1, D VU Hopea odorata Sao den 25 A1cd+2c Roxb. d Parashorea EN Chò chỉ 26 chinensis H. A1cd,

Wang C2a, D Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus Côm mũi VUB1+2 27 apiculatus Mast. a Cleidiocarpon VU Euphorbiaceae Đen VU B1+2a 28 cavaleriei (Lev.) B1+2c

Airy Shaw Deutzianthus Mọ LR 29 tonkinensis

Gagnep Homonoia riparia Rù rì LC 30 Lour. Fagaceae Castanopsis ferox Cà ổi vọng 31 (Roxb.) Spach phu Castanopsis Dẻ lá đỏ (cà 32 hystrix A. DC. ổi lá đỏ) Castanopsis Cà ổi quả to LR 33 kawakamii

Hayata. Lithocarpus bacgiangensis Dẻ bắc giang 34 (Hickel. & A.

Camus.) A. Camus

44

Lithocarpus Sồi đá lá mác 35 balansae (Drake)

A. Camus Lithocarpus Sồi đá tuyên bonnetii (Hickel 36 quang & A. Camus) A.

Camus Lithocarpus cerebrinus Sồi phảng 37 (Hickel et A. Camus) A. Camus Lithocarpus Dẻ lỗ, Dẻ cau 38 fenestratus

(Roxb.) Rehd. Lithocarpus finetii (Hickel et Dẻ đấu cứng 39 A.Camus) A. Camus Lithocarpus Giẻ bán cầu 40 haemisphericus

(Drake) Barnett Lithocarpus mucronatus Giẻ quả núm 41 (Hickel & A. Camus) A. Camus Lithocarpus Sồi quả vestitus (Hickel et 42 nhung A.Camus)

A.Camus Quercus chrysocalyx Hick. Sồi quang 43 & Cam.

45

Quercus Sồi đĩa 44 platycalyx Hickel

et A.Camus Hydnocarpus Lọ nồi trung VU Flacourtiaceae annamensis 45 bộ A1cd (Gagnep.) Lesch.

et Sleumer Hydnocarpus VU Nang trứng 46 hainanensis A1cd

(Merr.) Sleum Cratoxylum Thành ngạnh Hyperricaceae LR 47 cochinchinense nam

(Lour.) Blume Illiciaceae Illicium difengpi Hồi đá vôi VU B1+2b,c,e 48 B.N. Chang Annamocarya EN Juglandaceae Chò đãi EN B1+2c,d,e 49 sinensis (Dode) J. B1+2c,d,

Leroy e Cinnadenia Lauraceae Kháo xanh LR VU A1 50 paniculata (Hook.

f.) Kost. Cinnamomum Vù hương E A1c,d, VUA1c 51 balansae Lecomte B1 +2c Cinnamomum Re cam bốt VU B1+2b,e 52 cambodianum

Lecomte Cinnamomum Re hương DD CR A1a,c,d 53 parthenoxylon

(Jack) Meissn. Magnoliaceae Michelia balansae Giổi lông DD VU A1c,d 54 Dandy Manglietia dandyi Vàng tâm VU A1c,d 55 (Gagnep.) Dandy

46

Myristicaceae Knema globularia Máu chó lá LR 56 (Lamk.) Warb. nhỏ Knema pierrei Máu chó lá to VU D2 57 Warb. Knema Máu chó bắc VU D2 58 tonkinensis bộ

(Warb.) de Wilde Menispermacea Coscinium Vàng đắng DD IIA 59 e fenestratum

(Gaertn.) Colebr. Fibraurea recisa Hoàng đằng IIA 60 Pierre Fibraurea Hoàng Đằng IIA 61 tinctoria Lour. Stephania Cam thảo, IIA 62 hernandiifolia dây muối

(Wild.) Spreng. Stephania Dây lõi tiền IIA 63 japonica (Thunb.)

Miers. Stephania pierrei Bình vôi IIA 64 Diels trắng Myrsinaceae Ardisia silvestris Cơn nguội VU 65 Pit. rừng, Khôi A1a,c,d+2d Aglaia perviridis Gội xanh VU A1c 66 Hiern. Chukrasia Lát hoa LR VU

tabularis A. Juss A1a,c,d+2d Orchidaceae Anoectochilus Kim tuyến đá EN A1d IA 67 calcareus Aver. vôi Anoectochilus Giải thùy tím IIA 68 elwesii

(C.B.Clarke ex

47

Hook.f.) King & Pantl. Anoectochilus Lan kim EN A1a,c,d IIA 69 setaceus Blume tuyến Dendrobium Ngọc vạn EN B1+2e+3d 70 chrysanthum vàng

Lindl. Dendrobium Hoàng thảo 71 dentatum Seidenf. răng Dendrobium Kim diệp VU B1+2e+3d 72 fimbriatum Hook.

f . Dendrobium Thạch hộc, EN B1+2b,c,e IIA 73 nobile Lindl. Hoàng thảo Nervilia aragoana Chân trâu VU B1+2b,c,e IIA 74 Gaudich. in Freyc xanh Nervilia plicata Chân trâu xếp IIA 75 (Andr.) Schlechter Paphiopedilum VU B2 Tiên hài, Lan VU hirsutissimum a,b (II, IA 76 hài lông A1c,d+A2d (Lindl. ex Hook.) III, V)

Stein Paphiopedilum Lan hài, EN Ala,c,d+2d IA 77 malipoense var. Thạch lan lá

hiepii (Aver.) dài Zeuxine Ty trụ LC 78 strateumatica (L.)

Schlechter Polypodiaceae Colysis pteropus Ráng vi quần LC 79 (Bl.) Capel. chân có cánh Drynaria bonii H. Tắc kè đá VU A1a,c,d 80 Christ 81 Drynaria fortunei Cốt toái bổ EN A1,c,d

48

(Kuntze ex Mett.) J. Sm. Phymatosorus Ráng thư VU A1a,c,d 82 nigrescens hàng đen

(Blume) Pic. Serm Pinus VU A1a,c,d, Pinaceae Thông Pà Cò NT IA 83 kwangtungensis B1+2b,c,e

Chun ex Tsiang. Dacrycarpus Thông nàng, Podocarpaceae LR 84 imbricatus Bạch tùng

(Blume) de Laub. Kim giao, Nageia fleuryi NT 85 Kim giao đá (Hickel) de Laub. vôi Nageia Kim giao núi LR 86 wallichiana (C. đất

Presl) Kuntze. Podocarpus Thông tre lá LR 87 neriifolius D.Don. dài Fallopia Polygonaceae Hà thủ ô đỏ VU A1a,c,d 88 multiflora

(Thunb.) Hardison Amesiodendron Sapindaceae Trường mật LR 89 chinense (Merr.)

Hu Smilacaceae Smilax petelotii T. Kim cang CR B2b, 3d 90 Koyama petelot Madhuca VU Sapotaceae Sến mật EN A1a,c,d 91 pasquieri H.J. A1cd

Lam Amentotaxus Dẻ tùng vân Taxaceae EN A1c 92 yunnanensis H. L. nam

Li.

49

Taxus chinensis Thông đỏ bắc EN A2 d VU A1a,c, IIA 93 Pilger B1+2b,c Tiliaceae Colona poilanei Bồ an LR 94 Gagnep .Excentrodendron EN A1a- tonkinensis Nghiến EN A1d IIA 95 d+2c,d (Gagnep.) Chiang

& Miau. Trọng nâu Trilliaceae Paris polyphylla EN A1c,d 96 nhiều lá Smith

APPENDIX C: PICTURES

50