The Case of Gdańsk in the Baltic Sea Region in Early Modern Times

Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk

Bridging the Baltic - The Case of Gdańsk in the Baltic Sea Region in Early Modern Times

Michał Salamonik

head of School: Martin Wottle supervisor: Heiko Droste

Södertörn University

The School of Historical and Contemporary Studies / Historical Department

PhD in History (expected graduation date: 09.2016) [email protected]

Stockholm 2013

1 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk

I. INTRODUCTION

This Citty [Danzig] exceeds (I) in trafficke, (2) plenty, (3) voluptuousnesse, (4) pride, (5) arts. (I) For trafficke: wittnesse Near 200000 tonnes of Corne, besides other commodities brought yearly down out of Poland (…) (2) For Plenty: see their Marketts (…) with Flesh, Fish, Chace, Wildffoule, Fruits, herbes, rootes, etts., such store, such variety and Soe Cheape (…) that I have yet seene. (3) Their voluptousnesse: Manifested in their banketts, Meales (…) long Sittings, especially att Weddings, which is commonly 5, 6 and 7 hours att a dinner, their drincking answearable by Men. (…) (4) Their pride: chiefly in their Apparell, not to bee paralleled, especially by the yonger Sort (…) (5) And lastly, For arts and Sciences: their artificiall Clocke tower and Chimes the best I have yett seene (…).1

In those words Peter Mundy (1600-1667), an English merchant and traveller, presented the city of Gdańsk (Danzig)2 in his Travels3. During his seven-year residence in Gdańsk (from 1641 to 1647), Mundy described in detail various aspects of the city and its inhabitants.4 Consequently, his description became one of the most valuable and unique publications of the 17th century, but it is still not well-known, as stated by T. Zarębska.5 What were Mundy’s impressions and reflections during his stay in the city? – this paper will be governed by this perspective.

Gdańsk, one of the Baltic Sea’s foremost harbour cities, played a significant role in connecting the North with South, the West with East through out its entire history. This city was also a bridge between the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean World. On the threshold of the modern times, Gdańsk became an asylum for hundreds of refugees. The city can be briefly characterised by the Hanseatic architecture, rich traditions of merchant trade and the water – the Baltic Sea and rivers – Motława (Mottlau) and Wisła (Vistula). Those elements strongly influenced the creation of the modern cityscape and they are directly connected with other factors, such as religious tolerance or preserving

1 Ibidem, pp. 214-215.[The bold font of the first line by the author] 2 In this paper, the Polish name of the city of Gdańsk will be used. Other forms such as Danzig, Gedanum, Dantzick or similar, which occur in the sources and in the secondary literature, will be given in their original forms. The rule refers mainly to quotations. 3 P. Mundy, The Travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608-1667, vol. IV, Travels in Europe, 1639-1647, ed. R. C. Temple, London 1925; (http://archive.org/stream/travelspetermun00mundgoog#page/n12/mode/2up; 14-05-2013). The descriptions of his travels were written mostly by a clerk, but with corrections by Mundy, while illustrations were made by Mundy himself. Information about P. Mundy comes from Dictionary of National Biography ed. S. Lee, vol. 39: Morehead-Myles, London 1894, p. 303. 4 He has to leave the city due to the Civil War in England: Having spent almost 7 yeares tyme in this place and to and Fro, much of it much against my will, yet Neverthelesse with an ill will must I leave the place, by reason of the troubles in England which were not yet stilled. However, occasiones compelled Mee to leave those parts and retire home (P. Mundy, op. cit., p. 219). 5 Compare with the statement by T. Zarębska during the discussion on the role of merchants in the political sphere, MG, pp. 187-193. 2 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk of city’s neutrality. Those in turn affected the development of the multicultural metropolitan area on the Baltic Sea’s south coast. The overall aim of this paper is to present the role of the city of Gdańsk in the Baltic Sea Region in early modern times. The study will consider some lines of the city’s development on the basis of the contemporary art, cartographical and written sources and the secondary literature as well. The paper focuses mainly on the political, commercial, communicative and religious aspects of urban development. Moreover, the description and analysis of the historical processes expressed above can contribute to the perception of the city as a patria for its inhabitants. Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Gdańsk in the Baltic Sea Region in Early Modern Times intends to shed light on the local and transnational role of Gdańsk.

a. Research questions

The focus of this article lies in the question how, rather than why, the location of Gdańsk on the Baltic coast influenced its growth. The location of the city is understood not only as geographical position or political affiliation, but also the role of a node in the communication, trade, culture and religion. In other words, the conditional factors, which caused geopolitical position of this city, will be searched for. The main research questions are as follows: what role did Gdańsk play in the Baltic Sea Region, and what the meaning of the seaas a boundary area was in general in early modern times. The overview of the various aspects of city daily life is necessary in order to answer the aforementioned questions. That is why the main issues as demographic, social, economical, religious and political conditions will be analysed. The scale of processes taking place in this city can significantly contribute to understanding how the Baltic Area looked like in early modern times, and it can lead to the comparison with other parts of the world as well.

b. Time frame

In the historiography of the city of Gdańsk, the period from 1466 to 1655 is usually called its Golden Age (Danzigs Goldenes Zeitalter), thereby indicates its early modern character.6 The dynamic growth, the influences of the Reformation and information revolution can be observed during this period, which symbolizes the transformation from a medieval cityscape to an early modern harbour municipality. The beginning of this period is connected with the Second Peace Treaty of Thorn (1466), which ended the Thirteen Years’ War, and then the Royal Prussia together with Gdańsk came under the rule of the Polish king, while the year 1655 is marked by the Swedish - Polish war called commonly as the Swedish Deluge (potop in Polish historiography and Karl X Gustavs polska krig in Swedish historiography). This war devastated Polish-Lithuanian agriculture and at the same time

6 Cf. the terminology and the division of Gdańsk’s history into periods: E. Cieślak, C. Biernat, History of Gdańsk, Gdańsk 1995.; P.O. Loew, Danzig, Biographie einer Stadt, München 2011. 3 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk weakened the dynamism of Gdańsk’s trade; therefore the Deluge is very often associated with the end of the city’s Golden Age. However, even the second part of the 17th century can be described as a good period in the city’s development caused by rebuilding of the war-damaged infrastructure. That is why the great period of the city can be estimated as lasting from the mid-15th to the end of the 17th century.

c. Primary sources

The overall aim of this paper is to present the processes occurring in early modern Gdańsk in the Baltic Sea Region. Gdańsk as a bridge requires some analysis of the city’s location and architecture and the contemporary realities. For this purpose, some of the cartographic and art sources will be discussed, mainly Carta Marina by Olaus Magnus, originally composed during Magnus’s stay in Gdańsk7, ceiling paintings by Izaak van den Blocke in the Gdańsk’s main city hall8 and lithographic illustrations contained in Der Stadt Dantzig historische Beschreibung9 by Georg Reinhold Curicken. The description over the contemporary city will be based on the written records by Peter Mundy in The Travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608-1667.

d. Secondary sources

The literature of the subject is quite extensive and it concerns both Polish and German historiography. There are a lot of publications which deal with the history of Gdańsk, however it should be highlighted that its history became often a subject of spreading and deepening of Polish and German antagonisms. This kind of historical writing prevailed in historiography mostly before and after the Second World War. In spite of this, in the last decennia historians have attempted to analyse the common history in a more objective way. The most comprehensive work on the Gdańsk’s history is available in five volumes of Historia Gdańska.10 In 1988, a one-volume English version based on his previous work in Polish was published by E. Cieślak.11 The history of Gdańsk was

7 [Carta Marina] [Cartographical material] opus Olai Magni Gotti Licopensis; ex typis Antonii Lafreri Seguani, Rom 1572; (http://ds.kb.se/?mapp=5&fil=kartor/CartaMarina1572_auto; 14-05-2013). Firtsly printed in Venice in 1539. 8 See reproductions ceiling paintings by Izaak van den Blocke in: T. Zarębska, Budowle i urządzenia komunalne Gdańska w jego złotym wieku, Mieszczaństwo Gdańskie [hereinafter referred to as MG], Sesja Naukowa 21/23.11.1996, ed. S. Salmonowicz, Gdańsk 1997, p. 345.; Braunburg R., Engler M., Danzig, das Werder und die Kaschubische Schweiz, Hamburg 1990, pp. 24-25. 9 G. R. Curicke, Der Stadt Dantzig historische Beschreibung [...]/ Verfasset und zusamen getragen durch Reinhold Curicken [...]: Unitzo aber mit sonderbahrem Fleiss, nebst vielen dazu gehörigen Kupferstücken in offentlichen Druck aussgegeben [...], Amsterdam und Dantzig 1687; (http://pbc.gda.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=10164&from=FBC; 14-05-2013). 10 Historia Gdańska, vol . 1-5, ed. E. Cieślak, Gdańsk 1978-1998; Mainly: vol . 3, part 1, [hereinafter referred to as HG3/1], ed. E. Cieślak, Gdańsk 1993. 11 In this article the second edition from 1995 will be used, E. Cieślak, C. Biernat, op. cit.

4 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk also compiled lately by P.O. Loew.12 The publication by C. Tighe13 is an example of research on the national identity of Gdańsk and of T. Urban14 on its common German - Polish history. A set of articles on various issues connected with the merchant class and its activity in early modern Gdańsk is included in a conference book edited by S. Salmonowicz.15 Other processes and factors such as trade, demographic transformation, climate change, communication, religion and the city’s status will be based on the relevant studies by: M. Bogucka16, J. Miller17, A. Wyrobisz18, C. I. Millar and W. B. Woolfenden19, G. Schüler20, L. Zimowski21, K. Lenartowicz22 and H. Saarinen23.

e. Structure

The article is divided into six parts. The first one deals mainly with the geopolitical aspects of the location of Gdańsk, but also provides an analysis of the city’s demographic situation and climate in early modern times. The second one describes the city’s trade and shipping. In the next part, internal and external policy as well as the status in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth are discussed, while communication is considered in the fourth part. The fifth one examines some religious and social issues, while the sixth one is a review of the culture and mentality of Gdańsk’s inhabitants. The article ends with the theoretical discussion on the concept of the Baltic Sea Region and on the application of the multi-disciplinary approach in urban studies by way of Gdańsk. The discussion will be mostly based on publications by F. Braudel24, and K. Gerner and K. G. Karlsson25.

12 P. O. Loew, op. cit. 13 C. Tighe, Gdansk, National Identity in the Polish-German Borderlands, London 1990. 14 T. Urban, Von Krakau bis Danzig, Eine Reise durch die deutsch-polnische Geschichte, München 2000. 15 MG. 16 Baltic Commerce and Urban Society, 1500 – 1700, Gdańsk/Danzig and its Polish Context, ed. M. Bogucka, Aldershot 2003. 17 J. Miller, Urban Societies in East-Central Europe, 1500-1700, Abingdon 2008. 18 A. Wyrobisz, Small towns in the 16th and 17th-century Poland,Acta Poloniae Historica, vol. 34 (1976), pp. 153-163.; Idem, Power and Towns in the Polish Gentry Commonwealth: The Polish-Lithuanian State in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, Theory and society, col. 18 (5:1989), pp. 611-630.; Idem, The economic situation in Poland in the second half of the 17th century: post-war rebuilding or reconstruction?, Economy and culture in the Baltic 1650-1700 ed. S.-O. Lindquist, Acta Visbyensia, vol. 8 (1989), pp. 41-58.; Idem, Typy funkcjonalne miast polskich w XVI-XVIII w., Przegląd Historyczny, vol. 69 (1978), pp. 25-49. 19 C. I. Millar, W. B. Woolfenden, The Role of Climate Change in Interpreting Historical Variability, Ecological Applications, vol. 9 (4:1999), pp. 1207-1216. 20 G. Schüler, Danzigs Postgeschichte und Poststempel, Hamburg 1913. 21 L. Zimowski, Geneza i rozwój komunikacji pocztowej na ziemiach polskich, Warszawa 1972. 22 K. Lenartowicz, Historia królewskiej poczty w Gdańsku od r. 1654 do 1793, Gdańsk 1924. 23 H. Saarinen, Bürgerstadt und absoluter Kriegsherr, Danzig und Karl XII. im Nordischen Krieg, Helsinki 1996. 24 F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. I-II, New York 1976. 25 Gerner K., Karlsson K.-G., Nordens Medelhav, Östersjöområdet som historia, myt och projekt, Stockholm 2002. 5 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk

The paper indicates a series of historical processes over a certain periods of time and space in a long- term perspective (la longue durée, Braudel). It is mostly a critical analysis of the primary sources and a discussion of the secondary sources.

II. GEOPOLITICAL LOCATIZATION

The Citty of Dantzigk is in the Province of Pomerella, reckoned under the Crowne of Poland,

reckoned also in Prussia(…) this place [Gdańsk] with suburbs may conteyn as many as London

with suburbs, and as many as Amsterdam: For in a healthy tyme, voide off any contagion or

Noted sicknesse, there dye in London about 200 persons; att Amsterdam about 100; and here

about 50: somwhatt More or lesse. Itt lyeth in the latitude of 54 degrees [54° 21´] North: very

hard winters (alllthough the colder and harder accompted the better wholesome) and very hot som part off the summer.26

The above-quoted passage of Travels by Peter Mundy begins his description of Gdańsk. In spite of its short and brief character, it refers to various factors such as the geographical and regional specification, the political affiliation, the population statistic, the mortality rate, the coordinates of location and the depiction of climate as well.

The city of Gdańsk is situated in the Eastern part of the geographic Pomeranian region (Pommern), in the ethnographic Kashubian region (die Kaschubei), and also in the historical Royal Prussia (Königliches-Preußen).27 The comparison to London and Amsterdam, some of the biggest European cities in the 17th century, testifies Mundy’s knowledge about the land areas of those cities with their suburbs. J. Miller estimated the population of Gdańsk in early modern times as 30,000 inhabitants in the years 1500-1530, and then 40,000 (1550-1580), 50,000-52,400 (1600) and 67,600-70,000 (1650).28 The number of Gdańsk’s inhabitants in the mid-17th century is a frequently discussed topic in the historical debates and publications.29 J. Stankiewicz indicates the lower population amount based on the mortality criterion (approx. 60,000 inhabitants in the mid-17th century) and on the housing criterion (approx. 40,000 inhabitants, after 1660).30 According to the last demographic index, the population of Gdańsk at the end of the 17th century can be estimated at the level of 55,000

26 Ibidem, pp. 167-168; the title of this part of the 35th relation is Dantzigk: its comparison with London. 27 The political status of the city will be discussed in the next part of the article – Internal and External Policy. 28 See, J. Miller, op. cit., p. 26. Table 2.3 presents an estimated amount of the population in the cities within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. 29 See for example: P. Mundy, op. cit., p.167, (note 3).; M. Bogucka, O mentalności mieszkańca Gdańska u progu ery nowożytnej, MG, p. 213. 30 J. Stankiewicz, Przemiany przestrzenne i demograficzne Gdańska, HG, vol. 3, pp. 32-33. 6 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk inhabitants.31 However, it should be highlighted that those estimates combine data only for the city itself, without its suburbs. In spite of the fact that the exact amount of people living outside the city’s walls remains unknown, it may concern a few extra thousand people.

It is necessary to pay close attention to the suburbs mentioned by Mundy. In early modern times, the tendency of expansion of rural and peri-urban areas can be observed. Acquisition of land became a very popular form of investing money among merchants. In the 17th century, almost 50% of patricians serving in the City Council possessed land estates, while in the 15th century – only 8%.32 This process was connected not only with farming and cattle breeding, but also with building of their own residences. Moreover, rural areas were located in the suburbs, inhabited mostly by Polish, Jewish, Scottish and Mennonite minorities. Such areas as Siedlce (Schidlitz), Stare Szkoty (Altschottland), Orunia (Ohra) or Biskupia Górka (Bischofsberg) were held by religious orders such as Carmelites, Bridgettines or Dominicans, and at the same time under the sovereignty of the bishops of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Włocławek.33 It should be highlighted that Oliwa (Oliva) functioned then as the Polish district of Gdańsk’s metropolitan area.34

Mundy’s climate description contains some comparison of Prussia to India:

These parts [Prussia] in som perticulers may bee compared to some parts off India, although Farre distant and much differing in temperature off the aire, conditiones off the people, etts. For as there, if shippes take nott their opportunity to com away with the Monsoone are deteyned certayne monthes, Soe here likewise, if shippes get nott away in tyme are Frozen uppe until spring, in which interim No trading by Sea by reason off Ice, as att Suratt [city in Western India, Arabic Sea] [and] thereabouts in tyme off raynes, For stormes and currants. As there the Trees are greene all the Yeare (…) Cattle can hardly com by Fodder in the Fields by reason off heatt and drought; Soe here, through cold weather (…)35

It also contains his memories on rafting on the river Wisła from Warsaw to Gdańsk: They had som reason for their delay, viz., much wind, cold hard weather(…)36 It needs to be added that he returned from Warsaw in mid-April. All of the quoted fragments indicate harsh winters and their influence on the trading possibilities on the open Sea and on rafting goods on the rivers. Approximately one

31 Ibidem, p. 33. 32 M. Gawlicki, Podmiejskie dwory mieszczan gdańskich od XVI do XVIII wieku, MG, p. 67-69. 33 J. Trzoska, Walka cechów gdańskich z partaczami w XVII-XVIII wieku, MG, p. 35ff; More information on the religious partition of Gdańsk and its suburbs in the 6th part – Religion and Society. 34 About foundation of the Cistercian abbey in Oliwa and its role in the region and in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, see for example: E. Cieślak, C. Biernat, op. cit., pp. 40, 157-158, 214-220. 35 P. Mundy,op. cit., p. 188. 36 Ibidem, p. 208. 7 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk hundred years earlier, Olaus Magnus also depicted frozen Southern and Northern parts of the Baltic Sea in his Carta.37 This phenomenon is linked with the cooler period, better known as the Little Ice Age, which occurred in early modern times.38 Mundy considered forests being green all year round and the situation of cattle breeding as similar issues for both West-Indian and Prussian coasts.

The description of the geopolitical location, climate and demographic index are fundamental for the following parts of the paper focused on several other issues that early modern Gdańsk dealt with.

III. TRADE AND SHIPPING

The Mayne trade or trafficke here is For graine, as wheat, barly, Rye (off the last Most), and divers other brought downe the River Wissell [Vistula] in great Flatt-bottomed lighters called Canes, off which sometimes 1500 or 2000 att once ly Neare the Citty and May have (…) By report above 160000 tonnes off Corne is shipped From hence every Summer. (…)39

The above-quoted passage from Peter Mundy’s account on Gdańsk describes the city’s trade and rafting of goods on the river Wisła. It also includes a list of the main commodities and provides the amounts of grain marketed by the city. Moreover, Mundy pays particular attention to the kind, size and number of boats used to transport grain from the hinterland to the harbour. The specific amount of tons of grain, given by Mundy, needs to be confronted with other sources. According to the Sound’s declarations of the exported grain for the year 1649, it can be noted that more than 99000 and 87000 lasts crossed Sound, what means exporting of more than 200,000 tons in each period.40 The amount of grain exported to the other Baltic harbours was approximately the same as that sent by Sound. In early modern times, Gdańsk became the most important player on the grain market in the Baltic Sea Region. To compare with other Baltic cities, only controlled by Brandenburg-Prussia - Köningsberg (Królewiec) exceeded more than 10% of Gdańsk’s export in the first part of the 17th century.41 It has to be highlighted that rafting of grain was usually possible twice a year, namely after the spring thaw in April/May and after harvesting of grains at the beginning of autumn. Consequently, shipping depended on the weather conditions, the water level and the length of the summer period. It is worth mentioning here that at the turn of the 16th century, Gdańsk became the European granary because of bad weather conditions in other parts of Europe and the Dutch re- export as well.42 The history of commerce in early modern times is inevitably linked to the Hanseatic League and with the Dutch dominance in trade and shipping. Gdańsk was Amsterdam’s most

37 See Carta Marina. 38 About the Little Ice Age and its influences: C. I. Millar, W. B. Woolfenden, op. cit., p. 1209. 39 P. Mundy, op. cit., p. 182. 40 Compare to E. Cieślak, C. Biernat, op. cit., p. 110. 41 Ibidem, pp. 110-111. 42 Ibidem, pp. 111-112. 8 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk important partner in the Baltic trade as evidenced by the amount of freight contracts – 53.3% of the whole commerce. Riga was ranked second with 20.5%, and Köningsberg third - with 5.4%.43

Here is the staple [market] For Corne44, as Coninxberg [Köningsberg] For wood-comodity, as wainescott, Clapboard, etts. Greatt store of other commodities is allsoe brought downe From Poland, as potashes, Flax, hempe, etts.45

Mundy pointed out that, apart from grain, potash, flax and hemp were the main export commodities of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but what were goods imported from other countries? The most requested commodities imported by Gdańsk were salt (mainly from France) and wine (France/Portugal). Moreover, other goods as paper, textiles, glass and iron (mostly in bars) were imported to the city.46 Iron bars were the main imports of Gdańsk from Stockholm, while the Swedish capital imported mostly grain and rye. Moreover, Gdańsk was one of the major Baltic partners of Stockholm at that time and gave way only to Dutch Ports, Lübeck and Portugal (import) and Dutch Ports and Lübeck (export).47

The abovementioned outline of the Northern and Baltic commerce indicates the bridging role of Gdańsk in trade and shipping in the region. The harbour transferred the majority of raw commodities, with prevailing grain, from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its southern neighbours as Moldavia and Wallachia. Owing to the city’s location on the southern Baltic coast, Gdańsk became a leader of trade and the Polish window to the world. The influence of the Hanseatic League dominated by the Dutch is mainly visible in the shipping of goods. Dutch ships provided for 62% of all Baltic transport in the first half of the 17th century, and 44% in the second part.48 However, the continuous dominance of the Dutch shipping during early modern times has to be highlighted. The monopoly of the Netherlands in shipping and trade weakened the role of the Hanseatic League conceived as an association of the cities situated around the Northern and Baltic Seas. This process, together with Swedish imperialistic policy, development of European agriculture and colonial plantations is often perceived in the historiography as a weakening of Gdańsk’s role in the region’s commerce and, in other words, as the end of its Golden Age.49 It is worth mentioning that Gdańsk participated in the Hanseatic League’s meetings until the last one held in 1669.

43 See Table 1, M. Bogucka, Amsterdam and the Baltic in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century, BC, p. 434. 44 Grain market became the most important for Gdańsk and the most common raw commodity exported from its harbour, see for example: T. Urban, op. cit., p. 277. 45 P. Mundy, op. cit., p. 183. 46 Compare with E. Cieślak, C. Biernat, op. cit., pp. 113-114.; M. Bogucka, Some Aspects of Commercial Relations within the Baltic Region on the Example of Gdańsk-Stockholm Trade in 1643, BC, pp. 113-114. 47 See Table B, M. Bogucka, op. cit., p. 111. 48 E. Cieślak, C. Biernat, op. cit., p. 61. 49 Compare with, Ibidem, pp. 59ff. 9 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk

To sum up, Gdańsk in early modern times was the leader in the Baltic trade owing to the city’s monopoly on selling commodities (mainly grain) from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In other words, the bridging or intermediary role of the city is visible through the city’s economic contacts and relations both in the Baltic and Northern Sea’s trade. This tendency concerns almost the whole period in question, however, the changes in the market situation accompanied by peripheralization of the Baltic commerce at the end of 17th century negatively influenced the city’s development. It has to be underscored that the city’s trade determined city’s internal and external policy. That is why the answers to the following questions will be searched for in the next section: What was Gdańsk’s status in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth? How did its internal and external policy look like?

IV. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL POLICY

In early modern times, the city of Gdańsk, as Mundy rightly pointed out, was ruled by the Polish Crown. The Polish period began in 1466 (1569) and ended in 1793 when Gdańsk was incorporated into Prussia (understood as a kingdom not as a geographical region).50 The beginning of this period also has to be clarified. The Treaty of the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 incorporated the Royal Prussia into the Polish Crown, but as an autonomous region. However, the year 1569 is a starting point for the Union of Lublin, when the real union between the Polish Crown and the Duchy of Lithuania was established (until this moment it was a personal union – since 1385). Then the Royal Prussia, with its biggest cities – Gdańsk, Elbląg (Elbing) and Toruń (Thorn), came under the administration and jurisdiction of Poland-Lithuania.51

In the 16th century, a stable growth of the city and its suburbs took place. This situation, in conjunction with the guilds’ system and the City Council’s policy, became one of the biggest issues of the early modern Gdańsk. There was a visible tendency of settling down of several minorities as Mennonities, Scotish immigrants and Polish Jews in the suburbs. The reason of this process can be found in the City Council’s policy which forbade them, especially Jews, to reside within the city. This interdict was often breached, sometimes even by the City Council. Craftsmen associated in guilds (for instance carpenters, brewers, amber jewellers and goldsmiths) were concerned by the common illegal production and sale of goods at lower prices. It has to be highlighted that craftsmen were represented in the City Council (the Third Order), however, their participation was often limited by rich merchants who wanted to buy trade goods cheaper than those proposed by guilds. Therefore,

50 C. Tighe gives a full list of years of possession of the city – he points out that it was 675 years under Polish sovereignty, 275 years under German and functioned as a Free City for 29 years; Polish periods were 960-1308 and 1466-1793, German periods – 1308-1466 (Teutonic Knights), 1793 – 1806 and 1815-1919 (Prussia) and the Free City’s periods were 1806-1815 and 1919-1939. Tighe ends his list before the 2nd World War. C. Tighe, op. cit., p. XV. 51 Compare with HG3/1, pp. 147ff. 10 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk craftsmen frequently asked the Polish kings and nobles to mediate in the Council for their exclusive rights to produce goods in the city. The complaints to the suzerains of the city (Polish kings) remained without any effect because of the kings’ dependence on the Council’s money given for military purposes.52 In that manner the internal issues were connected with Gdańsk’s external policy and its position in the Commonwealth. This aspect in turn combines with the transnational political contacts, mainly within the Baltic Sea Region.

Concordia res publicæ parvæ crescent – discordia magnæ concidunt [In harmony small republics grow – in discord great [ones] collapse]53 – this inscription was placed on the wall of Gdańsk Golden Gate erected in 1612- 1614 by Abraham van den Blocke. It both emphasised the quasi-independent city’s status as a small republic within the Commonwealth and included a warning of conflicts and disagreements that can be associated with the wars fought between Poland-Lithuania and Sweden and Russia at the turn of the 16th century. However, it needs to be stressed that the neutral attitude of Gdańsk was impossible because of the duties to the Polish monarchs. Therefore, the city was obliged to provide financial support for military actions, e.g. during the Swedish-Polish war (1655-1660). Then the post-war city’s costs amounted to over 5,000,000 florins. This amount was never given back to the city as it was promised by the Polish king, John II Casimir Vasa. The fact that such agreement took place was probably caused by the city’s negotiations with the Swedish king, Charles X Gustav.54 In spite of such negotiations, the city continued to be loyal to the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth during early modern times. However, it is worth mentioning that the City Council of Gdańsk pursued its own policy all the time and directed the relations with the Polish monarchs itself. Furthermore, Gdańsk possessed special rights to influence the Commonwealth’s economic policy owing to its representations both at the regional level (the Royal Prussia’s Council) and at the general one (Seym). The city had its representatives and messengers at the Royal Court, firstly in Cracow and later in Warsaw. Apart from the biggest Prussian cities, only Cracow and later Vilnius (Wilno) and Lviv (Lwów) enjoyed such privileges.55

The status of the city and its involvement in the political issues of the Royal Prussia and the Commonwealth show the great role of the city in the region. It was correlated with both military actions on the sea and the defence of the coastline, resulting in the enlargement of the city’s fortifications and development of the infrastructure at that time. Therefore the bridging role of the city cannot be seen only by the prism of its neutrality but by involvement of the city’s business in

52 Compare to J. Trzoska, op. cit., pp. 35-49.; E. Cieślak, C. Biernat, op. cit., pp. 131-140. 53 Translation by the author. 54 About Gdańsk’s participation in the conflicts and wars, see for example: Ibidem, pp.154-161, 212-219. 55 W. Szczuczko, Rola Gdańska w reprezentacji stanowej i parlamentranej Prus Królewskich od połowy XV do połowy XVII wieku, MG, pp. 119-121. 11 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk peace and war time. The high level of political commitment at the local and general level should be also highlighted as the form of connecting the city’s and the state interests.

Finally, it has to be mentioned that the city’s trade relations as well as its internal and external policy were directly linked with the development of communications infrastructure in the Baltic Sea Region. That is why the questions: what were the main channels of information flow in Gdańsk at that time, how postal tracks were established and what was the merchant’s impact in their creation, are in the core of the next part of the paper.

V. COMMUNICATION

Apart from the water transport by rivers and seas, as mentioned in the previous section, the road transport became more significant for postal network of the main European urban centres in the Late Middle Ages. However, it must be pointed out that the cities itself organized and financed such communications network by land. Gdańsk provided its own service of carriage and delivery of letters and even transportation of goods by post in the 14th/15th century. The service was carried out by foot messengers who often rode horses to deliver faster. K. Lenartowicz depicted the end of the 15th century as the moment of creation and systematization of permanent postal communication between the Hanseatic cities.56 By that means, the urban network was established and connected the main nodes such as Amsterdam, Hamburg, Lübeck, Gdańsk and Riga with the smaller cities, e.g. Rostock, Szczecin (Stettin) or Köningsberg. Through this network, Gdańsk was linked with its Western and Eastern trade partners. Approximately one hundred years later, the city became a part of a similar network within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Owing to the last one, Gdańsk gained connections with Toruń, Poznań (Posen) and Wrocław (Breslau), and later with Warsaw and Cracow.57

The year 1654 was the turning point in the city’s communication because of putting Gdańsk postal office under the jurisdiction of Polish monarchs. The City Council itself asked the king for help in the conflict with the Electorate of Brandeburg-Prussia. The Electorate sought to overtake all postal tracks in the Royal Prussia and Pomerania. It is worth mentioning that this conflict almost led to a war between the contending parties. However, it ended by moving the Brandenburgian postal office outside the city and resulted in the sovereignty of the Polish post master over Gdańsk’s office.58 Thus, it became the second royal postal office – along with Cracow – in the Polish-Lithuanian

56 The beginning of the communication system is dated on the 14th century when Gdańsk was one of the main cities under the control of the Teutonic Order, and 15th century when Gdańsk became a more active member of the Hanseatic League. See: K. Lenartowicz, op. cit., p. 3; K. Maliszewski, Gdańsk jako ośrodek transferu informacji i komunikacji społecznej w Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej w XVII-XVIII wieku, MG, p. 223. 57 Compare with K. Lenartowicz, op. cit., p. 4. 58 About the reasons and the results of the postal conflict see: Ibidem, pp. 5-18. 12 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk

Commonwealth. The establishment of both – Brandenburgian and Polish postal systems can be observed even by the above-described conflict. In the 17th century, the private (very often merchant) communication network began to be replaced by the national well-organized postal systems.59 This process is very often associated with other aspects, such as the development of the press service, the emergence of new publishing houses and the increasing news demand among the society. Consequently, the question – what did the information flow in Gdańsk look like? – is crucial one for the analysis of the bridging role of the city.

K. Maliszewski describes the role of Gdańsk in the information flow as an autonomic postal system with the city’s own connections and, on the other hand, as a postal node – the place of exchange of news between the Western and the Eastern part of Europe.60 The great importance of Gdańsk in the region’s communication implied from the trade, shipping, policy and religion – namely dozens of travellers, ecclesiastical authorities, residents and deputies of foreign states visited and settled down in the city.61 This in turn resulted in the increasing news demand. K. Maliszewski pays particular attention to this kind of information flow. He distinguishes two ways of news transmission in early modern cities – the internal way (private and official correspondence) and the external way (public press). It needs to be added that the first one was reserved to the City Council and city authorities, while the other had an open character and was addressed to the merchant society.62 In the 17th century, there were two publishing houses in the city and one outside (in Oliwa) which printed mostly historical, law and religious books, but also newspapers and journals.63 Wöchentliche Zeitung aus mancherlei Orter (1619-1642) was the first periodical newspaper in Gdańsk.64 In the next decades, a few other newspapers containing news obtained via postal communication were published in the city.65 In order to present the complexity of information flow in Gdańsk, it is necessary to describe the meeting places . Cafés and tea houses emerged around the year 1700, but such meeting places can be founded in the city even earlier – pubs. Peter Mundy described the Artus Court (Junkerhof) as a gathering place and its common use: (…) the Yuncker Hoffe (…) serving For publicke use and meetings (…) and For Feasting and Drincking as aforesaid openly don, there being benches round aboutt, where sitt sundry companies off all degrees, which have drinck (…) Dantzker

59 Information about establishment of i.a. Brandenburgian, Scandinavian and Spanish national postal systems, see for example: L. Zimowski, op. cit., pp. 44ff. 60 K. Maliszewski, op. cit., p. 224. 61 Ibidem 62 Ibidem, p. 225. 63 Compare with 18th century’s situation, see: E. Kotarski, Zaplecze instytucjonalne kultury literackiej osiemnstowiecznego Gdańska, MG, p. 247ff. 64 K. Maliszewski, op. cit., p. 228. 65 One on the basis of news from Wrocław; the second one from Szczecin and the last one including news from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, see: Ibidem, p. 229. 13 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk beer (…).66Mundy also describes this place as [the] house of good Fellowshippe.67 This description of the role of the Artus Court seems to mean that burghers who met there probably read newspapers and discussed them with the others over a pint of Gdańsk beer.

To conclude, Gdańsk was one of the main communication nodes in the Baltic Sea Region which transmitted news from Russia and Poland-Lithuania to the Western part of Europe. The development of postal tracks enabled press service and development of publishing houses. In early modern Gdańsk, some common meeting places functioned (as the Artus Court), in which discussions on the contemporary issues probably took place. It is worth mentioning that, the city has gained access to both – Prussian and Polish communication systems in spite of the postal conflicts between Brandeburg-Prussia and Poland-Lithuania in the 17th century. To sum up, the bridging role of the city is visible in its involvement in the communication system owing to which Gdańsk became a connecting point not only for the Baltic Sea Region but for the whole Europe. Apart from the residents and foreign agents, Gdańsk became a destination for religious immigrants. That is why the role of religion and social issues will be discussed in the next chapter.

VI. RELIGION AND SOCIETY

For their religion, here[in Gdańsk] are Lutherans, papists and Calvinists, the First being a Middle between the other 2, For with the one they deny Purgatory, prayers for the dead, Masse, etts., And with the other they hold Altars, ceremonies, Imagery and pictures in their Churches, etts. Confession (and absolution) in generall termes in private, as with us in publicke (…)68

The abovementioned description by Mundy raises three main aspects: the list of most common religious groups in the city, the reference to their quantities or features, and reference to the Lutheran denomination. The size of subsequent religious groups needs to be specified. J. Baszanowski estimated the number of Lutherans as 82.9% (1651-1675) and 84.4% (1676-1700), Roman Catholics – 10.2% and 9.5%, and Calvinists – 6.9% and 6.1% respectively.69 According to these numbers, Lutherans were the biggest religious group in the city, but it needs to be highlighted that the suburbs were mainly inhabited by Catholics. This in turn can significantly change the percentage breakdown of the municipal population by religion. Several churches and chapels were located in Gdańsk and its peripheries. The biggest one was the Lutheran parish church of St. Mary. Mundy compared it to the cathedral in London: The Pffarrekirck or parish churche, called St. Marries, is very

66 P. Mundy, op. cit., pp. 179-180. 67 Ibidem, p. 181. 68 P. Mundy, op. cit., p. 168. 69 See: Table 30, HG3/1, p. 250. 14 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk large and ritchly sett Forth, the tower therof nott much inferior in bignesse to that off St. Paules in London (…)70. Apart from the five protestant churches, there were four Catholic convents with their cloisters in the city and its suburbs, namely the Cistercian abbey (Oliwa), the Bridgettines’ church of St. Bridget (Siedlce), the Carmelites’ church of St. Joseph and the Dominicans’s one of St. Nicolaus.71 It is noteworthy that the Royal Chapel build in the 17th century became the main place for the Catholic celebrations in the city. The Calvinists were concentated in one parish and had the church of Ss. Peter and Paul located in the suburbs.72 In addition to the Lutherans, Catholics and Calvinists, there were other less numerous religious communities in Gdańsk, such as Anglicans, Mennonites and Jews. P. Mundy wrote as follows about the Anglican community: Many Married [English], living and abiding here, having a preacher, a Church or place to repaire unto to heare Gods word (…).73 The quotation indicates religious freedom in early modern Gdańsk. It was one of a few places in the contemporary Europe where the Mennonites and Jews were tolerated. In spite of the fact that the Jews had to settle down in the suburbs and could not obtain citizenship, they still could enter the city and stay there for longer periods, just like merchants or representatives of the Polish or Lithuanian nobility. Mennonites could live in the city, but without any rights equal to the other Christian groups, even the Catholics and Calvinists were not allowed to sit in the City Council in practice.74

The complexity of the social issues and the quantity of the religious communities together with national minorities accounted for the cross-section of Gdańsk’s society. In medieval and early modern times, Gdańsk, as a Hanseatic city, was dominated by German and Dutch commerce. This in turn caused an increase in the number of German inhabitants of the city, particularly visible in the Post-Reformation reality when approx. 80% of the whole society became Lutheran. Apart from the two biggest national groups – the Germans and Poles (including Jews) – English, Scottish, Dutch, Scandinavian and French minorities lived in Gdańsk during its Golden Age.75 The reasons of the immigration connect with trade, communication, but also religious tolerance and openness of the society towards foreigners.76 In spite of the fact that the coexistence of religious and national communities was not peaceful all the time, Gdańsk and its suburbs remained to be open for new

70 P. Mundy, op. cit., p. 169. 71 See illustrations of churches and cloisters, for example G. R. Curicke, op. cit., pp. 298, 310-311, 320-321. 72 J. Trzoska, op. cit., MG, pp. 38-39.; HG3/1, p. 250. 73 P. Mundy, op. cit., p.183. 74 Compare with HG3/1, pp. 176-177. 75 Merchants and sailors from other countries as England, Scotland, the Netherlands and France had their offices and meeting places in the city, for example P. Mundy described the English one as follows: The English staple is allsoe here kept: a greatt company off Merchantts, Factors, etts., P. Mundy, op. cit., p. 183.; Those minorities were organised in forms of free brotherhoods or companies affiliated to the Artus Court, Mundy lists the English and Scottish ones: (…) in the said house [the Artus Court] are certain o[r]ders having a Free Brotherhood or company, of the principall off the Citty, wherof some English and Scotts(…), Ibidem, p. 180.; About national minorities, see for example: T. Urban, op. cit., p. 277. 76 About religious tolerance and peaceful coexistence, see for example: C. Tighe, p. 30-31. 15 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk inhabitants in the long-term perspective.77 Thus, the city’s society should be described as multicultural and its character should be considered bridging. Finally, the common name for Gdańsk’s inhabitants as Gdańskers (Danzigers) in its national sense – instead of the division of the society into religious and national groups – seems more appropriate.78 What were the habits of Gdańskers – their culture, mentality and art? What was the city’s role in the cultural exchange in the Baltic Sea Region? These aspects are referred to in the last part of the paper.

VII. CULTURE AND MENTALITY

The Artus Court was not the only place of meetings and discussions, the other places of entertainment as a theatre and some kind of the open-air amphitheatre or sports arena were also situated in the city.

Gdańsk theatre was founded between the years 1600 and 1612 and built in the form of an approximately 10-meter high wooden construction, located close to the School of Fencing and St. George Court. It was a kind of an Elizabethian theatre raised in line with the English model. T. Zarębska highlighted its character (civic not courtly or palace) and the common purpose, because of its big size and the founders (the city itself). She also described some English actors who played there most79. P. Mundy’s description confirms her statement about English plays and performances. He described them as follows: Some Summers come here our English commedlens [sic] or players which representte [perform] in Netherlandische Dutche [Low German] (…) Among those Actors was one here Nicknamed pickled herring (…)80. Along with theatrical actors, Mundy mentioned a clown who amused the audience during interludes.81 In the abovementioned quotation, Mundy also stresses the language of performances –Low German. The linguistic situation requires giving some more detailed information but other forms of entertainment will be presented first.

Apart from the theatre and meeting places such as the Artus Court, sports games and open-air activities need to be mentioned. In the description of the city by Mundy, several forms of leisure activities are listed, e.g. ice-sliding, ice-skating and sleigh rides in the winter time82, and strolling,

77 The example of the odd-jobbers and illegal commodities produced by them led to the riots also on the religious ground (for instance burning of the suburban settlements in 1656 or demolition of the Carmelite cloister in 1678), HG3/1, pp. 170-175, 252-253.; J. Trzoska, op. cit., pp. 42-45. 78 Gdańsk as patria can be expressed by the citizenship of the city; (…) Burgers if they remove to another Country must loose and leave behind them the th part off their estates to the Citties use, P. Mundy, op. cit., p. 190. 79 T. Zarębska, op. cit., p. 367, (illustration no. 18). 80 P. Mundy, op. cit., p. 181-182. 81 About pickled herring (clown), see: Ibidem, p. 182, (note 1). 82 In Winter they use to ride in smalle sleads drawn with one horse, called Yagh-sleads (…) a swift Sayling boat (…) speedy sliding over the Ice and Snow (…), see: Ibidem, pp. 177-178. 16 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk horse riding and archery during summer season83. Animal fights was popular then, according to Mundy’s relation, and were described as follows: baiting and Fighting off beasts, as bull, beare and dogges enterchanged, sometimes horse and bear, wolffe and bull (…) although they observe not soe much law and orders in this sport as in England84. This quotation ends with a comparison to the English rules, and by this, probably the criticism of such violent acts.

The cultural life of Gdańskers can also be expressed based on the architecture and arts, as well as the educational system. The early modern city’s shape was formed gradually and continuously during the 16th and 17th centuries; consequently, the Renaissance and Baroque architecture dominates in the city centre even today. In this period, most of the city’s public buildings were raised or reconstructed, for instance the city hall, the Artus Court, the Göbel’s House, the English House, the Green Gate and the Golden Gate.85 The rebuilding of the Long Market was mainly connected with the construction of the Royal Residence and guild meeting places there. Apart from the representational and public buildings, the enlargement of fortifications and of the harbour took place around the city. It should be emphasized that some foreign architects and artists were involved in the planning and building of the new investments. Dutch art was very popular then, as evidenced by the paintings by Izaak van den Blocke.86 In this period, Gdańsk’s Gymnasium, archive and library were also erected.87 The most common language taught at schools was German, but Latin and Polish were also present.88 It needs to be highlighted that Latin hymnbooks were still in use in Gdańsk’s Lutheran churches in spite of the language turn of the Reformation.89

At the end of this section, it is worth mentioning that Gdańsk and Royal Prussia were a home region for such scholars as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes and Olaus Magnus90, Johannes Hevelius and Albert Linemann.91 Some aspects of culture and mentality presented above depict the city’s multicultural character, where artists, scholars and architects from different countries met and worked. The examples show that not only sacrum sphere connected Gdańskers (religious tolerance), but also profanum sphere allowed for common leisure activities.

83 In summer [sic] they ride a horseback or in coaches to the places afforesaid. Att Heilighbourne is a pretty pleasant walk beetweene the hills, woods and groves of trees (…) They use allsoe shooting exercise with Crosbowes att a Fowleof wood sett uppe on a very high pole (…), see: Ibidem, p. 178. 84 Ibidem, p. 179. 85 See illustrations, G. R. Curicke, op. cit., pp. 46-47, 54-55, 59. 86 The most famous Blocke’s works are ceiling paintings; see the Allegory of Gdańsk, Braunburg R., Engler M., op. cit., pp. 24-25. 87 See illustrations, G. R. Curicke, op. cit., pp. 340-341. 88 About the Polish language, see: HG3/1, pp. 284-289. 89 K. Cieślak, Życie religijne gdańskich luteran i ich recepcja sztuki kościelnej, MG, p. 320. 90 Olaus’s Carta Marina was composed and dedicated to Gdańsk. 91 About regional scholars, see: P. Mundy, op. cit., p.216. 17 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk

VIII. CONCLUDING REMARKS

To sum up, the geographical location of Gdańsk on the south coast of the Baltic Sea played a significant role in the city’s development and influenced its multicultural character. Owing to the trade, shipping and land communication, the city was connected with the world. This in turn resulted in the progress of press services, printing books and cultural exchange. By the religious tolerance and quasi-independent status in Poland-Lithuania, Gdańsk became a destination both for religious and political immigrants. Those aspects in conjunction with the situation in Europe allowed for a fast growth of the city and transformation from a medieval town to the early modern metropolitan area.

The comparison of Gdańsk to a small republic within a big one is based on its internal and external policy. The city’s relations with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were held at several levels – the Royal Prussia’s Council, and representatives in Seym and the Royal Court, which affected the real influence of the city on the Commonwealth’s policy. This aspect shows also another effect, namely the formation of Prussian identity within the structural diversity of the contemporary Europe. That is why the research on the transregional aspects instead of transnational seems to be appropriate concerning early modern times. The case of Gdańsk also shows another geopolitical dependency – the concept of one Northern Sea – which should be widely discussed. D. Kirby and M.-J. Hinkkanen suggest studying the Baltic and the North Sea as one sea due to Hansa’s and Dutch dominance in trade and shipping. 92 The seas, with their basins, form areas distinguished by their connecting or disconnecting character. The classical publication by F. Braudel The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II examined the Mediterranean Sea and Mediterranean World in the 16th century. Braudel studied several aspects and elements of this region and showed common issues centred around the Mediterranean Sea basin. That is why his approach became innovative and inspiring. The publication Nordens medelhav [shortened title – hereinafter referred to as s.t.] by K. Gerner and K. G. Karlsson is an example of such analysis of the sea and the region – in this case the Baltic Sea and the Baltic World. Nevertheless, Gerner and Karlsson focus more on cultural issues than on natural conditions of the region, which determine Braudel’s description. Nordens medelhav is a chronological analysis and spans from the early Middle Ages until today. The publication The Baltic Sea Region [s.t.] edited by W. Maciejewski is another example of the Baltic area studies.93 This analysis deals with the cultural, political and social landscapes of the region. The overall aim of the mentioned work was to show some general issues through the history for a better understanding of the current geopolitical situation. The interesting point of view on the regional concept of the Baltic Sea was presented in the article Reinventing the Baltic Sea Region [s.t.] by M.

92 D. Kirkby, M.-J. Hinkkanen, The Baltic and the North Seas, London and New York 2000. 93 The Baltic Sea Region, Cultures, Politics, Societies [BSR], ed. W. Maciejewski, Uppsala 2002.

18 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk

North.94 North proposes to focus on the concepts of space and regions, whereby the concepts are understood as constructions, constructs of different actors and protagonists.95 This approach involves characterization of the region in the history and in the comparison with today’s reality.

Hence, how can studies of various sea regions contribute to urban studies? In the case of Gdańsk, the factor of the Baltic Sea Region determines the city’s development. It can be argued that there was one or several regions in the basin of the Baltic Sea, but still there are many of the connecting elements such as trade, communication and culture which were common for all Hanseatic cities, which in turn allows to state that one Northern big region – or more precisely said – network existed. The seventeenth century’s history of this part of the world can be defined as urban history. In other words, the cities with their networks, rather than countries, created the Baltic-Northern world. The study of regions can also provide an explanation of how trade influenced rising and collapsing of cities and development of other functions of cities as cultural and information nodes. The work of C. Lesger96 is an example of the aforementioned approach. It examines emergence of Amsterdam trade and its role in information flow, and describes this city as a gateway to the Low Countries. The same approach can be taken with regard to Gdańsk’s role and development as a central node not only for Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth but also for the whole eastern part of Europe. This transitional character of the city is manifested in its bridging role for religion, culture, communication and trade.

The overall question whether Gdańsk was a bridge or a turret in the Baltic Sea Region appears in the analysis of the city’s various issues. It needs to be stated that the bridging feature does not exclude, yet rather allows for, a comparison of the city to the turret. The city’s policy and quasi-independent status allowed for own decision making and preservation of privileges. This may lead to a statement that Gdańsk was a turret and bridge at the same time. The first role can be observed in the prism of its political and social aspects and the second one via trade and communication.

To sum up, the main issues that early modern city had to deal with require a cross-disciplinary approach based on the economic, political, religious and cultural perspectives. However, those aspects need to be treated equally because of their complementary character. In other words, it is impossible to present the city’s full image taking into consideration only its economic or political aspects. The application of a la longue durée perspective to urban studies allows for noticing the timelessness of historical processes and, additionally, for consideration of the role of cities through the history. The case of the city of Gdańsk in its Golden Age shows that the cities were the precursors

94 M. North, Reinventing the Baltic Sea Region: From the Hansa to the Eu-Strategy of 2009, Romanian Journal for Baltic and Nordic Studies, vol. 4 (2012), pp. 5-17. 95 See, Ibidem, p. 7. 96 C. Lesger, The Rise of the Amsterdam Market and Information Exchange, Merchants, Commercial Expansion and Change in the Spacial Economy of the Low Countries, c. 1550-1630, Aldershot 2006. 19 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk of the civil societies and the centres of cultural development. The cities offered exchange of worldviews in public places, such as pubs and later cafés or tea houses.

The account by Peter Mundy provided an image of the contemporary city and its inhabitants. It can be argued whether this source is representative or not, but its value and uniqueness is unquestionable. There are only a few descriptions of the city from that time and taking into account that these were the merchant’s remarks, Travels by Mundy became a mine of knowledge on the urban life. In addition, the networks of the city can be found in Mundy’s trips in the region – namely the Hanseatic track, the trip to Warsaw on the river Wisła, the Prussian track and the trip to Russia. In particular, his journeys follow the city’s interregional network and the main trade directions. In general, Mundy’s description allows to state that Gdańsk connected both the German and Polish culture – Hanseatic merchandise with Polish sarmatism (the culture and habits of Polish nobility). Therefore, this source deserves more attention in further detailed analyses.

At the end of this paper, it can be stated that the bridging role of the city can be described through its communication, trade, policy, religion, culture, art and the mentality of Gdańskers as well. However, a detailed description of the city was beyond the scope of this paper, the intention was to present some directions of the city’s development and to indicate the city’s connecting role in the region based on them. The research on the urban development and its influence on the evolution of the civil society still remains an unexplored field in history. The multi-disciplinary approaches and research on the correlations between various natural and historical phenomena can give rise to a more complex perception of historical events, changes and processes in future.

20 Bridging the Baltic – The Case of Early Modern Gdańsk

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- Small towns in the 16th and 17th-century Poland, Acta Poloniae Historica, vol. 34 (1976), pp. 153-163. - The economic situation in Poland in the second half of the 17th century: post-war rebuilding or reconstruction?, Economy and culture in the Baltic 1650-1700 (ed. S-O. Lindquist), Acta Visbyensia, vol. 8 (1989), pp. 41-58. - Typy funkcjonalne miast polskich w XVI-XVIII w., Przegląd Historyczny, vol. 69 (1978), pp. 25-49. Zimowski L., Geneza i rozwój komunikacji pocztowej na ziemiach polskich, Warszawa 1972.

Dictionaries and encyclopaedias

Dictionary of National Biography ed. S. Lee, vol. 39: Morehead - Myles, London 1894; (http://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofnati39stepuoft#page/302/mode/2up; 17-05-2013).