F. Plank, Early Germanic 1 FROM VERY EARLY GERMANIC AND BEFORE TOWARDS THE “OLD” STAGES OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES, IN PARTICULAR OLD ENGLISH

160,000+ years of human population history summarised up to ca. 10,000 Before Now: Journey of Mankind: The Peopling of the World

http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/

F. Plank, Early Germanic 2 The origin of Language (capital L: a capacity common to all members of the species Homo sapiens) and the early diversification of languages (little l: individual historical manifestations of that capacity) – are fascinating questions and challenges for geneticists, palaeontologists, archaeologists, physical and cultural anthropologists. Alas, this is not something historical linguists, speaking with professional authority, could do much/anything to shed light on.

No speech acts performed by early homines sapientes have come down to us to bear witness to their mental lexicons & grammars.

From human fossils a little can be inferred about the organs implicated in the production and perception of speech, but nothing of substance can be inferred about the linguistic working of brains (the mental lexicon & grammar). Palaeogenetics is our only hope – but genes specifically enabling traits of Language or languages remain to be identified and to be extracted from fossils.

Speech acts were given greater permanence through writing only much later: from around 3,200 BCE in Mesopotamia as well as in Egypt, from around 1,200 BCE in China, and from around 600 BCE in Mesoamerica.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 3 The technology for actually recording speech (and other) sounds was only invented in 1857.

(And do listen to the earliest ever speech and song documents here – it’s French, Au claire de la lune and more: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRbIJc05QTA)

Phonautograph and phonautogram (c. 1857): apparatus for recording sound vibrations graphically, with vibrations produced in cone traced in soot on lamp-blacked cylinder; invented by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville (1817–79)

https://imgur.com/gallery/DKDp8 https://time.com/5084599/first-recorded-sound/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonautograph https://www.firstsounds.org/sounds/scott.php

F. Plank, Early Germanic 4 Now, what cannot be observed, and recorded for analysis, must be (rationally) hypothesised.

The standard method in historical linguistics for rationally forming hypotheses about a past from which we have no direct evidence is the comparative method.

Alas, the comparative method for the reconstruction of linguistic forms (lexical as well as grammatical) only reaches back some 8,000 years maximum, given the normal life expectancy and limits on the recognisability of forms and meanings. And it is questionable whether constructions can be rigorously reconstructed.

The comparative method consists in identifying systematic correspondences – typically differences, not identities! – between languages and suggesting plausible stories to account for how such difference could develop from earlier sameness.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 5 For example (and simplifying, as usual at this stage), long parallel lists can be drawn up of current English words with /t/ corresponding to current German words with /ts/:

E toll, ten, two, to, town, tit, snout, heart, salt, smut, cat, sit ... G Zoll, zehn, zwei, zu, Zaun, Zitze, Schnauze, Herz, Salz, Schmutz, Katze, sitzen ...

The meanings of these words in English and German are either the same or can be plausibly connected (e.g., a town is or used to be an enclosed, ‘fenced in’ place of habitation).

Such pairs are so numerous that they must be considered systematic rather than acidental. Let’s therefore set aside pairs, far less numerous, which do not show the same correspondence of /t/ and /ts/, such as bite – beissen (beizen being something else), taboo – Tabu (*Zabu), rat – Ratte (Ratz only in Bavarian dialect), czar or tsar /zA…, tsA…, *tA…/ – Zar.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 6 A historical story that would make sense of correspondences would be as follows.

Let’s assume that English and German derive from a single ancestral language (spoken at a time that linguists left to their own devices can’t specify with any precision: population historians and archaeologists, better at the absolute dating of past peoples and events, will hopefully lend a hand): these word pairs (“cognates”) would then be explained as being part of the shared heritage, acquired again and again by new generations.

But how have they come to sound systematically different?

The continuation of the story is that (ancestors of) the speakers of German, once they had split off from (ancestors of) the speakers of English, would begin to pronounce /t/’s as [ts] (the relevant phonological features would be [continuant] or [strident]).

Then, after a period of applying a pronouncing rule with the effect of affricating voiceless stops (also affecting /p/ and partly also /k/: pound/Pfund, apple/Apfel, rump/Rumpf, elk/Elch, sickle/Sichel ...), and not hearing anybody pronouncing such words with a stop any longer in their own speech community F. Plank, Early Germanic 7 (nor encountering alternations of [p, t, k] and [pf, ts, kx] in different morphological environments), they would eventually restructure these words in their mental lexicons so as to have basic affricates in the lexical representation of these words.

A hypothetical reverse story of historical de-affrication – with /ts/ [ts] in the common ancestral language and with the English changing the pronunciation to [t] and eventually the lexical representation to /t/ – would make less phonological sense.

Words such as ton/Tonne, taboo/Tabu, state/Staat, chat/chatten etc., entering the language as later loans, would therefore be spared affrication in German, with the pronunciation rule /t/ → [ts] no longer active, and would therefore sound the same in the two (independently) borrowing languages, as such giving no evidence of original historical relatedness.

Likewise, though it did not get affricates from stops through a historical sound change, English might itself get [ts] through borrowing words such as czar from other languages with affricates (such as Russian); but then, the aversion to F. Plank, Early Germanic 8 affricates might be so strong as to lead to more native-like pronunciations of such loans (as [zA…] rather than [tsA…]).

There are other non-correspondence pairs which cannot be explained as due to later borrowing: bite – beissen, eat – essen, vat – Fass, foot – Fuss, out – aus, that – das(s), what – was, it – es, winter – Winter, stone – Stein, etc. These will need closer study: perhaps the environments of the relevant sounds made a difference, and/or further changes happened subsequently.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 9 No other method for throwing light on the distant linguistic past is considered sound by experts – notwithstanding the numerous efforts of amateurs (who may well be experts in their own fields, such as genetics, palaeontology, archaeology) to trace the history of lexicons and grammars back further through the mass comparison of words or other such dubious ventures.

Mass comparatists hope that the more words they find with similar sound and similar meaning, the stronger will be their case for a historical relationship between the languages compared. However, words which sound similar and mean something similar now will in all probability have sounded differently and will have meant something different in the past of each of the languages concerned, and are therefore unreliable guides into those earlier times when the languages compared would conceivably have been close family members and possibly even one single language.

Given the inherent limitations of the scholarly methods of historical linguistics as currently practised (and given the nature of its subject matter, it is difficult to see how matters could improve dramatically), sadly, some 95% of the linguistic history of mankind are bound to remain forever in the dark. F. Plank, Early Germanic 10 The Journey of Mankind shown above assumes monogenesis: all exemplars of homo sapiens ever can ultimately be traced back to the same mother. There is substantial genetic support for this theory. What is hotly debated is precisely how other species came into play: now extinct, there formerly were Neandertals, Denisovans and perhaps further species of the genus Homo (e.g. homo floresiensis), and they demonstrably mixed and intermarried with “us”. It is an open question whether they had Language, in the sense of a system for the expression of thought and feeling and for communication based on a mental lexicon & grammar.

But what does that mean for Language and languages? Can all languages ever spoken also be traced back to a single language spoken in our common ancestral community some 150,000 years ago, “proto-Human”? Is English, for example, the way it is because it is historically descended from proto-Human, allowing for lexical and grammatical changes that over time have distinguished it, or its more immediate ancestors, from other languages?

Possibly, but not necessarily. F. Plank, Early Germanic 11 New languages have been devised even recently, with no model to follow, namely sign languages of village deaf communities, and oral languages may equally have been invented or reinvented more than once in the past. Therefore, genetic monogenesis of homo sapiens does not necessarily preclude linguistic polygenesis – even disregarding the possible contributions of Neandertals and Denisovans.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 12 Where does deep time seriously begin for historical linguists specially interested in the Germanic languages? Perhaps here:

The Nostratic or Eurasian super/macrofamily

Comprising these families (all or some – you choose): Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Kartvelian, perhaps also Afroasiatic, (Elamo-) Dravidian, Sumerian, Etruscan, Nivkh, Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Eskimo-Aleut.

Member languages of this supposed superfamily are (now) located in Europe, North/Northeast Asia, Arctic; the supposed Urheimat: The Fertile Crescent.

When was the supposed proto-language spoken? Meso/Epipalaeolithic, end of last glacial period (20,000 – 9,500 BCE)

Established (is it?) by which methods? Comparative method and/or mass comparison, fantasy.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 13 Here is how the supposed superfamily may have split up into families:

from A. Bomhard, Reconstructing Proto-Nostratic, 2008

Most of these subfamilies of supposed Nostratic are themselves beyond reasonable doubt. Eurasiatic emphatically isn’t. One level further down in this family tree, Indo-European is universally accepted (as are Uralic and Altaic) – although there are many questions about it (and even more about Uralic and Altaic) that remain. F. Plank, Early Germanic 14 The Common Indo-European speech community: the best, though not uncontroversial candidates are the Sredny Stog culture (±4500–3500 BCE) of nomadic Kurgan (burial mound) builders, fast travellers on horse-drawn chariots spreading in all directions in several waves of migrations/invasions.

Competing IE Urheimat theories; current favourites:

1. Pontic-Caspian Steppe/Kurgan theory: unity until 4th or 5th millennium BCE; 2. Anatolian theory: wave(s) of advance of farming, since 7th millennium BCE or earlier; but many alternative yarns have been spun(see second map below) : • Out-of-India theory; • Paleolithic Continuity Paradigm: “Old Europeans” themselves as the Proto- Indo-Europeans, not later immigrants; • Sprachbund theory (Trubetzkoy); • ... F. Plank, Early Germanic 15

[from Beekes, Comparative Indo-European linguistics, 1995] F. Plank, Early Germanic 16 Suggested IE Urheimaten

[J. P. Mallory, In search of the Indo-Europeans, 1989, p144]

F. Plank, Early Germanic 17 How did the Proto-Indo-Europeans speak? What was their lexicon and grammar like?

Entertaining and instructing each other with a fable about a sheep and horses, they might have said something like this, as August Schleicher saw it in 1868:

[Das] schaf und [die] rosse [Ein] schaf, [auf] welchem wolle nicht war (ein geschorenes schaf) sah rosse, das [einen] schweren wagen fahrend, das [eine] große last, das [einen] menschen schnell tragend. [Das] schaf sprach [zu den] rossen: [Das] herz wird beengt [in] mir (es thut mir herzlich leid), sehend [den] menschen [die] rosse treibend. [Die] rosse sprachen: Höre schaf, [das] herz wird beengt [in den] gesehen-habenden (es thut uns herzlich leid, da wir wissen): [der] mensch, [der] herr macht [die] wolle [der schafe [zu einem] warmen kleide [für] sich und [den] schafen ist nicht wolle (die schafe aber haben keine wolle mehr, sie werden geschoren; es geht ihnen noch schlechter als den rossen). Dies gehört-habend bog (entwich) [das] schaf [auf das] feld (es machte sich aus dem staube)

Avis akvāsas ka Avis, jasmin varnā na ā ast, dadarka akvams, tam, vāgham garum vaghantam, tam, bhāram magham, tam, manum āku bharantam. Avis akvabhjams ā vavakat: kard aghnutai mai vidanti manum akvams agantam. Akvāsas ā vavakant: krudhi avai, kard aghnutai vividvant-svas: manus patis varnām avisāms karnauti svabhjam gharmam vastram avibhjams ka varnā na asti. Tat kukruvants avis agram ā bhugat. F. Plank, Early Germanic 18 This is of course hypothetical, a text fabricated on then current hypotheses about the reconstruction of forms and on assumptions about rules of syntactic construction. As reconstructions changed, so changed this story. Here are two recent versions, based on the reconstructions of Frederik Kortlandt (2007) and Craig Melchert (2009) (from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleicher%27s_fable):

ʕʷeuis ʔiḱ:ueskʷ:e ʕʷeuis i ʕueli nēʔst ʔeḱ:ums uēit:, t:o kʷ’rʕeum uoḱom uḱent:m, t:o mḱ’eʕm porom, t:o tḱmenm ʔoʔḱ:u prent:m. uēuk:t ʕʷeuis ʔiḱ:uos, ʕetḱo ʔme ḱ:ērt ʕnerm uit’ent:i ʔeḱ:ums ʕḱ’ent:m. ueuk:nt: ʔiḱ:ues, ḱ:luti ʕʷue, ʕetḱo nsme ḱ:ērt: uit’ent:i, ʕnēr p:ot:is ʕʷuiom ʕueli sue kʷermom uesti kʷ:rneut:i, ʕʷuēi kʷ:e ʕueli neʔsti. t:o ḱ:eḱ:luus ʕʷeuis pleʕnom pēuk’t.

H₂ówis (h₁)ékŵ ōs-kʷe h₂áwej josméj h₂wlh̥ ₁náh₂ né h₁ést, só h₁ékwomŝ derkt.̂ só gʷrh̥ ₓúm wóĝhom wéĝhet; méĝh₂m ̥ bhórom; só (dh)gĥémonm ̥ h₂ṓkû bhéret. h₂ówis h₁ékwojbh(j)oŝ wéwk(ʷ)et: (dh)ĝhémonm ̥ spékjoĥ ₂ h₁ék̂ʷoms-kʷe h₂éĝeti, kḗ̂ r moj aglmutór. h₁ékŵ ōs tu wéwkʷont: kludhí,̂ h₂owei! tód spékjomes/n,̂ nsméi̥ aghnutór kḗ̂ r: (dh)ĝhémō pótis sē h₂áwjōm h₂wlh̥ ₁nā́h₁ gʷhérmom wéstrom (h₁)wébht, h₂áwibh(j)os tu h₂wlh̥ ₁náh₂ né h₁ésti. tód kek̂ luŵ ṓs h₂ówis h₂aĝróm bhugét. F. Plank, Early Germanic 19 Short though it is, this (hypothetical) text gives you a glimpse at the lexicon and grammar (and the world) of people telling each other such stories; for details we would have to turn to the specialist Indo-Europeanist literature.

The oldest real texts in a Indo-European language only date from some 4,000 years ago, quite some time after the dissolution of proto-language unity. The languages earliest recorded in writing are Hittite, Mycenaean Greek, and Vedic Sanskrit. Germanic followed much later.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 20 (early) Indo-European dispersal

Scheme of Indo-European migrations from ca. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the Kurgan hypothesis. The magenta area corresponds to the assumed Urheimat (Pontic Caspian Steppe: Samara culture, Sredny Stog culture). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BCE; the orange area to 1000 BCE.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Urheimat_hypotheses F. Plank, Early Germanic 21 ... a little later, European Colonial Expansion, 15th century CE and after

Countries with a majority of speakers of IE languages Countries with an IE minority language with official status http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages

F. Plank, Early Germanic 22 after Proto-IE unity

Linguistically speaking, the null hypothesis would be a flat tree (at the root): all daughters as sisters

Extinct older IE languages not included in this tree include poorly attested Venetic, Messapian, Thracian, Illyrian, Phrygian, Paionian, Macedonian, Ligurian (IE?). F. Plank, Early Germanic 23 ... but linguistic diversity, reflecting the complex histories of speech communities, is usually emerging in a more complex manner as (again) August Schleicher saw it in 1861 (Anatolian not yet in the picture):

Best known among rival hierarchical trees is the Kentum–Satem tree (West plus Tocharian vs. East). Even better ... F. Plank, Early Germanic 24 “Best” Indo-European tree, according to Don Ringe, Tandy Warnow et al. [Computational Phylogenetics in Historical Linguistics at http://www.cs.rice.edu/~nakhleh/CPHL/]

Note: Indo-Iranian splitting off late (???); Albanian as Germanic’s closest relative (???)

F. Plank, Early Germanic 25 In family tree representations (Stammbaum), a node represents a language, in particlar a proto-language, the direct ancestor to two or more daughter languages. Subgrouping more than one language as daughters of one proto- language is motivated if there are one or several innovations shared by the languages concerned. (The reasoning is that if two languages share the same innovation, it likely has happened only once rather than twice independently; hence we posit a single proto-language for these two languages and assume the innovation has already happened when they were still one language.) Thus, such a tree thus visualises the relative chronology of shared innovations as languages/speech communities are splitting up.

The length of branches can be used (but often isn’t) to represent the length of time between innovation events splitting up unity.

The spatial (left/right) ordering of nodes and branches can be used to represent the geographical locations (east/west, north/south) of the speech communities concerned. F. Plank, Early Germanic 26 Compare other visualisations of historical relatedness:

Wellentheorie (Johannes Schmidt 1856ff, Hugo Schuchardt 1868ff, et al.): representing the gradual spread of innovations from a centre across speech communities – thus, focus on space, no representation of relative chronology. (Try to translate the IE wave diagram above into a tree, and vice versa.) http://www.hispanoteca.eu/Lexikon%20der%20Linguistik/w/WELLENTHEORIE%20%20%20Teor%C3%ADa%20de%20las%20ondas.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_model F. Plank, Early Germanic 27

Isogloss map from R. Anttila, Historical and comparative corresponding NeighborNet by Paul Heggarty linguistics, 21989; relevant for Germanic, out of 24: (the more similar, the closer) 18: new tense system from perfect http://www.languagesandpeoples.com/Eng/ 19: umlaut SupplInfo/AnttilaNeighborNet.htm 20: -ww-, -jj- | stop + w, j 21: -ggj- | -ddj- ... and why not others, like First Consonant Shift? F. Plank, Early Germanic 28 The Common Germanic people, about to split up: the Jastorf culture, 600–300 BCE

= the people who distinguished themselves through practising cremation burials in extensive urnfields, and who formed the speech community who, among other uniquely distinctive linguistic innovations, shifted IE consonants (“Grimm’s Law”)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo- European_languages Diversification of Indo-Europeans ca 500 BCE, showing a somewhat wider spread of Germanic (purple) F. Plank, Early Germanic 29

Note: This is an archaeological, not a linguistic map! F. Plank, Early Germanic 30 ... some context ...

There is much about the question of Germanic ethnogenesis that continues to be controversial. On linguistic grounds, what we can confidently say is that a speech community must have emerged and continued to remain united or allied within which certain innovations relative to earlier IE lexicon-and-grammar were made and could spread – after the Indo-Europeans had split up (ca. 4500–3500 BCE) and prior to ca. 500 BCE, when it itself split up.

This population would thus have had from two to four millennia to stay put or move about and to form new cultural, ethnic, and linguistic groups, over which period the people to become Germanic were at some time and at some place in especially close contact with the peoples to become Albanian (the Illyrians and/or Thracians), Italic, Celtic, and Baltic, and also with peoples not of Indo- European descent (Etruscan/Raetic, pre-Basque/Vasconic and other Iberian, Megalithic cultures, Afroasiatic, Uralic ...).

F. Plank, Early Germanic 31 more archaeological-historical maps ...

Nordic Bronze Age Culture, Expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BCE –1 CE ca. 1200 BCE: pre-Germanic? (after Penguin Atlas of World History 1988): Settlements before 750 BCE (?) New settlements by 500 BCE New settlements by 250 BCE New settlements by 1 CE

F. Plank, Early Germanic 32 Eventually: no longer Common Germanic, but separate populations and speech communities

languages missing here: †Norn, †Old Gutnish, Old High German, †Langobardic, Dalecarlian (“only” a dialect group within Swedish?), the three descendants of Frisian (West Fr., North Fr., Saterland Fr.), Flemish, Letzeburgesch (descendants, in a sense, of Dutch and High German, respectively), ... and all these Englishes?

Note: Middle High German is a downward-branching node – but what is the brace above it supposed to mean? (→ convergence/amalgamation rather than divergence?) F. Plank, Early Germanic 33

from Robinson, Old English and its closest relatives, 1992 from Hutterer, Die germanischen Sprachen, 1990

F. Plank, Early Germanic 34 There have been recent suggestions of a different subgrouping of Germanic with “English” as a separate high level branch. Encouraged by population-genetic findings supposedly suggesting a west/east division still recognisable in the current British population, this “English” branch is supposed to have split off very early through a population sailing westwards from continental Scandinavia and settling on the British Isles (with the tribe of the Belgae sometimes suggested as the supposed speakers of this language to have branched off first from Common Germanic) before the coming of the Romans, alongside an earlier “Atlantic” population that had come in from the west. This idea has made headlines in the popular press, but it is science fiction so far as languages and their history are concerned, based on faulty linguistic data, wrong interpetations of correct data, and flawed method, and is at odds with all responsible historical linguistic reconstruction work.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 35 Evidence for very early Germanic

http://www.tollundman.dk/ A speaker of very early Germanic: Tollund Man. He died approximately 375–210 BCE, between 30 and 40 years old, hanged in a ritual sacrifice and buried in a peat bog near Tollund in Jylland, Denmark. (He is now on display in Silkeborg Museum.) No DNA analysis yet; who knows, he may have been a captured non-Germanic speaking foreigner! No sample of his speech or writing has been preserved. F. Plank, Early Germanic 36 0. Hypothetical inference rather than observation

0.1. Comparative reconstruction: systematic form correspondences across languages (differences, not identities!) → proto-forms, accompanied by stories about change; relative chronology of different innovations; reconstructability of (morphological, syntactic) constructions?

0.2. Glottochronology: supposedly constant rate of lexical turnover: 14 replacements out of 100 on Swadesh List over 1,000 years → absolute chronology of splits of speech communities; but is the method valid??? F. Plank, Early Germanic 37

Schleicher’s fable again (as per reconstruction) Proto-Germanic, phonetic evolution only Awiz ehwōz-uh: awiz, hwisi wullō ne est, spihi ehwanz, ainą kurų wagą wegandų, ainą-uh mekǭ burą, ainą-uh gumanų ahu berandų. Awiz nu ehwamaz wiuhi: hert agnutai mek, witandī ehwanz akandų gumanų. Ehwōz weuhą: hludi, awi! hert agnutai uns witundumaz: gumô, fadiz, wullǭ awją hwurniudi sibi warmą westrą. Awją-uh wullō ne isti. Þat hehluwaz awiz akrą buki. Proto-Germanic, with grammar and vocabulary modernised Awiz ehwōz-uh: awiz, sō wullǭ ne habdē, sahw ehwanz, ainanǭ kurjanǭ wagną teuhandų, ainanǭ-uh mikilǭ kuriþǭ, ainanǭ-uh gumanų sneumundô berandų. Awiz nu ehwamaz sagdē: hertô sairīþi mek, sehwandē ehwanz akandų gumanų. Ehwōz sagdēdun: gahauzī, awi! hertô sairīþi uns sehwandumiz: gumô, fadiz, uz awīz wullō wurkīþi siz warmą wastijǭ. Awiz-uh wullǭ ne habaiþi. Þat hauzidaz awiz akrą flauh. English The Sheep and the Horses: a sheep that had no wool saw horses, one pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: “My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses”. The horses said: “Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool”. Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language See also Quiles, López-Menchero et al. 2009. http://dnghu.org/indo-european-schleicher-fable.pdf F. Plank, Early Germanic 38 1. Loanwords in other languages, antedating the earliest Germanic texts

Gmc loans in Finnish (preserved until today) rengas ‘ring’ Go hriggs, ON hringr, OHG, OE (h)ring Since Finnish is phonologically rather conservative, this suggests the assumption that hringaz, as comparatively-reconstructed on the evidence of later Germanic languages alone, always showing stem vowel /i/, < Proto-Gmc *hrengaz, with a different stem vowel; also with a non-zero exponent, -z/-r, for NOM.SG, as only retained in Gothic and Old Norse/Icelandic (= marked nominative, vis-à-vis ACC.SG -Ø, typologically unusual!) kuningas ‘king’ OE cyning, OHG chuning, OIcel konungr, PGmc *kunningaz (without umlaut; and again with non-zero exponent -z/-r for NOM.SG) kulta ‘gold’ OE gold, OHG gold, ON goll/gull, Go gulþ, PGmc *gulþa- (with the original vowel retained in Finnish) F. Plank, Early Germanic 39 kauppa ‘trade’ OHG koufen, OS kōpian, ON kaupa, Go kaupōn, PGmc *kaup-ō-n; which is a verb derived from a noun: OE cȳpa, OHG koufo in turn borrowed from Lat caupo ‘small tradesman, innkeeper’ (whence also E cheap)

Gmc loans in Latin ūrus ‘Auer(ochse)’ OE ūr, OHG ūro, ON úrr, PGmc *ūrōn (also borrowed by Gk oũros) alcēs ‘elks’ OE elh, eolh; eol(h)a-, OHG elahho, ON elgr, PGmc *algiz; PIE *el-k-, with the vowel /a/ in Lat suggesting it was borrowed from Gmc rather than derived from the IE root glǣsum ‘amber’ > ‘glass’ OE glæs, OHG glas, WGmc *glasa-n ganta ‘(wild) goose’ OE gōs, OHG gans, ON gáns, PGmc *gans-; PIE *ghans-, whence regular Lat (h)ānser; therefore Lat ganta (OFr jante, E gannet), Sp ganso (Go *gansus) must be loans F. Plank, Early Germanic 40 sāpō(n-) ‘hair-dye’ > OE sāpe, OHG seiffa, WGmc *saipō- ‘make-up, soap’ (also borrowed by Finnish: saip(p)io, saip(p)ua)

Chariomērus proper name PGmc *harja-mǣraz ‘heer-berühmt’ companio ‘companion’ a calque (loan translation) of OHG gileibo, ‘one with whom one shares a bread-loaf’ (collective prefix gi- → cum-, noun leib → panis)

F. Plank, Early Germanic 41 2. Early texts (inscriptions, usually short, sometimes plain, sometimes poetic)

2.1. Negau Helmet B, unearthed in today’s Slovenia and dated 5th century BCE, but inscription added later, 3rd/2nd century BCE (written from right to left!; here transliterated):

HARIGASTI TEI[VA] / / / IP [?] or: HARIGASTIZ FEFAKIT?

cf. Go harjis, ON herr, OE here, OHG heri etc., PGmc *harja- ‘Heer’; Go gasts, ON gestr, OHG gast etc., PGmc *gasti- ‘stranger, guest’; OIcel týr, tivar theonym, PGmc *teiwa- (cf. Lat deus?)

see reproductions at: http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/germ/runealph.htm http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Negau_helmet_inscription.jpg http://www.khm.at/de/kunsthistorisches- museum/sammlungen/antikensammlung/vorroemisches-italien-und- alpenkulturen/?aid=5&cHash=5a30e0b072 F. Plank, Early Germanic 42

F. Plank, Early Germanic 43

F. Plank, Early Germanic 44 However, the Germanicness of the inscription on Negau Helmet B as well as its precise reading are controversial: it could be (partly) Raetic/Etruscan, in script as well as language; the proper name contained in this short inscription, probably naming the owner of the helmet (perhaps a mercenary, since Germanic warriors did not usually were metal helmets; another popular reading, however, is ‘to the god Harigast’ [DAT] ), which is clearly Germanic, though.

For some discussion and further references see the article ‘Negauer Helm’ by R. Nedoma in Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, vol. 21, pp52–61. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2nd edn.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 45 Another contender for being the oldest Runic Germanic text, the inscription on the Meldorf fibula, dated to the first half of the 1st century CE on archaeological grounds, is also controversial:

The four letters on it have alternatively been read as Runic (iþih or iwih if read from right to left, hiþi or hiwi if read from left to right, ‘for Hiwi’, a woman’s name in the dative, or ‘for the spouse/mater familias’), pre-Runic, Latin (IDIN, ‘for Ida’ or ‘for Iddo’, a woman’s or a man’s name), or Latin-in-the-Runic- fashion.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 46 Thus, with this sort of inscription, even when legible and decipherable, there are problems (perhaps insurmountable) of identifying (a) the script (Is it Runic as used by Germanic people or another similar script as used by other people, perhaps a people from which the Germanic writers “borrowed” their Runic alphabet?) and (b) the language written in whatever script it is written in (Is it early Germanic or another language, perhaps a language Germanic speakers were in contact with?)

Dating from ca. 160 CE, the Vimose Comb, one of several inscribed finds from Funen, Denmark, is not much younger, and its inscription is impossible to misread: harja.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 47

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vimose_inscriptions

The problem is what it means: the owner’s name, Harja, plain and simple? other names, abbreviated: Harjaríkar or Harjǣ? designation of the tool it is written on: comb (‘das zu den Haaren gehörige’)? den Kamm, accusative singular? or rather warrior (‘der zum Heer gehörige Krieger’)? or member of the tribe of the Harii? or guide of the dead??? http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/abfragen/standard/deutung2.asp?findno=20&ort=Vimose&objekt=Kamm F. Plank, Early Germanic 48 Though initially not always easily distinguished, the earliest Germanic writing was in Runic, an alphabetic type of script. This is a script, attested in several regional varieties, that in principle presents no problems of interpretation: the sound values of the (originally 24) letters (“runes”) have long been figured out – and the names of the runes in fact reveal them (thus F fehu ‘cattle, wealth’, U ūruz ‘aurochs’, etc.).

The origin of the Runic script is less clear. Among the several theories, the one most widely accepted sees it as derivative of Old Italic, especially Alpine scripts, used for writing non-IE languages such as Etruscan and Raetic as well as IE languages such as Venetic, Lepontic, Ligurian, and Gallian. All these scripts in turn – like probably all alphabetic scripts of the Old World – ultimately derive from the Phoenician or Proto-Canaanite alphabet (or, technically, abjad, with letters only for consonants), in use from ca. 1200–150 BCE and itself derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs.

More recently the Germanic Runic script has been linked directly with the script of the Phoenicians, a people based on the Mediterranean coast in the Near East, thriving from ca. 1200–800 BCE and trading all over the Mediterranean and along the Atlantic coast as far as Northwestern Europe (in particular Ireland); their language was Semitic, a close relative of Hebrew. F. Plank, Early Germanic 49 Later, it was mostly the Latin alphabet, in one form or another, that was used for writing Germanic languages. The ancestor of the Latin alphabet was the Etruscan script, which in turn was based on a form of the Greek alphabet, which ultimately derived from the Phoenician abjad.

But Germanic languages were – or indeed are – also written in a few further scripts, all of the alphabetic type. Gothic had its own, Greek-derived script (devised by Bishop Ulfilas, a Visigoth, 4th century CE); Yiddish is commonly written in Hebrew script (since the 13th century); Sütterlin was sometimes (first half of 20th century) used for hand-written German.

Another early writing system was used in the British Isles, from the 4th–9th centuries CE, Ogham; but Ogham – most likely based on the Latin alphabet, despite its very different look – was only used for inscriptions in Irish and related Celtic languages.

For concise general background on the Runic script, as well as a fascinating general survey of scripts, see Daniels & Bright, The world’s writing systems, Oxford: Oxford University Press, esp. Sections 23 and 25.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 50 Elder Futhark Elder Futhark is thought to be the oldest version of the Runic alphabet, and was used, from ca. 150–800 CE, in the parts of Europe which were home to Germanic peoples, including Scandinavia. Other versions probably developed from it. The names of the letters are shown in Common Germanic, the reconstructed ancestor of all Germanic languages.

Notes: The letter k is also called kēnaz (torch) or kanō (skiff). The meaning of the letter name perþ is unknown. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm F. Plank, Early Germanic 51

A page from the Codex Argenteus or "Silver Bible", a 6th-century manuscript containing Bishop Ulfilas's 4th century translation of the Christian Bible into the Gothic language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_alphabet F. Plank, Early Germanic 52

Sample text in Yiddish (read right to left!)

Transliteration Yeder mentsh vert geboyrn fray un glaykh in koved un rekht. Yeder vert bashonkn mit farshtand un gevisn; yeder zol zikh firn mit a tsveytn in a gemit fun brudershaft.

English Translation All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Hear a recording of this text by Tobi Ash http://www.omniglot.com/writing/yiddish.htm

F. Plank, Early Germanic 53

Sütterlin Sütterlin was created by the Berlin graphic artist L. Sütterlin (1865-1917), who modelled it on the style of handwriting used in the old German Chancery. It was taught in German schools from 1915 to 1941 and is still used by the older generation.

Sample text in Sütterlin

http://omniglot.com/writing/german.htm F. Plank, Early Germanic 54

Ogham stone from the Isle of Man showing the droim in centre. Text reads BIVAIDONAS MAQI MUCOI CUNAVA[LI], or in English, "Of Bivaidonas, son of the tribe Cunava[li]" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham F. Plank, Early Germanic 55 Back to Runic. Inscriptions which are uncontroversially Germanic and reasonably well interpretable, in script as well as lexicon & grammar, only date from the late 2nd and 3rd century CE and are almost all found further north, on the Danish isles (Seeland, Funen), in Jutland and Schleswig, and in southern Sweden (Schonen). They are carved in stone or scratched on wooden, bone, horn, or metal artefacts (weapons, jewellery, amulets, vessels, coins).

Runic writing often had ritual and magical functions; rarely it was also used for recording poetry. It always remained essentially epigraphic (sometimes purely ornamental), and was never used for practical every-day purposes. Hence the brevity of the inscriptions – sometimes frustrating when your interest is in early Germanic syntax. F. Plank, Early Germanic 56 2.2. Nøvling clasp, North Jutland, Denmark, ca. 200 CE (= North-West Germanic, before North-West split and after East Gmc had split off)

http://runer.ku.dk/VisGenstand.aspx?Titel=N%C3%B8vling-fibula F. Plank, Early Germanic 57

B i D a W a R I j a r T a l G I D a I (Runic inscription)

b i d a w a r i j a z t a l g i d a i (transliteration in Latin alphabet)

["bI.da.Æwa.rI.jaz."tal.gI.de…] ((some) phonetic transcription) bidawarijaz talgidai (segmented into words ) bid-a-war-ija-z talg-i-d-ei (words internally segmented)

[[stem-THEME]NOUN-[[stem-THEME]NOUN-NOM.SG]]NOUN [[[stem-THEME]-PAST]-SBJ:3SG.IND.PAST]VERB ((some) morphological analysis)

‘oath’ ‘guardian’ ‘carve’ (meaning of stems) proper name transitive verb ((some) morphosyntactic analysis)

NP:Subject VP:Predicate ((some) syntactic analysis)

(1) a proper name is 3rd person verb inflects for 3rd person subject (more syntax: something missing?) (2) a transitive verb needs a direct object (1) ‘the bearer of this name and writer of this inscription’ (1st person!) (missing information provided by (2) ‘what you see here: this inscription on this clasp’ context and situation)

‘I, Bidward (“Oath-Protector”), carved this.’ (translation/meaning)

Nøvling clasp, North Jutland, Denmark, ca. 200 CE

F. Plank, Early Germanic 58

B i D a W a R I j a r T a l G I D a I (Runic inscription)

b i d a w a r i j a z t a l g i d a i (transliteration in Latin alphabet)

["bI.da.Æwa.rI.jaz."tal.gI.de…] ((some) phonetic transcription)

F. Plank, Early Germanic 59 bidawarijaz talgidai (segmented into words)

bid-a-war-ija-z talg-i-d-ei (words internally segmented)

[[stem-THEME]N-[[stem-THEME]N-NOM.SG]]N [[[stem-THEME]-PAST]-SBJ:3SG.IND.PAST]V ((some) morphological analysis)

‘oath’ ‘guardian’ ‘carve’ (meaning of stems) proper name transitive verb ((some) morphosyntactic analysis)

NP:Subject VP:Predicate ((some) syntactic analysis)

(more syntax: something missing?) (1) a proper name is 3rd person verb inflects for a 3rd person subject (2) a transitive verb needs a direct object

(missing information provided by context and situation) (1) ‘the bearer of this name = the writer of this inscription’ (1st person!) (2) ‘what you see here: this inscription on this clasp’

‘I, Bidward (“Oath-Protector”), carved this.’ (translation/meaning) F. Plank, Early Germanic 60 ordering of meaningful parts

• word-internal:

stem - THEME (- ENDINGa) - ENDINGb

endinga: PAST TENSE endingb: CASE.NUMBER on nouns, PERSON.NUMBER.MOOD.TENSE on verbs

• word-external:

Subject – Predicate (or Sbj – Verb – Adv on an alternative reading: talgide i ‘carved in’)

F. Plank, Early Germanic 61 dependencies among meaningful parts

• The verbal word of the predicate carries an indicator of the subject, identifying it in terms of its person and number (= Subject-Verb Agreement); the object remains unindicated.

• Any word-internal dependencies? (e.g., of themes on stems or vice versa, of endings on themes or stems or vice versa)

• Which parts are prosodically more prominent (= stress accent) than the others? Stems more prominent than non-stems (Gmc stem accent); first constituents of compounds more prominent than second (Gmc compound stress rule). (Any evidence? → meter) F. Plank, Early Germanic 62 identifiable meaningful parts?

= educated guesses, based (i) on elementary phonological, morphological, syntactic analysis (which would require much more extensive textual material, if to be done seriously – but then we can rely on much previous scholarship); (ii) on some knowledge of modern Germanic languages, connected to early Germanic lexicon & grammar through some 80 cycles of language acquisition; (iii) on assumptions about how the forms and meanings concerned could plausibly have developed over time, especially if undergoing regular changes.

The method known as COMPARATIVE RECONSTRUCTION (see extra notes) attempts to make sense of internal linguistic history by doing precisely these three things, but very systematically.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 63 grammatical

-(e)d PAST tense of weak verbs (-(e)d/-(e)t), as everywhere in Germanic;

-e 3SGSbj in PAST tense of weak verbs, as in Modern German;

-z NOM.SG of strong masc. nouns -r in Modern Icelandic (e.g. hund-ur NOM.SG, hund ACC.SG ‘dog’);

• Of 6 morphological exponents, these 3 are still in use in some modern Gmc languages, and 1 of them has survived in all (dental preterite). Nominal and verbal themes/stem formatives as well as nominal case-number and verbal agreement and mood marking have undergone reduction.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 64 lexical bid- ModE V, N bid ‘ask, demand’, ‘offer’, ‘announce’, ‘command, decree’ (OE had two distinct verbs, biddan ‘ask, demand’ and bēodan ‘offer, proclaim, announce, command’); war- ModE beware, aware, wary, weir; ward, warden; guard NHG wahr, gewahr, (be-)wahren, Wehr; Warte V ‘take care, be careful in’; when agent-nominalised: ‘one who VERBs’; talg- ModE tally ‘rod of wood marked with notches recording payments; reckoning; score’; Lat tālea ‘cutting, rod, stick’? for relevant meaning compare ModE carve, NHG Kerbe, also cf. Greek gráphein ‘schreiben, ritzen’; ModE write, NHG ritzen, a different word for (roughly) the same concept.

• Of 3 stems at least 2 are still around, after two millennia.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 65 For other readings of the Nøvling Clasp and references see: http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/abfragen/standard/deutung2_eng.asp?findno=6&ort= Lundeg%C3%A5rde,%20N%C3%B8vling&objekt=fibula F. Plank, Early Germanic 66 The language of this inscription is Indo-European i.e., it shares much of its lexicon and grammar with other Indo-European languages, and much of its grammar and lexicon can be regularly derived from (reconstructed) Proto-Indo-European; e.g. bid- OE biddan ‘ask, demand’ (class V strong verb); OHG bitten; PGmc *bed-ja; compare Gk pistis ‘faith’, peithein ‘persuade’, L fidere ‘to trust’, foedus ‘treaty’ ...; PIE *bhidh- ‘command, persuade, trust’, with the Germanic form, bid, due to Grimm’s Law, and with the other IE languages also changing the respective consonants in their own ways (PIE *bh > Gk p, Lat f ..); [or is this story more plausible: PGmc b- < PIE gwh-?]; war- PGmc *war-ō- ‘observe, take care’, *warō- ‘care, attention’ < PIE *werə- ‘observe, take care’

(-a)-s NOM.SG of non-neuter nouns; compare Latin -s, Gk -s ...

F. Plank, Early Germanic 67 But it shows certain innovations relative to Proto-Indo-European, which define an Indo-European language as Germanic (being shared by all Germanic languages, unless later abandoned, and by no non-Germanic languages), and indeed as non-East-Germanic (= Germanic minus Gothic and other such East Germanic, with the remainder later differentiated as North and West Germanic).

These innovations are either reanalyses of Indo-European lexicon and grammar or lexical and grammatical borrowings from non-Indo-European languages. F. Plank, Early Germanic 68 Germanic innovations, relative to PIE (or some IE subgroup including Gmc-to-be)

Phonology • word stress phonological > morphological: prosodic prominence of stem syllable, not varying between stem and affix

• pitch accent (Stoßton/acute, Schleifton/circumflex) > stress accent (loudness, length, pitch)

• Auslautgesetze: shortening of unstressed final syllables by one mora (final syllables are typically involved in inflection, now unstressed owing to stem stress)

• First Consonant Shift, in three successive stages (Grimm’s Law), Verner’s Law

• mid-low interchange of back vowels: /o/ > /a/, /ā/ > /ō/ (e.g., Lat octo, Gk ὀκτώ – Go ahtau, ON ātta, OE eahta, OS, OHG ahto; Lat māter, Gk μάτηρ – ON mōder, OE mōðor, OS mōdar, OHG muoter)

F. Plank, Early Germanic 69 • other vowels: short: /ə/ > /a/; /e/ > /i/ before high vowel, /u/ > /o/ before non-high vowel, with intervening nasals blocking the vowel harmonising; long: /ē/ > /ǣ/ (> / ē, ā/ in Gothic and North&West Gmc respectively))

• syllabic nasals and liquids > vocalised as /um, um, ur, ul/

F. Plank, Early Germanic 70 Inflection • verbs: reduction of tense and aspect oppositions to a single contrast, PRES – PRET

• verbs: reduction of verbal voice oppositions, from ACTIVE – PASSIVE – MIDDLE to essentially just ACTIVE (and marginally a MIDDLE in passive function)

• verbs: reduction of mood oppositions, from four or five moods to just three, INDICATIVE – OPTATIVE (subsuming SUBJUNCTIVE) – IMPERATIVE

• verbs: reductions of finiteness oppositions, to INFINITIVE (newly created from verbal noun) – PARTICIPLE I – PARTICIPLE II

• nouns and pronouns: reduction of number oppositions, with DUAL restricted to 1st and 2nd person of pronouns (and in Gothic also of verbs)

• nouns, pronouns, adjectives: reduction of case oppositions (syncretism), from eight to four or five (NOM, ACC, GEN, DAT, (INS))

• verbs: systematisation of ablaut, an inherited pattern of qualitative and quantitative vowel alternations (ultimately conditioned by accent), for purposes of inflection and derivation (6 or 7 ablaut series, with stem-vowel alternations exploited for tense, person-number, and finiteness inflection of “strong” verbs) F. Plank, Early Germanic 71 • verbs: creation of dental suffix as PRET tense exponent of “weak” verbs (= derived, could not participate in tense distinction through ablaut) < univerbation of periphrastic construction with AUX/light verb ‘do’ (most plausible source, although several others have also been suggested)

• adjectives: creation of “weak” inflection class (= definite), differentiated from “strong”

• nouns: extension of (“weak”) n-declension

Syntax • grammaticalisation of function words (adpositions, auxiliaries) to counterbalance the weakening of nominal and verbal inflections (What is cause and what effect?)

• despite relatively free order at clause level (= determined by information structure), a certain inclination to verb-second, or at any rate light-verb second (clitics in Wackernagel position; are verbs generally prosodically light in Gmc?)

• inclination to verb-final especially in COMP-introduced subordinate clauses F. Plank, Early Germanic 72 Lexicon • massive borrowings of culturally salient vocabulary from outside Indo- European (at least one third, with about two thirds IE heritage; donor language/culture? superstrate rather than substrate, given the nature of the loans?)

• SEAFARING: sea, ship, boat, sail, rudder, steer, haven • CARDINAL DIRECTIONS: north, east, south, west • SOCIAL ORGANISATION: folk, kin, king, wife, thing, sake, thief, swear, knight • WAR: sword, shield, helmet, bow • certain ANIMALS: carp, eel, fowl, bear, lamb, meat • CLIMATE: rain

F. Plank, Early Germanic 73

Grimm’s Law/First Consonant Shift in terms of features:

1. p, t, k > f, T, x [–voiced] → [+cont] kw xw

2. b, d, g > p, t, k [+voiced] → [–voiced] gw kw

3. bh, dh, gh > (B, D, V >) > b, d, g [+aspirate] → [–aspirate] wh w w g V g /g/w

Verner’s Law

f, T, x, s > v, D, V, z [+cont] → [+voiced] / V __ [–stress]

(after Grimm’s Law 1, before Stem Stress; reflexes in “Grammatischer Wechsel”)

Grimmʼs Law in motion: http://www-personal.umich.edu/~clunis/wow/grimm/ F. Plank, Early Germanic 74 1. Lat pater Go fadar [D], ON faþer, OE fæder, OS fader, OHG fater Lat tres Go þreis, ON þrīr, OE þrīe, OS thrī, OHG thrī, drī Lat centum Go hund, ON hund(raþ), OS OE hund, OHG hunt Lat quod Go hwa, ON huat, OE hwæt, OS hwat, OHG hwaz

not in /sp, st, sk/: Lat spuere Go speiwan, OHG spīwan not /t/ in /pt, kt/: Lat octo Go ahtau, OHG ahto

2. Lat turba Go þaurp, ON þorp, OE þorp, OS thorp, OHG dorf Lat decem Go taíhun, ON tiō, OE tīen, OS tëhan, OHG zëhan Lat augere Go aukan, ON auka, OE ēacian, OS ōkian, OHG ouhhōn 'vermehren' Lat venire Go qiman, ON koma, OE cuman, OS kuman, OHG koman/quëman (< *gwem-)

3. Lat fero Go baíran, ON bera, OE OS OHG bëran Lat nebula ON nifl-, OE nifol, OS neƀal, OHG nëbul Grk θυγάτηρ Go daúhter, OS dohtar, OHG tohter Lat hostis Go gasts, ON gestr, OE giest, OS OHG gast IE *seŋgwh- Go siggwan, OIcel syngva, OS OHG singan Lat formus Go warmjan, OS OHG warm

Verner’s Law Grk πατήρ Go fadar [D] Lat fráter Go broþar [T]

F. Plank, Early Germanic 75 Grammatischer Wechsel IE stem accent suffix accent but: alternation VOICELESS VOICED often levelled! OHG heffen huobun, gihaban ziohan zugun, gizogan kiosan kurun, gikoran

līdan leiten swëhur swigar

F. Plank, Early Germanic 76 verbal inflections

Proto-IE Gk Lat Go OHG OE athematic/thematic SG 1 *-mi/*-oH phér-ō fér-ō bair-a bir-u ber-u/o

2 *-si/*-eh1i phér-eis fér-(i)s bair-is bir-is(t) bir-is 3 *-ti/*-eti phér-ei fér-(i)t bair-iþ bir-it bir-iþ PL 1 *-mes/*-omes phér-omen fér-imus bair-am bër-umēs ber-aþ

2 *-t(h1)e/*-et(h1)e phér-ete fér-itis bair-iþ bër-et ber-aþ 3 *-enti/*-onti phér-ousi fér-unt bair-and bër-ant ber-aþ *-n9ti F. Plank, Early Germanic 77 remember the family tree ...

F. Plank, Early Germanic 78 Common North-West Germanic, after East Gmc had split off (2nd/1st c. BCE)

• onset cluster /Tl/ in Gothic – /fl/ elsewhere in Gmc

PIE Go ON OE OS OHG /tl/ or /pl/? þliuhan flȳja flēon fliohan fliohan ʻfleeʼ

Has Gothic retained /Tl/ and have the others (jointly) dissimilated to /fl/? Or have the others (jointly) retained /fl/ and has Gothic assimilated to /Tl/? The second seems to be the case (if it is true that the corresponding PIE stem is *pleu-) – in which case we wouldnʼt have a shared NWGmc innovation here, but merely a shared retention, which is less significant for subgrouping. Nonetheless, retentions define the limits of speech communities just as innovations do.

In the following cases we have shared NWGmc innovations rather than retentions:

• long mid vowel lowering: Gothic /e…/ – /a…/ elsewhere in Gmc

PGmc Go ON OE OS OHG lētan láta lǣtan lātan lāzzan ʻletʼ ga-dēþ-s dáð tāt ‘deed’

F. Plank, Early Germanic 79 • monophthongisation of unstressed */ai/, */au/

PGmc Go OE OHG blind-ai blint-e ‘blind-NOM.PL’ ahtau eahta ahto ‘eight’

• *-am > *-um

PGmc Go ON OE OS OHG dag-am tag-um ‘day-DAT.PL’ qiþ-am kveþ-um quëd-um ‘say-1PL.PRES.IND’

• rhotacism: Gothic /z/ – /r/ [® Â?] elsewhere in Gmc

PGmc Go ON OE OS OHG auso eyra eare ōra ʻearʼ *wēz-um wēs-um vár-um wǣr-on wār-um ‘(we) were’

F. Plank, Early Germanic 80 • other umlaut only innovated in NWGmc reduplicating verbs abandoned, only retained in Go verbal middle/passive inflection abandoned, only retained in Go compound demonstrative ‘this’ only in NWGmc OIce FEM sjá (þessi), OE FEM þios, OFr/OS thius, OHG desiu [more, yet to come] F. Plank, Early Germanic 81 2.3a. Golden Horn(s) of Gallehus, North Schleswig, 5th century (North Germanic)

Orignals stolen and melted down in 1802; copies stolen again and damaged in 2007. See further: http://oldtiden.natmus.dk/udstillingen/yngre_jernalder/guldhornene/language/uk/ http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/abfragen/standard/deutung2_eng.asp?findno= 28&ort=Gallehus&objekt=Goldhorn

ek hlewagastiR holtijaR horna tawido

‘I, Lee-Guest [= Protected Guest; or: Fame-Guest], son of Holt [or: from Holt/Woodlander], made this horn [or: this couple of horns]’ F. Plank, Early Germanic 82 The language of this inscription is Germanic, showing these Gmc innovations: Phonology: Grimm’s Law, having applied to ek, gastiR, holt, horna – cf. PIE *eģ(om) (cf. Lat ego), *ghosti-s (cf. Lat hostis), *kḷəd-o-s (cf. Gk kládos ‘twig’), *(a)ḱer- (cf. Lat cornū); Morphology: weak preterite tense with dental suffix right after verb stem; marked nominative singular, with accusative singular unmarked (in some declensions – owing to the Auslautgesetze: loss of final consonants other than /z, r/ in unstressed syllables, which eliminated ACC.SG -m but preserved NOM.SG -z/-r, e.g., *stain-az *stain-am > stain-s/-r, stain); derived patronymic or noun of provenance (specifically Gmc?); Syntax: basic clause order SOV; order Name – Apposition; no DEF marking through articles (but these three syntactic traits are shared by all early IE languages); compounding (esp. AN and NN, such as hlewa-gastir, bid-ward above) as a common construction principle, often in preference to syntactic phrases;

F. Plank, Early Germanic 83 Lexicon: descriptive proper personal names (‘Lee-/Fame-Guest’, ‘Oath-Protector’, ‘Bee-Wolf’), often bi-partite (compounds);

hlewa ‘shelter’, cf. ModE lee (the sheltered side), also luke-warm; PGmc *hlēw-: not known outside Gmc, hence presumably not IE;

tawido, cf. ON tæja ‘do, make’, Go taujan ‘do, make’, OE tawian ‘prepare’, OHG zowēn ‘do, make’, zawēn ‘gelingen’: no convincing analogues outside Gmc. F. Plank, Early Germanic 84 Within Germanic, it shows characteristics of (early) North Germanic: Phonology: 1SG personal pronoun ek (vowel quality retained) rather than ik; 1SG.PRET.IND inflection of weak verb -o rather than -a or -e; unstressed theme vowel in gastiR retained;

Morphology: marked nominative singular retained (as also in Gothic).

Is this ordinary language or a poem? typical old (common) Germanic metrical structure: one line of two halflines, of two trochaic/dactylic feet each, the first with anacrusis; alliteration (identical onsets of prominent syllables of first, second, and third foot) rather than end-rhyme (inspired by stem stress, with left rather than right word edge prosodically prominent?)

ek (hlewagastiR) (holtijaR) ≤ (horna) (tawido) F. Plank, Early Germanic 85 2.3b. Tjurkø Bracteate C, Blekinge, Sweden, 5th century (North Germanic) For picture and interpretation see Düwel, Runenkunde. Stuttgart: Metzler, 3rd edn., pp48, 51–52; further: http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/abfragen/standard/deutung2_eng.asp?findno= 137&ort=Tjurk%F6+I&objekt=Brakteat+%28C%2DTyp%29 http://www.arild-hauge.com/danske_runeinnskrifter4.htm

wurte runoR an walhakurne : heldaR kunimudiu word-by-word gloss: wrought runes on Welsh-corn warrior tribe-protector translation: ‘Held(ar) made (wrought) these runes on the Welsh-grain for Kunimu(n)d(ur)’ F. Plank, Early Germanic 86 Syntax: V dO oO S iO i.e., verb-initial declarative main clause, and direct and oblique objects before subject and indirect object, thus: entire TOPIC/GIVEN part before COMMENT/NEW part, without introductory expletive/presentative 3SG.NEUT subject pronoun (with word order, rather than specialised function words, such as articles, being used for information structuring);

preference for compounding (here walha-kurne, kuni-mundur);

Lexicon: descriptive proper personal names (‘Warrior’, ‘Tribe-Protector’, others such as Hengist, Horsa), often bi-partite (compounds); rūne ‘Rune’, cf. NHG raunen; exclusively Gmc, *rūnō ‘secret consultation, mystery’? (later borrowed into non-Gmc languages such as French and Finnish, runo ‘poem, song’; but also cf. OIr rún ‘mystery’, perhaps Lat rūmor ‘rumour’; < PIE *reuə- ‘graben’?).

Another Germanic-style poem: wurte runoR ≤ an walha-kurne heldaR kunimudiu F. Plank, Early Germanic 87 Remember the family tree ...

F. Plank, Early Germanic 88 2.4. What we would like to see here now is Common West Germanic in action: that is, texts. To qualify, they would have to date from between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE – that is, from after the estrangement and separation of North Gmc and West Gmc (perhaps owing to other speech communities moving in, disconnecting what used to be a NWGmc population and dialect continuum, with NWGmc groups themselves also migrating in centrifugal directions) and before distinct languages or language groups would crystallise out of the dialects of the Ingvaeonic (North Sea Gmc), Istvaeonic (Rhine-Weser Gmc), and Erminonic (Elbe Gmc) tribal confederations.

But it seems there aren’t any: literary pursuits won’t have been at a premium in this unsettled period.

Still, we can identify innovations which were shared among West Germanic dialects, and only among these, as well as innovations only shared among North Germanic, giving evidence of a period in the history of these two sets of peoples where novel linguistic practices would spread within the subsets of either one or the other set (West Gmc, North Gmc), but not beyond.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 89 Below is a selection of innovations that came to distinguish WGmc.

Their relative dating has sometimes been controversial, though, and this has sometimes been felt to throw doubt on this whole subgrouping scenario, even questioning the reality of West Germanic as a period for innovations shared across all of WGmc and not shared with anybody of more distant ancestry. Look forward to Advanced Gmc Hist Ling, where (I think) the just verdict will be in favour of WGmc.

F. Plank, Early Germanic 90 West Germanic innovations, relative to Proto-Germanic (or to Gmc minus East Gmc, = North-West Gmc)

(Note: West Germanic is sometimes also referred to as South Germanic, in view of the future location of descendant speech communities, with English extending furthest to the north.)

Phonology • Consonant Gemination (plus Umlaut; later loss of /j/, retained in OS as /i/; later sometimes degemination after long syllable)

'V Cα j → 'V Cα Cα j (C ≠ /r/)

Gothic ON OS OE OHG saljan selja sellian sellan sellen kunjis kynjes kunnies cynnes chunnes (‘race’, GEN.SG) bidjan biDja biddian biddan bitten satjan setja settian settan setzen skapjan skepja scieppan scepfen (*þakjan) þekja thekkian þeccan decchan

F. Plank, Early Germanic 91 gemination also before /r, l/, rarely before /w, m, n/

baitrs bitr bittar bittor bittar

no gemination of /r/

farjan feria ferian ferian ferjen (‘fahren’, TRANS)

• /D/ (whether original PGmc or due to Verner’s Law) > /d/, in all positions (thus, e.g., ON flóD, faDir – OE flōd, fæder);

tendency also for other voiced spirants to become voiced stops especially in West Germanic, most completely in Upper German (but in certain environments also in East and North Gmc)

• loss of final /z, r/ in unaccented syllables (eliminating marked NOM.SG, e.g. PGmc *stain-az, Proto-Norse *stain-az (> ON steinn), Faroese stein-ur, Go stains > OE stān, OS stēn, OHG stein ‘stone’)

• various processes of diphthongisation, with one source element a glide (geminate, final, or intervocalic): F. Plank, Early Germanic 92 Morphology • certain high-frequency verbs appear in short, irregular forms (e.g., OE dōn ‘do’, gān ‘go’, OHG also stān ‘stand’, vs. Go –, gaggan, standan; in IE originally reduplicating)

• for 2nd person singular indicative preterite of strong verbs WGmc has *-i (e.g., OE bund-e, OS bund-i, OHG bunt-i ‘(thou) boundest’), drawing on a former aorist ending (IE -es), whereas North as well as East Gmc continue earlier perfect endings (ON ba-zt, Go ban-st)

• an inflected infinitive (“gerund”) with suffix *-ja is innovated, to be added onto the bare infinitive in -n: e.g., OE niman, to nimenne (DAT), OHG nëman, zi nëmanne

• originally neuter weak nouns shift to masculine gender, e.g. PGmc *naman-, Go namo, ON naf-n NEUT (cf. Lat nomen); OHG, OS namo, OE, OFris nama MASC ‘name’

• a derivational suffix OE -had, which turns nouns or also adjectives into nouns designating states or conditions of being (cild-had ‘childhood’, preost-had ‘priesthood’ etc.), OS/OFr -hed, OHG -heit is created from the noun PGmc *haidus ‘quality, manner’, which was originally the head of a noun-noun compound; no comparable downgrading of *haidus in EGmc and NGmc F. Plank, Early Germanic 93

• copula ‘be’ is everywhere in Gmc suppletive, combining IE stems *h1es-/*s- (‘be’, cf. Lat es-t 3SG, s-um 1SG) and *wes- (‘live’?, cf. Skt vaś-ati 3SG of ‘dwell’); but in WGmc the IE stem *bhuH- (‘grow, become’?, cf. Skt bháv- ati 3SG of ‘become’, Lat fu-it 3SG.IND.PERF of ‘be’) is used as a third stem for indicative present (all three persons in OE, only 1st and 2nd in OHG/OS, only SG in OS), subjunctive and infinitive and present participle (OE only), and 2SG.IMP (OE and OHG); in OE yet another stem is used in 2SG.IND, IE *h1er- /*h1or- ‘to have moved/arisen = to be’; also, in OE the forms based on *bhuH- coexist with ones based on *h1es-/*s- and *h1er-/*h1or-. (The actual endings which are combined with the stem *bhuH- are in fact those of the *h1es-/*s- stem.)

Go ON OE OS OHG PRES IND SG 1 im em eom beo(m) bium bim/bin 2 is est eart bis(t) bis(t) bis(t) 3 ist es is biþ is(t) ist PL 1 sijum erom sind(on) bioþ sind(un) birum(es) 2 sijuþ eroþ sind(on) bioþ sind(un) birut/bir(e)nt 3 sijun ero sind(on) bioþ sind(un) sint(un) IMP SG 2 (sijais) ves wes beo wis bis/wis INF, PRET wisan vesa wesan beon wesan wësan F. Plank, Early Germanic 94 Lexicon • high-frequency reduplicating verb PIE *dhē-, WGmc *dō- ‘to do’ only retained in WGmc (OE dōn, PRET dyde, OS dōn, OHG tuon), replaced in EGmc and NGmc by other Gmc verbs (Go taujan, ON gøra)

• masculine form of numeral ‘2’ derived from WGmc distributive numeral (*twajina-): OE twēgen, OFris twēne, OHG zwēne, vs. Go twai, ON tveir

• coordinative conjunction OE and/ond/end, OHG anti/enti/inti/unti vs. Go jah and auk, ON ok

• and some 5% of further vocabulary only shared among WGmc, either as retentions or new formations: e.g., E/G great/groß, clean/klein, sheep/Schaf, knight/Knecht, ghost/Geist, path/Pfad, nest/Nest, speak/sprechen, fight/fechten, make/machen F. Plank, Early Germanic 95 Once more, remember the family tree, homing in on “Anglo-Frisian” ...

F. Plank, Early Germanic 96 2.5. Again we are missing texts from the period where Ingvaeonic, as distinct from Istvaeonic and Erminonic, had not yet separated into Anglo-Frisian and Old Saxon.

While Ingvaeonic/North Sea Gmc as such is a robustly valid group (notwithstanding substantial non-Ingvaeonic admixtures of Old Saxon), its status as a proto-language to be subgrouped into two branches, as in the family tree reproduced above, is actually quite controversial; a dialect continuum spanning all of Ingvaeonic, with Old Saxon forming a transition to Istvaeonic and Erminonic, is probably a safer assumption than privileging an English-Frisian special relationship.

The similarity within Ingvaeonic can be illustrated by a quick comparative look at a passage from the Old Saxon Genesis (Fragment I, mid-9th century; original orthography retained) and its translation into Old English (Genesis B):

F. Plank, Early Germanic 97 Old Saxon ... ˘˘ Nu uuit hriuuig mugum [mugon] sorogon for them sîđa, ˘˘ uuand he hunk selƀo gibôd, that uuit hunk sulic uuîti ˘˘ uuardon scoldin, harama [haramo] mêstan. ˘˘ ...

Old English ... ˘˘ Nū wit hrēowige magon sorgian for þīs sīðe: ˘˘ forþon hē unc self bebēad, þæt wit unc wīte ˘˘ warian sceolden, hearma mǣstne. ˘˘ ...

Mod English ... ˘˘ Now we two, rueing, must sorrow for this conduct/fate. ˘˘ For He us two Himself warned that we two our twos̓ punishment ˘˘ should beware/avoid, greatest of harms. ˘˘ [after http://homepages.bw.edu/~uncover/oldrievegenesisb.htm]

For lexical and morphological analysis of this passage see Hutterer, Die germanischen Sprachen, p251.

Also, comparatively read the Old Saxon, Old English, and Old Frisian chapters in Robinson, Old English and its closest relatives, and study the comparative table on pp250–251 as well as the entire Chapter 10. F. Plank, Early Germanic 98 Anglo-Frisian (and Old Saxon) innovations, relative to common WGmc

Phonology

• a non-event: stops unchanged, no Second (or High German) Consonant Shift (cf., e.g., E pound, ten, elk – G Pfund, zehn, Elch)

• loss of nasal before fricatives /s z, f v, T D/, with compensatory lengthening (and nasalisation?) of the preceding vowel:

OS ūs, OE ūs, OFris ūs OHG uns OS fīf, OE fīf, OFris fīf OHG fimf OS ōthar, OE ōþer, OFris ōther OHG andar

(A similar change also occurred, later and independently, in the Upper High German dialect of Alemannic (= Erminonic). Before /h x/ it had also occurred earlier, in PGmc, before /s z, f v/ also in Old Norse.)

• fronting (“brightening”) of /a/ > /æ/ (> /e/) (e.g., E street, deed, meal – G Straße, Tat, Mahl), except before nasal, where /a/ > /O/ (“Verdumpfung”, e.g., reflexes in E long, done – G lang, getan); probably separate changes for long and short /a/, the short-vowel change taking place independently in OE and OFris F. Plank, Early Germanic 99 • /au/ > OE /ēa/, OFris /ā/, OS /ō/ (e.g., E cheap – G kauf-en)

• palatalisation and assibiliation: /k, g, sk/ > /tS, j, S/ before front vowels: e.g., E chin, yellow, yesterday; OFris tsyurka ‘church’ – G Kinn, gelb, gestern; /sk/ > /S/ also outside Anglo-Frisian: e.g., E ship – G Schiff

• weakening of /g/ after vowel to glide and off-glide of diphthong (cf. E day, way, hail – G Tag, Weg, Hagel)

• another non-event: no defricativisation of final /B/ (from IE /bh/ by Grimm’s Law); compare OE wīf – OHG wīp

• dropping of final /r/ (< /s/) of personal and interrogative pronouns

OS, OE hē OHG er cf. Go is (with onset /h/ added) OS hwē, OE hwā OHG wer Go was OS wī, OE wē OHG wir Go weis OS mī, OE mē OHG mir Go mis

F. Plank, Early Germanic 100 Morphology • verbs: one form for all three persons in the plural (throughout all tenses and moods); thus OE -Vþ, -Vn (see OE Inflection Tables), OFris -Vth, -Vn, equally in OS; cf. G wir hör-en, ihr hör-t, sie hör-en (with 2PL distinct from 1/3PL)

Lexicon • 3rd person personal pronoun exclusively with h- stem: OE hē, him, hēo, hire, hit – OFris hi, him, hiu, hit ‘he, him, she, her, it’

• replacement of old 3rd person reflexive pronoun continuing PIE *se, PGmc *sek(e) (cf. Go sik, ON sik, OHG sih) by personal pronoun (and eventual re-creation of a reflexive pronoun with self)

• OE drȳge (ModE dry) < *drugi-, vs. OHG trockan < *druknu • ...