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Home , Albert Sechehaye, Barbara Skarga, Charles Bally, Ernst Windisch, Ferdinand de Saussure, Georg Curtius

NOTES AND REFERENCES

Chapter I

1. These beliefs underlie much recent work in of and are especially prominent in the work of CoD ins, Pickering, Knorr, Mulkay, Barnes and Bloor. See Karin D. Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay, "Introduction: Emerging Principles in Social Studies of Science" in Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science, eds. Karin D. Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay (London: Sage, 1983). 2. Michael Mulkay, G.N. Gilbert, and S. Woolgar, "Problem Areas and Research Networks in Science," Sociology, vol. 7 (1975), pp. 187-203. 3. Collins, for example, shows how negotiation over what constitutes an adequate experiment structured research on gravitational waves. But even though he mentions that these disagreements and negotiations were taking place within a broad area of consensus, he does not discuss the role of this consensus in structuring the research and the disagreements. (H.M. Collins, "The Replication of an Experiment in Physics," in Science in Context: Readings in Sociology of Science, eds. Barry Barnes and David Edge (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1982). 4. Richard Whitley, "The Establishment and Structure of the as Reputational Organizations," in Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, eds. Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley. Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook VI (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1982), p. 330. 5. Gerald Geison, "Scientific Change, Emerging Specialties, and Research Schools," History of Science, vol. 19 (1981), pp. 20-40. 6. According to Sorokin, "All the theories are divided into a few major schools, each one being subdivided into its varieties, and each variety being represented by several of the most typical works." Pitirim Sorokin, Contemporary Sociological Theories (New York: Harper and Row, 1928), p.xx. 7. Pierre Duhem, The Aim and Structure ofPhysical Theory (New York: Atheneum, 1962), Part I, Ch. IV. 8. Geison, p. 23. 9. J.B. Morrell, "The Chemist Breeders: The Research Schools of Liebig and Thomas Thompson," Ambix, vol. 23 (1976), pp. 175-86. Robert Marc Friedman, "Constituting the Polar Front, 1919-1920," Isis (1982), pp. 343-362. 10. David L. Krantz, "Schools and Systems: The Mutual Isolation of Operant and Non• operant as a Case Study," Journal of the History ofthe Behavioral Sciences, vol. 7 (1971), p. 90. II. Diana Crane, Invisible Colleges (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), pp. 87-88. 12. Crane, p. 87.

273 Notes and References 274

13. Karl Popper, Objective Knowledge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 27. 14. Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963), p. 149. 15. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962); also The Essential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977). 16. Michael Polanyi, "Theory of Potential Adsorption," Science, vol. 141 (1963),1010-13. 17. Crane, pp. 87-88. 18. Mary Hesse argues this point with regard to in Chapter I of her The Structure of Scientific Inference (London: 1974). 19. Edna Heidbredder, "Functionalism," in Schools ofPsychology: A Symposium, ed. David L. Krantz (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969), pp. 35-36. 20. Fritz K. Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1969), p. 308. 21. William Coleman, Biology in the XIXth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977), p. 151. 22. Andre Malraux, The Voices of Silence (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1978), p. 381. 23. Victor Erlich, "Russian ," Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 34 (1973), p. 627. 24. H.R. Niebuhr, "Sects," Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1967 ed. For a more extensive comparison of schools and sects see F. Znaniecki, The Social Role ofthe Man ofKnowledge (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1940). 25. Malraux, p. 367. 26. Stanislaw Ossowski, Dziela, Vol. 4, 0 Nauce (Collected Works. On Science) (: P.W.N., 1967). Translations from Ossowski are my own. 27. Ossowski, p. 226. 28. Ossowski, p. 227. 29. D.O. Edge and M.J. Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed (New York and London: Wiley, 1976). 30. Donald A. MacKenzie Statistics in Britain. 1865-1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981). 31. Jerzy Szacki, "Schools in Science," Polish Sociological Bulletin, vol. 1 (1976), p. 19. 32. Edward Shils, "Tradition, Ecology, and Institution in the ," Daedalus, p. 763. 33. Michael Polanyi, Science. Faith and Society (Chicago,: University of Chicago Press, 1946), p. 19. 34. Richard Whitley, The Intellectual and Social Organization of the Sciences (Oxford: Claren- don Press, 1984). 35. John Ziman, Public Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), p. 133. 36. Ziman, p. Ill. 37. Krantz, p. 87. 38. Crane, p. 87. 39. This role of the academies is described in Joseph Ben- David, "Organization, Social Control and Cognitive Change in Science," in Joseph Ben-David and T.N. Clark, eds., Culture and Its Creators (Chicago: Chicago Univ. Press, 1977), pp. 244-55 passim. 40. Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1973), pp. 3-40. 41. Szacki, "Schools in Science," p. 19. Notes and References 275

42. Szacki, "Schools in Science," p. 19. 43. Szacki, "Schools in Science," p. 20. 44. On marginality and innovation in science, see Michael Mulkay, The Social Process of Innovation (London: Macmillan, 1972); Joseph Ben-David and Randall Collins, "Social Factors in the Origins ofa New Science: The Case of Psychology," American Sociological Review, vol. 31 (1966). 45. The advantages of a peripheral location might, especially in the case of "big science," be outweighed by the disadvatanges of a lack of necessary equipment and resources. 46. , "The Specificity of the Scientific Field and the Social Conditions of the Progress of Reason," Information vol. 14 (1975), p. 33. 47. On the autonomy of research institutes see, for example, Ben-David and Collins. "The Social Factors ... " The autonomy of directors of research institutes can be compared with the power of Parisian professors as patrons; see T.N. Clark Prophets and Patrons: The French University and the Emergence ofthe Social Sciences (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973).

Chapter II

1. Otto Jespersen, (New York: Norton,1964), p. 33; Georges Mounin, Histoire de la linguistique des origines au xx·me siecle (Paris: PDF, 1974), p. 161. 2. Quoted in Jespersen, p. 33. 3. S. Lefmann, Franz Bopp. sein Leben. seine Wissenschaft (: 1897), pp. 10*, 33*,37*. 4. On the development ofiinguistics in England and the obstacles which it encountered, see Linda Dowling, "Victorian Oxford and the Science of Language," in PMLA, Vol. 97 No. 2 (March 1982), pp. 160-178. 5. See for example the list of Curtius' foreign students in , "," Biographisches Jahrbuchfiir Altertumskunde, vol. 9 (1886), pp. 75-128; reprinted in Thomas A. Sebeok, Portraits of Linguists (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1966), vol. I, pp. 344-45. 6. Quoted in , Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978), p. 98. 7. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Essential Tension (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1977), p. xii. 8. Friedrich von Schlegel, On the Language and Wisdom ofthe Indians (1808), in The Aesthetic and Miscellaneous Works, trans. E.J. Millington (London: Bohn, 1849). p. 427. 9. Karl Mannheim, "Conservative Thought," in From Karl Mannheim, ed. Kurt Wolff (New York: Oxford Dniv. Press, 1971), p. 147. 10. The question of the origins oflanguage was, of course, not a new one, and it was especially salient during the latter half of the eighteenth century, when Jean-Jacques Rousseau and G. Herder were among the many trying to find an answer to it. They were both transitional figures , incorporating elements of the Enlightenment as well as in their thought. On the anti-Enlightenment views of Rousseau and especially Herder, see Isaiah Berlin, Vico and Herder (New York: Random House, 1976, pp. 177-78), where ideas similar to those I describe as Romantic are attributed to them both. The comparative grammarians were much less interested in the question of the as a human faculty than in the recovery and understanding of that stage of linguistic development when achieved the greatest perfection. Both Grimm and Schlegel 276 Notes and References

believed, however, that the question of origin might be answered by means of comparative grammar. 11. Jacob Grimm, Vo"eden zur deutschen Grammatik von 1819 und 1822, ed. Hugo Steger (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), p. 18. 12. Grimm, p. 19. 13. Franz Bopp, A Comparative Grammar of . Zend. Greek. . Gothic. German and Sclavonic Languages, vol. I (1833), trans. E.B. Eastwick (London: Williams and Norgate, 1862), p. v. 14. Franz Bopp, Vocalismus (Berlin: Nicolaische Buchhandlung, 1836), p. 1. 15. It is here that the differences beteween the Romantic conception of an organism and the modern of structure (so often based on organic metaphors) become most apparent. Our notions of organism differ from those of the Romantics, and therefore our organic metaphors are based on different premises. For Schlegel and Bopp, a language had an organic structure not because they saw a relationship between its elements, but because they believed that all these elements and their unity were generated by the same life-force. Their concept of an organism is much closer to that of the Naturphilosophen and the vitalists than to that of the reductionist biologists of the mid-nineteenth century. And it should not be forgotten that the designation of something as organic carried within it an explicitly normative judgment: organic entities were harmonious, natural, and vital, with no of accident, artifice, or external determination. See also William M. Norman, The and Comparative , Ph.D. Diss. Princeton 1972 (Ann Arbor: Univ. Microfilms International, 1975), p. 19. 16. , "The Schleiermacher Biography,~ in Selected Writings, ed. H.P. Rickman (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), p. 61. 17. Johann Wolfgang Goethe, "Principes de Philosophie zoologique discutes en Mars 1830 au sein de I' Academie Royale de Sciences,~ in Naturwissenschaftlische Schriften, Werke, Vol. VII (Weimar: Bohlau, 1890); quoted after , The Problem ofKnowledge (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1950), p. 140. 18. Fr. v. Schlegel, On the Language and Wisdom ... , p. 455. 19. Fr. v. Schlegel, On the Language and Wisdom ... , p. 449. One of the results of this approach is that only organic languages can be said to have a history - they carry their own laws of development in their internal forms, just like natural organisms. According to Schlegel, mechanical languages have no possibility of development; they cannot change systemati• cally for they possess no internal living forces. Change in such languages can be only accidental and can never follow from the essence of the language. Conversely, organic languages are stable and develop coherently; the principle of their internal organization can be preserved. 20. August Wilhelm von Schlegel, Lectures on Dramatic and Literature (1808). trans. John Black (London: Bohn, 1848), p. 340. 21. Humboldt's classification included a fourth category of"incorporating~ languages, where a single "word" expressed a , an , a verb, etc. 22. Franz Bopp, Konjugationssystem der Sanskrit Sprache (Frankfurt am Main, 1816). 23. Franz Bopp, Konjugationssystem, p. 332. 24. "If we can draw any conclusions from the fact that roots are monosyllabic in Sanskrit and its kindred languages, it is this, that such languages cannot display any great facility of expressing grammatical modification by the change of their original materials, without the Notes and References 277

help of foreign additions. We must expect that in this family oflanguages the principle of compounding words will extend to the first rudiments of speech, as to the persons, tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns, etc. That this really is the case, I hope I shall be enabled to prove in this essay, in opposition to the opinion of a celebrated German author, who believes that the grammatical forms of Sanskrit and of its kindred languages consist merely of inflections, or inner modifications of words." Franz Bopp, "Analytical Comparison of Sankrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic Languages" in Annals of Oriental Literature, 1820, p.l0. 25. Paul Kiparsky, "From Paleogrammarians to Neogrammarians," in Studies in the History of Linguistics: Traditions and , ed. Dell Hymes (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1974). 26. Kiparsky, p. 332. 27. Bopp, Konjugationssystem, p. 37. 28. Bopp did admit some "morphophonemic " by allowing for the operation of what he called mechanical laws: he assigned weights to roots and suffixes depending on their voweis in order to explain some variations in the vowel of the root syllable. Berthold Delbriick, Introduction to the Study ofLanguage( 1880), trans. Eva Channing (Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V., 1974). 29. Bopp, Vocalismus, p. 12. 30. Georg Curtius, Zur ErkHiIung der Personalendungen," in Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik, vol. 4 (1871), p. 213; quoted by Kiparsky, p. 333. 31. There have been attempts to portray Schleicher exclusively as a Hegelian (e.g., by John Arbuckle in "Schleicher and the Linguistics/ Controversy," in Word, vol. 26 (1970), pp.17-31), and to deny that the natural sciences had any influence on his thOUght. In view of his constant references to biology and his use of metaphors from the natural sciences, it seems unjustifiable to view Schleicher simply as a follower of Hegel. The influence of the evolutionary biological models should not, however, be interpreted as a direct influence of Darwin. Schleicher admired Darwin's work and attempted to prove that linguistic evidence of comparative grammar supports Darwin's theory (in Die Darwinische Theorie und die SprachwissenschaJt, 1860. 2nd ed. 1873, Weimar: Bohlau), but the essential aspects of his theory and his model of language predated Darwin. 32. Schleicher, Die Sprachen Europas in systematischer Ubersicht (: Konig, 1850). 33. (Bonn: Konig, 1848). 34. Schleicher, Die deutsche Sprache (Stuttgart: Gottaschen Verlag, 1860, 2nd. ed. 1869), p. 21. 35. Schleicher, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 33. 36. Schleicher, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 35. 37. Bopp and his immediate followers did not attempt to reconstruct the actual or hypotheti• cal proto-Indo-European roots or words. In their comparisons, they attempted to discern the fullest existing form, to assign a to it, and to trace the changes related words had undergone in Indo-European languages. It was Schleicher who first attempted a full reconstruction of conjectured forms. But we can speak of reconstruction also in reference to the earlier linguists, since to describe the origin of forms, they offered conjectures about which elements of the existing forms were original. The goal, according to Bopp, was to arrive at the oldest and purest form which would also be complete and would reflect its provenance most transparently. 38. Mannheim, "Conservative Thought," pp. 147-48. 278 Notes and References

39. Many historians of linguistics suggest that the early comparative grammarians were directly influenced by the work of the comparative anatomists, especially by Georges Cuvier, who conducted his research at the same time that Bopp and Schlegel were studying Sanskrit in Paris. Schlegel explicitly acknowledges the similarities between the study of comparative anatomy and that of the inner structure of language: "There is, however, one single point, the investigation of which ought to decide every doubt, and elucidate every difficulty; the structure of the comparative grammar of the languages furnishes as certain a key to their general analogy, as the study of comparative anatomy has done to the loftiest branch of " (Schlegel, On the Language, p. 439). However, it seems to me that this reference to comparative anatomy cannot be taken as proof of Cuvier's influence on Schlegel. Cuvier is best known for his principle of corre• lation, according to which each part of an organism is intimately interrelated with all the other parts in such a way that a knowledge of one part enables the researcher to deduce the shape and form of all the other parts. Although both Bopp and Schlegel believed that the principle underlying the grammar oflanguage shapes the appearance of each root, they did not propose a functional correlation between forms and did not claim that a change in one aspect oflanguage necessarily brings about changes in other aspects, which would be required by Cuvier's principle. Moreover, Cuvier staunchly opposed any suggestion that organisms undergo historical transformations, while this was the essence of Schlegel's and Bopp's beliefs about language and their own methodology. Also, Cuvier was predominantly concerned with the scientific classification of organisms; for Bopp and Schlegel, this was a secondary problem. References to the natural sciences appear too scattered to warrant the conjecture of a direct influence of anyone natural science on comparative grammar. Bopp refers to his task as the "physics and physiology" oflanguage, as a "rigorous and systematic process of comparison and anatomical investigation" (Comparative Grammar, pp. XIII, VII). He sees a similarity between the "history and natural description of language" and "natural history" (quoted in Hans Arens, Sprach• wissenschafi, Munich: Alber, 1955, p. 198). Elsewhere he compares his method of analysis to "anatomic dissection or chemical analysis" (Comparative Grammar, p. 124). Although these multiple but vague references to various natural sciences do not testity to any direct influence of physiology, anatomy, physics, or chemistry on comparative grammar, they apparently reflect a need to claim for the new discipline the methodological rigor of the natural sciences. 40. The importance of sound laws for the new "scientific" etymology is best exemplified by the work of August Pott, who, as a student of Bopp, was mainly interested in developing the etymological aspects of comparative grammar and was among the first comparative grammarians to insist on the importance of and sound laws for the new science. 41. Schleicher, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 47. He had argued the same point already in 1850: "Just as the progressive history of language can be recognized as a regular process of becoming, so also in the decline oflanguage rules and laws are apparent" (Die Sprachen Europas, p. 15). 42. Schleicher, Die darwinische Theorie, p. 7. 43. Schleicher, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 50. 44. "Even in the earliest periods of a language, at a time when sounds were even more steadfast, a power begins to take effect, working in opposition to the multiplicity of forms in order to limit them more and more to the minimum necessary. This is the above- Notes and References 279

mentioned differentiation ofless commonly used but justifiedly special forms into others, especially those in frequent use which strongly influence linguistic feeling - in other words, the process of analogy. The striving toward ease and uniformity, towards the handling of the maximum number of words in a uniform manner, and the ever-declining feeling for the significance and origins of special forms, all result in the fact that later languages possess fewer grammatical forms than earlier ones, that the structure oflanguage in time becomes more and more simple" (Schleicher, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 55). 45. Schleicher, Die Sprachen Europas, p. 19. 46. Schleicher, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 65. 47. Schleicher, Die deutsche Sprache, p. 64. 48. In the Compendium ofthe Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European. Sanskrit. Greek and Latin Languages (London: Triibner, 1874), Schleicher repeatedly uses such turns of phrase as "less regularly," "frequently," "by no means invariable," "generally," etc. 49. Norman, The Neogrammarians, p. 39. 50. Georg Curtius, Principles of Greek Etymology, tr. England (London: Murrey, 1875), p. 104. 51. Georg Curtius, "Bemerkungen iiber die Tragweite der Lautgesetze insbesondere im Griechischen und Lateinischen" (1871), in E. Windisch, ed., Kleine Schriften (: Hirzel, 1886), p. 52. 52. Curtius, Principles, p. 105. 53. Curtius, "Bemerkungen," p. 55. 54. Curtius, Principles, p. 110. 55. Curtius, "Bemerkungen," p. 55. 56. For example, Curtius argues that roots expressing referential meanings were less affeted by sound changes than roots expressing relations: "We can further assume that comfort will have the greatest impact on those syllables and words that possess no great weight as regards meaning and the least impact on those most filled with meaning. Naturally, such differences do not rest on conscious reflection, but are to be understood psychologi• cally, i.e. from the soul of the speaker" ("Bemerkungen," pp. 55-56).

Chapter III

1. On the development of German universities, their ideological underpinnings and organi• zation, see Charles E. McClelland, State. Society and University in 1700- 1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); Fritz K. Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community 1890-1914 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969); Friedrich Paulsen, Die deutschen Universitiiten und das Universitiitsstudium (Berlin: Asher, 1902); Joseph Ben- David, The Scientist's Role in Society (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1969). 2. S. Lefmann, Franz Bopp. sein Leben. seine Wissenschaft (Berlin: 1877), pp. 81-82. 3. , Humanist without Portofolio: An Anthology of the Writings of Wilhelm von Humboldt, tr. Marianne Cowan (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1963). p. 266. 4. Wilhelm von Humboldt, Schriften zur Politik und zum Bildungswesen. Werke infunfBiinden, Vol. IV (Stuttgart: J.G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung, 1964), p 261. 5. Humboldt, Humanist ... , pp. 252-253. 280 Notes and References

6. Germanistik und deutsche Nation 1806-1848. Literaturwissenschaft und Sozialwissen- schaften 2. ed. Jorg Jochen Mllller (Stuttgart: I.B. Metzler. 1974). especially pp. 51- 58. 7. Humboldt. SChriften .... p. 256. 8. Franz Bopp. Vergleichende Grammatik (Berlin. 1833). p. XIII. 9. F. Babbinger. "Othmar Frank (1770-1848). Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Morgen• landischen Studien in Bayem." Zeitschriftfor Bayerische Landesgeschichte. Vol. 22. Heft I (1959). pp. 77-123. p. 112. 10. Lefmann. p. 73. II. Lefmann. p. 131*. 12. Ben-David. Scientist's Role. chapter 6; Maurice Crosland. ''The Development of Professional Career in France." in Maurice Crosland. ed. The Emergence of Science in Western Europe (New York: Science History Publications. 1975). pp. 139-160. 13. Louis Liard. L'enseignement superieur en France 1789- 1893 (Paris: Colin. 1894). Vol. II. Chapters I-III. 14. Ben-David. SciRntists Role. ch. 6. 15. Terry N. Clark. Prophets and Patrons: The French University and the Emergence ofthe Social Sciences (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press. 1973). ch. I. 16. F. Paulsen. "Wesen und geschichtliche Entwicklung der deutschen Universitaten." in W. Lexis, ed. Die deutschen Universitiiten. Vol. I (Berlin: Asher. 1893), p. 40. 17. J. Conrad. "Allgemeine Statistik der deutschen Universitiiten," in Lexis. p. 121. 18. Humboldt, Humanist .... p. 138. 19. Stefanie Seidel-Vollmann. Die romanische Philologie an der Universitiit Miinchen (1826-1913) (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. 1977). pp. 120-21. 20. Seidel-Vollmann. p. 123. 21. Festschrift zur 500-Jahrjeier der Universitiit Greifswald (Greifswald. 1956). vol. II. p. 235. 22. Clark. pp. 51-55. 23. Liard. p. 63. 24. Ernst Windisch, Geschichte der Sanskrit-Philologie und indischen Altertumskunde (Strassburg: Triibner, 1917). part I, p. 147. 25. Liard, pp. 341,494; see also: Michel Breal, Quelques mots sur/'instruction pub/ique en France (Paris: Hachette. 1872). esp. "Les Facultes", pp. 327-401; and Claude Digeon, La Crise allemande de la penseefranr;aise (1870-1914) (Paris: PUF. 1959). 26. Ferdinand Lot, DiplOmes d'etudes et dissertations inaugurales. Etude de statistique comparee (Paris. 1910). p, 28. 27. Steven Turner, ''The Prussian Professoriat and the Research Imperative 1790-1840." in H.N. Jahnke and M. Otte, eds .• Epistemological and Social Problems of the Sciences in the Early Nineteenth Century (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1981). p. 112. 28. For Hermann's view of the new discipline see . Zum heutigen Stand der Sprachwissenschaft (Strassburg: TrObner. 1885). p. 6. note. 29. Georg Curtius. Die Sprachvergleichung in ihrem Verhiiltnis zur klassischen Philologie (: Blochman, 1845), p. 3. 30. Ludo Rocher, "Les philologues c1assiques et les debuts de la grammaire comparee, in Revue de rUniversite de Bruxelles. Vol. 10 (1958), p. 251. 31. Lefmann, p. 69*. 32. Curtius, Die Sprachvergleichung ... , pp. 3-4. 33. Rocher. passim. Notes and References 281

34. For a similar argument see Joseph Ben-David, "Social Factors in the Origins of a New Science: The Case of Psychology," in American Sociological Review, Vol. 31 (1966). 35. Georg Curtius, Philologie und Sprachwissenschaji. Antrittsvorlesung gehalten zu Leipzig am 30. April 1862 (Leipzig: Triibner, 1862), p. 23. 36. Karl Brugmann, Der Gymnasialunterricht in den beiden kiassischen Sprachen (Leipzig: 1910), p. 7-8. 37. Ernst Windisch, "Georg Curitus," Biographisches Jahrbuch for Altertumskunde, vol. 9 (1886), pp. 75-128; reprinted in Thomas A. Sebeok, ed., Portraits of Linguists (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1966), Vol. I, p. 344. 38. Windisch, "Curtius," p. 344.

Chapter IV

1. "Preface" to Morphological Investigations in the Sphere ofIndo-European Languages (1878), in A Reader in Nineteenth Century Indo-European Linguistics, ed. and trans. by Winfred P. Lehmann (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1976), p. 199. 2. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface," p. 200. 3. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface," p. 204. 4. Delbriick's book is a version of the history of linguistics as well as a of principles. He was criticized by other Neogrammarians for placing too much emphasis on continuity and for his very moderate tone. Both Delbriick's and Paul's books have been translated into English: Berthold DeIbriick, Introduction to the Study of Language, trans. Eva Channing (Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V., 1974); and Hermann Paul, Principles ofthe History ofLanguage, trans. from 2nd ed. (1886) by H.A. Strong (1890, rpt. College Park: McGrath Publishing Co., 1970). 5. A. Bezzenberger, review of Morphologische Untersuschungen in Gottingsche Gelehrte Anzeiger (1879) pp. 641-81; Ludwig Tobler, "t)ber die Anwendung des Begriffes von Gesetzen auf die Sprache," in Vierteljahrsschrift for wissenschajilische Philosophie, vol. III (1879); Hermann Collitz, review of Morphologische Untersuchungen in Zeitschriji fur deutsches Alterthum, vol. XXIII (1879); Franz Misteli, "Lautgesetz und Analogie: Methodologische psychologische Abhandlung," in Zeitschriji fur Volkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaji, vol. 11, pp. 363-475; vol. 12, pp. 1-27 (1879). 6. See The Lautgesetz-Controversy: A Documentation (1885- 86), ed. Terence H. Wilbur (Amsterdam: John Benjamins BY, 1977), with reprints of Georg Curtius, Zur Kritik der neuesten Sprachforschung (1885); Berthold Delbriick, Die neueste Sprachforschung: Betrachtungen uber Georg Curtius' Schrift "Zur Kritik der neuesten Spracliforschung" (1885); Karl Brugmann, Zum heutigen Stand der Sprachwissenschaji; Hugo Schuchardt Uber die Lautgesetze - Gegen die Junggrammatiker (1885); Hermann Collitz, Die neueste Sprach• forschung und die Erkiiirung des indogermanischen Ablautes (1886); , Die neueste Spracliforschung und die Erkliirung des indogermanischen Ablautes: Antwort auf die gleichnamige Schrift von Dr. Hermann Collitz (1886); Otto Jespersen, "Zur Lautgesetzfrage" (1887); also (not included in Wilbur's collection) G.!. Ascoli, Sprachwissenschajiliche Briefe, trans. Bruno Guterbock (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1887); M. Bloomfield, "On the Probability of the Existence of Phonetic Law," in American Journal ofPhilology, vol. 5 ( 1884 ); F. Muller, 282 Notes and References

"Sind die Lautgesetze Naturgesetze?" in (Techmer's) Intemationale Zeitschriji flir allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, vol. I (1884). 7. See titles in the preceding notes. 8. Hermann Collitz, Die neueste Sprachforschung ... , Hermann Osthoff, Die neueste Sprach• forschung ... , also Collitz, "W!!.hrung meines Rechts" (1887), in Wilbur; Karl Verner, "Zur Frage der Entdeckung des Palatalgesetzes," in Literarisches Zentralblattfiir Deutschland, vol. 14 (1886), pp. 1707-10. 9. G.I. Ascoli, Sprachwissenschaftliche Briefe; Johannes Schmidt, "Schleichers Aufassung der Lautgesetze," in (Kuhn's) Zeitschriftflir vergleichende Sprachforschung, vol. 28 (1887), pp. 307 ff., and Schmidt's review of Georg Curtius' Zur Kritik der neuesten Sprachforschung in Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1885, no. 10, pp. 339-344. 10. Of course not all accounts of the history of linguistics adopt a Kuhnian framework of analysis. There are a number of studies that aim at a "factual description" and which do not acknowledge any historiographic perspective (e.g., H. Pedersen, The Discovery of Language, trans. by J.W. Sprago (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1931), or R.H. Robins, A Short History of Linguistics (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1967». There are also many works which attempt to evaluate the achievements of the Neogrammarians in terms of their contribution to modern linguistics. Such an overtly evaluative standpoint is adopted by, among others, Kurt Jankowsky in The Neogrammarians: ARe-evaluation of Their Place in the Development ofLinguistic Science (The Hague: Mouton, 1972) and T.H. Wilbur in his "Introduction" to The Lautgesetz Controversy ... (both of these authors offer also some interesting ideas about the Neogrammarians). Needless to say, it is not my intention to evaluate the Neogrammarians' contribution to modern studies of language. II. Michael Mulkay, The Social Process of Innovation: A Study in the Sociology of Science (London: Macmillan, 1972). 12. See Curtius, Zur Kritik ... and Osthoff and Brugmann,Morphologische Untersuchungen, vol. IV. 13. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface," p. 204. Similar views were expressed earlier by both authors and by Paul and Leskien. 14. Curtius, "Bemerkungen tiber die Tragweite der Lautgesetze insbesondere im Grie• chischen und Lateinischen" (1871), in E. Windisch, ed., Kleine Schriften (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1887), p. 52. Although much of what Curtius and Schleicher saw as sporadic was recognized as regular by 1876, when the Neogrammarians announced their principle of Ausnahmslosgkeit der Lautgesetze, yet in the seventies there were still many unexplained, irregular sound changes. And the Neogrammarians repeatedly insisted that their principle was not an inductive generalization (for example, in the "Preface," p. 205; Delbrtick in the Introduction ... , p. 117; Osthoff in Das psychologische und physiologische Moment in der sprachlichen Formenbildung, vol. 327 of Sammlung gemeinverstiindlicher wissenschaftlicher Vortriige (Berlin, 1879), p. 6). 15. Ascoli, Sprachwissenschaftliche Briefe. p. 134. 16. Johannes Schmidt, "Schleichers Auffassung," p. 304. 17. Paul Kiparsky, "From Paleogrammarians to Neogrammarians," in Studies in the History of Linguistics: Traditions and Paradigms, ed. Dell Hymes (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1974), p. 304. 18. The discoveries were made in or around 1876. I have no information about Tegner and Thomsen. Collitz rejected the Neogrammarian position in 1879 (see his review of Notes and References 283

Morphologische Untersuchungen), although by 1886 he modified his position somewhat adopting a view similar to that of Schmidt. Schmidt rejected the notion that the Neogrammarians were the first to formulate the principle of exceptionless sound laws, but he accepted the principle as sound. Saussure shared the views of the Neogrammarians as far as sound laws were concerned. He reaffirmed the belief in the regularity of sound change in Cours de linguistique generale (1916; Paris: Payot, 1972, pp. 132-33). Karl Verner did not believe that sound laws have no exceptions, as he affirmed in "Zur Frage ... " 19. Delbrilck, Introduction, p. 10 I. 20. Brugmann, Zum heutigen Stand ... , p. 119. 21. Delbrilck, Introduction ... , p. 56. 22. Johannes Schmidt, quoted in Delbrilck, Introduction, p. 57. 23. The relative lack of methodological bearing of the principle of exceptionless sound laws does not necessarily mean that there were no other important methodological differences between the Neogrammarians and their opponents. The prescription to search for regular sound laws existed earlier, but the methods adopted in this search might have changed. William Norman argues that this was indeed the case, and that these new methods were a direct result of the theoretical and philosophical innovations of the Neogrammarians. He claims that the Neogrammarians were the first linguists to use morphological unifor• mities to guide their search for sound laws, and that this was a direct result of their unstated belief that language is morphologically regular at every stage of its development. This belief, according to Norman, allowed the Neogrammarians to examine sound alternations in morphologically related groups and to use morphophonemic alternation as indicators of historical sound change. Norman claims that this method of "internal reconstruction," the synchronic comparison of related morphemes in the same language in order to detect conditions of sound change, was "the Neogrammarians' most significant methodological innovation" (The Neogrammarians, p. 177). He is unable to explain why, despite the fact that the Neogrammarians were so severely attacked, this "radical" innovation passed unnoticed, and why the Neogrammarians were unaware that they were innovating in this instance. Norman claims that scientists are often unaware of what they are in fact doing. While it is obvious that this lack of awareness often concerns their assumptions it is difficult to imagine scholars being completely unaware of the novelty of their methodology. This is especially perplexing in view of the fact that one of the most controversial contributions of Brugmann, his proof of the existence of vocalic nasals in proto-Indo-European, was made precisely by an application of this method. Brugmann's results were attacked; the propriety of his method as such was not. Norman is right that the Neogrammarians used this method more extensively and more consistently than their predecessors, and that it was an extension of this method which allowed Brugmann to posit the vocalic nasals, and Saussure (who used it in a truly novel way) to solve some of the problems of irregularities in the development of the Indo-European vocalic system; yet he is incorrect in suggesting that the Neogrammarians were the first to use this method. It was used previously, though perhaps on a smaller scale, in discoveries of conditioned sound change; for example, Schleicher used it repeatedly in the Compendium, when he derived laws governing assimilation by synchronic morphophonemic variations (pp. 93, II 0-111, and passim). This method was also employed by Grassmann in 1863 as part of the proof for the law governing the distribution of aspirates in Sanskrit and Greek; and it was used more extensively and consciously by Verner in his work on Grimm's law 284 Notes and References

("Ober die Aspiranten und ihr gleichzeitiges Vorhandensein im An- und Auslaute der Wurzeln" in (Kuhn's) Zeitschriftfiir vergleichende Sprachjorschung, vol. 12, 1863; and also "Eine Ausnahme der ersten Lautverschiebung" (Kuhn's) Zeitschrift, vol. 23, 1877). Norman also incorrectly argues that all previous discoveries were made solely by comparison of cognate roots in different languages, and that no morphophonemic variations were allowed at all. It is one thing to believe that the original language was free of morphophonemic variation, and quite another to admit no morphophonemic variations in historical "daughter" languages. The early comparative grammarians, including Schleicher and Curtius, believed in the first of these , but they never adopted the second. They allowed for morphophonemic variation in the daughter languages and tried to explain them as resulting from conditioned sound change. In order to discover how a conditioned sound change had taken place they often had to resort to examining patterns of morphophonemic variation. (Sometimes, however, these explanations involved positing a morphologically conditioned sound change - an anathema to the Neogrammarians.) Moreover, Schleicher allowed for some morphophonemic variation even in the common Indo-European (e.g., vowel gradations), although he generally tried to eliminate them. Even in the example cited by Norman, Schleicher allowed for such variation between the optative suffixes ja and i in commmon Indo-European, and tried to account for them by positing a sound change affecting ther supposedly original suffix ja which in his view split into the two suffixes before the Indo-European languages separated. It was this last practice of positing sound changes which were supposed to have occurred before common Indo-European had evolved into various languages that the Neogrammarians abandoned. As opposed to Schleicher, they no longer felt it necessary (or justifiable) to reconstruct the original language and were quite satisfied to reconstruct the oldest attestable form of Indo-European, which often involved morphophonemic variations. This specific "restraint," which involved a non-commmittal attitude toward the agglutination theory and a uniformitarian view ofiinguistic change, did indeed stem from their . 24. , Die Deklination im Slawisch-Litauischen und Germanischen (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1876), p. I. 25. Hermann Paul, "Die Vokale der Flexions- und Ableitungs- Silben in den liltesten germanischen Dialekten" in (Paul and Braune's) Beitriige zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprachen und Literatur, vol. IV (1877), p. 322. Delbriick argued similarly: "If the roots were no longer in existence in the individual languages, no longer even in the inflected Indo- European languages, but only in the period which lies behind it, then we cannot speak of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, German, etc., roots but only of Indo-European ones. If notwithstanding, we postulate roots for the individual languages, they have no scientific , but only the significance of practical aides. In this respect the antiquity of the separate languages makes no . ( ... ) The historical relation is everywhere the same: at an infinite distance back of all tradition lies the time in which the Indo-European inflection did not exist, in which da, we can say, was used to express "give," "giver," etc. Then, when a dami "I give," a datar "giver," etc., were formed, the root da, as such, had vanished from the language. From that time forth (after the completion of inflection) no longer roots, but only words existed" (Delbriick, Introduction, p. 76). 26. Hirt argues that as long as each monosyllabic root, suffix, etc., was traced separately, the role of accent in Ablaut could not be discerned. He sees the old practice of examining Notes and References 285

separate roots as one of the reasons why Holtzmann and Benfey failed to discover the effect of accent on Ablaut in the 1840s. Hermann Hirt, /ndogermanische Grammatik, Teil II (Heidelberg: Winter, 1921), p. 10. 27. The Neogrammarians were not the first to be interested in the connection between linguistics and psychology. Since the 1850s, Henmann Steinthal and his associate Moritz Lazarus were pursuing a psychological study oflanguage use. As followers of Humboldt, Steinthal and Lazarus opposed the notion that language is a natural organism, and advocated the idea that language is predominantly an expression of man's intelligence and . As such it had to be studied psychologically. Steinthal and Lazarus adopted the mechanistic psychology of Johann Kaspar Herbart (1776-1841) and tried to describe linguistic processes occurring in the psyche as being subject to the same kinds of laws as other mental activites. Their studies were largely ignored by the comparative grammarians before the advent of the Neogrammarians, since neither Steinthal nor Lazarus was interested in the history of languages and they did no empirical work in the field. But the Neogrammarians took many of their own ideas from Steinthal and Lazarus and viewed the integration ofpsychology into a theory oflanguage changes as a major theoretical task. They even adopted the same Herbartian psychological model as Steinthal and Lazarus. But the Neogrammarians cannot be described simply as followers of Steinthal and Lazarus; the differences between their views were just as significant as the similarities. Thus, for example, while Steinthal and Lazarus advocated the idea of a "collective mind~ (Volkgeist), the Neogrammarians insisted on a purely individualistic approach. A collective mind which according to Steinthal and Lazarus was to be the subject of a special branch of psychology (Volkerpsychologie), was according to the Neogrammarians an abstraction, while science should guard itself against all unnecessary abstractions: "All psychical processes come to their fulfillment in individual minds, and nowhere else. Neither the popular mind (Volkgeist), nor elements of it, such as art, religion, etc., have any concrete existence, and therefore nothing can come to pass in them and between them. Away then with these abstractions! For 'away with all abstractions!' must be our watch• word if we ever want to attempt to define the factors of any real event or process" (Paul, Principles, p. 35). Later, the Neogrammarians used the same argument against and his collective psychology. 28. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface,~ p. 198. 29. Paul, Principles, pp. XXIV-XXV. 30. Paul, Principles, p. XXVII. 31. , Die Darwinische Theorie und die Sprachwissenschafi (2nd. ed., Weimar: Bohlau, 1873), p. 10. 32. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface," p. 205. Similarly, Delbrilck could not admit that a reasonable person, and a founder of the discipline of linguistics, would attribute to language a life independent of its users, and argued that if anyone had pointed out to Bopp that he attributed mental states to language he "would have acknowledged that in reality these psychical activities take place, not in language, but in speaking individuals" (Delbrilck, Introduction. p. 19). 33. Paul, Principles, p. 13. 34. Brugmann, "Zum heutigen Stand," p. 88. 35. "We have to study the forces at work under our observation, and the methods of their working; and we have to carry them back into the past by careful analogical reasoning, 286 Notes and References

inferring from similar effects to similar causes, just as far as the process can be made to work legitimately, never assuming new forces and modes of action, except where the old ones are absolutely incapable of furnishing the explanation we are seeking - and, even then, only under the most careful restrictions. This is the familiar method of the modern inductive sciences; and its applicability to the science of language also is beyond all reasonable doubt. The parallel between linguistics and geology, the most historical of the physical sciences, is here closest and most instructive ( ... ) The essential unity oflinguistic history, in all its phases and stages, must be made the cardinal principle of the study of language, if this is to bear a scientific character" (, Life and Growth of Language (1875), New York: Appleton, 1877). Ironically, Whitney used this principle only in support of the agglutination theory. Observing processes of agglutination in the modern languages, he argued that the same process must have taken place in the early stages of language development, leading to inflection. 36. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface," p. 198. 37. Wilhelm Scherer, Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache (Berlin, 1868). 38. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface," p. 204. 39. Gustav Meyer, review of Morphologische Untersuchungen in Jenaer Literaturzeitung, 1879, No. 13. 40. Osthoff, Das physiologische und psychologische Moment, p. 5. 41. Paul, Principles, p. 93. 42. Paul, Principles, p. 94. 43. Paul, Principles, p. 97. 44. Paul, Principles, p. 105. 45. Paul, Principles, p. 105. 46. Karl Brugmann, "Nasalis sonans in der indogermanischen Grundsprache," in Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik, Vol. IX, 1876, footnote on pp. 317-18. 47. Paul, Principles, p. 58. 48. Paul, Principles, pp. 59-60. 49. Gisela Schneider, Zum Begrif! des Lautgesetzes in der Sprachwissenschajt seit den Junggrammatikem (Tiibingen, 1973). 50. Osthoff, Das physiologische und psychologische Moment, p. 15. 51. Osthoff, Das physiologische und psychologische Moment, p. 19. 52. Paul, "Zur Geschichte des germanischen Vocalismus," in (Paul and Braune's) Beitriige zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, Vol. IV (1879), p. 3. 53. Brugmann, "Zur Geschichte der Nominalsuffixe -as, -jas, - vas," in (Kuhn's) Zeitschriji fur vergleichende Sprachforschung, Vol. XXIV, p. 4. 54. Paul, Principles, p. 36. 55. Paul, Principles, p. 45. 56. Paul, Principles, p. 46. 57. Paul, Principles, pp. 53-54. 58. Delbriick, Introduction, p. 120. 59. Delbriick, Introduction, p. 129. 60. Delbriick, Introduction, p. 116. 61. The idea that sound laws bear any similarity to natural laws was sharply criticized by Tobler ("O'ber die Anwendung"). Paul cited Tobler in the Principles when he retracted his previous assertion that sound laws are analogous to natural laws. Tobler was not Notes and References 287

criticizing Osthoff's formulation of the causal factors involved in phonetic change, but the standard statements of sound laws which did not specify the cause of any given change. He argued that these formulations did not fulfill the requirements of natural laws. 62. Paul, "Zur Geschichte,H p. 1. 63. Paul, Principles, p. 57. 64. The identification of sound laws with natural laws in the first model was not identical with the belief that all oflinguistics is a natural science. What the first model claimed was that the evidence of linguistics, as it was subsumed under sound laws, was similar in nature to the evidence of the natural sciences. Insofar as this was the case, linguistics bore some resemblance to the natural sciences. Moreover, in the Principles, Paul proposed a distinction between the natural and the cultural sciences which was not based on the dichotomy of ideographic and nomothetic sciences, and there is no evidence that the Neogrammarians believed that the cultural sciences could not be nomothetic. For Paul, cultural sciences could be nomothetic (even if, as in the second model, sound laws were not seen as nomothetic explanations), but as opposed to natural sciences, the cultural sciences were those for which psychology was to serve as the fundamental discipline: "The characteristic mark of culture lies in the cooperation of psychical with other factors. This seems to be the single possible determination of this area as against the objects of the natural sciences pure and simple" (Principles, p. XXVIII). Since, when Paul wrote the Principles, he believed that all linguistic phenomena were dependent on psychological factors, he claimed that all of linguistics is a cultural science. But even according to the first model, the operation of analogy was seen as a result of psychological processes; and to this extent linguistics was seen as a cultural science even then. At most, the Neogrammarians claimed that the science of language was partially a natural science (because sound laws were originally seen as purely physiological), as Osthoff did in Das physiologische und psychologische Moment; they never claimed that all oflinguistics could be described as a natural science. 65. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface," p. 198. 66. The Neogrammarians praised such studies of living languages, and in their "Preface" Osthoff and Brugmann refer to lost Winteler's study of his native dialect (Die Kerenzer Mundan des Kanton Glarus). On the history of the study of living dialects and on geographical linguistics see I. Iordan and 1. Orr, An Introduction to Romance Linguistics (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1970). 67. Osthoff and Brugmann, "Preface," p. 202.

Chapter V

1. Latour, Bruno and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills and London: Sage Publications, 1979). 2. Latour and Woolgar, p. 207. 3. Richard Whitley, The Intellectual and Social Organization of the Sciences (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984). 4. Whitley, p. 25-26. 5. Georg Curtius, Zur Kritik der neuesten Sprachforschung (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1885), pp. 1-2. 288 Notes and References

6. Stanislaw Ossowski, "0 wlasciwosciach nauk spolecznych" (On the Pecularities of the Social Sciences) in 0 Nauce. Vol IV of Dziela (Warsaw: PWN, 1967). 7. Terence Wilbur, Introduction to The Lautgesetz- Controversy: A Documentation (1885- 1886) (Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V., 1977), p. xxxiv. 8. The data on career patterns in the in general used for comparison with the Neogrammarians comes from Christian Ferber, Die Entwicklung des Lehrkorpers der deutschen Universitiiten und Hochschulen 1864-1954, in Untersuchungen zur Lage der deutschen Hochschullehrer, ed. Helmuth Plessner (G5ttingen: Vandenhoek und Ruprecht, 1956), especially Tables 19 and 20. 9. Data from Johannes Conrad, "Allgemeine Statistik der deutschen Universitilten," in Die deutschen Universitiiten I, edited by W. Lexis (Berlin: Asher, 1893), pp. 118-121. 10. Wilhelm Lexis, ed., 1893. Die deutschen Universitiiten I (Berlin: Asher, 1893), p. 620. 11. Ferber, Tables I and II. 12. Ferber, Table II and data from individual universities; see also note 13. 13. Information on the creation of chairs, their titles and occupants was collected from a number of sources. For individual universities, the following have proved most useful: Berlin: Max Lenz, Geschichte der koniglichen Friedrich- Wilhelms-Universitiit zu Berlin (Halle: Waisenhauses, 1910); Hans Leussink, Eduard Neumann and Georg Kotowski, eds., Studium Berlinense: Aufsiitze und Beitriige zu Problemen deT Wissenschajt und zur Geschichte der Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitiit zu Berlin (Berlin: Gruyter, 1960); Bonn: Otto Wenig, Verzeichnis der Professoren und Dozenten der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitiit zu Bonn 1818-1968 (Bonn: 1968); Friedrich von Bezold, Geschichte der Rheinischen Friedrich• Wilhelms-Universitiit von der Griindung bis zum Jahre 1870 (Bonn: Weber, 1920); Breslau: Theodor Siebs, "Zur Geschichte der germanischen Studien in Breslau," Zeitschrijt filr deutsche Philologie, vol. 43 (1911), pp. 202-235; Erlangen: Theodor Kolde, Die Universitiit Erlangen unter dem Hause Wittelsbach 1810-1910 (Erlangen and Leipzig: Deichert'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1910); Freiburg: Badische Schulstatistik: Die Hochschulen (Karls• ruhe 1912); Ursula Burkhardt, Germanistik in Sildwestdeutschland (Tilbingen: Mohr, 1976); Gottingen: Wilhelm Ebel, Catalogus Professorum Gottingensium 1734-1965 (G5ttingen, 1962); Greifswald: Festschrift zur 500- Jahresfeier der Universitiit Greifswald (Greifswald, 1956); Heidelberg: Badische Schulstatistik; "Die germanischen Vorlesungen zwischen 1803 und 1900 an der Universitilt Heidelberg," Rupert CaTola Zeitschrift, XIX. Jahrgang, Vol. 42 (1967);Jena: Dietrich Germann, "Die Anflinge der deutschen Anglistik und die Entwicklung des Faches an der Universitilt Jena," Archiv filr Kulturgeschichte, vol. 41 (1959), pp. 183-200,342-372; Max Stenmetz, ed., Geschichte der UniversitiitJena. 2 vols. (Jena 1958/60); : Friedrich Volbehr and Richard Weyl, Professoren und Dozenten der Christian-Albrechts- Universitiit zu Kiel. 1856-1954 (Kiel: Hirt, 1956); Leipzig: Franz Eulenburg, Die Entwicklung der Universitiit Leipzig in den letzten Hundert Jahren (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1909); Festschrijt zur Feier des 500 Jiihrigen Bestehens der Universitiit Leipzig, Band IV: Die Institute und Seminare der Philosophischen Fakultiit an der Universitiit Leipzig (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1909); Marburg: Franz Gundlach, Die Akademischen Lehrer der Phillipps• Universitiit in Marburg von 1527 bis 1910 (Marburg: Elwert'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1927); H. Hermelink and S.A. Kaehler, Die Phillipps-Universitiit zu Marburg 1527-1927. Fun! Kapitel aus ihrer Geschichte (1527-1866); Die Universitiit Marburg seit 1866 in Einzel• darstellungen (Marburg: Elwert'sche Veriagsbuchhandlung, 1927); Munich: Franz Babinger, "Ein Jahrhundert morgenlilndischer Studien an der Milnchener Universitilt," Notes and References 289

Zeitschrift fur Deutsche Morgenliindische Gesel/Schajt, vol. 107 (1957), pp. 242-269; Stephanie Seidel-Vollman, Die romanische Philologie an der Universitiit Ml1nchen (Munich: Duncker and Humblot, 1977); Tl1bingen: Burkhardt, Germanistik. Also data of Ferber; Lexis; Gustav Korting, Encyclopaedie und Methodologie der Romanischen Philologie (Heilbronn: Henninger, 1884); Minerva: Jahrbuch der Universitiiten der Welt (Strassburg, 1893 ff.). 14. Harriet Zuckerman and Robert K. Merton, "Patterns of Evaluations in Science: Insti• tutionalization, Structure and Functions of the Referee System," Minerva, vol. 9 (1971), pp.66-100. 15. Compiled on the basis of Joachim Kirchner, ed., Bibliographie der Zeitschriften des deutschen Sprachgebietes, 2 vols. (Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1971). 16. Burkhardt, p. 35. 17. Karl Brugmann, Z um heutigen Stand der Sprachwissenschajt (Strassburg: Trfibner, 1885), p.4. 18. Brugmann, Zum heutigen Stand, p. 8. 19. Seidel-Vollman, p. 15. 20. Burkhardt, p. 129. 21. On the basis of Lexis, pp. 607-612. 22. Andrew Pickering, ''The Role of Interests in High Energy Physics. The Choice Between Charm and Colour," in The Social Process of Scientific Investigation, edited by Karin D. Knorr, Roger Krohn and Richard Whitley, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook IV (Dordrecht, London and Boston: Reidel, 1982), p. 127. 23. In addition to holding a chair of comparative grammar in Berlin, Schmidt was one of the editors of Kuhn's Zeitschrijt, while from 1877 Bezzenberger edited a new linguistic journal, Beitriige zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen. 24. Of course, the idea that the cognitive development of science is shaped by the opportunities and limitations provided by the institutional structure within which science develops is not new. However, there have been only a few attempts to explain specific cognitive processes in these terms. Thus, in explaining the emergence of psychology, Joseph Ben-David and Randall Collins ("Social Factors in the Origins of a New Science: The Case of Psychology ," American Sociological Review, vol. 31 (1966), pp. 451-65) focused on the role of the university structure in nineteenth-century Germany which blocked career opportunities of physiologists and led them to migrate to philosophy. Ben-David and Collins, however, did not try to relate cognitive developments, except on the most general level of the emergence of a discipline, to specific institutional processes. In his later work, Ben-David (The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study; Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1971) again focused on the institutional structure of universities in order to explain differences in scientific development in England, France, Germany and the , though in this study he did not deal at all with the particular cognitive effects of different institutional arrangements, but rather with rates of development. More recently, Gerald Geison (Michael Foster and the Cambridge School ofPhysiology; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978) has examined the development of physiology in England in terms of existing opportunities for institution building, while Robert Kohler (From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry: The Making of a Biomedical Discipline; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982) has traced the effects of the opportunities for institutionalization of biochemistry on the development of this particular discipline in 290 Notes and References

Germany, England and the United States. In both of these studies, however, relatively little is said about the relation of specific cognitive claims to the institutional structures in which they were formulated. On the other hand, studies in the sociology of scientific knowledge have generally attempted to elucidate cognitive developments in terms of broad social interests (e.g. Donald MacKenzie, Statistics in Britain 1865-1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge; Edinburgh: Edinburgh U niv. Press, 1981), or in terms of institutionally unattached cognitive interests (Trevor Pinch, "What Does a Proof Do if it Does Not Prove?" in The Social Production of Scientific Knowledge, edited by E. Mendelsohn, P. Weingart, and R.D. Whitley; Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook I; Dordrecht, London and Boston: Reidel, 1977; Pickering, ''The Role of Interests" and "Interests and Analogies" in Scientific Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science, edited by Barry Barnes and David Edge; Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1982). While the present study fits well within Pickering's perspective, it puts more emphasis on specific institutional structures rather than the interests of institutionally unanchored scientific communities.

Chapter VI

1. , "L'Ecole genevoise de Iinguistique generale," in lndogermanische Forschungen, Vol. XLIV, p. 24. 2. Karl Vossler, The Spirit ofLanguage in Civilization (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1932), pp. 187-188. 3. Karl Vossler, Positivismus und ldealismus in der Sprachwissenschaji (Heidelberg: Winter, 1904), p. 2. 4. Vossler, Positivismus, pp. 9-10. 5. Herman Paul, Principles of the History of Language (1880), tr. H.A. Strong (College Park: McGrath, 1970), p. xxv. 6. Paul, p. 17. 7. Vossler, Positivismus, p. 18. 8. Vossler, Positivismus, pp. 3-4. 9. Karl Vossler, Gesammelte Aufsiitze zur Sprachphilosophie (Munich: Hueber, 1923), p. 92. 10. Paul, p. xxv. 11. H. Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society (New York: Random House, 1958), p. 65. 12. It should be noted, however, that Durkheim remained under a strong influence of positivism, and that some of his descriptions of "social facts" seem to deny their "con• structed" character and point to a "realist" interpretation (but see the article "Sociologie" in La Grande Encyclopedie (Paris, 190 I) by two of Durkheim's students, Fauconnet and Mauss, who insist on the abstract character of sociological concepts). On the other hand, Weber emphasized the abstract, "fictional" nature of his ideal types, but he was also influenced by the "intuitionists" (viz. the idea of "Verstehenssoziologie"). As we can see by Weber's example, the two trends I am describing are not intrinsically opposed to one another, although they are analytically distinct. While in linguistics the two trends were both clearly distinguished and in opposition, the division between those social scientists who construct their concepts and those who insist on concrete nominalist description is obviously not sufficiently clear to allow one to classify early twentieth- century social Notes and References 291

scientists in an adequate manner; and this should serve us as yet another reminder of the complex connections between scientific ideas and idea systems. 13. , Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistics (1902), tr. by Douglas Ainslie (London: Macmillan, 1909), p. 66. 14. Vossler, Gesammelte Aufsiitze, p. 14. 15. Vossler, Positivismus, pp. 10-11. 16. Vossler, Gesammelte Aujsiitze, p. 66. 17. Vossler, Gesammelte Aufsiitze, p. 95. 18. Vossler, Positivismus, p. 63. 19. Vossler, Positivismus, p. 15-16 20. Vossler, The Spirit of Language, pp. 115-116. 21. Vossler, Positivismus, p. 94. 22. See La Fontaine und sein Fabelwerk (Heidelberg, 1914); Dante als religioser Dichter (Bern, 1921); lean Racine (Munich: Hueber, 1926); or the articles reprinted in Die Romanische Welt (Munich: Piper, 1965). 23. See Frankreichs Kultur im Spiegel seiner Sprachentwicklung (Heidelberg, 1913). 24. See Eugen Lerch, Historische Franzosische Syntax (Leipzig: Reisland, 1925) and Franzosische Sprache und Wesensart (Frankfurt a. M.: Diesterweg, 1933); Etienne Lorck, Die "erlebte Rede, " Eine sprachliche Untersuchung (Heidelberg, 1921) and "Die Sprach• seelenforschung und franzosische Modi,~ in lahrbuchfiir Philologie, II (1927). 25. Fritz Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community, 1880-1933 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1969), p. 295. 26. Berthold Delbriick, Das Sprachstudium aufden deutschen Universitiiten (Jena: Dufft, 1875); Hermann Osthoff, "Der grammatische Schulunterricht und die sprachwissenschaftliche Methode," in Zeitschri/t fiir die Oste"eichischen Gymnasien, 1880, pp. 55-72; Karl Brugmann, Der Gymnasialuntemcht in den beiden klassichen Sprachen und die Sprach• wissenschaft (Strassburg: Triibner, 1910). 27. Osthoff, "Das grammatische Schulunterricht," p. 57. 28. Walter Kuhfuss, "Die Rezeption der Romanischen Philologie in den Programmabhand• lungen der hoheren Schulen im 19. Jahrhundert," in In Memoriam Friedrich Diez: Akten des Kolloquims zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte der Romanistik, Trier, 2-12 Okt. 1975, eds. H.J. Niederecke and H. Haarman (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1976). 29. Alf Sommerfelt, "Hugo Schuhardt,~ 1929, rpt. in Portraits of Linguists, I, ed. Thomas A. Sebeok (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1966), p. 505. 30. There were 16 lectors of European languages in 1873 and 50 in 1910, according to the calculations of Christian Ferber in Die Entwicklung des Lehrkorpers der deutschen Universi• tiiten und Hochschulen 1864-1954 (Gottingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1956). 31. Ringer, p. 256. 32. Ringer, pp. 103-104. 33. Ringer, p. 268. 34. Eduard Schramm, "Gedachtnisrede," in Studia Romanica, Gedenkschriftfiir Eugen Lerch, eds. Charles Bruneau & Peter M. Schon (Stuttgart: Port Verlag, 1955), p. 10. 35. Eugen Lerch and , "Vorwort" to lahrbuchfur Philologie, I (1925). 36. Ringer, p. 257. 37. Victor Klemperer, "Idealistische Philologie," in Idealistische Philologie: lahrbuch fiir Philologie, III (1927), p. 3. 292 Notes and References

38. Karl Vossler, Die Universitiit als Bildungsstiitte (Munich: Hueber, 1923). 39. Victor Klemperer, "Karl Vossler," in Jahrbuchjiir Philologie, II (1926), pp. 4-5. 40. Such as the Jahrbuchjiir Philologie (1925-26) and Idealistische Philologie (1927). None of the Idealist journals had a long-lasting success. 41. Vossler, Positivismus, p. 95.

Chapter VII

I. For example, Berti! Malmberg claims that Saussure "definitively breaks with the tradition of the Neogrammarians" in Les nouvelles tendences de la linguistique (Paris: PUF, 1968), p. 55; E.F.K. Koerner talks in various works about the "Saussurean ," e.g., in Towards a Historiography of Linguistics (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1978). 2. , Selected Writings Vol. II (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), p. 717; and E. F. K. Koerner, Towards a Historiography, p. 39. 3. Saussure's Cours, given its status as the first articulation of a' new idea system, has been subjected to the most detailed critical and historical scrutiny. Moreover, in view of the unusual manner in which the work was published (Saussure left very few notes, and most of the book was reconstructed and collated by the editors from his students' notes), the usually contentious question addressed towards the work of seminal thinkers - "what did the author really mean?" - was compounded by the more basic problem of "what did Saussure really say?" As a result of this uncertainty, much critical effort has been spent on the presentation of the original materials used in the construction of the Cours and on the investigation of additional sources which have been discovered since the appearance of the original edition. See especially Les sources manuscrites du Cours de linguistique generale de F. de Saussure (: Droz, 1969) and the critical edition of the Cours by R. Engler (Wiesbaden, 1967). In addition to the immense amount of work devoted to the reconstruction of Saussure's unwritten opus, much of the historical work concerning the transition from nineteenth- to twentieth-century linguistics has concentrated on the problem of Saussure's predecessors, those thinkers who influenced him directly or who at one time or another had formulated ideas which can also be found in the Cours. 4. Godel. p. 5. 5. Iorgu Iordan and John Orr, An Introduction to Romance Linguistics. Its Schools and Scholars (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1970), p. 294; , review of the Cours in Modem Language Journal, vol. 8 (1924), p. 318; Karl Jaberg, "F. de Saussure's Vorlesungen fiber allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft," in Sprachwissenschaftliche Forschungen und Erlebnisse (Paris: Droz, 1937), p. 127. 6. Koerner, Towards a Historiography, p. 39 ; Iordan- Orr, p. 294. 7. Koerner discusses the continuities between Paul and Saussure in his essay "Hermann Paul and Synchronic Linguistics," reprinted in Towards a Historiography, and in his monograph on Saussure, F. de Saussure - Origin and Development of his LinguistiC Theory in Western Studies of Language (Braunschweig: F. Vieweg, 1973). Unfortunately, Koerner treats both Paul's and Saussure's works not as coherent idea systems but as loose collections of concepts, beliefs, terms and disconnected statements. As a consequence of this approach, Koerner is unable to present the continuities and discontinuities between Paul and Saussure as anything other than a result of unsystematic (or even random) Notes and References 293

borrowing or "influence." His main goal is to demonstrate that Paul's Prinzipien constituted one of Saussure's "sources," not that there is a systematic link between the two idea systems. 8. "Souvenirs de F. de Saussure concernant sajeunesse et ses etudes," in Cahiers , vol. 17 (1957), p. 15. 9. Some of the early reviewers of the Cours complained about this lack of originality in Saussure's diachronic linguistics; e.g., Eduard Hermann in Philologische Wochenschrift, No. 11 (1922), p. 252; Otto Jespersen, review of the Cours (1916), reprinted in Linguistica: Selected Papers in English. French. and German (London: Allen & Unwin, 1933). 10. Godel, p. 51. 11. For example, no mention will be made of the supposed relationship between Saussure and the Humboldtian tradition which has been claimed by, among others, E. Coseriu in "Georg von Gabelentz et la linguistique synchronique," Word, vol. 23, pp. 74-100, and disputed - I believe successfully - by Christine Bierbach in Sprache als "Fait Social": Die linguistische Theorie F. de Saussure's und ihr Verhiiltnis zu den positivistischen Sozialwissen• schaften (Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer, 1978). 12. T. S. Kuhn, "Energy Conservation as an Example of Simultaneous Discovery," in Marshall Clagett, ed., Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1959), repr. in T.S. Kuhn, The Essential Tension (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1977). 13. Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, "A Program of Readings for a General Course in Linguistics," inA Baudouin de Courtenay Anthology, ed. by E. Stankiewicz (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1972); Karl von Ettmayer, "Benmigen wir eine wissenschaftlich deskriptive Sprachwissenschaft?" in Prinzipienfrage der romanischen Sprachwissenschaft (Halle: Niemeyer, 1910). 14. H. Osthoff and K. Brugmann, "Preface to Morphological Investigations" (1878) in W. Lehmann, A Reader in Nineteenth- Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1967), p. 200. IS. Osthoff and Brugmann, p. 201. 16. Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, and Albert Sechehaye, eds., Wade Baskin, transl. (New York: McGraw Hill, 1959), p. 4 (hereafter abbreviated CGL). All citations from this translation of the Cours have been checked against the critical French edition (Cours de linguistique generale, Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, eds., critical edition prepared by ; Paris : Payot, 1973), and some have been amended for accuracy. 17. Albert Sechehaye, "Les problemes de la langue a la lumiere d'une theorie nouvelle," in Revue Philosophique de la France et de I'Etranger, vol. 84 (1917), p. 3. 18. Basically, analogical change as a mode of explanation was invoked in order to account for those linguistic forms which constituted apparent exceptions to exceptionless sound laws. 19. Hermann Paul, Principles of the History of Language. tr. H. A. Strong (1890; repro College Park: McGrath, 1970), pp. 4-5. 20. H. Osthoff, Das physiologische und psychologische Mement in der sprachlichen Formenbildung (Berlin: Habel, 1879), p. 23. 21. Osthoff, p. 24. 22. Paul, p. 8. 294 Notes and References

23. Paul, p. 8. 24. CGL, p. 163. 25. CGL, p. 163. 26. For example, both the Neogrammarians and Saussure argued that one of the differences between phonetic change and analogy consisted in the fact that analogy occurred instantaneously and the new form did not directly replace the prior traditional form (the two forms could co-exist for a period of time), while phonetic change involved a gradual modification of sound during which the disappearance of the old sound was simultaneous with, and inseparable from, the appearance of the new sound. For the Neogrammarians, this lack of a direct relationship between the new analogical element and the old form meant simply that there was no causal connection between the two events: creation by analogy was independent of the elimination of any of the previously current forms. In Paul's words, "An analogical new formation has no power to drive out of the field at a single blow a pre-existent form of similar meaning" (Paul, p. 106). For Saussure, this characteristic of analogy meant that it was altogether improper to speak of change in reference to analogical phenomena: "At the moment when honor was born, however, nothing was changed, since honor replaced nothing; nor is the disappearance of honos a change, for this phenomenon is independent of the first. Wherever we can follow the course of linguistic events, we see that analogical innovation and the elimination of the older form are two distinct things, and nowhere do we come upon a transformation" (CGL, p, 164). A new analogical formation was an innovation and not a change because change presupposed a modification of something already in existence and not the creation of something new on the basis of an existing pattern (e.g., oratorem:orator) or from already existing material (honor from honorem). Saussure argued that an analogical formation was synchronic not only because it occurred instantaneously, but also because, being based on the grammatical structure of language, it always existed as a potentiality even before it was spoken or heard. What was important for the organization of language was that the elements and the patterns needed for an analogical formation exist before the form itself was improvised. This patterned creativity of analogy was just one of the many manifestations of the synchronic organization of language in the psyche. "It is wrong to suppose that the productive process is at work only when the new formation actually occurs. The elements were already there. A word which I improvise, like in-decor-able, already has a potential existence in language ... " (CGL, p. 166). The concept oflinguistic potentiality advanced here by Saussure would have been inadmissible for the Neogrammarians, since it was clearly a conceptual construct, not a direct reflection of a concrete, observable "fact". Saussure's formulation allowed him to emphasize the basically synchronic nature of analogy, since the claim that all new analogical formations exist in potentia meant that analogy, even when responsible for the creation of "new" forms, was a function of the underlying grammar of language, the psychologically imprinted arrangement of linguistic forms. 27. CGL, p. 166. 28. CGL, p. 165. 29. CGL, p. 172. 30. CGL, p. 81. 31. Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, "An Attempt at a Theory of Phonetic Alternations" (1894) in A Baudouin de Courtenay Anthology, pp. 148-49. Notes and References 295

32. In the Memoire, Saussure examined morphophonemic alternations in order to reconstruct the underlying phonetic system. But there are significant differences between Brugmann's use of this method and that of Saussure, and these differences cannot be reduced to Saussure's ability to apply the arguments of internal reconstruction in a more sophisticated and consistent fashion. For Saussure, regular sound alternations pointed not only to prior phonetic changes (or the impossibility of certain kinds of transformations which had been posited earlier), but also to pre-existent morphological and phonetic regularities. Saussure was reconstructing not only the system of sounds which must have existed in the past, but also the system of morphophonemic alternations. Moreover, he used these reconstructions and the assumption of morphological regularity to posit the existence of a which could not be attested in any of the then known Indo• European languages, but which, according to Saussure, must have existed if the morphology of the early language was symmetrical and regular. This aspect of the Memoire was disputed by other linguists, including the Neogrammarians, but the very methods used by Saussure and others working in the area of vocalism suggested the need to investigate alternations. 33. CGL, p. 159. 34. CGL, p. 158. 35. CGL, p. 158. 36. CGL, p. 85. 37. Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development ofa SCientific Fact (Chicago: Chicago Univ. Press, 1979), p. 20. 38. F. de Saussure, "Notes inedites de F. de Saussure," in Cahiers F. de Saussure, Vol. 12 (1954), pp. 57-58. 39. Saussure, "Notes inedites," p. 56. 40. Godel, p. 43. 41. CGL, p. 8. 42. In his book on the history of structuralist thought, Frederic Jameson searches for even more distant parallels and finds correspondences between Saussure's concept of a linguistic fact and the crisis in twentieth-century physics. There too, he argues, the notion was gaining ground that the nature of a phenomenon (e.g. the nature of light ) is determined by the perspective from which it is observed (The Prison-House of Language; Princeton: Princeton Univ.Press, 1972). Even if some of these correspondences are probably too distant to be taken seriously, there can be little doubt that around the turn of the century, the positivist thet relied on the notion of "fact" as a naturally given entity was coming under increasingly severe attack and that Saussure's linguistics constituted one part of this anti-positivist reaction. Despite their different disciplinary origins, these new responses to positivism shared so many common features that it seems reasonable to suspect that they were attempts to answer a problem central for late nineteenth-century positivist thOUght. 43. Paul, pp. 2-3. 44. "The psychical organisms here described are the true media of historical development. What has been actually spoken has no development. It is misleading to say that one word has arisen from another word spoken at some previous time. The word - as a product of our physical organs - disappears and leaves no trace when once the organs it has in motion have returned to their state of repose. And in the same way the physical 296 Notes and References

impression on the hearer passes away. If I repeat the same movements of the organs of speech which I have once made a second, a third, or a fourth time, there is no physical connection of cause between these four similar movements; but they are connected by the physical organism, and by this alone. In this alone remains the trace of the past; in this alone lie the conditions of historical development" (Paul, p.7). 45. Paul, p. 8 46. Paul, p. 9. 47. Paul, p. 2. 48. Paul, p. 2. 49. Baudouin de Courtenay, Anthology, p. 274. 50. Mikolaj Kruszewski, "On Sound Alternation" (1881) in Readings in Historical , eds., Philip Baldi and Ronald Werth (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1978), p. 64; for relevant excerpts from Naville, Meillet, and Ginneken, see also C. Normand et aI., Avant Saussure. choix de textes (1875-1924) (Brussels: Editions Complexe, 1978). 51. Kruszewski, p. 83. 52. Kruszewski, p. 85. 53. Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, Dziela Wybrane (Warsaw: P.W.N., 1974), p. 165. 54. Baudouin de Courtenay, Anthology, p. 276-277. 55. , "Les lois du langage" in Revue intemationale de sociologie (1893), repro in Normand, p. 31. 56. Albert Sechehaye, Programme et methodes de la linguistique theorique (Paris: Champion, 1908), p. 4. 57. Sechehaye, Programme, pp. 7-8. 58. Sechehaye. Programme, p. 6. 59. In her history of positivism and its dissolution, Barbara Skarga traces the difficulties inherent in the positivist concepts of fact, law, and the use of abstraction, and derives the constructivist conception of facts from problems similar to those described here. See Barbara Skarga, Klopoty Intelektu: Miedzy Comte'em a Bergsonem (Warsaw: P.W.N., 1975). 60. Saussure, "Notes inedites," p. 56. 61. We might speculate that this priority of the historical disciplines in the relativization of the notion of a scientific fact might be explained in part by the comparative weakness of the conventions regulating the use of abstraction in these sciences a high technical task uncertainty? Abstraction had long beeen conventionalized in the natural sciences, and the particular modes of abstraction appeared to their practitioners as unproblematic and self-justifying procedures which were uniquely suited to reveal the essence of any given phenomenon; in the historical sciences, abstraction was supposed to be used in order to isolate various aspects of a phenomenon and to select those which needed to be explained by laws. There was no agreement on what constituted the essential, as opposed to the accidental, characteristics of any given historical event (or even what constituted an event), while at the same time, the directive to formulate laws required that the existing stock of descriptive knowledge be re-examined and re-classified according to some other, but not commonly agreed upon, criteria. What in the natural sciences would normally provoke a philosophical quarrel over the epistemological status of concepts and laws Notes and References 297

would, in the historical sciences, appear as a central methodological problem requiring both practical and philosophical solutions. To convince ourselves of this difference we need only compare the role played in physics by Mach's arguments about the concept of the atom with the significance for sociology of Durkheim's advocacy of the concept of a social fact (not to mention "collective consciousness"). For where there was no strong convention determining what were the proper modes of abstraction, and where there was no recognized example of a "successful" selection of the characteristics used in the formulation of laws, there were no unique accepted criteria for establishing the identity of phenomena or for defining the basic character of the object under study. 62. Saussure, "Notes in&iites," p. 58. 63. Godel, p. 31. 64. Sechehaye, Programme, p. 48. 65. Sechehaye, Programme, p. 51. 66. Sechehaye, Programme, p. 16. 67. CGL, p. 8. 68. Godel, pp. 147 If. 69. Sechehaye, Programme, p. 23. 70. Sechehaye, Programme, pp. 23-24. 71. Sechehaye, Programme, p. 107. 72. Sechehaye, Programme, p. 142. 73. Sechehaye, Programme, p. 34. 74. Sechehaye, Programme, p. 120. 75. Quoted in Rudolph Engler, Theorie et critique d'un principe Saussurien: l'arbitraire du signe (Geneva: Imprimeries Populaires, 1962), p. 55. 76. One might object that after the introduction of the psychophysical definition oflanguage, this dissolution ofiinguistics in psychology should also have affected . And yet, after over a quarter of a century during which this definition was dominant in the discipline, historical linguistics was in no danger of being incorporated into psychology. If one examines the situation closely, however, it soon transpires that in this respect static and differ. The main aim of historical linguistics was to describe and identify various kinds of linguistic transformations; throughout the nineteenth century, the actual chronicle of concrete linguistic changes was the goal of most research. Explanations of these changes, theoretical accounts of why and how they took place, were relegated to the background. The relationship between psychological or physiological processes and specific linguistic transformations could be investigated only after these changes were described, various linguistic forms were compared and organized chronologically, and classified according to types and systematized. Given this enormous historical task and the secondary significance of theory for the Neogrammarians, the call for psychological and physiological explanations of linguistic changes remained largely unheeded until the turn of the century. Static linguistics, which had no traditions or models of research to follow, was in a different situation. In order to develop such models it was only reasonable to rely on the definition of the object under study, turning to the concerns which this definition suggested. 77. CGL, p. 9; author's italics. 78. CGL, p. 113. 79. CGL, p. 67. 298 Notes and References

80. CGL, p. 112. 81. Andre Martinet, "Arbitraire linguistique et double articulation," in Cahiers F. de Saussure, vol. 15 (1957), pp. 105-116. 82. CGL, p. 120. 83. CGL, p. 114. 84. CGL, p. 14. 85. "Of these two realms, that of speech is the more social, the other (language) is the more completely individual. Language is an individual possession; all that enters language, that is, that enters the mind, is individual" (Godel, p. 145).

Chapter VIII

I. F. de Saussure, Course of General Linguistics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), p. 143 (hereafter CGL; see also ch. VII, note 16). 2. CGL, p. 161. 3. CGL, p. 14. 4. CGL, p. 98. 5. See, for example, the answers of Roman Jakobson et al. and also of Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye to the questions "QueUes sont les methodes les mieux appropriees a un expose complet et pratique de la grammaire d'une langue que1conque?" in Actes du Premier Congres International de Linguistes (Leiden: Nijhoffs, 1928), pp. 33-52. 6. Antoine Meillet, "F. de Saussure, Cours de linguistique generale" in Revue critique d'histoire et de litterature, 1917, no. 4, pp. 49-51, and his compte rendu ofthe Cours in Bulletin de la societe de linguistique de Paris, vol. 29, pp. 32-36; Maurice Grammont, compte rendu of the Cours in Revue de langues romanes, vol. 59 (1916-17), pp. 402-410; J. Vendryes, "Le caractere social du langage et la doctrine de F. de Saussure" in Journal de psychologie normale etpathologique, vol. 18 (1921), pp. 6l7-624. 7. Robert Godel, Les sources manuscrites du Cours de linguistique generale de F. de Saussure (Geneva: Droz, 1969), pp. 29-34. 8. The response to Otto Jespersen's 1916 review of the Cours, reprinted in Linguistica: Selected papers in English, French and German (Copenhagen: Levin, 1933; pp. 109- 115) can be found in Charles Bally "Langue et Parole," in Journal de psychologie normale et pathologique, vol. 23 (1926). Criticisms of Emile Benveniste ("Nature de signe linguistique," Acta linguistica, vol. 1; 1940) and ofE. Pichon ("La linguistique en France," Journal de psychologie normale et pathologique, vol. 33; 1937) were answered by Charles Bally in "L'arbitraire du signe, valeur et signification," (in Lefranfais moderne, July 1940, pp. 3- 16) and by Albert Sechehaye, Charles Bally and Henri Frei in "Pour I'arbitraire du signe," in Acta linguistica, vol. 2 (1940-41), p. 165-169. Similarly, the answer to the criticisms of Meillet (see above note 6) and W. von Wartburg ("Das Ineinandergreifen von deskriptiver und historischer Sprachwissenschaft," in Berichte iiber die Verhandlungen der Sachsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Phil.-hist. Klasse, vol. 83; 1931, pp. 5-23) was given by Albert Sechehaye in "Les trois linguistiques saussuriennes," in Vox Romanica, vol. 5 (1940), pp. 1-48. 9. Albert Sechehaye, "L'ecole genevoise de linguistique generale," in Indogermanische Forschungen, vol. 44, pp. 217-241. Notes and References 299

10. Georg Simmel, "The Stranger," in Sociology of Georg Simmel, tr. and ed. Kurt H. Wolff (New York: Free Press, 1950); Robert E. Park, "Human Migration and the Marginal Man," in American Journal of Sociology, May 1928; Everett Stonequist, The Marginal Man (New York: Scribner, 1937). Both Stonequist and Park also refer to Frederick Teggart's Processes of History (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1918) and Theory of History (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1925). II. Michael Mulkay, The Social Process of Innovation (London: Macmillan, 1972). Recently, the association between marginality and innovation has been criticized by Thomas F. Gieryn and Richard F. Hirsh ("Marginality and Innovation in Science," Social Studies of Science, vol. 13 (1983), pp. 87-106). They are, however, completely unable to distinguish "scientific importance" from the "cognitive discontinuity" which the association between marginality and innovation entails. Given the rarity of such discontinuous innovations in science, it is indeed unlikely that any such association would be statistically demonstrable. The criticism that looked at from a certain point of view anybody can appear marginal is more to the point, but it would be indeed a rare concept in the social sciences which would not imply such : are we to get rid of "legitimation" because from a certain point of view many things can be shown to be both legitimate and illegitimate? 12. See E. Frankel, "Corpuscular Optics and the Wave Theory of Light: the Study and Politics of a Revolution in Physics," in Social Studies of Science, vol. 6 (1976), pp. 141-84. 13. On the uneven reception of Saussure's Memoire see Tullio de Mauro, "Notes biogra• phiques sur F. de Saussure in Cours de linguistique generale, Ch. Bally and A. Sechehaye, eds. (Paris: Le Payot, 1973), pp. 328-29. 14. "Souvenirs de F. de Saussure concernant sajeunesse et ses etudes," in Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure, vol. 15 (1957), p. 22. 15. "Souvenirs de F. de Saussure," p. 24. 16. Claude Digeon, La crisefram;aise de la pensee allemande (1870-1914) (Paris: PUF, 1959), p.375. 17. Digeon, p. 383. 18. , "Breal vs. Schleicher," in From Locke to Saussure (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1982). 19. Aarsleff, pp. 304-305. 20. For example, Breal's "Le progres de la grammaire comparee," in Memores de la Societe de linguistique de Paris (1868), or the inaugural lecture at the of Abel Bergaigne, La Place du Sanscrit et de la grammaire comparee dans l'enseignement universitaire (Paris: 1886). 21. A. Meillet, "Les langues a I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes," in Celebration du Cinquantenaire de l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (Paris: Champion, 1922), pp. 19-20. 22. For the history of the society see J. Vendryes, "Premiere societe linguistique," in Orbis, vol. 4 (1955), pp. 7-21. 23. Meillet, p. 22. 24. Robert Gauthiot, "Ferdinand de Saussure," in Thomas A. Sebeok, ed., Portraits of Linguists (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1966), vol. 2. 25. On the formal and informal organization of French higher education and research in the social sciences see Terry N. Clark, Prophets and Patrons: The French University and the Emergence of the Social Sciences (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973). 300 Notes and References

26. "I never attended the lectures of Ferdinand de Saussure on general linguistics. But it is known that F. de Saussure developed his ideas early on. The doctrines which he taught explicitly in his lectures on general linguistics are the same as those which had already inspired his teaching of comparative grammar twenty years earlier at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, and which 1 heard then. Now, when 1 find these ideas again, it often seems that it would have been possible to predict them" (Antoine Meillet, compte rendu of the Cours in Bulletin de Societe de linguistique de Paris, vol. 29, p. 33.) 27. Godel, p. 29. 28. Comparing Geneva and Paris, Albert Sechehaye writes: "When Fedinand de Saussure returned in 189 I to his native city of Geneva to occupy a chair of comparative grammar which was being created for him, he had to work ... in an environment less favorable to linguistic endeavors" (Sechehaye, "L'Ecole genevoise," p. 217.) 29. Before the creation of the Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure, Bally and Sechehaye published primarily in French journals (Journal de psychologie normale et pathologique, Bulletin de la Societe de linguistique de Paris, Revue des langues romanes, etc.), though on occasion, as in the case of Sechehaye's review article about the activities of the school, they also attempted to present their ideas to the German linguistic community.

Chapter IX

I. T.S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1962, 2nd ed., 1970), and The Copernican Revolution (New York: Random House, 1957); Paul Feyerabend, Against Method (London: NLB , 1975). 2. Larry Laudan, Progress and Its Problems (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1977), Ch. I and passim. 3. For example, Karl Popper, "Normal Science and Its Problems," in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, ed. by Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1970), pp. 51-58. 4. 1 have not dealt here with a situation in which a new idea system is designed to resolve conflicts between two or more systems which are contradictory but share at least some problematics. This situation was not common in linguistics (though Schleicher's evolutionary theory of linguistic development was an attempt to reconcile Bopp's theory of agglutination with Schlegel's theory of internal flection) and deserves separate investi• gation in other fields. What elements must be shared between such conflicting idea systems in order for them to be perceived as contradictory yet reconcilable? What continuities obtain in such situations and how are the discontinuities generated? 5. This belief originated with Karl Mannheim, who on this basis excluded all natural sciences from the sphere of competence of sociology of knowledge. For an opposite point of view see Robert K. Merton, "The Sociology of Knowledge" (1945), repro in Social Theory and Social Structure (New York: Free Press, 1968), pp. 513-14. More recently, the opposition to the sociology of scientific knowledge based on such a "rationality" argument has come from Larry Laudan (op. cit., ch. 7) and has been countered by the arguments of Barry Barnes and David Bloor (see Scientific Rationality: The Sociological Tum; Dordrecht: Reidel, 1984). BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Aarsleff, H., 242, 299n 258, 259, 293n, 294n, 296n Abstraction, role in linguistics, 99, 101, Becker, C., 168 112, 149-152, 154-160, 163, 187, Ben-David, J., 71, 72, 274n, 275n, 203-205,210,212-216,218,219,257, 279-281n, 289n 258, 261, 285n, 296n Benfey, T., 53, 284n Agglutinating languages, 40, 46, 47, 104 Benveniste, E., 79, 237, 245, 298n Agglutination theory, 41-43, 47, 52, 61, Bergaigne, A., 79, 243, 299n 97, 98, 100, 106, 222, 254, 257, 259, Berlin, I., 275n 284n, 285n, 300n Berlin University (Kbnigliche Friedrich Alternations, 190-197, 199,200,234,258, Wilhelms Universitat), 64, 65, 76, 81, 259, 262, 294n, 295n 132, 135, 141, 168,248,250, 289n Amelung, A., 92 Bezold, F. von, 288n Analogy, in language, 54, 55, 59-61, 90, Bezzenberger, A., 86,141, 281n, 289n 94,95,98-100,104,106-109, Ill, 113, Bierbach, Ch., 293n 114, 117, 125, 139, 153, 159, 163, 178, Bildung, ideal of, 36, 66, 171 184-190, 193, 197, 199,200,222,234, Blanc, 132 235, 240, 257-259, 262, 279n, 293n, Bloomfield, L., 292n 294n Bloomfield, M., 96, 281n Arbuckle, J., 277n Bloor, D., 273n, 300n Arens, H., 278n Bbckh, A., 67, 81 Ascoli, G. I., 32, 92, 95, 281n, 282n Bohlen, P. von, 33, 76 Aufrecht, 76 Bonn University, 33, 65, 66, 76, 132 Authority, in linguistics, 31,133-144,174, Bopp, F., 12,32,33,36,37,39-44,46,47, 242,244,245,247,249-251,266,268, 49,52,57,61,65,66,68-71,74,76,77, 270 81,82,86,112,132,141,221,242,251, Authority, in science, 18-22,26, 27, 28, 254, 276-280n, 285n, 300n 30,63,64,80,82,84,122,123,126-129, Bourdieu, P., 28, 275n 133, 142, 146, 249, 265, 267-271 Bradke, P. von, 133 Autonomy, disciplinary, 35,138, 146, 175 Braune, W., 127, 128, 178,270 Autonomy of linguistics, 80, 82-85, 103, Breal, M., 32, 76, 78, 79, 176, 236, 133, 135, 172-175,222,227-229,231, 240-248, 280n, 299n 232,240, 244-247, 249, 266, 268, 269, Breslau University, 33, 65, 76, 79, 132 271 Brugmann, K., 90, 92-94, 96, 97,104,106, Avenarius, R., 213 109, 112-114, 126-129, 133, 136, 137, 166,178, 190,191,221,239, 280-283n, Baily, Ch., 145, 177,237,250, 298-300n 285-287n, 289n, 291, 293n, 294n Babinger, F., 280n, 288n Burger, A., 237 Barnes, B., 273, 3000n Burkhardt, U., 135, 139, 288n, 289n Bartsch, K., 135 Burnouf, Emile, 78 Baudouin de Courtenay, 1., 176, 179, 181, Burnouf, Eugene, 78, 79 191-194, 196,206-208,210,221,240,

314 Index 315

Careers, scientific, 22-24, 71, 72, 75-79, 256, 257; and agglutination theory, 57 88, 129, 264, 265, 288n; subversion Definition of language and selection of and succession strategies in, 28 problematics in linguistics, 217-221,232 Cassirer, E., 38, 276n Delbriick, B., 76, 90, 97, 99, 107, 112, Causal explanations, in linguistics, 59, 61, 116-118, 127, 128, 166, 277n, 103-105, 110-113, 116-120, 125, 281-286n,291n 147-162, 164, 171, 182-184, 187, 192, Delbruck, M., 13 203-206, 208-214, 224, 234, 257, 258, Diachrony, in linguistics, 102, 178, 260-262, 286n, 294n, 295n 187-190, 194-197,200,217,233,235, Center and periphery, 27,28, 100,240,244, 250 245, 248-251, 267-270 Diez, F., 86, 132, 141,242 Chezy, A. L. de, 33, 78 Digeon, c., 240-242, 280n, 299n Clark, T. N., 274n, 275n, 280n, 299n Dilthey, W., 37, 156, 165, 174,260, 276n Classical philology" 72, 80-84, 88, 124, Divergence, cognitive, 9-13, 16, 17, 22, 134, 136, 137, 165, 167, 169,243 27-29, 129, 143, 144, 148, 164,236,270 Classical philology, university chairs of, Divergence, social, 9, 20, 22, 28, 29 130,131 Dowling, L., 275n Classification of languages, 40, 45-47, 49 Duhem, P., 4,155, 197,260, 273n Coleman, W., 2774n Durkheim, E., 155, 156, 176, 247, 260, College de France, 33, 73, 77, 78 290n,296n Collins, H., 12, 273n Duvau,245 Collins, R., 275n, 289n Collitz, H., 91-93, 97,141, 281n, 282n Ebel, H., 76 Comparative linguistics, university chairs Ebel, W., 288n of, 33, 34, 65, 66, 73-77, 84-87, 132, Ecole Normale Superieure, 73 133,135, 136, 144, 166,242,243 Ecole Polytechnique, 71-73, 77 Comte, A., 176 Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, 73, 78, Conrad, J., 280n, 288n 79, 236, 242-245, 247-249, 299n Constructivism, 156, 202, 213-216, 219, Ecole Speciale des Langues Orientales 232-234, 262, 290n, 296n Vivantes, 73, 78 Coseriu, E., 293n Ecole des Mines, 72 Crane, D., 5,6,9,21, 273n, 274n Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, 72 Credibility, scientific, 121, 122 Edge, D., 14, 273n, 274n Croce, B., 145, 155-157, 174, 206, 220, Elias, N., 273n 260, 291n Elite, scientific, 18-20, 23-27, 30, 31, Crosland, M., 71, 280n 127-129, 133-136, 141, 142, 144, 146, Curtius, G., 43, 53, 57-61, 75, 76, 81, 82, 175,238,244,247-249,251,264-270 87-89, 92-94, 96, 97, 115, 123, 124, Empiricism, 1,99,101,152,160,164,214, 126, 127, 129, 137, 195, 206, 257, 261, 253, 260 275n, 277, 279-284n, 287n Engler, R., 292n, 297n Cuvier, G., 278n English philology, 134, 136, 137, 139 English philology, university chairs of, 75, Darmesteter, A., 79, 243 131, 132, 135 Darmesteter, J., 243 Erlangen University, 76, 132 Darwin, Ch., 44, 277n Erlich, V., 8, 274n Decay, linguistic, 38, 42-44, 47-49, Ettmayer, K. von, 181, 293n 51-53, 55, 57, 59, 61, 63, 94, 97, 98, Evolutionary explanations, 44, 48, 49, 259, 104-107, 109, 125, 138, 181, 182,254, 277n 316 Index

Eulenburg, F., 288n Hagstrom, W., 121, 122 Exemplar, 2, 253; Grimm's law as, 53 Halle University, 76, 79, 87, 132, 168 Hamann, J. G., 34 Fauconnet, 290n Hamilton, A., 33 Ferber, Ch., 288n, 289n, 291n Hase, Ch.-B., 73 Feyerabend, P., 300n Havet, L., 243 Fichte, J. G., 64, 70, 168 Hegel, G. W. F., 11,44,45,47-49,55,57, Fick, A., 141 61, 178, 277n Finck, F. N., 176 Heidbredder, E., 7, 274n Fleck, L., 295n , 79, 132, 135, 139 Frank, Othmar, 33, 280n Herbart, J. K., 107, 184, 285n Frankel, E., 299n Herder, J. G., 34, 37, 275n Frankfurt School, 23 Hermann, E., 292n Frei, H., 237, 298n Hermann, G., 80, 81, 280n Freiburg University, 75, 128, 132, 133, 139 Hermelink, H. 288n Freud, S., 21 Hesse, M., 274n Freytag, G. W., 76 Hirt, H., 99, 284n, 285n Friedman, R. M., 5, 273n Hofer, A., 76, 86 Holton, G., II Gabelentz, G. von, 176, 293n Holtzman, A., 135, 284n Galton, F., 14 Hiibschmann, H., 127-129, 178 Gauthiot, R., 245, 299n Hughes, H. S., 155, 290n Geison, G., 4, 5, 273n, 289n Humboldt, W. von, 40, 64, 65-68, 70, 71, Geneva school, 12,31,144-146,177,233, 77, 168, 176, 276n, 279n, 280n, 285n, 235-237, 247-251, 268, 270, 271,298n, 293n 300n Husser!, E., 202 Geneva University, 248, 249, 300n German philology, 67, 68, 72, 134-139, Idea systems, scientific, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, II, 174 13-16,18,29,34,45,49,50,57,62,91, Germanic Philology, university chairs of, 97, 144, 146, 148, 149, 162,63, 177, 180, 75, 131, 132, 135 181, 197, 198,200,210,216,217,219, Germann, D., 288n 221,227,233,235,251,253-263,272, Gieryn, T. F., 299n 292n, 300n; and intellectual trends 35, Giessen University, 28, 75, 133 145, 202, 210, 216, 259-261; definition Gilbert, G. N., 273n 1-2; and institutionalization 63-64, 89, Ginneken, J. van, 206, 296n 264, 265-271 Godel, R., 237, 248, 292n, 293n, 295n, Idealist, see Neo-Idealist 297n, 298n, 300n Identity, of linguistics facts, 200-210, Goethe, J. W. von, 37, 38, 51, 53, 276n 213-215,225, 258 Gottingen University, 79, 132, 141, 250 Inflectional languages, 40, 41, 46-48, 104 Grammont, M., 236, 245, 298n Institutionalization of linguistics, 29, 30, Grassmann, H., 92, 96, 261, 283n 64,65,70,80,83-89,126, 133, 136, 145, Greifswald University, 33, 76, 77, 86, 132 147, 165, 172, 173, 175, 233, 236, Grimm, J., 32, 35, 36, 44, 49, 52, 82, 86, 242-246, 248, 264 141, 191, 275n, 276n Institutionalization of science, 3, 18, 19, Grimm's law, 52, 92, 256, 283n 22, 27, 34, 121-123, 142, 264; and Grober, G., 174 schools of thought, 26, 144 Gundlach, F., 288n Invisible colleges, 17 Index 317

Iordan, 1., 177, 287n, 292n 118, 119, 148, 153-157, 162,204-212, Isolating languages, 40, 46, 47, 104 214,218,219,225,257,258,260,262, 278n, 296n Jaberg, K., 292n Lazarus, M., 184, 285n Jakobson, R., 292n, 298n Lefmann, S., 65, 275n, 279n, 280n Jameson, F., 295n Legitimacy of linguistics, 80, 81, 83-85, Jankowsky, K., 282n 89,100, 137,242,247,248,270,271 Jaspers, K., 170 Legitimation, of scientific contributions, Jay, M., 274n 19-21, 24, 25, 35, 126-128, 136, 141, Jena University, 43,76,87, 132 142, 175,242,243,245,249,264-267, Jespersen, 0., 237, 275n, 281n, 292n, 298n 269,270 Jones, W., 32, 36 Legitimation system, dual, 24-26, 128, 174 Journals, scientific, 20, 21, 86, 127, 128, Leibniz, G. W., 39 133, 134, 144, 173, 174,243,248,265, , 75, 76, 80, 87,124,128, 269-271, 289n, 292n 129, 132, 134, 135, 136, 141, 178,234, 236-240, 245, 248 Karcevski, S., 237 Lenz, M., 288n Kiel University, 132 Lerch, E., 162, 169, 291n Kiparsky, P., 96, 277n, 282n Leskien, A., 90, 96,99,128,129,178, 284n Klemperer, V., 171, 291n Levi, S., 79 Knorr-Cetina, K., 273n Lexis, W., 139, 289n Koerner, E. F. K., 177, 292n Liard, L., 78, 280n Kohler, R., 289n Liebig, J. von, 13, 28 Kolde, T., 288n Life-force, in language, 37,38,39,52, 276n Koningsberg University, 33, 76, 132 Linguistic feeling (Sprachgefuhl), 55, 56, Korting, G., 289n 59, 61, 104 Kosegarten, J. G. L., 33 Linguistics/philology relations, 45, 68, Krantz, D., 5, 6, 21, 273n, 274n 80-89, 135-138, 161-163, 166-168, Krauss, H., 248 171-175, 227, 24~ 246, 265-268, 271, Kruszewski, M., 176, 179, 181, 191-194, 277n 196, 206-209, 258, 259, 296n Lorek, E., 162, 291n Kuhfuss, W., 167, 291n Lot, F., 280n Kuhn, A., 86, 127 Ludwig, 8 Kuhn, T. S., 6, 11, 14,91, 180, 181,252, Lyell, c., 44, 105 253, 274n, 282n, 293n, 300 Mach, E., 155, 199, 213, 260, 296n Lakatos, 1., 11, 252 MacKenzie, D., 274n, 290n Langles, 33, 73 McClelland, Ch. E., 279n Language teaching reform movement, 167, Malmberg, B., 292n 168, 169 Malraux, A. B., 274n Langue/parole dichotomy, 217, 221, 231, Mannheim, K., 35, 51, 275n, 277n, 300n 232, 235, 250, 271 Marburg University, 132 Lassen, Ch., 33, 141 Marginality and innovation, in science, 27, Latour, B., 121, 122, 287n 238-240, 247, 268, 299n Laudan, L., 252, 300n Martinet, A., 79, 229, 297n Law of Palatals, 92, 93, 97 Martins. H .. 273n Laws, in linguistics (see also sound laws), Marty, A., 176 38,44,48,49,54-61, 103, 105, 106, 109, Marx, K., 21, 44 318 Index

Mauro, T. de, 299n Noreen, A., 176 Mauss, M., 290n Normal science, 2, 6, 181 Meillett, A., 73, 78, 79,145,206,208-211, Norman, W., 57, 61, 276n, 279n, 283n, 213,217,218,236,242,243,245,247, 284n 249, 259, 296n, 298n, 299n Normand, c., 296n Merton, R. K., 133, 289n, 300n Methodological and philosophical ideas, Organic character of language, 36-39, relations between, 107, 109, 110, 255, 41-45,49,51-53,61,68,103-105,125, 256,259 138, 181, 254, 260, 276n, 285n; vs. Methodological and theoretical ideas, mechanical 37, 40, 276n relations between, 58 - 61, 95, 100, 112, Ossowski, S., 10-13, 124, 274n, 287n 125,184, 191, 192,256-259 Osthoff, H., 90-94, 96,104,106,107,112, Methodological, philosophical and 113, 116, 119, 127-129, 166, 167, 178, theoretical ideas, relations among, 50, 185, 190, 239, 281n, 282n, 285-287n, 51,53,55,57,60-62,91-93,96, 100, 291n, 293n 106,109, 110, 112, 125, 141, 147, 180, 184, 199,200,205,216,217,233,254, Paradigm, 2, 6, 91, 96, 181, 238, 252, 253, 256-259, 261, 262, 283n 292n Meyer, G ., 286n Paris, G., 176, 240-243 Meyer, L., 53 Park, R. E., 238, 298n Meyer-Lubke, G., 181 Passy, P., 236 Misteli, F., 281n Paul, H., 90, 99, 102-104, 107, 108, Modern philology, 137-139, 166, 167, 169 112-119, 127, 128, 141, 150, 151, 154, Morrell, J. B., 5, 28, 273n 174, 176, 186, 187, 192,203,204,222, Mounin, G., 275n 270, 281n, 282, 284-287, 290n, Mulkay, M., 2, 14,238, 273n, 274n, 275n, 292-296n 282n,299n Paulsen, F., 279n, 280n Muller, F., 282n Pedersen, H., 94, 282n Muller, 0., 81 Philosophical and theoretical ideas, Munich University, 33, 65, 76, 132, 135 relations between, 39, 42-45, 49, 50, 57, Munster University, 75, 79, 132 101, 112, 118, 125, 141, 145, 148, 153, 162, 163, 183, 184, 187, 190, 194, 197, Naville, A., 176, 206, 211, 296n 210, 220, 254, 255, 259 Neo-Idealist school, 30, 144-165, Philosophical assumptions in science, II, 170-175,205,216,220,221,246,258, 14,16,62,101,103,106,146,149,163, 260,261, 263, 267, 268-271; relations to 184, 190, 199, 200, 216-220, 233, 253, structuralists, 145, 146 255, 259 Neogrammarians, 30, 43, 51,56,60,75,76, Phonetics, articulatory, 101 86, 90-120, 123-129, 134-154, Physiology, and linguistics, 10 1- 106, 158-160, 162-164, 166, 167, 174, 112-115, 147, 153, 218, 223, 224, 177 - 179, 181-190, 192- 195, 197, 199, 226-232, 246, 260, 271 200,203- 206,213,215-223,226,228, Pichon, E., 237, 298n 230, 233-236, 238-240, 242, 244-246, Pickering, A., 273n, 289n, 290n 249, 254, 256-263, 265-268, 271, Pinch, T., 290n 281-284n, 287n, 294n, 297n Poincare, H., 155 Neo-, 64-66, 68, 69, 71, 75,80, Po1anyi, M., 6, 19, 274n 164,165, 168, 171, 172,264 Popper, K., 5, 9, 14,252, 274n, 300n Niebuhr, H . R., 9, 274n Positivism, 101, 125, 147, 150, 152, 153, Index 319

155, 164, 165, 170-174, 187,200,202, 69,72-74,76,78,87,131 - 133,135 211,213-216,234,259,260,262,290n, Saussure, F. de, 21, 31, 79, 92, 93, 97,102, 295n, 296n 144, 145, 156, 176-179, 181, 183, Pot!, A., 76, 82, 87, 278n 187-190, 193-197, 199-203,208,210, Poulhan, 213 211, 214-221, 226- 240, 244-251, 258, Linguistic Circle, 12, 17,235,262, 261,262,268,270, 282n, 292-300n 268 Scheler, M., 170 Priority, in science, 91, 239, 240 Schelling, F. W. von, 37, 70 Proportional groups, in analogical Scherer, W., 90,105, 106, 286n formations, 107-108, 187, 188 Schlegel, A. W. von, 12,33,35,37,40,43, Psychologism, in linguistics, 99, 101, 125, 45-47, 49, 52, 67, 76, 78, 276n 164, 165, 187 Schlegel, F. von, 12,32- 35,36,39-43,45, Psychology, and linguistics, 101 - 107, 109, 47, 49, 52, 67, 112, 275n, 276n, 278n, 112-115,147,151,153,154,156,158, 300n 163, 184-189,203,218,222-232,240, Schleicher, A., II, 43-51, 53-61, 76, 246, 257-260, 262, 271, 285n, 287n, 85-87,92-97, 103-105, 115, 129, 141, 297n 150, 172,221,242,254,255,257,259, 260, 277-279n, 282-285n, 299n, 300n Quine-Duhem thesis, 50 Schleiermacher, F. D. E., 64,68,70, 168, 276n Rask, R., 32, 52 Schmidt, J., 92, 95, 97, 98, 141, 282n, Renan, E., 79, 240, 242 283n, 289n Reputational system in science, 2, 19, Schneider, G., 8, 112, 286n 121 - 123, 126, 143 Schomann, 77 Revolutions, in science, 31,91,93,95, 176, Schramm, E., 291n 198, 235, 236, 238, 263 Schuchardt, H., 167, 281n, 291n Revolution from above, 134-137, 143,266 Sebeck, T. A., 275n, 281n, 291n Reward system, in science, 121 - 124 Sechehaye, A., 145, 177, 179, 183, 206, Rickert, H., 156 21O-214,218,221-227,237,250,290n, Ringer, F., 164, 165, 168, 274n, 279n, 291n 293n, 296-300n Robins, R. H., 282n Sects, 9-10 Rocher, L., 82, 280n, 281n Seidel-Vollman, S., 138, 280n, 288n, 289n Romance philology, 67, 134-139, 145, 174, Seminars, in German universities, 75, 79, 269 88 Romance philology, university chairs of, Siebs, T., 288n 75, 131, 132, 133, 135 , linguistic, 224, 225, 228-232, 246; Romanticism, 34, 35, 37, 38,43,44,49,51, arbitrary character of, 229, 230, 232 63, 156, 220, 259, 26~ 275n, 276n Signijiant/signijie duality, 228-231, 250 Rostock University, 75, 132-133, 135 Shils, E., 18, 274n Rousseau, J.-J., 275n Sievers, E., 128, 129 Ruckert, 76 Simmel, G., 165, 238, 298n Skarga, B., 296n Sacy, S. de, 70, 71, 73, 78 Slavic philology, university chairs of, 131, Said, E., 275n 132, 134 Sanskrit, 32-36, 40, 41, 43, 65, 67, 70, 72, Societe de Linguistique, 236, 243-245, 248, 81-83,86,88,92,97,106,138,166,191, 249 239, 243, 276n, 277n, 278n Societe Ferdinand de Saussure, 237 Sanskrit, university chairs of, 33, 34, 65, Sommerfelt, A., 291n 320 Index

Sorbonne, Universite de, 73, 77, 299n Toennies, F., 165 Sorokin, P., 4, 273n Tiibingen University, 132, 139 Sound laws, 52-61, 90, 92-97, 10, 112, Turner, S., 80, 82, 280n 113, 117, 118, 124, 147-150, 153, 163, 195, 206-211, 215, 255-257; and Uniformitarianism, 105, 125, 138, 139, agglutination theory 57, 97, 257, 259, 141, 166, 181-184, 190, 197,260,262, 278n; exceptionless character of, 94, 284n 96-99, 100, 106, 110, Ill, 117-119, 125, 141, 142, 148, 149, 234, 235, 256, Vendryes, J., 79, 236, 245,249, 298n, 299n 257, 266, 271, 282n, 283n, 293n; Verner, K., 92,96,97,99,240,255,261, physiological explanation of, 112-119, 282n, 283n 148; psychological explanation of Vienna Circle, 8, 10 114-119, 148; as natural laws, 112, 118, Volbehr, F., 288n 119, 148,206, 286n, 287n Vossler, K., 144-153, 156-163, 166, Specialization, in philology and linguistics, 169-171,173, 174,269, 290n, 291n 133, 135, 136, 142, 169-174,246,265, 267 Walras, L., 176 Spencer, H., 44 Wartburg, W. von, 237, 298n Spranger, E., 170 Weber, A., 76 Steinthal, M., 42, 115, 184, 285n Weber, M., 155, 156, 165,202, 260, 290n Stenzler, 33, 76 Weisz, G., 9 Stonequist, E. V., 238, 298n Wenig, 0., 288n Strassburg University, 79, 132 Wertheimer, J., 248 Structuralism, 21,144,145-149, 155, 156, Wertheimer, M., 202 162, 163, 176-179, 184, 186,217,230, Wilbur, T. H., 282n, 288n 233,234,251,258,262,263,268,295n Whitley, R., 2, 19, 122, 273n, 274n, 287n Svedelius, c., 176 Whitney, W. D., 76, 105, 115, 176,229, Synchrony, in linguistics, 102, 178, 179, 240, 242, 286n 181-200, 216, 217, 221, 224-227, Windelband, W., 156, 165,206, 260 230-234, 236, 240, 244-246, 250, 258, Windisch, E., 78, 88, 275n, 280n, 281n 261,262,271,294n Windischmann, K. J., 33, 34, 81 Szacki, J., 17,24-26, 274n, 275n Winteler, J., 176, 287n Woolgar, S., 121, 122, 273n, 287n Tarde, G., 176 Wundt, W., 222-225, 285n Taine, H, 213 Wurzburg University, 69, 70, 76, 132 Teggart, F., 298n Tegner, E., 92, 97, 282n Ziman, J., 274n Thomson, V., 92, 97 Znaniecki, F., 274n Tobler, L., 118, 281n, 286n Zuckerman, H., 133, 289n SOCIOLOGY OF THE SCIENCES

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Already published in this series:

Marc de Mey, The Cognitive Paradigm, 1982, xx + 314 pp., ISBN 90-277-1382-0. Tom Jagtenberg, The Social Construction of Science, 1983, xviii + 237 pp., ISBN 90-277-1498-3. Norman Stockman, Antipositivist Theories of the Sciences, 1983, x + 284 pp., ISBN 90-277-1567-X. Rachel Laudan (ed.), The Nature of Technological Knowledge. Are Models of Scientific Change Relevant? 1984, vii + 145 pp., ISBN 90-277-1716-8. Trevor Pinch, Confronting Nature, 1986, xi + 268 pp., ISBN 90-277-2224-2. Olga Amsterdamska, Schools of Thought. The Development of Linguistics from Bopp to Saussure, 1987, x + 320 pp., ISBN 90-277-2391-5.