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Home , Maize, Single Payment Scheme, Soil Association

RUNAWAY MAIZE

Subsidised destruction

June 2015 In the decade between 1990 and 2000, total maize acreage in England trebled and has continued to increase

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100 Maize area (‘000) hectares

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0 1974 1984 1994 2004 2014 2020

1 Maize damages Maize have severe negative impacts on public goods Executive like soils and fresh water. Many farmers are being paid to cause significant harm to these public interests - this is a summary national scandal.

Maize crops leave soil exposed during much of the Maize – a growing problem growing season. Maize is usually harvested late in the Maize is probably the most rapidly growing in the UK year when soils are often wet, so with heavy rain, water – up from just 8,000 hectares in England in 1973 to 183,000 runs off the surface of compacted and damaged fields, hectares in 2014. polluting waterways with and nutrients, and causing floods. Most maize is used as for , especially for dairy , but increasingly maize is being grown as an Estimates suggest that during the storms and heavy rainfall for anaerobic digesters (AD) that are subsidised in the winter of 2013/14, every 10 hectare block of damaged from public money to produce gas for . land under maize stubble produced the equivalent of 15 Olympic swimming pools (more than 375 million litres) of Maize produces high yields, both per hectare as a crop and additional runoff. per cubic meter of . Because it is the most readily grown bulk product it has become the core feedstock for Research published in 2014 found that 75% of late- AD . harvested maize sites showed high or severe levels of soil degradation. The use of maize for silage is now known to have a significant negative effect on the nutritional content of The overall financial cost of annual flooding in the United both and meat. Eating maize may also make both Kingdom is estimated to be somewhere in the region of £1.1 badgers and cattle more susceptible to TB. billion; a cost to the public to which maize will be making an increasing contribution. The National Farmers Union’s plans would see an additional 125,000 hectares of maize grown in England Better practice by 2020. It is possible to grow maize to better practice standards that reduce the risks to soils and the environment. This threatens UK production - the land the NFU wants to be used to grow fuel could produce over Some farmers are following good practice, but not enough. 1 million of , or over 5.5 million tonnes The Government should introduce clear policy measures of potatoes. that encourage more farmers to meet best practice.

2 Spiralling rents for farmers The last government made a commitment to improve If nothing changes, the UK is set to follow in the footsteps and safeguard British soils: ‘By 2030, all England’s of Germany, where a boom in AD has changed the soils will be managed sustainably and degradation economics of , with 800,000 hectares of land put threats tackled successfully. This will improve the aside for AD maize (more than four times the current area quality of England’s soils and safeguard their ability to of maize in the UK). The resulting land grab for maize has provide essential services for future generations’. driven farmland rents up by 140% in just four years. To achieve that objective and to end runaway This is already happening in the UK - rising rents hit all subsidised soil destruction, the is farmers producing food, especially struggling dairy farmers calling for: needing to rent land to feed their cows.

• saving up to £50 million per year by stopping all Double subsidy the subsidies available for AD digesters fuelled AD plants using maize receive Feed-in Tariff and the in whole or partly by maize, and increasing the Renewable Heat Incentive subsidies. Maize growers are also support for biogas from waste; subsidised under the Common (CAP). Maize for AD receives a double subsidy from public money. • removal of maize as a qualifying crop under the greening requirements for 30% of the In 2015, the total amount that will be paid to farmers new Common Agriculture Policy’s Basic growing maize amounts to almost £33 million. In addition, Payment; ‘renewable’ energy subsidies for maize used in AD plants are costing British energy consumers up to £50 million the EU to remove the Basic Farm Payment for per year. • fields growing maize for AD; Biogas produced from maize, while described as ‘renewable the introduction of strict measures for energy’ is not providing any net benefit to the environment. • management of maize crops under cross- Recent research concluded that ‘using agricultural crops for compliance (requirements for farmers to biogas production is not environmentally sustainable and be eligible for the Basic Farm Payment) policy should not encourage this practice’. – mandating compliance with officially recognised best practice. Policy change Despite all the environmental damage maize crops can cause, under the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy, maize is This would remove the double subsidy, reduce the included as a crop that farmers are allowed to grow to meet pressure on farm rents and encourage farmers who grow the new requirement to grow three crops for ‘greening’ maize for silage to minimise soil losses. purposes.

3 Maize around the world

Originating in Central America, maize is now one of the world’s most important crops. It is grown for human and animal consumption, with 184 million hectares grown globally in 2013.1 With demand for meat and increasing around the world, annual maize production is at an all-time high of 992 million tonnes, a figure which is expected to increase by 3% year-on-year.2

4 Maize cultivation in England: 1973 – 2020

300 Maize in the United Kingdom

250 The widespread cultivation of maize in the UK is relatively recent. In 1973, just 8,000 Maize area (‘000) hectares hectares of maize was grown in England. NFU – projected increase In the decade between 1990 and 2000, total acreage trebled and has continued to 200 increase3 – in 2014, 183,000 hectares of maize was grown in the UK.4

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Maize area (‘000) hectares Maize area 100

The figures in red illustrate the additional area of 50 maize required by the National Farmers’ Union’s (NFU) stated ambition to increase the number of on-farm anaerobic 0 digestion plants in the UK 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 to 1,000 by 20205

5 Growth in maize cultivation in England: 1975 – 2013

1975 1985 1995 2013

Unchecked, this massive growth threatens Maize is a relatively low-cost, reliable source to accelerate. The rapid increase is due in of silage for cattle – mainly dairy cows Maize area (hectares) part to the introduction of more resilient (although well managed grass-based varieties which has enabled maize cultivation systems can perform better financially). In <1,000 to move into northern England, as the the UK, the majority of maize is cultivated maps above illustrate. Maize is traditionally for silage for animal feed, especially for dairy 1,001 – 5,000 better suited to warm climates - this has cattle. However, - the previously limited the extent to which process of breaking down in 5,001 – 25,000 it could be cultivated in the UK. The the absence of oxygen – is an increasingly 25,000 – 45,000 development of more resiliant varieties popular technology for the production of means that more and more UK farmers are energy and has become a significant and 45,000 + able successfully to grow maize in a variety rapidly growing contributor to the demand of climatic conditions. for maize.

6 Harvesting maize involves a high volume of movements

7 75% of late harvested maize sites showed high or severe levels of soil degradation

Credit Wye and Usk Foundation

8 Soil erosion and environmental impact

Maize is a tall crop with widely spaced stalks, repeatedly challenging the Department of leaving relatively large areas of soil exposed Estimates suggest that during Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the throughout the growing season – this leaves National Farmers Union on their bare soil vulnerable to erosion, as well as the storms and heavy rainfall current policies.6 doing little to slow run-off in times of heavy in the winter of 2013/14, every rain. Sown in April or May, maize is harvested Research published in 2014 found that 75% late, sometimes as late as November, when 10 hectare block of damaged of late harvested maize sites showed high or the ground is usually already wet. Harvest land under maize stubble severe levels of soil degradation.7 Historically, involves a high volume of tractor movements produced the equivalent of maize growing has been concentrated in the – a harvester will deliver chopped maize into South West of England (as can be seen in the a trailer pulled by a tractor (or into a lorry) 15 Olympic swimming pools maps on page 6). The research also found which, due to the bulk of chopped maize, (more than 375 million litres) that the South West is more susceptible to will be frequently rotated. Full trailers or lorries structural damage to soils than many other are immediately replaced and the chopped of additional runoff agricultural areas of the UK, due in part to maize taken off the field to an AD or more frequent episodes of prolonged or heavy silage clamp. Maize requires a relatively high input in terms rainfall, and to the steep slopes that typify of pesticides and fertilisers, particularly in the much of the region’s . The result of this heavy movement on wet soil early growth period. Some of these chemicals is to leave it severely compacted and rutted. are washed off fields during the growing One of the co-authors of the report, Robert The soil is often too wet and damaged, and season. Some will remain after harvest, Palmer, estimated that during the storms the maize harvested so late in the season, causing contamination and eutrophication of and heavy rainfall during the winter of that a winter is impossible rivers and other watercourses during heavy 2013/14, ‘every 10 hectare block of damaged and the soil is left exposed until the following winter rain and flooding. land under maize stubble has produced the spring. The effect of bare, compacted soil is equivalent of 15 Olympic swimming pools seriously to impede the soil’s ability to absorb The scandal of the subsidies attached to (more than 375 million litres) as enhanced and hold moisture. In times of heavy rain, maize cultivation, and the absence of any runoff’.8 Extensive flooding has a devastating massive quantities of water simply wash off enforceable or effective crop management and lasting impact on the environment and the surface of the fields, polluting waterways requirements to minimise soil erosion local communities. The overall financial and causing floods. The flooding is caused and environmental damage, have been cost of annual flooding in the United not only by fast run-off from compacted, highlighted by a number of researchers and Kingdom is estimated to be somewhere damaged soils, but also through the commentators, whose work has informed in the region of £1.1 billion9, a cost to the build-up of sediment slowing water flow this report. In particular, journalist George public to which maize will be making an in rivers. Monbiot has led the way in effectively and increasing contribution.

9 In times of heavy rain, massive quantities of water and soil wash off the surface of the fields, polluting waterways and causing floods

Satellite image shows soil (brown areas) flowing into the sea around the UK following the NEODAAS/University of Dundee 2014 floods

10 Maize and anaerobic digestion

Of the 171,000 hectares of maize grown in of green food, municipal and agricultural changing the economics of agriculture, with England in 2014, 29,000 hectares, (almost waste produced in the UK each year, but also 800,000 hectares of land put aside for AD 17%), is grown specifically as a feedstock for a way to turn this waste into a renewable maize (more than four times the area of maize the production of biogas through anaerobic gas, with the residue used as fertiliser. in the UK). This has resulted in, among other digestion.10 The area of maize grown for AD However, the yield of biogas produced from things, a so-called ‘land grab’, as investors in England doubled between 2013 and 2014. waste is typically low,14 and plant owners and farmers rush to lease land for maize In January 2015 there were 174 biogas plants are increasingly looking to purpose-grown cultivation. In the period between 2008 and operating in the UK11, and by 1 March 2015 crops as a source of consistent feed for 2012, rents in Germany rose from €250 to the figure was 185 according to the National their anaerobic digesters.15 Maize, with its €600 per hectare, per year.17 Non-Food Crops Centre’s (NNFCC) annual consistently high yields, both per hectare as anaerobic digestion report12, more than half a crop and per cubic meter of biogas,16 and Concern is already being expressed that a of which use farm-based feedstocks. About because it is the most readily grown bulk similar situation is developing in the UK.18 Not 500 plants are in development, of which product, has become the core feedstock. only does an increased demand for land push around half, 250, are likely to become Consistent feedstock produces a consistent up rents, but the lucrative contracts being operational, which the NNFCC say will supply of gas – crucial in a market which has offered for AD maize are encouraging farmers require an additional 3 million tonnes of proven to be extremely lucrative, thanks to to cultivate energy crops, rather than food for crops as feedstock. public subsidies. either human or animal consumption. With rents rising (up to £400 an acre for land that In fact there is plenty of food waste available Waste driven AD plants can work well, and can grow or potatoes), to fuel AD plants – only 2m tonnes out of the planning permissions for AD plants include farmers are struggling to turn a profit on their total of 10m tonnes available are currently clear restrictions on whether the plant should land, putting increasing pressure on many treated in AD plants according to the NNFCC. use waste or plant material, but so far this has farmers.19 In light of the current crisis in However, even the new criteria not stopped the increase in maize crops (and the UK dairy industry, soaring costs and to be applied to new and existing AD plants other crops like beet and ) competition for land will only increase the from October 2015 are not expected to halt the being grown for AD. burden on struggling dairy businesses. demand for maize. Despite the obvious benefits in the production A number of government initiatives and Earlier this year, one of the industry’s biggest of genuinely renewable, green energies, the funding opportunities mean that the biogas players, Tamar Energy, secured a £32 million practice of directing food crops to anaerobic industry (and, as result, the production of AD loan from the Royal Bank of Scotland, digesters is controversial. One of the primary energy crops) is heavily subsidised. Subsidies demonstrating market confidence in the criticisms is that the cultivation of energy include the Feed-in Tariff (FIT), whereby long-term prospects of the biogas industry.13 crops is a waste of prime agricultural land that energy companies will pay individuals for the ought to be used to produce food. Secondly, electricity they produce, including electricity AD is ostensibly a solution to multiple there is a concern that the UK will follow in that they use themselves, and the Renewable problems - a means by which not only the footsteps of Germany, where a boom Heat Incentive (RHI). On the basis that around safely to dispose of the millions of tonnes in the biogas industry in recent years is 1,160,000 tonnes of maize are currently

11 The Soil Association is calling on the Government to save up to £50 million per year by stopping all the subsidies available for AD digesters fuelled in whole or partly by maize, and to increase the support for biogas from waste.

12 grown in England for use in AD plants (on Scientific research published in 2014 found 29,000 hectares), the combined FIT and that biogas yield was higher when using RHI subsidies are likely to be costing British maize rather than waste (and therefore that The biogas produced energy consumers somewhere between £31 there was a greater saving in global warming and £77 per of maize, or a total of £36 – potential), although this may not be true of from maize, while 50 million per year. well-managed waste plants. In any event, the research found that the environmental described as In addition, under the Basic Payment impacts associated with maize cultivation Scheme, a farm subsidy under the Common were so significant as to counter these ‘’ Agricultural Policy (CAP), which replaces positive effects – the research concluded that: the from 2015, the is not providing total amount that will be paid to all farmers ‘There is a danger that continuing with growing maize (on 183,000 hectares) amounts the policy of subsidising use of food crops any net benefit to to almost £33 million each year.20 These Basic for biogas production will increase other Payments, when combined with the subsidies environmental impacts as well as causing the environment paid for the production of biogas, mean that competition with food production and related because of damage the maize (and other arable crops) grown to socio-economic consequences. Therefore … feed AD plants is effectively subsidised by the using agricultural crops for biogas production to soils and fresh public twice, first on the farm, then in the AD is not environmentally sustainable and policy unit. Both the National Farmers Union and should not encourage this practice.’ 21 water the government have been determined to stop other cases of possible ‘double-funding’ Research published this year suggests that years. Or, in terms of lost food production, the of farm operations from public funds. For any claim made by supporters of AD that extra 125,000 ha the NFU wants to be used example, farmers cannot claim Basic Payment it cuts relies on to grow fuel could produce over 1 million Scheme payments for land used for solar the (clearly false) assumption that when tonnes of wheat,24 or over 5.5 million tonnes energy, but so far, maize grown for AD has land is used for growing maize, no food is of potatoes.25 For farmers, the economics of been exempt from such scrutiny. grown elsewhere to replace the lost food growing maize for AD, supported by public production.22 This and other warnings have subsidies, is of course attractive compared Maize crops have a number of severe negative been ignored by the English National Farmers’ to the volatile market for crops, and impacts on public goods like soils and fresh Union (NFU), which has called for 1,000 AD given the downward price pressure from water, and while some farmers are following plants to be operating in the UK by 2020. By supermarkets on other farm produce. best practice (under-sowing and using their own calculation, this number of plants early maturing varieties) other farmers are would require 100,000 – 125,000 ha of maize, However, the UK currently imports 40% being paid to cause significant harm these when co-digested with slurry and manure.23 of total food consumed - a figure which public interests. This is a national scandal, is expected to rise -so devoting so much especially as the biogas produced from maize, The NFU are thus proposing that the growth agricultural land to feed AD plants, which use while described as ‘renewable energy’ is not in acreage of maize that occurred over the crops that have such a damaging impact on providing any net benefit to the environment. three decades to 2000 occur again in just five the environment, is something British farmers

13 should be attacking, not calling for.26 Both the UK Government and the NFU say that they want us to produce more of our own food, but the massive cultivation of maize for AD is an immediate threat to this. This land is not being used to produce food, and, crucially, also threatens the long term future of food and farming – the damage done to the soil and to the wider environment by maize cultivation will have far-reaching, negative impacts on the future of UK food production.

About 500 AD plants are in development, of which around 250 are likely to Maize is harvested become operational, requiring an additional 3 million tonnes late and involves of crops as feedstock a high volume

Others are alive to these threats and are of tractor concerned at the amount of public money being put into unviable and environmentally movements. The negative sources of energy. In the European Parliament, MEPs have recently backed a result of this heavy draft proposal by the EU to introduce a cap on the use of food-crops in the production movement on wet of .27 While the proposed legislation would only apply specifically to transport soil is to leave it (as a cap of 6% of final transport fuels coming from crop-based biofuels), it demonstrates severely compacted both an awareness of the threats posed by the industry to food and land security, and and rutted… a willingness on the part of the EU to try and solve at least part of the problem.

14 Other issues Current policy position

Maize is not only the cause of significant The previous Labour government, under EU soil erosion, but is also linked to a number of The use of maize for farm policy, recognised that late-harvested other problems for consumers and farmers. crops (maize in particular), have a significant The use of maize for silage is now known silage is now known potential to damage soils. Indeed, they issued to have a significant negative effect on the specific guidance (below) to farmers on how nutritional content of both milk and meat. to have a significant best to manage maize crops under cross- Maize is relatively high in linolenic acid compliance (satisfaction of which is required (omega-6 fatty acid) compared to grasses negative effect to receive subsidies). and , which are higher in alpha- on the nutritional linolenic (omega-3 fatty acid). Western diets Soil Land use measures generally contain an excess of omega-6 guidance which have a negative impact on our ability content of milk and code Maize & forage crops to produce long chain omega-3 fatty acids. meat, decreasing C1 Maintain land drainage. Heavy and medium soils that are Maize silage increases the omega-6 content regularly cultivated often require land drainage to increase opportunities for working the land without drainage. of milk and is associated with low levels of levels of beneficial omega-3, which has negative implications C2 On fields that are vulnerable to compaction, runoff and soil erosion, choose early maturing varieties to allow an early 28 29 for the nutritional quality of milk. omega-3 harvest. C3 Undersow maize. There is anecdotal evidence (with some Environmentally speaking, soil erosion and theoretical scientific basis) that maize is increased flood risks are not the only impacts C4 Manage the of forage crops and crop residues to minimum poaching and runoff. This can be done by responsible for encouraging the spread of associated with maize cultivation. The limiting periods of access, providing run-back areas, strip bovine TB in badgers (which eat maize cobs), destruction of natural grassland in Europe to grazing, cultivating strips across the slope to reduce runoff and for making cattle fed on maize more make way for maize energy cropping, or to and by avoiding slopes vulnerable to erosion and runoff. susceptible to TB, because maize is low in compensate for the loss of land for livestock C5 Where necessary, cultivate as soon as conditions are . Some farmers believe that TB that energy cropping inevitably causes, suitable after harvest or grazing to remove wheelings and compaction. infection can be successfully managed by has caused significant release of greenhouse C6 Rough plough sandy and silty soils following harvest to feeding selenium supplements to both cattle gases, and widespread loss of farmland birds. produce cloddy coarse surface that is less likely to cap and badgers.30 It is suggested that maize, The destruction of grassland is especially and slump. deficient in a number of trace elements, ironic, given that maize-based cattle systems C7 Following harvest, sow the next crop within 10 days including selenium, may result in a greater are high cost compared to grass silage and of having been prepared as a seedbed where weather susceptibility to the spread of bovine TB.31 grazing based systems. conditions allow. No scientific research has been done to C8 The field is sown with a temporary cover crop throughout investigate this theory, although the Soil The massive financial incentives available for winter. Association has long called for more biogas production are seen as contributing to C9 Other – please state: research to be conducted to establish if the crisis and are fuelling the destruction of any link exists.32 natural habitats.33 Cross Compliance Guidance for Soil Management 2010 edition

15 It seems unlikely that these ‘land use Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) measures’ would be effective in reducing The last government provided to encourage less irresponsible farming soil loss from many maize fields, but the last practices (above and beyond the very basic coalition government removed even these a specific exception for maize rules under cross compliance), and offered recommendations. It then went much further, from the measures farmers two tiers of maize management aimed at and provided a specific exception for maize have to take to protect soils reducing soil erosion.37 The basic option from the protective measures farmers have required, among other things, that maize to take with other crops following harvest.34 following harvest be harvested no later than 1 October, or As of January 2015, this exception has been the establishment of a cover crop post- removed and replaced with a requirement increasing risks posed by unsustainable harvest. The enhanced option required that minimum soil cover must be provided, farming practices to and both. The Soil Association believes, as but that this may be by maize stubble.35 fertility, and to water resources. Under these a minimum, these standards should be The new standards also state that penalties rules, 30% of the Basic Payment Scheme is mandatory, and would reflect current best (unspecified) will be imposed in instances of conditional on farmers meeting mandated practice by some maize growers. Under the soil erosion. However, the ‘cover’ provided requirements (organic farmers, considered old ELS scheme, take-up was remarkably by maize stubble is wholly inadequate to green by definition, are exempt from these low – just 4,463 ha under the basic option, protect against soil erosion – just as maize’s rules). Crop diversification (also referred to as and just 773 ha under the enhanced option. widely spaced stalks do very little to protect the ‘three-crop rule’) requires that a farmer That equates to a total of 5,236 hectares of soils throughout the growing period, they with over 30 hectares of arable land must maize, or just less than 3% of the total maize also offer no effective cover at all to rutted and grow at least three crops on their holding area in the UK, being farmed in a manner that compacted post-harvest fields. (farmers with 10 – 30 ha must grow at least mitigates the damage caused to soils and two crops). Despite the environmental the environment.38 Not only is stubble an ineffective method of impact of maize cultivation, it is nonetheless protecting soils, but the establishment of an included as a crop for greening purposes. The Government has made a commitment to effective cover crop may also carry a financial improve and safeguard British soils: benefit to farmers - it has been estimated Given the singularly harmful impact of maize, that 40kg of nitrogen, the equivalent to £30 the Soil Association believes it should be Our vision: By 2030, all England’s soils will be per ha, would be retained if cover crops were removed as a qualifying crop under these managed sustainably and degradation established following maize harvest.36 Indeed, requirements. It is, demonstrably, not a threats tackled successfully. This will improve some farmers are now seeing the advantages ‘green’ crop, and thus has no justifiable place the quality of England’s soils and of undersowing maize with a green winter in an incentive which is aimed to promote safeguard their ability to provide essential cover crop, and are using early maturing and encourage good farming practice and services for future generations.39 varieties to reduce damage to soils at harvest. responsible management of agricultural land. The Soil Association will challenge the Another recent development (this time by The old Entry Level Stewardship (ELS) - a new government to end the contradictory the EU) has been to introduce greening voluntary, incentivised, agro-ecological land approach to the protection of soil and the requirements - a measure introduced under management scheme under Pillar 2 of CAP- safeguarding of the future of our food the latest reform of the CAP in response to had options designed by the Department of production.

16 Many farmers are being paid to cause significant harm to soils and fresh water – this is a national scandal Credit © /Jane Uglow

17 Soil Association’s key policies to end subsidised maize soil destruction:

Save up to £50 million per year by Urge the EU to remove the Basic 1 stopping all the subsidies available 3 Farm Payment for fields growing for AD digesters fuelled in whole or maize for AD digesters. partly by maize, and increase the support for biogas from waste; Introduce strict measures for 4 management of maize crops under Remove maize as a qualifying crop cross-compliance (requirements 2 under the greening requirements for farmers to be eligible for the for 30% of the new Common Basic Farm Payment) – mandating Agriculture Policy’s Basic Farm compliance with recognised best Payment. practice (as recommended by the Government in ELS Handbook EJ10, and already practised by some farmers).

18 Endnotes

1 FAO statistics http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/ 8 The Guardian, ‘Maize farmers must take 16 http://www.biogas-info.co.uk/index.php/ DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor some of the flood blame’ 25 February 2014 biogas-yields.html [accessed February 2015] 9 Parliamentary research briefing ‘Flood 17 Der Spiegel, ‘Corn-Mania: Biogas Boom in 2 Statistics from the International defence spending in England - Commons Germany Leads to Modern-Day Land Grab’ Council http://www.igc.int/en/grainsupdate/ Library Standard Note’ 17 November 2014 (via Spiegel Online International) sd.aspx?crop=Maize [accessed February 2015] 30 August 2012 10 Defra Farming Statistics: Final Land Use, 3 Defra Archive: Observatory monitoring Livestock Populations and Agricultural 18 Farmers Guardian, ‘Anaerobic digestion framework – indicator data sheet http:// Workforce at 1 June 2014 – England https:// plants forcing up rents, claims TFA’ archive.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/ www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ 21 July 2013 foodfarm/enviro/observatory/indicators/c/ uploads/attachment_data/file/368373/ c2_data.htm structure-jun2013final-eng-30oct14.pdf 19 Western Morning News, ‘Land prices pushed too high for food producers’ 4 Defra June Survey 2014 https://www.gov. 11 Official biogas map, last updated January June 21 2014 uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ 2015 http://www.biogas-info.co.uk/maps/ attachment_data/file/388470/structure- index2.htm# 20 Based on an estimate of £180 p/ha x 183,000 jun2014final-UK-18dec14.pdf = £32,940,000 12 NNFCC Report - Anaerobic Digestion 5 NFU Briefing, ‘Anaerobic Digestion: can deployment in the UK; NNFCC; 22 April 2015; 21 Whiting, A and Azapagic, A (2014) we attain NFU’s aspiration for 1000 on-farm http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/nnfcc-report- ‘Life cycle environmental impacts of plants?’ December 2013 anaerobic-digestion-deployment-in-the-uk generating electricity and heat from biogas produced by anaerobic digestion’ Energy 70: 6 http://www.theguardian.com/ 13 Tamar Energy press release, ‘Tamar 181–193 commentisfree/2014/feb/17/farmers- Energy secures £32m in landmark financing uk-flood-maize-soil-protection; http:// agreement with The Royal Bank of Scotland 22 Searchinger, T., Edwards, R., Mulligan, www.theguardian.com/environment/ plc’ - http://www.tamar-energy.com/news- D., Heimlich, R., Plevin, R., 2015 Do biofuel georgemonbiot/2014/mar/14/uk-ban- press/press-releases/tamar-energy-secures- policies seek to cut emissions by cutting food? maize-biogas; http://www.theguardian.com/ 32m-in-landmark-financing-agreement- Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.1261221 environment/georgemonbiot/2014/jun/05/ with-the-royal-bank-of-scotland-plc the-farming-lobby-has-wrecked-efforts-to- 23 NFU Briefing, ‘Anaerobic Digestion: can defend-our-soil 14 Biogas yield statistics sourced from we attain NFU’s aspiration for 1000 on-farm http://www.biogas-info.co.uk/index.php/ plants?’ December 2013 7 Palmer, R and Smith, R P, (2013) Soil biogas-yields.html structural degradation in SW England and its 24 Based on an average annual yield of 8.4 impact on surface water runoff generation’ 15 Farmers Guardian, ‘Taking maize for energy tonnes of wheat per hectare http://www. Soil Use and Man. 29:567 - 575 production to the next level’ 31 October 2013 rothamsted.ac.uk/our-science/2020-wheat

19 25 Based on a yield of 45 tonnes per hectare: 32 http://www.bovinetb.info/docs/Soil%20 http://ecmltd.co.uk/education/ Association_A%20sustainable%20strategy%20 for%20tackling%20TB%20in%20cattle%20 26 http://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/issue/ and%20badgers.pdf uk.html 33 ‘Birdlife asks Commision to take legal 27 Euractive, ‘EU lawmakers back 6% cap on action over loss of farmland birds’ http:// food-based biofuels’ http://www.euractiv. www.birdlife.org/sites/default/files/ com/sections/energy/eu-lawmakers-back-6- attachments/20140404PR_Strategic%20 Report by cap-food-based-biofuels-312398 casework.pdf Farnworth

28 Benbrook CM, Butler G, Latif MA, Leifert C, 34 The Guide to Cross Compliance in England: & Peter Melchett Davis DR (2013) Organic Production Enhances 2013 Edition p 20 Milk Nutritional Quality by Shifting Fatty Contact Acid Composition: A –Wide, 35 Cross Compliance in England: soil 18-Month Study. PLoS ONE 8(12): e82429. protection standards 2015 p 1 South Plaza doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0082429 Marlborough Street Bristol BS1 3NX 36 Farmers Guardian, ‘Consider stubble 29 Butler G, Nielsen, JH, Larsen, MK, management as UK maize harvest earlier than t +44 (0)117 314 5000 Rehbergerd, B, Stergiadisa, S, Canevere, usual’ 09 October 2014 Soil Association Scotland A, Leifert C (2011) The effects of dairy 3rd Floor 37 management and processing on quality EJ2 and EJ10 respectively of the ELS Osborne House characteristics of milk and dairy products Handbook 2013 (NE349) Osborne NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences Edinburgh EH12 5HG 58:97– 102 38 Figures from Natural England (personal communication) t +44 (0)131 666 2474 f +44 (0)131 666 1684 30 The Guardian, ‘Badger culls don’t stop 39 tuberculosis in cattle – the evidence is clear’ Defra, ‘Safeguarding our soils: A strategy for www.soilassociation.org 11 August 2011 England’ (2009) http://archive.defra.gov.uk/ environment/quality/land/soil/documents/ @SoilAssociation 31 Downs, SH., Durr, P., Edwards, J., & Clifton- soil-strategy.pdf facebook.com/soilassociation Hadley, R., (2008) Trace micro-nutrients may affect susceptibility to bovine tuberculosis in cattle Preventive Veterinary Medicine 87:311–326

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