Summary: Egypt and Rome seem to get all the glory of ancient history and civilization, but what was happening in the rest of the world? Was everyone else just fumbling through life, trying to figure out how to put two syllables together? As it turns out, no. Astoundingly large, marvelous civilizations existed all throughout the world; we just rarely hear about them in our Eurocentric history. The Aztecs built a vast empire, one that outpaced, outstaged, and outpopulated the likes of Paris at the time. They were a powerhouse warrior based society with a devout religious following and growing empire. Then Hernan Cortes showed up with 400 soldiers and took them down, as the traditional story tells us. Or was it really that simple? To the victors, goes the history but let’s dig a little deeper and find out what really happened. Did Montezuma's bloody and superstitious Mexica empire crash at the hands of a few brave conquistadors, as Cortes and history often tell us? Or did a cruel and greedy Cortes walk into a brewing feud and capitalize on the situation? Let’s find out on today’s episode of Timesuck.

Aztec History and Settlement: DISCLAIMER: Due to repeated attempts at cultural genocide, dates and figures regarding this topic have become extraordinarily difficult to verify. Book burning was such a rampant practice during Spanish missionary work, that the Aztec histories, lore, and documentation was all but entirely destroyed. Pair that with the nearly complete physical genocide that took place, and little is left. The Spanish recorded their own version of events but the politics at play and sheer volume of discrepancies make it clear that much of what was recorded and used as “history” was propaganda, while other texts (harder to access texts) seem more accurate.

Like any good storyline, the history of the Aztecs doesn’t start with glory and riches. The Aztecs were anything but wealthy or comfortable, but they were savvy and dogged in their pursuits. They were one of many groups of people who came from the Mexica ethnicity who spoke Nahuatl and they fiercely believed that they descended from greater people than themselves. In fact, they believed that they actually came from Aztlan, a mythical place similar to Atlantis in belief, where all Nahuatl-speaking people came from. Aztec translates as “people of Aztlan”, and according to Diego Duran, a Dominican friar who moved to the area in 1540 when he was 5 years old, Aztlan translates to “the place of white birds”. Duran recorded a great deal of information about the Aztec in his document called Los Anales de Tlatelolco (The Annals of Tlatelolco), which is currently housed at the National Library of France in Paris, and is one of few remaining texts with first hand accounts. Legend holds that the Aztec came from this place, in caves of the hollow earth, with six other tribes (Acolhua, Chalca, Tepaneca, Tlahuica, Tlaxcalteca, and Xochimilca). The seven tribes wandered Earth together from around 1100 to 1300 until the other tribes decided to migrate south and the Aztecs chose to remain in the north. This could all be written off as legend, lore, or even propaganda given that the Aztecs actively rewrote some history as a way to better display their lineage to the gods. But there is some interesting etymological evidence that points to a common link between Nahuatl, the Aztec language, and languages spoken by the Hopi, Pima, and Utes (tribes - Utes are actually from Utah and the language tree stretches all the way from Idaho and Montana to northern/central Mexico; it’s still spoken by about 1.5 million people in central and western Mexico) of northern regions. They all share the Uto-Aztecan language tree. Wherever they were at this time, their legend goes on to say that they found Aztlan on a large island in the middle of lake Metztliapan (“the lake of the Moon”) and set up camp, living there happily for quite some time until others moved in and wanted to enslave them. Additional accounts say that it was a natural disaster that sent them south; climactic studies show there was an extensive drought at that time. Either way, they headed south. The Aztec became a nomadic tribe, working their way south over two hundred years. They were supposedly guided by a deity called Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec god of war, the sun, and human sacrifice (who later became the patron god of the their great city of Tenochtitlán). By the time they made it to the Valley of Mexico, where their history says the other six tribes had traveled to centuries past, the are was well populated and established. The Aztec were walking into a pseudo-urban area of diverse tribal influence and interaction, looking like backwoods hillbillies. They were uncultured, poor, and savage like by comparison according to the description put forth by Professor Edwin Barnhart in chapter 33 of his lecture series Maya to Aztec: Ancient Mesoamerica Revealed. Lucky for the Aztecs, several of these groups were also rivals. The Tepanecs allowed the Aztecs to settle and stay, granting them Chapultepec (Chapultepec is a common name in Mexico City today - I lived in Chapultepec Sur for five weeks there) or “the grasshopper hill” that was located on the western shore of Lake Texcoco, which is now the central park of Mexico City. The Tepanecs were one of the largest groups in the area and were direct rivals with the Culhuacan, so the Aztec were sitting in good company to say the least. But the did little to ingratiate themselves to the Tepanecs, who quickly tired of them and kicked them out in less than a years time (they didn’t pay their tributes and were considered uncultured and annoying). The Aztec moved south and took refuge with their previous landlord’s enemy - the Culhuacan - who gave them Tizapan, a barren land to live on and work. The Aztec were forced to subsist on mostly rats and lizards during this time. The Aztec priests never wavered though - they preached that they should take up the “dirty work” that others cast to the side and trust their god, Huitzilipochtli. Twenty years went by, and the Aztec had intermarried with the Culhuacan and fully joined their society. Things were looking good and then they screwed it up. Again.

With some Aztecs rising in the social and political ranks of the Culhuacan, Achicometl, the ruler of Culhuacan, offered his daughter for marriage to an Aztec leader in 1323. The Aztecs were honored and wanted to show their immense gratitude, so they killed her. It wasn’t well received and may explain why many previous groups viewed the Aztec as savage. Sacrifice was the ultimate way to get closer to the gods, or to appease them and the Aztec regularly practiced self mutilation as smaller blood sacrifice - That said, killing her was a very honorable and normal thing for them to consider. So, when Achicometl offered his daughter for marriage to a mere human, they did him one better and sacrificed her to their gods, making her an eternal goddess in turn. Shockingly, Achicometl did not see it quite that way. On what had likely been a normal day up until this point, he saw one of the Aztec priests wearing her flayed skin during a festival dinner and naturally lost his mind and cast them all out of his territory. They found refuge once more with the Tepanec, who were probably loving the whole skinned daughter situation if gossip worked at all like it does now back then, and promised to pay their tribute this time around. The Aztec priests continued to keep focus and preach that their day was coming, claiming that through a vision they had learned that, “Our promised land will be marked by an eagle, sat on a cactus, holding a snake in its mouth.” (this is the image used in the center of the Mexican flag today). While waiting for this sign, they became warriors for the Tepanec and joined in active fighting against the Culhuacan. Nearly two years later, their god, Huitzilopochtli showed them their final destination, their promised land. Unfortunately, it happened to be in the middle of a lake on a remarkably tiny and marshy island. In 1325, the Aztecs trusted their priests, their faith, and their gods and began to build Tenochtitlán. They continued to pay their tributes to the Tepanec while they slaved away to build their city. They were nothing if not hard workers. They began to literally build their land on the lake. Using a local farming method called chinampa, they built man-made islands by piling earth in the shallow lake bed in small, rectangular areas that could be used for gardens. They marked each area with stakes that they pushed into the shallow lake bed and then fenced it off using a lightweight construction material called wattle that they created by weaving thin branches together to form a woven lattice. This would’ve been grueling work, but it paid off by creating incredibly fertile land to farm and a city that was easily defensible as it sat in the middle of a lake. They also began to accrue wealth at this time - They fought tirelessly for the Tepanec and expanded the groups territory while stockpiling their own wealth.

Establishment of The Triple Alliance: • In the 1350’s the entire region was divided into city-states that were each individually ruled and governed. For the most part, they shared similar beliefs and traded well amongst each other, although fighting was far from unheard of. The Tlacopan, a city- state governed by the Tepanecs, and Tetzcoco, ruled by the Acoulha tribe were the dominant forces. The Aztecs were still paying tribute to the Tepanecs when Azcapotzalco (city-state) took over in 1418.

• Azcapotzalco grew and gained power quickly, demanding higher tribute from the smaller city-states including that of the Aztecs.

• In the late 1420’s (1427 or 1428 depending on historical account), the Aztec leader Itzcoatl forged a powerful alliance with two other city-states, Tetzcoco and Tlacopan, creating the Triple Alliance. Initially, the Aztecs joined Tetzcoco to revolt against the Azcapotzalco. After kicking some serious ass for a bit, the Tepanec city of Tlacopan decided they better get on board, and they joined the alliance officially creating the Triple Alliance. This powerhouse was eventually able to put an end to Azcapotzalco.

• In 1473, the alliance conquered the entire basin and ruled with an overwhelming military force that was predominantly led by the warrior might of the Aztecs. The three groups all had their own autonomy and government, they all split the spoils of war, and they shared power, but that doesn’t mean things were actually equal. Tetzcoco and Tenochtitlan each took equal, larger amounts of the spoils gained in war and gave Tlacopan a smaller share because they were the last to join the alliance. Tenochtitlan, under the Aztecs, was clearly the military leader of the three and Tetzcoco led the way in law, engineering, and art.

• Once the Aztecs realized that all the alliances decisions hinged on their military backing, they did some quick math and came to the conclusion that they were the dominant leaders in the group and didn’t really need the other two. The Aztecs first moved away from Tlacopan, as they were the smaller power and easy to deal with. Tetzcoco was another matter though, and they remained an independent, powerful state of their own (but less so than Tenochtitlan) up until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors when they allied with Cortes to take the Aztecs down.

The Glory of Tenochtitlan: At the peak of their power, the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was phenomenal by global standards. When Paris had 150,000 people they had 200,000 thriving citizens living in comfort under Montezuma the II’s rule. Our Eurocentric history tauts the power of old Europe as being the house of civilization at the time, but by more globally inclusive accounts that becomes questionable. The Aztec capital made Europe look like a dirty, plague infested hole. By 1519, Tenochtitlan had beautiful, precisely constructed water aqueducts, zoos, a historical museum, an aquarium, massive marketplaces and exotic gardens built on top of a lake. In 1520, Hernan Cortes wrote the following to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, “To give an account … of the greatness, and the strange and marvelous things of this great city of Tenochtitlán … and of all the dominions and splendor of Moctezuma its sovereign; of all the rites and customs which these people practice, and of the order prevailing in the government, not only of this city but also of others belonging to this lord, much time and many very expert narrators would be required.” Cortes went on to compare it to Venice and describe the beautiful temples, the largest of which Cortes estimated could house 500 people.

If you could go there and tour the city, it would’ve been something like this: The city would be filled with canals like Venice, where you would see farmers and merchants boats, as well as comfortable roadways to travel by. There are four primary areas and twenty smaller districts, called calpullis, that have their own distinct bloodlines or tribes. Each of these neighborhoods has its own marketplace, temple, and school. In the poorer section of town, where the farmers live, you find small huts with thatched roofs and well maintained personal gardens abound. As you walk through the area, you see men paddle their canoes in barely any clothing. They don’t need it - the weather is good, the work is hard, and their bodies are fit and clean. It’s quiet but busy and feels a bit like living out in the country - people are kind and welcoming, the kids are clean and happy, and the people work hard to have just enough to live is some comfort but not enough to know luxury. Eventually you get to what is obviously a main street - it is one of three major causeways through the city and it is like nothing you imagined in the ancient world. It is wide enough to accomodate 10 travelers by horse. You stand in the middle of the bustling boulevard and watch as a drawbridge is lifted over a canal and wonder at the this small marvel of technology. Out beyond the bridge, you can see innumerable tiny islands that disappear into the distance. You can just make out movement amongst them and realize that this is where the farmers were going - These are their floating, raft-like islands and farms. As you continue on, you cross over and travel next to canal after canal. The water may be that of a lake, but it’s in constant movement to keep the brackish water seperate from the clean and to keep mosquitoes from settling. It is truly remarkable. There is a wall of 16 km in length that surrounds part of the city and keeps the clean water available to citizens. You notice two sets of terracotta and stone piping running the length of the canal and you follow it to a juncture. Spying into a house, you see running water. They have fresh water pumped into each home for cooking and bathing. You quickly move on, not wanting to be caught spying into a home, and closely look at all of the locals walking around you - Their hygiene is impeccable and you are suddenly quite thirsty thinking about all this water. You find a street vendor up ahead and hope they have something to drink. To your surprise, they offer you bottled water, fresh from a mainland spring and cold in its terracotta container. The vendor points to the aqueduct that brings it into the city as you drink the sweet contents. Restaurants, street vendors selling everything from jewelry to slaves, and street performers, and customers are all within your sight. Everything is clean and orderly, as a panel of ever present judges quickly quash any disagreements or disorderly behavior with quick judicial decision. You rest a bit in the shade and enjoy a tamale for lunch before deciding to try a cup of atole - a delicious chocolate drink that is mixed with maize powder. It is thick, warm, delicious, and fills you like a warm pudding. A street sweeper accidently bumps you as you doze off, and you hop to your feet, ready to discover more. You walk towards the giant temple in the distance, the Templo Mayor that rests in the very center of Tenochtitlan where the ancient priests first received their message from the gods that this was their promised land. The closer you get, the more comfortable and extravagant the homes become and the more ornately dressed the locals seem; you’re near the city center. And then you see it, it is massive - 60 meters high (about 16 stories in height, for comparison), covered in lime plaster, and painted in spectacular hues of red and blue. The pyramid is made of four sloped terraces. A passage connects each level and a massive platform rests atop (262 by 328 feet). Two sets of stairs, side by side, lead to two different shrines - one is for Tlaloc, the god of water, and the other is for Huitzilopochtli. The balustrades are made in the forms of massive snakes, with each set of stairs ending with a serpent's head at the base. You marvel at the site, knowing that you could never climb to the top and expect to come back down; only priests and those who are about to be sacrificed are allowed. You can just make out the large braziers that hold the sacred, everburning fires and the statues of seated men.

You imagine going in and wonder about what you’ve heard. You know that more great statues, dedicated to the gods, are hidden behind beautiful curtains inside the temples on top. One of them would be of Huitzilopochtli. It would be made of amaranth seeds, held together with honey and human blood, sculpted around bags of jade, bones and richly created amulets meant to give life to the god. His body would be finely dressed and his face would be covered with mask of gold. Perhaps you can come back during the Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli when it will be broken apart to be shared and eaten before being rebuilt. You shudder, suddenly reminded of the innumerable sacrifices that have taken place there. You look around at the nearby buildings and structures and your eyes fall on something horrifying, and you wonder how you ever missed it to begin with. Near the temple, there is a large, cylindrical structure of skulls. There are hundreds and hundreds of human skulls stacked and cemented together with lime. If you were to count, it would would be more than 650. Locals walk by, seeming not to notice at all, as they go about their tasks or enjoy some leisure time. You turn away and see over a thousand more, neatly organized at the base of the structure. Which are real and which are carved? You decide not to find out, and instead get out of there, before someone decides that you too are needed as a sacrifice. Foreign captive are excellent tribute. You find your way to Montezuma’s castle, where a zoo is on site for Montezuma's entertainment. Hundreds of zookeepers wander the grounds, attending to the animals and the grounds; you see bear, jungle cats, a variety of birds, monkeys, sloths, deer, and more. Some are raised for viewing, some are raised as food. The grounds are cultivated gardens of spectacular wonder. Lush foliage and beautiful, exotic flowers fill the area in a cacophony of bright colors. You’ve seen nothing like it before. You know that flowers of very important to Aztec culture and that’s on clear display here. They represent everything from life to death and from creation to destruction. As you slowly walk through the breen wonderland, you find yourself at the museum of ancient histories. It feels much like something you would find back home, in the 21st century. Ancient artifacts, believed to be from the Olmecs and the Toltecs adorn the space. All are carefully tended to and maintained. <<<>>> Culture: • Social hierarchy:

◦ Slaves: Slaves were bought and sold commonly in Aztec culture but the rules governing the practice were significantly more humane than those in our own history. For starters, anyone could end up becoming a slave. If they broke the law, accrued too much debt, were a foreign captive, or were simply sold into it by their family to help make ends meet. Some even went into servitude willingly. It was almost like indentured servitude by comparison. They were able to accrue money, had holidays off, were allowed to marry and have children, and their owners were expected to feed and house you properly. Additionally, their children were not considered property - Everyone was born free. If they were a hose slave for a wealthier family, life was quite comfortable. If they were bought by a priest, they may end up as a human sacrifice.

◦ Commoners: Most member of the Aztec community were commoners and most of them were farmers. It’s speculated that roughly 95% of the population was in this category. Aside from farmers, you had local craftsmen and artisans. All of the men in this caste, regardless of trade, were also conscripted into the military for some time and were trained for such starting at a young age. Their social standing would be dependant on the number of live captives they would be able to bring into the city. Women in this class had a different fate though - They were tasked with caring for the home, raising children, cooking, and making textiles. Because of the difference in education, girls and boys went to separate schools. The commonality between the two was that all citizens learned the local laws and norms fully, as any deviance could result in death. Commoners had small, open homes that were one room in structure, without windows and with one entrance. Four or five families of the same blood- line would live in the same area, all sharing the same open patio and a small domed structure for a sweat-bath (similar to a sauna), called a temazcal that was used for rituals, cleansing, and childbirth. ◦ Middle class and merchants: The middle class was made up of traveling merchants who served the additional role of being spies for the king. They were both diplomats and collectors of information when they were out on their travels to other regions. They trained in combat and provided weaponry as it was a dangerous job. While delivering their exports or collecting imports, they were also collecting information about which areas could be trusted or conquered. Few citizens were given the job, and it was one of few positions that you had to be born into. They would often acquire great wealth, but could not display it. They could not wear fine jewelry or clothing and they worked a double shift - They were also tasked with being the marketplace judges who settled disputes.

◦ Nobles: Nobles would preside over neighborhoods of commoners and would assign work. They ensured that there was a functioning school for the children in the area that would be free of charge. They also ensured that a temple would be built and maintained, and occasionally had ballcourts built for entertainment. Nobles were allowed to display their wealth and dress extravagantly when many other classes could not. Their homes were filled with beautifully crafted furniture, they had decorative and fine dining ware, and had spacious, well adorned rooms for their servants. They were the only class allowed to own land other than the king himself, and they were given privilege above nearly all others. Their children were sent to fine schools where they learned the arts and academics of the community, unlike the public schools for the commoners where the art of war and home service were taught. With these luxuries came expectation however - Nobles were expected to be model citizens of perfect behavior, they had to host large feasts for the commoners, lead labor initiatives, command armies, and if they ever broke the law or acted in an unbefitting way, their punishment was swift and significantly more harsh than what was bestowed on lower classes.

◦ The Outlier - Elders: Old folks, 52 and up, were allowed to do whatever they wanted, within reason. They were given this privilege because it they had completed their lives requirements and lived in service of the community and their children up until then. So retirement was legit there - they could be drunk and disorderly in the streets and no one would bat an eye.

◦ King: Kings were not promoted through family lineage, unlike Europe and much of the rest of the world. They had to be elected by nobles, regardless of who their father was. Kings had advisors but were expected to personally oversee virtually everything - taxes, military strategy, festivals, religious ceremonies, . They were viewed as the governmental leader, father figure, and spiritual leader. They would have thousands of servants and several wives who they would be expected to be kind to, and occasionally generous. Their home would be one filled with hundreds of rooms and it would be shared with their wives, servants, and advisors. They would constantly be inundated with gifts that would be piled in one of the lower floors of their castle. As cleanliness was a social norm, the king would be pristine at all time, with servants wiping their hands and feet regularly. Clothing was ornate and beautiful - precious stones and metals, feathers, and finely woven fabric were all the norm.

• Family:

◦ Names were generally chosen by the priest and were governed deity that ruled the day on which you were born. They believed that your birth day had a large impact on your fate, much like astrology. https://www.azteccalendar.com/ will tell you the meaning of your birthdate.

◦ Men married by 20 and girls were often married by 10-12. Marriages were arranged by relatives and teachers, with the date chosen by a soothsayer.

◦ Young married couples lived with the husbands family and were expected to care for the children and elders of that family.

• Festivals: Diego Duran (the friar who was effectively raised in the Aztec community mentioned earlier) had a more legitimate, honest understanding of the Aztec culture than any other outside person. As a kid, he grew up playing with Aztec locals and saw first hand the customs and practices of the area. As he grew, he began recording what he knew and learned in great detail. In part, he was preserving history and in part he was hoping to educate other priests about what he saw as the brutality of the Aztec religion. According to Duran’s accounts , the entire year was full of celebrations of one kind or another. Here are a few from their 18 month, 20 day ‘xiuhpohualli’ (agricultural) calendar (there was another, 260 day sacred calendar as well): ◦ The first day of every month was a feast day. It was easy and nice, communities got together.

◦ Tlacaxipehualiztli: March 21 - April 9: Rites of Fertility: During the spring equinox the Aztecs honored the god Xipe Totec. Captured warriors were sacrificed, their skin flayed and worn by the priests of Xipe Totec for 20 days while children ran after the priests, playfully hitting them with their wooden toy swords. Gladiatorial battles and military ceremonies also took place during this month.

◦ Huey Tozoztli: April 30 - May 19: Great Vigil: Many of their gods were honored during this month and human sacrifices were widespread. Children and a young woman were sacrificed as offerings to the corn and earth deities. New corn was worshipped and people asked for blessings over their corn crops for the year, decorating their homes with corn. Ceremonial bloodletting was also practiced by all classes of society.

◦ Miccailhuitontli: August 8 - 27: Feast to the Revered Deceased: The goddess Mictecacihuatl (Lady of the Dead) was the focus of this month which was dedicated to children and the dead. It was full of joyful festivities and generous feasting as they remembered their children and their ancestors. Food, small clay figurines, or images of the dead were brought to altars as offerings.

◦ Atemoztli: December 26 - January 14: Descent of the Water: Four days of bloodletting and a fasting period preceded this month. During this festival, Tlaloc, the Aztec god of water, was being asked to send waters down to earth, so that the season’s new corn could grow. A feast would be held in honour of of the god and would be attended by the nobles. Slaves would be sacrificed in the surrounding hills, children would be drowned, and feathers would be left as offerings to Tlaloc.

• Sacrifice: Common sacrifice practice (excluding those for the rain god that were thrown into water) began with the person being stretched out, over a large stone at the top of the Templo Mayor. The priest would then use an obsidian knife to stab them in the heart and remove their heart from their body as an offering to the gods. Then they would be decapitated and dismembered before being thrown down the steps of the pyramid. Between 10,000 and 80,000 were sacrificed during the temples seventh phase of construction. Accounts vary wildly, but it’s clear that the priests were busy and had their hands drenched in blood for days. (I would hate to be number 9,776. The priests arms would be so tired, their strength would be sapped. It might take five or six stabbings to get the job done.)

Hernan Cortes, backstory: Cortes was born to a comfortable, upper-middle class family in 1405, in Medellin, Spain. He attended the Universidad de Salamanca and studied law before venturing out to make his riches as an explorer in the Americas. At 18, he sailed for the Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) aboard a ship captained by Alonso Quintero and settled in the capital of Santo Domingo. After arriving, he found Governor Nicolas De Ovando who was, of course, newly established and from Spain. He was out for gold but was basically told to calm down, do some work, and be happy with a piece of land. He registered as a colonist and did just that for about five years but also spent a bit of time sleeping around, quashing indigenous uprisings, and gaining a name for himself. Before long, he ended up moving to Cuba to assist Diego Velazquez, the first colonial governor there, in conquering the area. He was, of course, rewarded with more land and slaves. Through his growing connections and reputation, he gained title and power working as clerk to the treasurer for the Spanish crown. From there, he moved up to become secretary to the governor himself and was twice appointed magistrate before becoming mayor of Cuba’s capital. He used his power to fight for more “rights” for the colonists - You know, things like demanding that they be assigned more local slaves to work their mines and build their farms. Cortes also firmed up his relationship with the elite by marrying Velazquez’s sister-in-law, Catalina. Mexico was under new exploration at this time and Velazquez decided to send Cortes there to join the ongoing Spanish explorations October of 1518. Cortes got ready to go and then, at the last minute in 1519, Velazquez canceled the trip out of jealousy of Cortes’ growing power and frustration over their strained relationship. Cortes had recently convinced (tricked?) Velazquez to write a new clause into existing law that allowed emergency measure to be taken without prior authorization from the crown, and Velazquez was rightfully concerned that Cortes would use it in selfish gain. Cortes ignored the new, late to arrive cancellation of the expedition and headed out to make his mark on February 18th under an act of mutiny. He picked up more soldiers, horses, and supplies in Cuba and landed in Mexico with 11 ships, 508 men, 13 horses, and cannons. • http://www.aztec-history.com/hernan-cortez-biography.html

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s

Timeline Narrative: Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a Spanish conquistador under Cortes,wrote The True History of the Conquest of New Spain years after the events, in his old age. Díaz was a firsthand witness to the battles themselves but, while he displayed respect for the locals, he was nonetheless a Spanish soldier who came with his own bias. His written account is where most of our historical knowledge comes from on this event. It is from his accounts that the idea of Montezuma believing that Cortes was a god is set out. Diaz claimed that the Aztecs believed Cortes was the god Quetzalcóatl, prophesied to return with a white beard and take over the land, and as such welcomed the conquistadors with fearful but open arms, thus allowing their rapid overthrow. The Aztecs had a slightly different version of things in the limited accounts that survived. • 1510: The Council of Castile drafted The Requirement (Requerimiento) to be read to all conquered indigenous people as an ultimatum. It established the religious authority of the Roman Catholic pope over the entire earth as well as political authority of Spain over all of the Americas (excluding Brazil [Portugal's ownership]). It was generally read in Latin upon arrival, to an audience or an empty beach, without translation. Excerpts from the end, after dictating that the requirements included total obedience to the Spanish crown:

◦ “If you do so, you will do well, and that which you are obliged to do to their Highnesses, and we in their name shall receive you in all love and charity, and shall you, your wives, and your children, and your lands, free without servitude, that you may do with them and with yourselves freely that which you like and think best…”

◦ “But, if you do not do this, and maliciously make delay in it, I certify to you that, with the help of God, we shall powerfully enter into your country, and shall make war against you in all ways and manners that we can, and shall subject you to the yoke and obedience of the Church and of their Highnesses; we shall take you and your wives and your children, and shall make slaves of them, and as such shall sell and dispose of them as their Highnesses may command; and we shall take away your good, and shall do you all the mischief and damage that we can, as to vassals who do not obey, and refuse to receive their lord, and resist and contradict him; and we protest that the deaths and losses which shall accrue from this are your fault, and not that of their Highnesses, or ours, nor of these cavaliers who come with us…”

• 1517: Montezuma begins to receive reports that foreigners have landed on the coast. Juan de Grijalva had just established camp and was preparing his expedition; Montezuma ordered extra eyes to the area and was to be kept abreast of developments despite it being in Totonac territory.

• After departing from Cuba in February of 1519, Cortes picks up two invaluable people on his journey to Mexico, Geronimo de Aguilar and La Malinche or Dona Marina.

◦ Geronimo de Aguilar was a Franciscan priest from Spain who had survived a shipwreck on the Mexican coast some time previous. He had been fleeing Panama with a small group, carrying with him legal papers that held documentation against a rival faction that was colonizing Panama. He and a few survivors took their life boat and attempted to set sail for Cuba or Jamaica, only to wind up back on the Mexican coast and in Mayan territory. The Mayans had plans to sacrifice all of the survivors, but Aguilar escaped with another captive. Aguilar refused to lose his faith or adopt the local culture, but by the time Cortes found him he was fluent in Mayan.

◦ La Malinche, called Dona Marina by the Spanish, was an invaluable woman from the Nahua tribe. She spoke both Mayan and Nahuatl; her presence paired with Aguilar’s meant that communication was possible between Cortes and the Mayans as well as the Aztecs. She was one of twenty slaves given to Cortes by the people in the Tabasco region, but she went on to become his interpreter, guide, and the mother of his son Marin.

• May of 1519: Cortes meets the Aztec Cortes landed his fleet of ships in the Yucatan and established a settlement that would later become Veracruz. Cortes established a municipality which would enable him to legally claim land for King Charles V. Cortes also learned at this time (through La Malinche), that he could be viewed as the fulfilment of the prophecy of Quetzalcoatl, and he decided to use it to his advantage. Montezuma was informed of his landing and sends representatives to meet the Spanish and report back.

◦ Historical accounts:

▪ From the Codex Florentino, compiled by Bernardino de Sahagun (Benedictine priest) in 1555:

▪ Montezuma had sent orders to keep watch over the coastal shores for additional arrivals of foreign peoples after initial Spanish landings. When Cortes landed in Veracruz, Montezuma was immediately notified. Montezuma then sent five messengers to greet the strangers, directing them to be curious and gracious. He sent them off with a variety of valuable goods - a serpent mask inlaid with turquoise, a shield decorated with gold and mother of pearl, pendants, jewelry, and much more.

▪ When the messengers arrived, Cortes and his men were skeptical and demanded to know who they were and where they were from. They responded, saying that they were from the City of Mexico and eventually the Spaniards lowered a ladder for them to board the ship.

▪ Upon meeting Cortes, the Aztec messengers showed respect by kissing the ground before him and adorning him with their gifts before laying the rest out for his display. “The Captain asked them: ‘And is this all? Is this your gift of welcome? Is this how you greet people?’ They replied: ‘This is all, our lord. This is what we have brought you.’”

▪ Cortes then had them chained by the feet and neck before firing a cannon to display their strength. The messengers were terrified and fainted. Once revived, Cortes announced that he had hear the Mexicans were great warriors and that he wanted to see if the rumors were true by having them fight some of his soldiers to the death after a meal to prepare. The messengers begged him otherwise, explaining that they were sent only to bring good tidings and learn about them, that Montezuma may be angry with them if they engaged in battle. Cortes demanded that they eat and prepare, regardless.

▪ The messengers managed to escape. They paddled and ran as fast as they could, arriving at the House of the Serpent in the middle of the night. They relayed their terrifying report to Montezuma:

▪ “The messengers told him: ‘A thing like a ball comes out of its entrails: it come out shooting sparks and raining fire. … If the cannon is aimed against a mountain, the mountain splits and cracks open…”

▪ “Their trappings and arms are all made of iron. … Their deer [horses] carry them on their backs wherever they wish to go. These deer, our lord, are as tall as the roof of a house.”

▪ “The strangers’ bodies are completely covered, so that only their faces can be seen. Their skin is white, as if it were made of lime.”

▪ The continued on to describe the enormous dogs, unlike anything they had seen, the strange food, and more. They were terrified.

▪ Montezuma responded to this alarming news with sending out another group of men. He sent prophets, wizards, nobles, and warriors with more gifts and some captives they had previously acquired. They were to sacrifice the captives in front of the Spaniards so that they could drink their blood and be appeased, as it seemed likely that they may have been gods (given their power, demanding nature, and strange presence). The magicians were sent to learn about them, identify any potential weaknesses, and (if possible) cast a spell or charm against them.

▪ Upon return, the group reported to Montezuma that Cortes and his men were disgusted and refused to drink the blood or eat it with their bread. The magicians explained that they had failed in finding weakness or casting charms against them. They proclaimed that they (Montezuma’s people) were no match for them.

▪ Montezuma ordered, under threat of death, that the Spaniards were to be monitored, learned about, and provided with anything which may appease them.

• Cortes knew that several men in his crew wanted to gather as much gold as possible and set sail for home, but he had bigger plans. He wanted to create a working empire of his own and so he sunk all of his ships but one, which was to be used as a cunner of communication to Spain.

• A man from Cempoala, named Tlacochcalcatl, met and welcomed Cortes into the interior and led him to Tecoac, a Tlaxcalteca city populated by Otomies (a tribe predating Aztecs in the area).

◦ From the Codex Florentino, (compiled by Bernardino de Sahagun in 1555):

▪ The Otomies were wary and met Cortes and his men in full warrior dress and were instantly crushed. The Spaniards fired their cannons and crossbows, killing all but a few in a matter of minutes.

▪ The Tlaxcaltecas quickly heard what happened to the Otomies and were filled with “premonitions of death”, becoming overwhelmed with terror and a heavy sense of foreboding.

▪ The chiefs assembled and discussed the stranger’s superior power. The concluded that “‘we should make friends with the and be their allies. If not, they will destroy us too’….”

▪ The Tlaxcala went and met Cortes and his men, joining his as allies. Cortes demanded to know where the “City of Mexico” was and how to get there, and they promised to guide them. Cortes gives them an ultimatum: help him find the city and pledge allegiance to him, or die. The Tlaxcalans hated the Aztec anyway, having been forced to pay high tax and provide sacrificial tribute, so the decision seemed easy.

• Cortes and his new allies began to move inland.

• By some accounts, the Tlaxcalans then took advantage of their newfound weapon, the Spaniards, and convinced them that the Cholultecas were on the way and should be defeated, as they were friends of the Aztec and brave warriors. They also happened to be longstanding enemies of the Tlaxcalans.

◦ Diego Munoz Camargo wrote from firsthand accounts in 1585 that the Tlaxcaltecas had allied themselves with the “gods” (for want of another name) and that the Cholultecas had believed so strongly in their god, Quetzalcoatl, that they were not concerned with their impending arrival. According to this account, the Tlaxcala sent advance envoys, warning the Cholultecas to ally with them. But they boasted that the strangers could come with the cowardly Tlaxcala and be destroyed by their god. They had nothing to fear, as they genuinely believed that Quetzalcoatl would strike down their enemy with lightning and drown them in deluge.

▪ The Cholultecas sent a clear message back with the envoy. According to Camargo’s account, they flayed the face and arms of the leading Tlaxcaltecan ambassador from the envoy, and then cut his hands nearly off, leaving them to dangle from his wrists. And sent him back with the following message: “Go back, and tell the Tlaxcaltecas and those other beggars, or gods, or whatever they are, that this is how we invite them to come. This is the answer we send them.”

▪ The Tlaxcaltecas were more than enraged by this. Cortes promised revenge.

◦ According to Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, (Florentine Codex Book 12, Chapter 11) Cortes led onward (or rather followed orders to get there, while acting as leader). Upon arrival, Cortes (joined with his allies) called for all the nobles, captains, chiefs, rulers, and men to gather in the courtyard of the gods (probably the Temple of Quetzalcoatl). Once assembled, Cortes and the others locked them in, barring all exits and then proceeded to beat and murder the unarmed Cholultecas. Many of the locals leapt headlong from the pyramid to die on their own as opposed to surrender.

▪ So which is true - Were they unarmed and slaughtered? Or was it more like Camargo’s account?

◦ Either way, Cortes killed 15,000 to 30,000 people and went on to burn large portions of the city. Quetzalcoatl did not come to the Cholultecas aide. The Tlaxcaltecas and surviving Cholultecas took note of this fact and watched as the Spanish called upon their own gods and toppled their silent idols. They now saw and believed that the god of the white strangers was more powerful than theirs.

◦ News traveled quickly. To solidify their message to Montezuma that they were coming, Cortes sent an advance communication that if Montezuma were to accept them and provide them with respect and gold, they had nothing to fear. ◦ Cortes of course wrote to Spain, claiming that he was defending himself from savages and described it in such a way as to highlight his prowess:

▪ “So that Your Majesty should realize how well prepared they were, even before I left my quarters they had occupied all the streets and had placed all their people at the ready, although, as we took them by surprise, they were easy to disperse, especially because I had imprisoned their leaders.” …… “After fifteen or twenty days which I remained there the city and the land were so pacified and full of people that it seemed as if no one were missing from it, and their markets and trade were carried on as before. I then restored the friendly relations between this city of Curultecal [sic] and Tascalteca, which had existed in the recent past, before Mutezuma had attracted them to his friendship with gifts and made them enemies of the others.” - Hernan Cortes,

▪ http://faculty.fullerton.edu/nfitch/history110b/ cholula2.html

• Montezuma received the news and sent gifts to the Spaniards, to appease them. He sent a great deal of gold their way along with jade, jewels, and feathers. Some accounts say this was done as a tax to keep them away, others say it was to welcome the return of their perceived god Quetzalcoatl (Cortes) as the calendar prophecies predicted, and others say it was to form an alliance or broker peace - The answer is muddied in the annals of history and perspective. What we do know is that it did nothing to abate Cortes.

• Cortes marched on to Tenochtitlan. He had heard that Montezuma had ordered one of the two roads leading to the city to be blocked. He assumed that it was a trick and he chose to march on the road rumored to be blocked.

• November 8, 1519: Cortés and Montezuma met at the causeway leading into the great city and exchanged gifts. The wide road was covered in flowers for their arrival. The Aztec leader gave Cortes an Aztec calendar in gold and silver. At this point history is again muddy - Cortes claimed that Montezuma immediately handed over his city to him, and most of the historically preserved accounts agree. The problem is that we know that Cortes loved to embellish his own tales of conquest and he happened to be in control of how that history was recorded. Additionally, by Spanish law the king of Spain had no authority to colonize, BUT the crown did have every right to bring rebels into control and Cortes did have knowledge of that newly minted clause he convinced Velazquez to add. That said, Cortes may have just portrayed events in this light to make it all “legal” as he did in other situations.

◦ Some first hand accounts claim that Montezuma told Cortes, "You have come to sit on your seat of authority, which I have kept for a while for you, where I have been in charge for you, for your agents the rulers..." But interpretation is a tricky thing and in Nahua (Aztec) culture, it was common to basically be sarcastic - They would say what was polite, meaning the opposite.

◦ Bernardino de Sahagun’s account of what was said, goes a bit farther claiming that he said, “Our Lord… you have come here to sit on your throne, to sit under its canopy, which I have kept for awhile for you. For the rulers and governors [of past times] have gone: Itzcoatl, Moctezuma I, Axayacatl, Ticocic, and Ahuitzotl. [Since they are gone], your poor vassal has been in charge for you, to govern the city of Mexico. Will they come back to the place of your absence? If even one came, he might witness the arvel that has taken place in my time, see what I am seeing, as the only descendant of our lords. For I am not just dreaming that I have seen you and have looked at you face to face. I have been worried for a long time, looking toward the unknown from which you have come, the mysterious place. For our rulers departed, saying that you would come to your city and sit upon your throne. And now it has been fulfilled; you have returned. Go enjoy your palace, rest your body. Welcome our lords to this land.” This account CLEARLY leads you to believe that Montezuma believed in the prophecy and readily handed his throne over.

• Whatever was said, Montezuma took Cortes to his palace, where the Spaniards lived in luxury as guest of the king and surveyed his remarkable city and customs. Great feasts were held and tours of the city were given to the newcomers. Gold and valuable gifts were bestowed on the Spaniards and Cortes responded by asking for more, for his king. During the first few days after arrival, Cortes and his compatriots witnessed human sacrifice and were morally offended, despite their own consistent habits of murdering and taking native peoples hostage. Cortes demanded they stop and explained the error of their ways, greatly insulting the Aztec culture and people again. • November 14, 1519: Montezuma had previously been warned by his brother Cuitlahuac and his nephew Cacamatzin that he should not trust the Spanish and should act swiftly against them, but he did not listen. He continued to ignore these warnings, even when they were presented to him by his advisors and on November 14th, Cortés took Montezuma prisoner. Records claim it was a peaceful surrender, with Montezuma being held hostage in his own palace and eventually becoming something akin to friends with Cortes, playing board games together and visiting casually.

• Montezuma ordered a large tribute of fold and other precious items to be collected for Cortes and his men while they remained in his palace. This pushed many of the Aztec citizens past their breaking point, and they began to doubt their leader and tensions escalate. Montezuma supposedly advised Cortes to leave for a while at this time.

• April or May, 1520: Panfilo de Narvaez arrived on the Gulf coast, sent by Governor Velázquez to bring Cortés to heel, with 19 ships, over 800 soldiers, 80 horsemen, 120 crossbowmen and 8- arquebusiers. The mission was simple: capture Cortes and bring him hack to Cuba to face trial for insubordination. There were additional questions regarding Cortes’ colonization and tactics under the name of the Crown. Cortes left the city to battle Narvaez, and placed Pedro de Alvarado in charge in his stead.

• May 22nd:The Aztecs hosted their annual celebration of the Festival of Toxcatl with the permission of Alvarado. In the midst of the festival, when a young man who had prepared for an entire year was set to be sacrificed, Alvarado began to crack. He had only allowed the festival to happen under the direction that no sacrifice take place and had previously been informed through the torture of priests and nobles, that the Aztec were plotting a revolt. His nerves were shot and as the festival continued, great dances were underway and human flesh was being consumed. Alvarado lost it and ordered the gates to be closed and the slaughter of everyone present - men, women, and children.

• Late May: Cortés defeated Narvárez’s forces at Cempoala in an ambush at night; and convinced his crew to join him and return to Tenochtitlan with tales of gold.

• Meanwhile in Tenochtitlan, a revolt was underway. Thousands of Aztecs attacked the Spanish and refused to listen when Montezuma delivered a forced speech asking for calm. They stopped supplying food and gifts and they began to lash out at each other in paranoia.

◦ When Cortes arrived at the city, the roads were closed, the drawbridges with up, and the causeways were that could be burned had been. Eventually, Cortes found a way in.

◦ Cortes persuaded Montezuma II to give a speech in the hope that it would quell the violence. While he spoke, rocks were thrown and struck him in the head, killing him. Accounts claim that both the Aztec and the Spanish wept at his death. It should also be noted that some indigenous accounts claim that Cortes and/or his men murdered Montezuma before fleeing.

◦ A new king was elected by the surviving nobles: Cuitlahuac, Montezuma’s younger brother who had warned him about the Spanish.

• June 30 - July 1: "Noche Triste" (The Night of Sorrow) Cortes tries to sneak out of the city in the dead of night, muffling the horses hooves and carrying boards to fill in the gaps left from burned bridges. A woman spotted them in their escape however and alerted others. Fighting broke out, with the Spanish being slowed down by their hordes of gold. Spanish soldiers drowned in the water, in their attempt to flee, weighed down by the gold the refused to leave behind. Stories tell that the bodies filling the gap in the causeway, stacked on top of eachother so high that others could run across them to the other aside and escape. Other stories tell of the screams heard as men were dragged to the temple for sacrifice or murdered in the streets by the locals. The death toll varies greatly depending on the source, with claims that Cortes lost anywhere from a third of his army, to 1,000 men, or as few as 400. The Aztec lost just as many or more in the fight. Whatever the final count was, it was, and is, clear that the Aztec won the battle, but Cortes and Alvarado escaped.

• July 9 or 10: Battle of Otumba The Aztec attacked the Spanish-Tlaxcalteca forces at Otumba under their new leader’s directive. Their aim was to drive out the conquistadors for good, capitalizing on their recent victory. When they arrived they found knights on horseback which was more than a little shock to the system, having never seen or heard of anything like that. In a swift move, Cortes ended the battle by taking down the Aztec commander with one of his horsemen. The Spanish may have won, but it was bloody - 860 Spanish soldiers were lost, more than 1,000 Tlaxcaltecas, and others were killed on Cortes’ side. Cortes claimed that he only lost 15 of his own men along with 2,000 allies, while his chaplain claimed that 450 Spaniards were lost and about 4,000 allies. The massive discrepancy in these numbers is another clear example of the lack of reliable sources for this history.

• The Tlaxcala had been surrounded by Aztec cities for quite some time and had long been fierce enemies of them. They also could have crushed Cortes at this time, with their superior forces, so they had a choice to make and Cuitlahuac, Tenochtitlan's new king, knew it. He sent emissaries out, tasked with pleading their case and promising peace and prosperity if the Tlaxcala would join them in defeating the foreigners. It came to no avail. Cortes brokered a better deal - He promised to share all spoils of war, pay for their contributions to the war, give them the city of Cholula, exempt them from any future tributes or taxes, and allow them to build within Tenochtitlan. The entire agreement was completely disregarded by Spain and Cortes after the war of course.

• Cortes and his allies retreated to Tlaxcala and began to launch his new campaign - They secured the towns surrounding Tenochtitlan. Most readily joined out of hatred for the Aztec’s demands of tribute or out of the sheer desire to avoid Cortes’ wrath. It was a dark, difficult time though, as food was scarce now that the city had closed its doors and shut off supply. The Tlaxcaltecas resorted to living off of the flesh of their recently killed enemies while the Christian conquistadors pretended not to notice and ate dogs and corn. Cortés began to brand the face of women that they took as slaves. But soldiers hid the pretty captives in the forest, raping them during the night, and sometimes setting them free in the morning or marrying them, now that their husbands had been eaten by the Tlaxcaltecas.Other soldiers grew weary and threatened to revolt; they only wanted to return to Veracruz but Cortes couldn’t allow it. That would mean failure, it would also result in his capture and conviction as a traitor, but if he won the battle and claimed the spoils for Spain, he would be labeled a hero instead. And so he somehow convinced them to carry on and push forward (likely through threats, promises, and manipulation if we’ve learned anything about his character).

• Cortes ordered portable brigantines (smaller ships or sloops)to be built by his master shipbuilder Martin Lopez to siege the city. He was also receiving a steady stream of supplies and men from Spain at this time, as the crown had received his letters and gold and promises for more.

• He sent advance teams to the city and left a captain in Tepeaca to finish assembling them and put them in position on the vast lake, with the aim of controlling any and all entry/exit from the city.

• October, 1520: A smallpox epidemic broke out in Tenochtitlan. The Aztec had no experience with the disease, nor did they have any immunity. For 60 days it burned through the city, leaving devastation in its wake. Famine took hold, as there was no one to work the fields or harvest the crops. The city was full of disease, fear, death, and grief.

◦ “many died from this plague, and many others died of hunger. They could not get up and search for food, and everyone else was too sick to care for them, so they starved to death in their beds. By the time the danger was recognized, the plague was well established that nothing could halt it” -From firsthand accounts recorded in the Florentine Codex

◦ Smallpox and other diseases that were brought in would end up killing 50% of the Aztec population and 40% of the total native population in the area.

◦ It eventually spread, out of the city, and reached the Spanish but the impact was significantly less.

• December 4: Cuitlahuac died, likely of smallpox.

• January, 1521: Cuauhtemoc was elected ruler of Tenochtitlan.

• The allied Spanish-Tlaxcalteca- Texcocan forces attacked Xaltocan and Tlacopan; Texcoco became the base of operations for the attack on Tenochtitlan. Over 10,000 Tlaxcalteca soldiers joined Cortes.Thousands of soldiers from other cities also joined the cause, either for survival or out of genuine hate for the Aztec city. Other cities and towns were found deserted by the time Cortes and his growing army arrived.

• Discontent, trouble, and cruelty continued to boil in the ranks of Cortes’ army. At one point Cortes discovered a plot to have him assassinated, and had the conspirator (Antonio de Villafana) hanged and created a security detail for himself.

• Cortes oversaw several sales of captured and branded slaves, allies of the Aztec. It was a cruelty unseen in the Mexican world, further terrifying and solidifying his agreements with his allies.

• More Spanish ships land at Veracruz with large numbers of Spaniards, munitions, and horses to aid in the battle.

• May 22: Cortes moves into position, solidifying his blockade with tens of thousands of soldiers at the ready. • 13 shallow-bottomed brigantines were mounted with cannon and launched into Lake Texcoco, giving Spanish control of the lake.

• Potable water from Chapultepec springs is cut off from the city by Generals Alvarado and Olid. The only remaining fresh water for the city would have to be accessed and transported by boat.

• The Alvarado and Olid attempted to take a causeway at Tlacopan and enter the city, but they are pushed back and defeated as Aztec warriors in canoes surrounded the men. Some sources state that some men were captured and sacrificed along with their horses in Tenochtitlan.

• Cortes launched 13 launches from Texcoco, against hundreds (possibly a thousand as Cortes claimed) Aztec canoes. Wind was in his favor though, catching sails and enabling his ships to overturn many of the Aztec.He wins this first battle on the lake.

• The brigantines are faster and able to transport larger amounts of men and supplies then the smaller, more agile Aztec canoes. To hinder Cortes’ advance, the Aztec dig pits into the lake bed and spear sharp stakes into the bottom of them to gouge the bottoms of the brigantines. While this helped slow the bigger ships to some degree, it did nothing to stop the canoes of Cortes’ indigenous allies.

• Cortes planned to attack the causeways in the daytime and retreat at night, as he sought a foothold on land. This was horribly ineffective because during the night, the Aztec simply reoccupied the Spanish gains made, resulting in zero progress. • Cortes adjusted and ordered that all areas of the causeway were to be monitored and held throughout the night. Horsemen were required to stay at the ready throughout the night, with horses saddled and bridled as the crept closer to the city.

• The Aztec were reeling from their massive losses from Smallpox, the survivors were attempting to recover, their government was in chaos after losing two kings and countless nobles, and now they were want for food and water. There was no way to exit the city for supplies without facing the Spanish.

• The few remaining tributaries that hadn’t pledge themselves as allies to Cortes began to fall in line as the watched victory after victory. And those still loyal to Tenochtitlan, were effectively useless at this point as they couldn’t get supplies into the city and they couldn’t risk leaving themselves open for Spanish attack by sending their own soldiers for help.

• Inside the city, starvation and dehydration run their course. Citizens begin to drink the salt water from the lake and dysentery becomes an issue. Food is scarce and people take to eating anything the can - wood, leather, even softened brick.

• Alvarado responded to the Aztec attack on three camps led by Guatemoc with a mad rush across a causeway to the city. Alvarado and others were injured in this failed attempt and five Spaniards were taken captive. Some of Cortes’ men claimed that, from their posts, they could see the men be dragged to the temple and sacrificed. From here forward a common prayer emerged amongst the Spanish, "Oh, thanks be to God that they did not carry me off today to be sacrificed." • Cortes pushed forward with an attack on the market square from the canals, but failed to occupy on channel and was wounded and nearly captured. Sixty-five other Spanish soldiers were captured. Aztec General Guatemoc proceeded to throw five of their heads at Alvarado's camp, four thrown at Cortés' camp, six thrown at Sandoval's camp, and sacrifice ten others. He then sent their hands, feet, and the skin from their faces to allied cities. They continued to sacrifice captives for many consecutive nights. One account claimed that they threw roasted, dismembered arms at the Tlaxcaltecas, telling them to eat of their brothers, because they were full.

• Cortes bided his time at this juncture, letting hunger and dehydration set in.

• End of July or Early August: The Spanish advance, after months of strategy and battle made it into the city. Days and days of fighting ensue with heavy casualties on both sides.

• The Aztecs took positions on nearly every rooftop in their last act of defense and accounts claim that they continued to sacrifice up to 70 more captives at the temple as the war raged on.

• Spanish accounts claimed that the Tlaxcalteca allies unleashed savage murder in the city. The question remains about the authenticity of those claims. Cortes wrote the following to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, claiming, "We had more trouble in preventing our allies from killing with such cruelty than we had in fighting the enemy. For no race, however savage, has ever practiced such fierce and unnatural cruelty as the natives of these parts. Our allies also took many spoils that day, which we were unable to prevent, as they numbered more than 150,000 and we Spaniards only some nine hundred. Neither our precautions nor our warnings could stop their looting, though we did all we could...I had posted Spaniards in every street, so that when the people began to come out [to surrender] they might prevent our allies from killing those wretched people, whose numbers was uncountable. I also told the captains of our allies that on no account should any of those people be slain; but there were so many that we could not prevent more than fifteen thousand being killed and sacrificed [by the Tlaxcalans] that day".

• Staying true to their faith in their gods, the Aztec sent a warrior, dressed in sacred costume as the quetzal owl, into battle. If he was successful, it would be a sign that they should continue to fight. Spanish soldiers were scared of his presence at first but eventually gave chase. The warrior escaped, but the few remaining leaders were far past weary and chose to try negotiations with Cortes.

• General Guatemoc will not bow to the Spanish and he instead attempted to flee the city with valuables, family, and others willing to join him. They were captured and killed.

• August 13, 1521: The Aztecs surrendered. Cortes demanded that the gold lost in La Noche Triste be returned to them. There is little gold in the city as much of it was already taken by Cortes and sent to Spain. Cuauhtemoc, already having been captured during negotiations, was tortured for days as they demanded to know where more gold and valuables could be found. While having his feet broiled in oil, he confessed to dumping great amounts of it in the lake. Cuauhtemoc also fought for the release of citizens, asking that Cortes let them leave the city to which he agreed. Thousands of citizens were slaughtered despite the surrender and agreement between Cuauhtemoc and Cortes ,while rampant looting took place. • 1522: Holy Roman Emperor Charles V names Cortés captain- general of “New Spain”.

• Cortes oversees the construction of a new capital on top of the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Slave labor is used to dismantle the Aztec temples and repurpose the stones.

• 1524: Franciscan missionaries are sent to Mexico to being the “spiritual conquest” of converting indigenous peoples to Christianity.

• February of 1525: Cortes later accused Cuauhtemoc, along with several other surviving rulers, of plotting to murder him and thus had him hanged. The last Aztec ruler was dead.

• 1542: Bartolome de las Casas sends gruesome accounts of the cruelty against the indigenous to Spain, pleading for the crown to intervene:

◦ Taken from the accounts written in 1542, but not published (the crown want it covered up) until 1552 (and then only in segments):

▪ In reference to the evil acts happening, Casas nullifies the fault of the crown, based on their previous ignorance of the events. “...And if any wrong, failings, defects, or evils should be suffered in those kingdoms, the only reason for that is that the kings have no notice of them… if they be present and reported, it is the duty of the king, with greatest study and vigilant industry, to root them out…” ▪ “...Into and among these gentle sheep, endowed by their Maker and Creator with all the qualities aforesaid, did creep the Spaniards, who no sooner had knowledge of these people than they became like fierce wolves and tigers and lions who have gone many days without food or nourishment. And no other thing have they done for forty years until this day, and still today see fit to du , but dismember, slay, perturb, afflict, torment, and destroy the Indians by all manner of cruelty…”

▪ Casas then sites the dwindling populations, claiming in one of his examples that the indigenous of Hispaniola went from over 3 million in number to no more than 200 hundred.

▪ Casas goes on to say that two general customs were followed: warfare and the murder of anyone who dared think of their own freedom. He blames gold and greed.

▪ Casas provided examples of the cruelty:

▪ Pregnant and nursing mothers, along with young children and the elderly, were thrown into pits until the pits were filled and then were pierced with stakes.

▪ Long gibbets (two poles erected to support a crossbeam) were built and used to hang them while burning them alive. He claimed they could, and would, do it to thirteen at a time. ▪ They would cut off the hands and noses of many of those that they felt were not relinquishing all of their gold. Others, they fed to their dogs.

▪ He recounted the following, regarding a noble about to die, “The lord asked the holy father whether Christians went to the sky. The priest replied that they did, but only those who were good. And the cacique then said… that he did not desire to go to the sky, but rather down to hell, so that he would not be where they were and would not see such cruel people.”

◦ King Charles, after receiving the evidence from las Casas among other things, issued the “New Laws of the Indies” in 1542 with the aim of limiting the abhorrent cruelty. It was widely ignored.

Today: Traces of this great culture are still found throughout Mexico City, where ruins are constantly be excavated and lie in juxtaposition with modern skyscrapers. • Ruins:

◦ The National Palace (Palacio Nacional) was built directly over the Montezuma’s palace, utilizing much of the stone from that ancient structure.

◦ In La Plaza de Tres Culturas (The plaza of three cultures) you can stand and see Aztec ruins, Spanish colonial buildings built from harvested stone, and modern apartments.

◦ Some buildings, especially those of immense weight (stolen stone construction from previous temples), such as the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe have settled and sunk at odd angles given the fact that the city was built on a lake.

Interesting Random Facts: • Pedro de Alvarado, the guy who ordered the slaughter of Aztec nobles and civilians at the Temple Massacre, survived the conquest of Tenochtitlan and also was involved in the Maya (Guatemala) and Inca (Peru) invasions.

• One of the scariest Aztec weapons was called a Macuahuitl. It looked a bit like a slender wooden paddle with the exception that it had razor-sharp obsidian blades studding the perimeter and could be swung like a baseball bat. They could decapitate a horse with enough force.

• Aztec warrior status, and the worth of a man, was dependent on the number of captives they brought back to their city.

• Historical documents and accounts (Cortes letters, priest accounts, etc.):

◦ http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/amerbegin/ contact/text7/text7read.htm

Primary sources: • General facts, history, and description: ◦ History, Captivating. Aztec: A Captivating Guide to Aztec History and the Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco, and Tlacopan (Mayan Civilization, Aztecs and Incas Book 2) (Kindle Locations 532-536). Kindle Edition.

◦ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_Empire

◦ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire

◦ https://www.sheppardsoftware.com/Mexicoweb/factfile/ Unique-facts-Mexico7.htm

• Water usage, canals, etc.:

◦ http://aztecsandtenochtitlan.com/aztec-civilisation/aztec- canals/

• Food and diet:

◦ https://worldhistory.us/latin-american-history/aztec-history/ aztec-food-what-did-the-aztecs-eat.php

• Templo Mayor:

◦ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templo_Mayor

• Mexica account of the Cholula Massacre:

◦ https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching- resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital- age/the-history-of-the-americas/the-conquest-of-mexico/ florentine-codex/mexica-account-of-cholula-massacre

• Tepeaca:

◦ https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching- resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital- age/the-history-of-the-americas/the-conquest-of-mexico/ letters-from-hernan-cortes/cortes-constructs-brigantines-as- crucial-weapon

• Fall of Tenochtitlan specifics, additional to the primary sources:

◦ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Fall_of_Tenochtitlan#Siege_of_Tenochtitlan

◦ http://web.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/ Battle_of_Tenochtitlan