NO\NON-WOOD -WOOD FORESTFOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS 7

Non-woodNon-wood forest products for ruralrural incomeincome and sustainablesustainable forestry

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations NON-WOOD0\-WOOD FOREST FOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS 77

Non-woodNon-wood forest productsproducts for ruralrural incomeincome and sustainablesustainable forestry

FOOD AND AGRICULTUREAGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITEDUN ITED NATIONSNATIONS RomeRome,, 19951995 Reprinted 19991999

The designations employed andand the presentation of material inin this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization ofof thethe UnitedUnited Nations concerning the legal status of any countrycountry,, territory, city or area or ofof itsits authorities,authorities, oror concerningconcerning thethe delimitationdelimitation of itsits frontiers or boundaries.boundaries.

M-30 ISBN 92-5-103765-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publicationpublication may be reproduced,reproduced, stored in a retrieval systemsystem,, oror transmitted inin any form oror byby anyany means,means, electronic,electronic, mechanical,mechanical, photocopying oror otherwiseotherwise,, withoutwithout thethe prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications forfor such permission, with a statementstatement ofof thethe purpose and extent of thethe reproduction,reproduction, should bebe addressedaddressed toto thethe Director,Director, Information Division,Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla,Caracalla, 0010000100 Rome,Rome, Italy.Italy.

© FAOFAO 19951995 FOREWORD

An importantimportant recommendationrecommendation of thethe InternationalInternational ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation on Non-woodNon-wood ForestForest Products held in Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, fromfrom 17 to 27 January 1995, was that FAOFAO shouldshould develop and provide comprehensivecomprehensive guidelinesguidelines forfor sustainablesustainable managementmanagement and utilisation of thesethese products. PreparationPreparation of of such such guidelines guidelines isis aa major major and and multidisciplinarymultidisciplinary tasktask whichwhich needsneeds toto bebe approached in phases.phases. ItIt involves involves evaluation evaluation ofof existing existing knowledgeknowledge and practices, assessmentassessment for their strengthsstrengths and weaknesses,weaknesses, analysis ofof linkageslinkages of differentdifferent aspects and influenceinfluence of technological andand institutionalinstitutional factors, development andand testing of guidelinesguidelines forfor componentcomponent aspects, andand consolidatingconsolidating ofof themthem intointo a compatiblecompatible set of practical guidelines covering the whole field of NWFPs. ThisThis wouldwould needneed time.time.

Development activitiesactivities onon NWFPsNWFPs cannotcannot affordafford toto bebe delayeddelayed tilltill thethe wholewhole processprocess isis completed.completed. In fact, itit isis possiblepossible toto comparecompare thethe meritsmerits andand demeritsdemerits ofof selected selected casescases andand toto developdevelop generalgeneral principles and approachesapproaches forfor thethe sustainablesustainable managementmanagement and utilization of NWFPs, andand toto makemake them available for referencereference andand use.use. The presentpresent publication:publication: PromotingPromoting Non-woodNon-wood Forest Products for RuralRural IncomeIncome andand SustainableSustainable Forestry aims to do that.that. It is basically targeted at planners, practitionerspractitioners andand extensionextension agents and its effects are expected toto bebe filteredfiltered downdown toto thethe benefit of locallocal communities.communities. It is alsoalso expectedexpected that thisthis wouldwould encourageencourage similarsimilar publicationspublications in locallocal languages.languages.

On our part, itit is ourour intentionintention toto followfollow thisthis publicationpublication onon principlesprinciples andand approachesapproaches withwith detailed guidelines on specific aspects, and eventually to prepare consolidated andand comprehensivecomprehensive guidelines for planning and developing NWFPs.NWFPs. WorkWork isis alreadyalready underunder wayway onon guidelinesguidelines for management of non-wood forest resources and marketingmarketing of non-wood products.

Material for this publication was assembledassembled and and an an initial initial draft draft prepared prepared by by David David Taylor. Taylor. A number of expertsexperts workingworking inin thethe fieldfield ofof NWFPs, NWFPs, bothboth withinwithin andand outsideoutside FAO,FAO, providedprovided valuable inputs.inputs. The finalfinal versionversion benefittedbenefitted fromfrom thethe detaileddetailed commentscomments providedprovided byby Blaak,Blaak, Braatz, Chipeta, Hoskins,Hoskins, Lintu,Lintu, SouvannavongSouvannavong andand Vantomme.Vantomme. The editing and organising of illustrations were done byby LauraLaura Russo.Russo. Elisa Rubini did thethe formattingformatting andand proofing.proofmg. All activities leading to this publication were guided and coordinated by Cherukat Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-WoodNon-Wood ProductsProducts andand EnergyEnergy Branch. MyMy thanksthanks areare duedue toto allall ofof them.them.

It isis mymy pleasurepleasure andand privilegeprivilege toto releaserelease thisthis publicatiopublicatioiWith7with the the hopehope thatthat itit will be foundfound useful by readers.readers.

Karl-Hermann SchminckeSchmincke Director Forest ProductsProducts DivisionDivision

iii CONTENTSCONTENTS

Page

Foreword IIIiii List of tables, figures, texttext boxesboxes vii Acronyms viii Summary ixix

1. Introduction 1

Why are non-woodnon-wood productsproducts important?important? 1 Who uses non-woodnon-wood forestforest products?products? 2 A basis for sustainablesustainable forestforest managementmanagement 2 AA range of optionsoptions 4 2. Resource Assessment and DevelopmentDevelopment 7 Determining tenure and access 77 The resource inventoryinventory 8 Other factors inin resourceresource assessmentassessment 10 Species selectionselection 11 Sustainable harvest levelslevels 12 Scope for domesticationdomestication of speciesspecies 14 Summary 16 3. Assessing Local Use of the Resource 19 Why assessassess locallocal use?use? 19 Local importance of non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts 19 How to studystudy locallocal resourceresource use 22 Identifying target andand indicatorindicator groupsgroups 23 Subsector analysis for marketedmarketed productsproducts 24 Learning aboutabout locallocal forestforest managementmanagement 25 Summary 26 4. Opportunities for ImprovedImproved ManagementManagement 29 Improving resourceresource productivityproductivity 29 Improving harvestingharvesting methodsmethods 30 Post-harvesting technologies 32 Multiple-use managementmanagement forfor woodwood andand non-woodnon-wood harvestsharvests 32 Strategies for domesticationdomestication 32 Innovative options in thethe useuse ofof medicinal medicinal plantsplants 35 Ecotourism 37 Local wildlifewildlife managementmanagement 38 Farmer-led initiativesinitiatives 38 Summary 39 5. Exploring CommercialCommercial OptionsOptions 43 Characteristics ofof successfulsuccessful smallsmall enterprisesenterprises 43 Elements of aa successfulsuccessful enterpriseenterprise strategystrategy 43 Problems commonlycommonly facedfaced byby smallsmall enterprisesenterprises 45 Planning NWFP enterprisesenterprises 47 Managing risk 4848 Building entrepreneurial andand managementmanagement skillsskills 50 Credit supportsupport forfor smallsmall enterprisesenterprises 53 Overview ofof processingprocessing optionsoptions 53 Summary 53

Vv Page

6. Processing ventures 57 Simple-technology processing: foods and handicrafts 57 Intermediate processing: medicines, vegetable oils,oils, food colorants, tannins and gum naval storesstores 58 Complex processing:processing: essentialessential oils, waxes,waxes, otherother productsproducts 60 Steps in processing 62 Quality standardsstandards 64 New product developmentdevelopment and research supportsupport 64 Summary 65 7. Markets, Marketing and TradeTrade 67 Markets 67 Key factorsfactors inin marketingmarketing non-woodnon-wood productsproducts 69 Market information systemssystems 73 The trade environment 74 Summary 81 8. Organizing Producer GroupsGroups 85 Factors inin successfulsuccessful organizationorganization 85 Some tools for organizingorganizing 86 Organizing producers for marketingmarketing and processing 87 Organizing for conflictconflict managementmanagement 88 Summary 91 9. Research and ExtensionExtension 93 Involving producers inin problem-solvingproblem-solving researchresearch 93 National research efforts 93 National extension servicesservices 96 Consortiums for researchresearch andand trainingtraining 97 Scope for regionalregional andand internationalinternational researchresearch 98 Some priority researchresearch areasareas 99 Gender-sensitive research andand extensionextension 101 Summary 101 10.10 Institutional and Policy Support 105 Public educationeducation 105 Patterns of economiceconomic changechange andand implicationsimplications for policypolicy 105 Better national accountingaccounting 108 Intellectual property rightsrights 110 Direct supportsupport fromfrom national-levelnational-level institutionsinstitutions 111 Support for NGOsNGOs 113 Regional and international support 113 Summary 115

Appendix 1. Contacts for furtherfurther informationinformation 119

vi Page Tables

2.1 Overall potential of non-wood forest resources for sustainable management, based onon speciesspecies characteristics 12 3.1 HighestHighest valued forest benefits in eight villages in South Ghana 20 3.2 Contributions of forestforest foodsfoods toto humanhuman nutritionnutrition 21 44.1.1 PotentialPotential benefits to producers ofof improvedimproved harvestharvest activitiesactivities 30 4.2 Trends in numbernumber ofof seedlingsseedlings plantedplanted forfor sixsix speciesspecies inin tree-plantingtree-planting campaignscampaigns in GorelaGore1a 34 5.1 Problems inin rattanrattan productionproduction inin EastEast Kalimantan,Kalimantan, withwith possiblepossible improvementsimprovements 47 5.2 Comparison of risks andand benefitsbenefits of three levels of NWFP trade 49 6.1 Essential oils obtainedobtained from wildwild andand cultivatedcultivated forestforest species,species, inin mainmain producingproducing countries 61 77.1.1 Methods for evaluatingevaluating markets, by type of product 68 77.2.2 Farmers' accessaccess toto marketsmarkets inin twotwo locationslocations ofof PeninsularPeninsular Malaysia in 19901990 70 7.3 Amazonian forestforest species with market potential in agroforestry and sustainable NWFP management systemssystems 76 7.4 NWFPs most prominent in worldworld trade,trade, withwith threethree mainmain marketsmarkets 77 77.5.5 Directions of international trade for majormajor NWFPsNWFPs 78 99.1.1 Suggestions for enhancing forestry educationeducation and training inin NWFPsNWFPs 97

Figures

5.1 Diagram illustrating how small-scalesmall-scale NWFP producersproducers cancan increaseincrease theirtheir incomesincomes 44 5.2 Exports of SudaneseSudanese gum arabic, ThaiThai laclac exportsexports andand IndonesianIndonesian rattan for thethe periodperiod 1981-1988 50 6.1 UNIDO polyvalent pilot plantplant forfor processingprocessing medicinalmedicinal andand aromaticaromatic plantsplants andand spicesspices 63

Text boxesboxes

2.12.1 Species domestication and inequityinequity 15 3.1 Beekeeping in Zambia 22 3.2 Women's involvementinvolvement inin processingprocessing inin BrazilBrazil 23 3.3 Adapting assessment methods: the exampleexample ofof mangrovesmangroves 25 4.1 Integrated forestforest managementmanagement inin MexicoMexico 33 4.24.2 Joint forest managementmanagement in India 34 4.34.3 Biological resources inin CostaCosta RicanRican forestsforests 36 4.4 The Terra NovaNova ethnobiomedicalethnobiomedical reservereserve inin BelizeBelize 37 55.1.1 Matching technology and marketsmarkets examplesexamples inin BrazilBrazil andand KenyaKenya 52 6.1 Processing forest fruits forfor urbanurban marketsmarkets 58 66.2.2 The package isis thethe product:product: leavesleaves andand canecane basketsbaskets inin WestWest AfricaAfrica 59 7.1 Women in thethe marketplacemarketplace inin GhanaGhana 69 7.2 Matching marketsmarkets andand processingprocessing technologytechnology 72 7.3 Some lessons in greengreen marketingmarketing 75 8.1 Tree-growing cooperativescooperatives in IndiaIndia 88 9.19.1 Local researchresearch capacitycapacity inin CanadaCanada 94 9.2 In-service trainingtraining forfor forestersforesters inin IndonesiaIndonesia 99 10.1 IPR, nationalnational policypolicy andand INBio'sINBio's prospectingprospecting researchresearch 111 10.2 SupportSupport for for local local wildlife wildlife management management inin ZimbabweZimbabwe 114

vii ACRONYMS

AT!ATI Appropriate Technology InternationalInternational CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CATIE Centro AgronómicoAgron6mico de InvestigaciónInvestigaci6n y EnseñanzaEnsefianza Tropical CGIARCGIAR Consultative Group on InternationalInternational Agricultural Research CIFORCIFOR Centre for InternationalInternational Forestry ResearchResearch CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna andand Flora CONACNIE Coordination of Indian NationalitiesNationalities in Ecuador CPC Provisional Central ProductProduct ClassificationClassification FAO Food and AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization ofof thethe UnitedUnited NationsNations F/FRED Forestry/Fuelwood ResearchResearch andand DevelopmentDevelopment GATT General Agreement on Trade and Tariff GEF Global Environmental FacilityFacility HS Harmonized Commodity Description andand CodingCoding SystemSystem ICRAF International Centre for AgroforestryAgroforestry ResearchResearch IDRC International Development Research Centre of Canada IFPRI International Food PolicyPolicy ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute IITAUTA International Institute for TropicalTropical AgricultureAgriculture IPR Intellectual Property RightsRights ISIC International Standard Industrial ClassificationClassification of allall EconomicEconomic ActivitiesActivities ISO International Standards OrganizationOrganization IUCN World Conservation UnionUnion NGO Non-Governmental OrganizationOrganization NWFPs Non-Wood Forest ProductsProducts SITC Standard International Trade ClassificationClassification TRAFFIC Trade Record AnalysisAnalysis of Flora andand FaunaFauna inin Commerce,Commerce, aa monitoringmonitoring bodybody of IUCN TRIFED Tribal Cooperative MarketingMarketing DevelopmentDevelopment Federation of India TRIPs Agreement on Trade-RelatedTrade-Related IntellectualIntellectual PropertyProperty RightsRights UNAC Upland NGONGO AssistanceAssistance CommitteeCommittee (Philippines)(Philippines) UNCED United NationsNations ConferenceConference onon EnvironmentEnvironment andand DevelopmentDevelopment UNDP United NationsNations DevelopmentDevelopment ProgrammeProgramme UNEP United NationsNations EnvironmentEnvironment ProgrammeProgramme UNIDO United NationsNations IndustrialIndustrial DevelopmentDevelopment OrganizationOrganization USUSAID AID United StatesStates AgencyAgency for for InternationalInternational DevelopmentDevelopment WHO World HealthHealth OrganizationOrganization WRI World ResourcesResources InstituteInstitute WTO World Trade OrganizationOrganization WWF World Wide Fund forfor NatureNature

viii SUMIVIARYSUMMARY

This volume outlinesoutlines the approachesapproaches forfor assessingassessing the potential of NWFP activities in a particular area. It is mainly addressed to policy-makers,policy-makers, researchers, local extension workers, NGOs and others professionals to identifyidentify and pursue possibilities forfor better management ofof NWFPs.NWFPs. It is hoped that through betterbetter assistanceassistance andand support,support, community-levelcommunity-level producers and processors willwill be able to realize thethe sustainablesustainable potentialpotential ofof NWFPNWFP activities.activities. AnAn outlineoutline ofof thethe kindkind ofof technical, technical, institutional and policy support required to promote NWFP activities, is also provided.

Chapters 2 andand 33 describedescribe methodsmethods ofof assessingassessing the forest resource as a sourcesource ofof non-woodnon-wood products, and itsits relationship toto locallocal communities.communities. This assessment ofof thethe resource,resource, its sustainable yield and current demands on itit formform thethe mostmost basicbasic stepssteps inin determiningdetermining what level of forest useuse isis sustainablesustainable inin thethe longlong term.term. YetYet thisthis crucialcrucial informationinformation isis oftenoften overlooked.overlooked.

Chapter 44 outlinesoutlines opportunitiesopportunities forfor improvedimproved andand integratedintegrated forestforest managementmanagement incorporatingincorporating NWFPs, and discussesdiscusses recentrecent trendstrends inin wildlifewildlife management,management, research for medicines,medicines, andand ecotourism.

Chapters 5-7 focusfocus onon enhancingenhancing locallocal livelihoodlivelihood through local enterprises basedbased onon forest resources. InIn manymany cases,cases, capturingcapturing anan appropriateappropriate share of a product's addedadded value closer to thethe source represents a wayway toto ensureensure thatthat thethe resourceresource isis valuedvalued properlyproperly inin managementmanagement decisions, and to distributedistribute itsits addedadded valuevalue moremore equitablyequitably throughthrough the market chain. ChapterChapter 55 describesdescribes how toto identifyidentify promisingpromising commercialcommercial opportunities,opportunities, howhow toto assessassess alternatives alternatives andand whatwhat skillsskills are needed for ensuring successsuccess ofof thethe ventures.ventures. ChapterChapter 66 goesgoes intointo moremore detaildetail onon specificspecific typestypes of NWFPNWFP processingprocessing enterprises. Chapter 7 outlinesoutlines the crucialcrucial but oftenoften neglectedneglected areas ofof marketing and trade.

Chapter 8 addresses thethe issueissue of organizing local groups for harvesting, processing and marketing. Collective/participatory organizationorganization isis anan importantimportant factor in the successsuccess ofof locallocal enterprises,enterprises, both economically and environmentally.

Chapters 9 andand 10,10, finally,finally, describedescribe thethe technicaltechnical andand institutionalinstitutional requirementsrequirements for improvedimproved management of NWFPs.

The principles and approachesapproaches described here represent an early step on thethe pathpath towardtoward betterbetter understanding the role and useuse of NWFPs. ManyMany gapsgaps remainremain in our knowledge -- on harvesting technologies, assessment of resources and harvest levels, as well as on thethe naturenature ofof non-woodnon-wood forest resourcesresources themselvesthemselves -- thatthat must must be be addressed addressed inin furtherfurther researchresearch involvinginvolving communities.communities. For example, techniquestechniques forfor assessingassessing forestforest herbsherbs andand vinesvines laglag behindbehind thosethose forfor assessingassessing tree-tree­ based products; thatthat gapgap isis unavoidablyunavoidably reflectedreflected here.here. Likewise,Likewise, sub-fieldssub-fields forfor whichwhich fewfew soundsound guidelines exist,exist, such as ecotourism, are suggested herehere forfor further study.study. The sections "For further reading" afterafter eacheach chapterchapter provideprovide sourcessources of more information.information.

Appendix 1 lists contact addresses to promote networking among thosethose workingworking inin thethe broadbroad and varied field of NWFPs.NWFPs.

Correcting the neglectneglect ofof thisthis sectorsector andand integratingintegrating non-woodnon-wood forest resourcesresources intointo overalloverall development requires involvement byby peoplepeople fromfrom aa wide range of backgrounds. This volume attempts to provideprovide aa commoncommon basisbasis forfor thisthis collaborativecollaborative action.action.

ix As for UncleUncle Sanya,Sanya, ... he was off into the woods on one pretext or the other ... Mushrooms and snails were thethe realreal goals,goals, withwith thethe gatheringgathering ofof firewood firewood usedused asas thethe dutifuldutiful excuse.excuse.

- WoléWole SoyinkaSoyinka (Nigeria),(Nigeria), Aké:Ake: thethe yearsyears ofof childhood childhood

A large, red-leafedred-leafed tree inin aa fieldfield caughtcaught Maan's attention. "What's that tree?" hehe askedasked ... "It looks a bit like a mango with its red leaves, but it isn't a mango."mango." "That's aa mahuall,"mahuall," saidsaid thethe farmerfarmer ... He looked amused,amused, asas if he'dhe'd had to explain what a cat was.was. "Very handsome tree," saidsaid Maan.Maan. "Oh yes.yes. Useful too," said the farmer...farmer. .. "The flowers ... areare veryvery light and fragrant ... Ferment them, and they'll give you a liquor ... Cook them, and they'll actact asas aa vegetable.vegetable. BoilBoil themthem withwith milk,milk, andand they'llthey'll makemake thethe milkmilk red and the person who drinks it strong. MixMix themthem withwith thethe flourflour youyou useuse toto makemake youryour rotisrotis withwith in winter, andand youyou won'twon't feelfeel thethe coldcold ... Feed them to your cattle," added the farmer. "It'll"It'll double their energy." ... "What a wonderfulwonderful tree!"tree!" saidsaid Maan,Maan, delighteddelighted ...... The countryside, which so far hadhad looked entirely monotonousmonotonous toto him,him, becamebecame interesting.interesting.

- VickramVickram SethSeth (India),(India), AA SuitableSuitable BoyBoy

11 Madhuca indica.indica.

x Introduction 1

In recentrecent yearsyears forestsforests havehave beenbeen increasinglyincreasingly recognizedrecognized asas richrich reservoirsreservoirs ofof many many valuablevaluable biological resources, notnot justjust timber.timber. TheThe termterm non-woodnon-wood forestforest productproduct (NWFP) emerged as an umbrella term toto recognizerecognize thethe productsproducts derivedderived from thesethese various forest resourcesresources as a group.group.

This volumevolume originatesoriginates fromfrom anan InternationalInternational ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation on Non-wood Forest Products,Products, co-sponsored byby thethe FAOFAO ForestryForestry Department Department andand thethe IndonesianIndonesian governmentgovernment inin JanuaryJanuary 1995.1995. It represents a firstfirst stepstep takentaken byby FAOFAO toto respondrespond toto thatthat meeting'smeeting's recommendationrecommendation that FAOFAO prepare guidelinesguidelines forfor plannersplanners andand entrepreneursentrepreneurs toto useuse inin developingdeveloping NWFPs activities.activities.

The definition of non-wood forestforest products used here is the one which was adopted atat thatthat meetingmeeting in Indonesia (FAO,(FAO, 1995):1995):

NWFPs consist ofof goodsgoods ofof biologicalbiological origin other than wood, as wellwell as servicesservices derivedderived from forests andand alliedallied landland uses.uses.

This definition is intendedintended to encourage better accounting ofof NWFPsNWFPs,, of both plant and animalanimal origin, asas aa groupgroup and and their their contribution contribution to to the the national national economic economic indexesindexes whichwhich policy-makerspolicy-makers use toto decidedecide developmentdevelopment priorities and policy. As such,such, itit admittedlyadmittedly doesdoes notnot covercover manymany important cultural andand environmentalenvironmental forestforest functions.functions. TheThe definitiondefinition will nono doubtdoubt continuecontinue toto be refined asas thethe fieldfield evolves.evolves.

Why areare non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts important?important?

For mostmost ofof recordedrecorded history,history, peoplepeople havehave valuedvalued forests not for wood, but for otherother products.products. Ancient writings from China, EgyptEgypt andand IndiaIndia record a wide variety of uses for forest plants, and compilations ofof botanical knowledge fromfrom WesternWestern AsiaAsia werewere prized by thethe ancientancient GreeksGreeks (Wickens, 1990).1990). WhereasWhereas woodwood productsproducts havehave becomebecome majormajor internationalinternational commoditiescommodities in modern times, NWFPsNWFPs rankrank amongamong thethe oldestoldest traded traded commodities commodities (Iqbal,(Iqbal, 1993). AncientAncient Egyptians imported gum arabic fromfrom SudanSudan forfor useuse inin paintspaints andand thethe mummification mummification process.process. International trade inin sandalwoodsandalwood oiloil datesdates backback toto thethe twelfthtwelfth centurycentury A.D.A.D.

Through thethe experienceexperience ofof forestforest communities,communities, forestryforestry professionalsprofessionals havehave recentlyrecently rediscoveredrediscovered the great importanceimportance of NWFPsNWFPs (ranging(ranging from food, fruitsfruits and fibres,fibres , dyedye stuffs,stuffs, flavoursflavours andand medicines) for meeting people's needs.needs. InIn recentrecent years,years, aa growinggrowing bodybody ofof scientificscientific researchresearch hashas suggested that, givengiven certaincertain basicbasic conditions,conditions, NWFPsNWFPs cancan helphelp communitiescommunities toto meetmeet theirtheir needsneeds without destroying the forestforest resource.resource.

The most commonly citedcited instancesinstances come from Latin America, wherewhere thethe termterm extractiveextractive reservesreserves describes a systemsystem wherewhere forestforest isis setset asideaside forfor low-impactlow-impact useuse byby traditionaltraditional communitiescommunities inin thethe area. NoNo singlesingle modelmodel cancan suitsuit allall conditions,conditions, however.however.

Why havehave modernmodern sciencescience andand governmentsgovernments overlookedoverlooked thethe importanceimportance of thisthis non-woodnon-wood forestforest wealth for soso long?long? TheThe answeranswer isis threefold.threefold. First,First, mostmost ofof thesethese productsproducts are usedused mainlymainly for rural subsistencesubsistence or locallocal markets.markets. TheyThey oftenoften gogo unrecordedunrecorded inin officialofficial statistics, which focusfocus on nationally traded goodsgoods (Chandrasekharan,(Chandrasekharan, 1994). Second, because modernmodern governmentgovernment administration has divided these products among forestry, agriculture and horticulture, statisticsstatistics do not recognizerecognize eveneven nationallynationally andand internationallyinternationally importantimportant non-woodnon-wood forestforest commoditiescommodities asas originating from the forest. TheThe divisionsdivisions between, and the lack of clear definition ofof,, agriculture

1. IntroductionIntroduction 1 and forestry have created a largelarge blindblind spotspot inin thethe wayway wewe reckonreckon ourour dependencedependence onon forests.forests. Finally, modern forestry hashas favouredfavoured timbertimber andand large-scalelarge-scale enterprises, and has generallygenerally regarded non-woodnon-wood productsproducts asas incidental.incidental. However,However, studiesstudies show that forests produce many moremore types of products thanthan wood products particularly inin somesome tropicaltropical forests.forests. (Toledo(Toledo etet al.,al., 1992).1992). Small-scale forest-based enterprises in Zimbabwe, which mostly are based on NWFPs, employedemployed 237,000 people inin 1991,1991, comparedcompared toto 16,00016,000 employedemployed inin conventionalconventional forestry and forest industriesindustries forfor the same year (Arnold et aI.,al., 1994).1994).

Who usesuses non-wood forestforest products?products?

For most of thethe world'sworld's ruralrural households, households, NWFPsNWFPs provideprovide essentialessential food and nutrition, medicine, fodder, fuel,fuel, thatchthatch andand constructionconstruction materials,materials, mulchmulch andand non-farmnon-farm income.income. TheseThese productsproducts areare particularly importantimportant inin relievingrelieving thethe "hunger"hunger periods"periods" inin thethe agriculturalagricultural cycle, andand inin smoothingsmoothing out other seasonalseasonal fluctuations.fluctuations. DealingDealing inin NWFPsNWFPs cancan provideprovide employmentemployment duringduring slackslack periodsperiods of the agriculturalagricultural cycle,cycle, andand provideprovide aa buffer buffer against against riskrisk and and household household emergencies.emergencies.

Poor households, inin particular,particular, dependdepend onon these these productsproducts forfor theirtheir livelihoodlivelihood becausebecause theythey usuallyusually have more accessaccess toto thethe forestforest thanthan toto otherother resources.resources.

For the samesame reasonreason -- greatergreater dependence dependence onon open-accessopen-access forests,forests, forfor lacklack ofof other other optionsoptions - women usually rely more thanthan menmen onon NWFPsNWFPs forfor householdhousehold useuse andand income.income. InIn manymany places,places, women are responsibleresponsible forfor thethe householdhousehold activitiesactivities thatthat involveinvolve forest-basedforest-based foodsfoods andand medicine,medicine, as well as fuelwood. In thisthis respectrespect NWFPsNWFPs areare particularlyparticularly importantimportant to women, addressing their needs for foodfood securitysecurity andand nutrition.nutrition.

In local,local, urban,urban, nationalnational andand international international markets,markets, forestforest foodsfoods andand medicinesmedicines contributecontribute substantially to nationalnational economiceconomic growth.growth.

NWFPs are thereforetherefore importantimportant toto threethree mainmain groups:groups:

• rural populations (the(the largestlargest group)group) whowho havehave traditionallytraditionally usedused thesethese itemsitems forfor livelihoodlivelihood and social and culturalcultural purposes;purposes;

• urban consumersconsumers (a(a smallersmaller group,group, but but growinggrowing faster),faster), whowho purchasepurchase thesethese items;items;

• traders, andand productproduct processors,processors, whosewhose numbersnumbers in thethe NWFPNWFP sectorsector increaseincrease as urbanurban markets for thesethese productsproducts grow.grow.

A basis for sustainablesustainable forestforest managementmanagement

NWFPs, byby complementingcomplementing wood-basedwood-based management, offeroffer aa basis for managingmanaging forests inin aa more sustainable way. InIn fragilefragile ecosystems,ecosystems, NWFPNWFP activitiesactivities holdhold prospectsprospects forfor integratedintegrated formsforms of development that yield higher ruralrural incomesincomes andand conserveconserve biodiversitybiodiversity while not competingcompeting with agriculture (Sharma,(Sharma, 1995).1995). AnAn important important concept concept inin realizingrealizing thesethese prospectsprospects isis addingadding valuevalue locally, usually through some form of rural processing, toto ensureensure thatthat aa fairfair portionportion ofof aa product'sproduct's market value accrues toto thethe peoplepeople whowho managemanage thethe forestforest resource.resource.

Agenda 21, approvedapproved byby thethe UNUN Conference Conference onon Environment Environment andand DevelopmentDevelopment (1992)(1992) whichwhich provides aa globalglobal plan forfor action,action, hashas recognizedrecognized the role ofof NWFPsNWFPs inin sustainablesustainable forestforest management. UNCED highlightedhighlighted thethe importance,importance, already recognized by many governments, of informed participation byby locallocal communitiescommunities inin allall aspectsaspects ofof forest forest managementmanagement andand planning.planning.

2 11. . Resin tappedtapped from ChirChir PinePine inin NorthernNorthern PakistanPakistan 2. Bamboos areare usedused worldwideworldwide for construction,construction, has many uses in various industries.industries. (Photo:(Photo: M.M . Kashio)Kashio) furniture, handicrafts, foodfood (young(young shoots),shoots), erosionerosion control, andand many otherother purposes.purposes. (Photo:(Photo: M.M. Kashio)Kashio)

3. Babassu kernel oil inin BrazilBrazil isis aa majormajor subsistencesubsistence 4. Bactris gasipaes inin Brazil isis widely used for thethe product inin rural AmazoniaAmazonia and has alsoalso aa critical production of palmpalm heart, fruits,fruits, beverage.beverage. industrial andand commercialcommercial value.value. (Photo:(Photo: G.G. Blaak)Blaak) (Photo:(Photo: G.G. Blaak)Blaak)

11.. Introduction 3 Local participation is important for sustainablesustainable management ofof NWFPsNWFPs forfor several reasons: (1) to recognize thethe fullfull extent ofof locallocal demandsdemands on thethe forestforest resource;resource; (2)(2) toto fullyfully considerconsider thethe locallocal knowledge of the resourceresource thatthat hashas developeddeveloped overover time;time; (3)(3) toto engageengage nearbynearby communitiescommunities asas stakeholders in managingmanaging thethe resource,resource, ensuringensuring theirtheir commitmentcommitment toto long-termlong-term management management goals; (4) toto engageengage thethe energiesenergies ofof local local peoplepeople inin theirtheir ownown economiceconomic change, whichwhich cancan includeinclude decisions on socialsocial andand culturalcultural prioritiespriorities thatthat outsidersoutsiders do not realize.

Involving communities in managing locallocal resourcesresources isis thereforetherefore notnot simplysimply anan equityequity issue;issue; itit is an issue of wisewise resourceresource use. FailureFailure toto dodo soso hashas broadbroad consequences.consequences. Witness thethe casecase ofof Australia, whichwhich althoughalthough home to moremore thanthan 20,00020,000 speciesspecies ofof nativenative flora,flora, untiluntil quitequite recentlyrecently produced no newnew foodfood cropcrop except except macadamia macadamia nutsnuts (Macadamia(Macadamia species),species), whichwhich werewere domesticated elsewhere. This singularsingular failurefailure isis probablyprobably becausebecause EuropeanEuropean settlerssettlers refusedrefused toto accept that the indigenousindigenous people knew any plants worth cultivating (Wickens, 1990). For moremore in-depth information on communitycommunity participation,participation, seesee FAOFAO (1990).(1990).

A rangerange of optionsoptions

This publication aims to provideprovide somesome principlesprinciples and to outlineoutline approachesapproaches for actionaction byby producers of NWFPsNWFPs and byby thethe agenciesagencies thatthat supportsupport themthem -- governmentgovernment agencies,agencies, non-non­ governmental organizations (NGOs)(NG0s) andand researchresearch organizations.organizations.

It is importantimportant to recognizerecognize that it isis notnot aa choice choice ofof either either timbertimber oror non-wood non-wood products.products. Traditional managementmanagement systemssystems ofof forestforest peoplespeoples andand modernmodern scientificscientific experience withwith multiple-multiple­ use management suggestsuggest that,that, withwith carefulcareful planningplanning and monitoring, forests can yield both timber and non-wood harvests on aa sustainablesustainable basis.

This publication builds on the premise that forests offer a varietyvariety ofof productionproduction activitiesactivities for improving local incomesincomes that do notnot jeopardizejeopardize thethe forestforest ecosystem.ecosystem. ForestForest managementmanagement forfor NWFPs can provide a continuingcontinuing source of livelihood andand helphelp toto maintainmaintain thethe forestforest resourceresource for futurefuture generations.generations. TheThe focusfocus herehere isis onon activities activities thatthat produceproduce itemsitems forfor subsistencesubsistence andand market use.use. ItIt alsoalso considersconsiders severalseveral activities,activities, suchsuch asas ecotourismecotourism (environmentally and culturally sound tourism based onon locallocal scenicscenic attractions)attractions) andand environmentalenvironmental data gatheringgathering (also(also calledcalled "biodiversity prospecting"), whichwhich involveinvolve nono harvest,harvest, justjust observation.observation.

This volume points to the varied cultural roles of forests and their non-wood products, but a full assessment of these is beyond its scope. Rather,Rather, itit concentratesconcentrates onon thethe decisionsdecisions by which people choose to managemanage non-woodnon-wood forestforest resourcesresources forfor livelihoodlivelihood purposes.purposes.

References

Arnold, J.E.M., Liedholm,Liedholm, C.,C., Mead,Mead, D.,D., andand Townson,Townson, I.M.I.M. 1994. Structure and growth of small enterprises using forest products in southern and easterneastern Africa.Africa. OFIOF! OccasionalOccasional PaperPaper NoNo 47. OxfordOxford ForestryForestry Institute,Institute, Oxford.Oxford.

Chandrasekharan, C.C. 1994.1994. Non-wood Non-wood forest forest products: products: aa global global viewview ofof potentials potentials andand challenges.challenges. Paper for thethe InternationalInternational Seminar on Management ofof MinorMinor ForestForest Products,Products, Dehra-Dun, India, 13-15 November,November, 1994. FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO.FAO. 1990.1990. TheThe community'scommunity's toolbox..toolbox: thethe idea, methods andand tools forfor participatoryparticipatory assessment, monitoring and evaluationevaluation inin communitycommunity forestry.forestry. CommunityCommunity Forestry Forestry Manual Manual No.2. No. 2. FAO, Rome (English, FrenchFrench andand SpanishSpanish versions).versions).

4 FAO. 1995.1995. ReportReport ofof the the Expert Expert consultation consultation onon Non-Wood Non-Wood ForestForest Products,Products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-2717-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts 3.3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Iqbal, M. 1993.1993. InternationalInternational tradetrade inin non-wood non-wood forestforest products..products: an overview.overview. FAOFAO ForestForest ProductsProducts Working Paper Misc/93/11.Misc/93111. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Sharma,Sharma, P. 1995.1995 . Non-woodNon-wood forestforest productsproducts andand integratedintegrated mountainmountain development:development: observationsobservations fromfrom Nepal. InIn ReportReport ofof the the ExpertExpert consultationconsultation onon Non-WoodNon- Wood Forest Products,Products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest Products 3.3. FAO, Rome.Rome .

Toledo, V.M., Batis,Batis, A.I.,A.!', Becerra,Becerra, R.,R., Martínez,Martinez, E.,E., andand Ramos,Ramos, C.H.C.H. 1992.1992. ProductsProducts fromfrom the tropical rain forestsforests ofof Mexico:Mexico: anan ethnoecologicalethnoecological approach. InIn Plotkin, M., andand Famolare,Famolare, L., eds.,eds., SustainableSustainable harvestharvest and and marketing marketing ofof rain rainforest forest products. products .Conservation Conservation International,International, Washington, D.D.C. C.

WickensWickens,, G.E.G.E. 1990.1990. WhatWhat is is economic economic botany? botany? EconomicEconomic botanybotany 44:12-28.44 : 12-28.

1. IntroductionIntroduction 5 Resource assessment and development 2

A first step inin developingdeveloping any viable forest enterprise is understanding thethe capacitycapacity ofof thethe forestforest resource.resource. ItIt isis impossibleimpossible toto managemanage thethe resourceresource wiselywisely oror profitablyprofitably withoutwithout knowing about itsits natural growth and production,production, andand thethe humanhuman environmentenvironment thatthat affectsaffects it.it.

Many people assume that harvests ofof NWFPsNWFPs havehave lessless impact on a forest than logging. However, this assumptionassumption isis unfounded.unfounded. ForestForest ecosystemsecosystems havehave suchsuch complexcomplex interrelationshipsinterrelationships that harvests of somesome non-woodnon-wood resourcesresources cancan affectaffect plantplant (and(and wildlife)wildlife) populationspopulations as negativelynegatively asas logging. WithoutWithout aa soundsound knowledgeknowledge of thethe resourceresource and regularregular monitoring,monitoring, harvestsharvests ofof certaincertain non-wood resources can have a disastrousdisastrous impact that is not noticed until it is too late to remedy.

For example, overharvestingoverharvesting of of fruits fruits oror seeds seeds ofof a a treetree speciesspecies cancan drastically reduce regeneration to the point ofof locallocal extinctionextinction withoutwithout any visible effect. Large individualindividual trees may remain and the system might appear undisturbed. Only years or decades later,later, when thethe large trees die and no individualsindividuals replace them,them, willwill thethe damagedamage becomebecome evidentevident (Peters,(Peters, 1994).1994).

This chapterchapter describesdescribes the stepssteps requiredrequired to gaingain anan understandingunderstanding of anan area'sarea's non-woodnon-wood resource. BasedBased onon this,this, aa community community oror enterprise enterprise cancan begin begin toto prepareprepare aa plan plan for for management. management. Chapter 33 describesdescribes thethe equallyequally necessarynecessary stepstep ofof gauging gauging thethe existingexisting nearbynearby communities' communities' dependence on thethe resource.resource.

Determining tenuretenure andand accessaccess

Even before producersproducers cancan assessassess thethe biologicalbiological componentscomponents ofof anan ecosystemecosystem forfor management,management, they must understand the legal situation ofof ththe.e land in question. Legal title and thethe rightsrights ofof harvest determine the scopescope ofof management management options,options, thethe managementmanagement objectivesobjectives and thethe possibilities for resourceresource inventory.inventory.

The firstfirst questionsquestions thatthat mustmust bebe answeredanswered inin aa resource resource inventoryinventory include:include: WhoWho ownsowns thethe resource? Who has thethe rightright toto useuse thethe resource?resource? WhatWhat restrictionsrestrictions (e.g.(e .g. licensing)licensing) applyapply toto management?

Property rightsrights cancan bebe divideddivided intointo fourfour categories:categories:

• priprivate vate propertyproperty situations are fairly straightforward, although resolvingresolving conflicting land-useland-use claims can be complexcomplex (see(see ChapterChapter 8);8);

• common propertyproperty resources have clearly recognized users who, although they may not own the resource,resource, havehave recognizedrecognized accessaccess rightsrights andand thethe abilityability toto limitlimit accessaccess toto othersothers (ATI,(ATI, 1995)1995).. Many traditionaltraditional communalcommunal systemssystems for landland useuse areare commoncommon propertyproperty systems;systems;

• open-access resourcesresources,, accessible toto all,all, have nono recognizedrecognized users andand areare notnot easilyeasily controlled;

• state oror publicpublic propertyproperty oftenoften requiresrequires usersusers toto negotiatenegotiate rightsrights oror obtainobtain authorizationauthorization forfor secure rightsrights oror access.access.

2.2. ResourceResource assessmentassessment andand developmentdevelopment 7 Successful extractiveextractive actlvItlesactivities usingusing NWFPsNWFPs often have the featuresfeatures ofof commoncommon propertyproperty management. Common property resources may often be mistaken forfor open-accessopen-access resources,resources, butbut common property resources are moremore widespread.widespread. If aa resourceresource isis open-access,open-access, thethe resourceresource manager(s) should seek to changechange this,this, becausebecause itit isis veryvery difficultdifficult toto managemanage an an open-access open-access resource sustainablysustainably andand equitablyequitably (ATI,(A TI, 1995).1995).

The resource inventory

Once tenuretenure isis clarified,clarified, aa resource resource inventory inventory shouldshould askask certaincertain key key questions:questions: WhatWhat economiceconomic plant and animalsanimals speciesspecies occur in thethe area?area? WhatWhat areare their ecologicalecological andand biologicalbiological characteristics? WhatWhat productsproducts dodo theythey produce?produce? HowHow abundantabundant areare theythey andand whatwhat isis their capacitycapacity for regeneration?regeneration? During During whichwhich seasonsseasons areare theythey harvestable?harvestable? WhatWhat locallocal socialsocial andand culturalcultural values are associatedassociated withwith differentdifferent parts ofof thethe forest?forest? (Reis,(Reis, 1995)1995)

In tropical forests, oneone consequenceconsequence ofof speciesspecies diversitydiversity isis extremely lowlow densities for individualsindividuals of any givengiven species.species. In inventoriesinventories at twotwo sitessites (one(one inin AmazoniaAmazonia and one inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia),Asia), less than 1010 percent of thethe speciesspecies had moremore thanthan fourfour treestrees perper ha.ha. SuchSuch lowlow densitydensity causescauses difficulties in accurate inventory as well as in harvest management. OfOf course, there are manymany exceptions to this generalization. Oligarchic forests (in which one species predominates) existexist in almost every region of thethe wetwet tropicstropics andand offeroffer greatgreat promisepromise forfor relativelyrelatively easyeasy sustainablesustainable harvests (Peters, 1994).1994).

Advance planning

Planning helps toto makemake inventories,inventories, whichwhich areare expensiveexpensive andand labour-intensive,labour-intensive, moremore efficient.efficient. Before the inventory, itit isis usefuluseful toto answeranswer thethe followingfollowing questions, among others, forfor eacheach majormajor species (Peters, op. cit.):cit.):

• Where doesdoes thethe desireddesired speciesspecies occuroccur inin greatestgreatest abundance?abundance? ItsIts distributiondistribution shouldshould bebe mapped as precisely asas possible;possible;

• is thethe speciesspecies limitedlimited to aa certaincertain forestforest type,type, oror isis itit fairlyfairly evenlyevenly distributeddistributed throughoutthroughout the area?

• is thethe desireddesired materialmaterial producedproduced by only one species or by several species? WhatWhat isis thethe exact taxonomic identityidentity ofof thesethese plants?plants?

• has aa productproduct alreadyalready beenbeen harvestedharvested fromfrom thethe area?area? For how long and how, andand byby whom? Heavily exploited areas and areas of selectiveselective planting or other managementmanagement by local people shouldshould bebe notednoted onon thethe map;map;

• do any good maps, aerialaerial photosphotos oror satellitesatellite imagesimages of the region exist? Handheld, low-cost global positioningpositioning systems (GPS) now permitpermit communitiescommunities to locatelocate boundariesboundaries fairly accurately usingusing satellitesatellite data;data;

• has thethe areaarea everever been been inventoried, inventoried, perhapsperhaps forfor anotheranother resourceresource (timber,(timber, minerals,minerals, wildlife)? IfIf so, forfor whatwhat kindkind ofof resource? resource? TryTry toto obtainobtain copiescopies ofof any any informationinformation available.

In thisthis advanceadvance work,work, nono available available sourcessources ofof information information shouldshould bebe overlooked, overlooked, including:including: unpublished reports by locallocal governmentgovernment officials, companies or projects; local export statistics;statistics; or specimensspecimens at a nearbynearby herbarium (Peters, opop.. cit.).

8 Inventory methods

When all thethe aboveabove informationinformation hashas beenbeen collected,collected, aa professionalprofessional inventoryinventory specialistspecialist oror teamteam should conduct thethe inventory.inventory. ConventionalConventional forestryforestry methodsmethods forfor conductingconducting inventoriesinventories areare geared to woodwood productionproduction andand areare notnot wellwell suitedsuited toto thethe tasktask ofof assessingassessing non-woodnon-wood resources. Still, theythey provideprovide aa startingstarting pointpoint forfor understandingunderstanding thethe resourceresource (see(see "ForFor furtherfurther reading"reading" regarding inventoryinventory methods).methods).

Peters (op.(op. cit.)cit.) describesdescribes informationinformation thatthat anan inventoryinventory shouldshould provide:provide:

• a reliable estimateestimate ofof thethe resourceresource densitydensity (i.e.(i.e. totaltotal numbernumber ofof harvestable harvestable individualsindividuals perper hectare for thatthat species)species) inin different forest types.types . ForFor fruitfruit andand oiloil seedseed species,species, thisthis meansmeans the total number of adult trees. ForFor rattan,rattan, medicinalmedicinal plantsplants andand species that produce latex, this may alsoalso includeinclude juvenilejuvenile individuals;individuals;

• the current size-classsize-class distribution of adults. For trees,trees, thisthis meansmeans measuringmeasuring thethe diameterdiameter at breast heightheight (DBH)(DBH) ofof allall stems.stems. ForFor herbaceous herbaceous plantsplants andand smallsmall understoreyunderstorey plants,plants, height measurements areare usedused instead;instead;

• a preliminarypreliminary assessmentassessment of speciesspecies regeneration. AreAre therethere enoughenough smallsmall individualsindividuals toto replace the older adult treestrees whenwhen they die or areare removed?removed? Answering this requires that smaller, non-productivenon-productive individualsindividuals alsoalso bebe countedcounted andand measured.measured.

The smallest diameter limitlimit ofof treestrees toto bebe measuredmeasured dependsdepends on the size distribution of the species and itsits densitydensity inin thethe forest.forest. UsingUsing aa smaller smaller minimum minimum diameterdiameter increasesincreases thethe usefuluseful informationinformation that thethe inventoryinventory willwill produce,produce, butbut alsoalso makesmakes itit moremore expensiveexpensive duedue toto thethe addedadded fieldworkfieldwork required. ForFor treetree speciesspecies thatthat occuroccur atat relativelyrelatively lowlow densities,densities, aa minimumminimum diameter of 1010 cm DBH is useful; forfor moremore abundantabundant species,species, aa higherhigher minimumminimum mightmight be used.used.

The overalloverall samplingsampling intensityintensity (or pattern of samplesample plots used) also depends onon the trade-off between inventory precisionprecision versusversus cost,cost, andand thethe species.species. ForFor example,example, inventoriesinventories ofof bamboo bamboo andand rattan may measure all stemsstems 33 mm andand longerlonger inin aa 10-m10-m radiusradius plot.plot. AnAn inventoryinventory ofof nipa nipa palmpalm (Nipafruticans)(Nipa fruticans) might use different sample plot sizes forfor differentdifferent plantplant sizes:sizes: allall seedlingsseedlings shortershorter than 1.5 m may bebe measuredmeasured inin plots of 2-m radius; inin 5-m radius plots, all plants taller than 1.5 m may be measuredmeasured (Reis, op.op. cit.).cit.).

An inventory of non-woodnon-wood resources in southernsouthern Ghana focused onon a few forestforest productsproducts thatthat were widely traded or otherwiseotherwise subjectsubject to increasingincreasing pressure. These included climbers (such as cane), bamboo and some herbaceous plants.plants. TheThe inventoryinventory used a uniform 1-haI-ha sample plot size throughout, but samplingsampling methods variedvaried dependingdepending on on thethe species.species. ForFor cane, thethe inventoryinventory recorded the numbers of mature,mature, immatureimmature andand cutcut stems.stems. ForFor herbaceousherbaceous plants,plants, thethe inventoryinventory noted the number of plantplant groupsgroups (clumps)(clumps) per plot. (Falconer,(Falconer, 1992).1992).

A useful inventory should take advantage of local knowledge. ForFor thisthis,, the inventory team should include a knowledgeable local collaborator who can help record each plant's locallocal usesuses (all(all plantplant parts used) and locallocal harvestharvest techniquestechniques (Reis, op. cit.).cit.).

Some innovative inventory procedures compare natural forest with locallylocally managedmanaged forest plotsplots (Salick, 1992).1992). OneOne inventoryinventory inin NicaraguaNicaragua comparedcompared speciesspecies regenerationregeneration inin bothboth situations,situations, using 5 x x 22 m m sub-plotssub-plots withinwithin 1-haI-ha plots.plots. ThisThis studystudy thusthus providedprovided aa resourceresource inventoryinventory alongalong with detaileddetailed comparisonscomparisons withwith locallocal management.management. TheseThese comparisonscomparisons permitted a generalgeneral assessment of thethe impactimpact ofof currentcurrent locallocal harvestsharvests andand management.management.

22.. ResourceResource assessmentassessment andand developmentdevelopment 9 Recently, some newnew modelsmodels ofof arrangements arrangements havehave beenbeen developeddeveloped toto carrycarry outout comprehensivecomprehensive inventoriesinventories of biological resources.resources. Examples of this "biological prospecting"prospecting" areare thethe INbio-INbio-MerckMerck agreement in Costa Rica (see Chapters 4 and 1010 for more details) and the grants organized by the US National Institutes of HealthHealth inin LatinLatin AmericaAmerica andand AfricaAfrica (Sittenfeld(Sittenfeld and Lovejoy, 19941994 andand Grifo, 1994).1994).

Importance ofof wildlifewildlife

Wildlife is oftenoften anan importantimportant non-woodnon-wood forestforest resource,resource, particularlyparticularly inin Africa.Africa. WildlifeWildlife population characteristics should be recorded in a forestforest inventory.inventory. EvenEven wherewhere communitiescommunities dodo not use thethe wildlifewildlife resource,resource, wildlifewildlife activityactivity influencesinfluences forestforest dynamicsdynamics in importantimportant ways, forfor example, as seedseed dispersaldispersal agents.agents.

Analyzing the results

Before analyzing the results ofof anan inventory,inventory, itit isis necessarynecessary toto dividedivide thethe informationinformation followingfollowing a suitablesuitable classification (e.g. species,species, sizesize classes,classes, forest types, use types).types) . TheThe datadata forfor eacheach forest typetype can, forfor example,example, bebe translatedtranslated intointo chartscharts ofof size-classsize-class structure.structure. Size-classSize-class divisions for thesethese charts varyvary forfor differentdifferent typestypes ofof trees.trees . ForFor largelarge canopycanopy trees,trees, 10-cm10-cm diameterdiameter classesclasses are adequate. SmallerSmaller treetree speciesspecies maymay needneed toto be divided into 5-cm diameter classesclasses.. For shrubs and small palms,palms, PetersPeters (op.(op . cit.)cit.) suggestssuggests aa 50-cm50-cm heightheight interval.interval. EachEach chartchart couldcould includeinclude 88 to 1212 sizesize classes.classes.

These charts provideprovide aa valuablevaluable baselinebaseline forfor assessingassessing thethe impactimpact of harvesting. TheyThey cancan showshow when a population presents a healthy distribution ofof different-ageddifferent-aged trees, trees, oror inin contrast,contrast, reveal a worsening situation where species regeneration is severely limited for somesome reason,reason, withwith nono established seedlings. PetersPeters (1994)(1994) explainsexplains inin moremore detaildetail howhow toto interpretinterpret thesethese charts.charts.

Reducing inventory costscosts

Inventories are expensiveexpensive toto conductconduct andand mostmost communitiescommunities or enterprises cannot afford themthem by themselves. However, several groups interested inin aa forest'sforest's variousvarious woodwood andand non-wood non-wood resources may workwork togethertogether toto conductconduct anan inventoryinventory and shareshare thethe costs.costs.

Alternatively, inin somesome cases,cases, anan "indicator""indicator" speciesspecies mightmight be studiedstudied as a signal of forest health.health. An indicatorindicator speciesspecies isis oneone thatthat isis moremore sensitivesensitive toto changeschanges inin forestforest conditions.conditions. WhereWhere suchsuch aa species isis recognizedrecognized locally,locally, aa focusedfocused inventoryinventory couldcould studystudy thisthis speciesspecies toto gauge thethe impactimpact ofof harvesting on thethe ecosystemecosystem (FAO, 1995).1995).

Other factors inin resourceresource assessmentassessment

The previous sectionsection summarizessummarizes thethe ecologicalecological aspects of resource inventory. At the same time,time, an overalloverall assessmentassessment ofof prospectsprospects shouldshould alsoalso considerconsider thethe followingfollowing (Vantomme,(Vantomme, 1995):1995):

• socio-economic informationinformation on on thethe nearby communities and and thethe costs and benefitsbenefits ofof managing the resource.resource. BesidesBesides financialfinancial factors,factors, economiceconomic valuesvalues needneed toto bebe assignedassigned toto otherwise non-monetizednon-monetized costs andand benefitsbenefits (see(see ChapterChapter 3);3);

• existing and future demand for preferredpreferred speciesspecies (including(including preferences onon sizesize assortmentassortment and quality),quality), sitesite conditionsconditions affectingaffecting harvestingharvesting costs, sizesize andand typestypes of cottage industries,industries, location of processingprocessing units andand transporttransport facilities,facilities, andand scalescale ofof traditionaltraditional andand potentialpotential uses (Chapters(Chapters 3-7);3-7);

10 • operational information, oror factors that will affectaffect thethe specificspecific operations,operations, such as protection, harvesting, nurserynursery establishmentestablishment and otherother logistics;logistics;

• institutional information, meaning thethe legal and policypolicy frameworkframework and politicalpolitical forcesforces influencing resource use.use. ThisThis includesincludes locallocal attitudes,attitudes, existingexisting andand proposedproposed policies,policies, legallegal rights and obligations, andand trainingtraining andand researchresearch supportsupport toto communitiescommunities (Chapters 8-10).

Species selection

With aa goodgood knowledgeknowledge ofof the the forest forest environment environment andand thethe socio-economicsocio-economic environment,environment, a community oror enterprise can rationallyrationally decide onon which species to harvest and utilise. ThisThis decision involves social and culturalcultural preferencespreferences and economic and ecological factors.

For theirtheir ownown subsistencesubsistence use,use, communitiescommunities willwill likelylikely havehave alreadyalready developed social preferences for products throughthrough theirtheir historyhistory ofof extractionextraction and traditional use.use. Likewise, certain taboos may have evolved prohibiting thethe useuse ofof otherother species.species.

For products intendedintended for market, economiceconomic criteria playplaya a larger role. Usually groups will choose to exploit higher-valuehigher-value resourcesresources first.first.

Ecological criteria shouldshould reflect reflect thethe species'species' biologicalbiological potentialpotential for beingbeing managedmanaged on aa sustained-yield basis.basis. SomeSome speciesspecies areare inherentlyinherently betterbetter suitedsuited toto continualcontinual harvesting thanthan others.others. For treetree species,species, factorsfactors thatthat determinedetermine thisthis potentialpotential include (Peters,(Peters, op.op. cit.):

• life cycle characteristics. AA speciesspecies thatthat fruitsfruits annuallyannually andand isis pollinatedpollinated easilyeasily isis betterbetter adapted to regular harvests thanthan one that flowers at unpredictable intervalsintervals.. In general, the management ofof primary forest species,species, which tolerate shade as seedlings,seedlings, hashas lessless ecological impacts than thethe managementmanagement of fast-growing,fast-growing, light-demandinglight-demanding pioneer speciesspecies that requirerequire largelarge gapsgaps inin thethe canopycanopy forfor seedlingseedling establishment;establishment;

• type of non-wood resourceresource harvestedharvested.. Harvests of vegetative structuresstructures (i.e.(i.e. bark or roots)roots) very often kill aa plant./plant.~ /Harvests Harvests ofof fruits, fruits, leaves,leaves, oiloil seeds seeds andand latexlatex dodo notnot necessarily necessarily kill the treestrees butbut cancan alteralter thethe populationpopulation structurestructure (in(in casecase ofof overharvestingoverharvesting of fruitsfruits andand seeds); and althoughalthough theythey cancan havehave negativenegative impacts, thesethese are relatively easier toto address;address;

• density in different forestforest typestypes.. Species thatthat occuroccur locally in high densities areare easier toto manage sustainably than those that are scattered and involve moremore traveltravel forfor harvests.harvests. Also, if a speciesspecies isis abundantabundant only in a part of thethe forest that isis seasonally inaccessible (e(e.g..g. due to flooding),flooding), itit cancan bebe difficultdifficult toto obtainobtain aa regularregular supply;supply;

• size-class distribution.distribution . EvenEven speciesspecies thatthat areare abundantabundant inin thethe areaarea cancan presentpresent problemsproblems if,if, for example,example, allall thethe individualsindividuals areare ofof roughlyroughly thethe samesame adultadult age and therethere isis nono evidenceevidence of regeneration.regeneration. IfIf compatiblecompatible withwith socialsocial andand economic criteria, species that show good natural regenerationregeneration areare preferablepreferable overover otherother types.types.

'1:.' This varies with species. ForFor example,example, corkcork (Quercus(Quercus suber) is unusual in that its bark regenerates itself after eacheach peeling.peeling. InIn somesome areas,areas, barkbark fromfrom certaincertain speciosspecies isis traditionallytraditionally harvestedharvested in longitudinal strips; thisthis cancan bebe aa sustainablesustainable managementmanagement practice and shouldshould eveneven bebe promotedpromoted where appropriateappropriate (Ocampo, 1994).1994). InIn MaliMali collectorscollectors ofof baobab baobab (Adansonia(Adansonia digitata)digitata) fibresfibres harvest only once every two or threethree yearsyears toto avoidavoid killingkilling thethe treestrees (Montagne,(Montagne, 1985).1985).

22.. ResourceResource assessmentassessment andand developmentdevelopment 11 Table 2.1 summarizessummarizes major characteristics ofof tree species and their influence onon the species' potentialpotential for sustainable harvests.

Table 2.1:2.1: OverallOverall potential potential ofof non-wood non-wood forestforest resourcesresources forfor sustainablesustainable management,management, based on speciesspecies characteristicscharacteristics

Low potential Medium potential High potential

Type of resource bark, stem,stem, rootsroots some resins,seeds,fruits latex, fruits, leavesleaves Yield/plant low medium high

Species characteristics Flowers few, largelarge intermediate small, manymany FruitsFruits few, large intermediate small, manymany Seed germination low viability Intermediate viability high viability Sprouting capability none low high

Population structurestructure Size-class distribution Type III curve Type II curve Type I curve Plant density/ha 0-5 adults 5-10 adults 10+ adultsadults Spatial distribution scattered clumped homogeneous

Regeneration guild early pioneer latelate secondary primary

Flower/fruit phenologyphenology unpredictableunpredictable supra-annual annual

Reproductive biologybiology Pollination biotic, specializedspecialized biotic, generalistgeneralist vectorvector abiotic vector Pollinator abundance rare; bats, intermediate; beetles,beetles, common; small insects hummingbirds moths Seed dispersal biotic, specializedspecialized biotic, generalizedgeneralized vectorvector abiotic vector Disperser abundance rare; largelarge birds,birds, intermediate; smallsmall common; bats, small primates mammals birds

(Source: Peters, 1994)1994)

In most cases,cases, obtainingobtaining allall thisthis informationinformation requires requires extensiveextensive discussionsdiscussions withwith locallocal collectorscollectors and trips to thethe areasareas ofof production,production, preferablypreferably duringduring thethe species'species' floweringflowering oror fruitingfruiting season.season.

Sustainable harvest levelslevels

To determine what harvest levellevel aa resourceresource cancan sustainsustain withoutwithout destruction, itIt isIS importantlffiportant toto know the quantity of non-woodnon-wood material that the species produces naturally.naturally. AA major problem among non-woodnon-wood forest enterprisesenterprises isis thatthat mostmost ofof them them dodo notnot possesspossess thisthis knowledge.knowledge.

The typetype ofof non-wood non-wood harvestharvest helpshelps toto determinedetermine sustainablesustainable harvestharvest levels:levels:

• harvests ofof vegetativevegetative structures (such as roots or bark) would have to be infrequent,infrequent, ifif at all;all;

• sustainable harvest level of fruits and seedsseeds depend on (1)(1) thethe intensityintensity of collection, (2)(2) the means of plantplant pollination and dispersal and (3)(3) thethe species'species' specific requirements for

12 regeneration and growth (Peters, op. cit.).cit.). HarvestingHarvesting commercialcommercial quantitiesquantities of fruits and seeds can affect not onlyonly speciesspecies regeneration,regeneration, butbut geneticgenetic compositioncomposition andand qualityquality ofof thethe resource, if onlyonly "inferior""inferior" fruitsfruits andand seedsseeds are leftleft toto regenerate.regenerate. InIn harvestsharvests of wildwild fruits, thethe effecteffect onon wildlifewildlife populationspopulations mustmust alsoalso bebe considered;considered;

• harvests ofofplant plant exudates exudates (latex,(latex, gumsgums andand resins)resins) dodo notnot killkill thethe treetree or removeremove itsits seedsseeds from thethe site.site. However,However, manymany techniquestechniques ofof tapping tapping createcreate destructivedestructive woundswounds andand sometimes involve burning or felling;felling;

Yield studies, regenerationregeneration studiesstudies andand harvestharvest assessmentsassessments areare importantimportant toolstools forfor evaluatingevaluating sustainable harvest levels.levels.

Yield studies

Yield studies focusfocus onon thethe totaltotal amountamount producedproduced andand thethe relationshiprelationship betweenbetween productivityproductivity andand plant size. AA simplesimple yieldyield studystudy consistsconsists of three steps (Peters, op. cit.):cit.):

• Select a representativerepresentative samplesample of healthyhealthy plants of different sizes from eacheach forestforest type.type. Individual samples should be markedmarked withwith paintpaint forfor permanentpermanent fieldfield identification.identification.

• Measure each plant's productionproduction of thethe selectedselected product(s).product(s). Enlist locallocal collectorscollectors to weigh, count or measuremeasure thethe amount they collect fromfrom eacheach tree.tree. For fruits and seeds, this must bebe complementedcomplemented with estimatesestimates of thethe amountamount ofof marketable marketable materialmaterial left unharvestedunharvested..

• Plot the data to formform aa yieldyield curvecurve forfor eacheach forestforest type.type.

Yield studies should be repeatedrepeated every fewfew yearsyears withwith thethe samesame samplesample plantsplants becausebecause annualannual differences inin rainfallrainfall andand temperaturetemperature cancan causecause variablevariable yields.yields.

Using the forest inventoryinventory and yieldyield studiesstudies together, the forest manager can determine (1) the area's totaltotal production,production, (2)(2) thethe portionportion producedproduced byby eacheach size-class of plant, and (3) which forest types produce most.most.

Based on thisthis informationinformation andand thethe relativerelative abundanceabundance of eacheach species,species, forestforest managersmanagers cancan determine the boundariesboundaries ofof differentdifferent managementmanagement units and howhow eacheach shouldshould bebe harvested.harvested. Marking these on aa mapmap isis useful.useful. SomeSome indigenousindigenous groupsgroups managemanage non-woodnon-wood resources using this kind of resourceresource division (Reis, op. cit.).cit.).

Regeneration studies

Regeneration studiesstudies assess,assess, in permanentpermanent regeneration plots,plots, the impact of managementmanagement on seedlings and saplings,saplings, thethe individualsindividuals mostmost sensitivesensitive toto adverseadverse effects.effects. PermanentPermanent plotsplots shouldshould be re-inventoriedre-inventoried atat suitablesuitable intervalsintervals (e.g. everyevery fivefive years)years) toto monitormonitor thethe long-termlong-term impactimpact ofof harvests on regenerationregeneration (Peters, op.op. cit.).cit.).

Harvest assessmentsassessments

Visual appraisals of adultadult plantsplants cancan helphelp detectdetect problemsproblems inin regenerationregeneration before theythey becomebecome serious. ForestForest managersmanagers shouldshould periodicallyperiodically inspectinspect thethe treestrees markedmarked asas samplesample plantsplants inin yieldyield

2. ResourceResource assessmentassessment andand developmentdevelopment 13 studies and notenote theirtheir vigour,VIgOur, damagedamage fromfrom pestspests andand insects,insects, andand yieldyield variabilityvariability (Peters,(Peters, op. cit.).cit.).

The Kenya Kenya IndigenousIndigenous ForestForest Conservation Conservation (KIFCON)(KIFCON) projectproject is conductingconducting thisthis kind ofof assessment inin western Kenya indigenous forests.forests. TheThe project,project, begunbegun inin 1989 by the NationalNational Museums of Kenya, studiesstudies currentcurrent ecologicalecological and socio-economicsocio-economic aspects ofof grazing, recreation tourism and thethe effecteffect ofof bark-peeling bark-peeling forfor thethe constructionconstruction ofof beehivebeehive coveringscoverings forfor locallocal beekeeping.

Harvest assessments in combination with regeneration studies permitpermit forestforest managersmanagers toto find a sustainable harvestharvest levellevel inin one of twotwo waysways (Reis,(Reis, op.op . cit.):cit.): (1) whenwhen studiesstudies suggestsuggest thatthat collection has brought regeneration below replacement levels,levels, collectorscollectors reducereduce harvestharvest levelslevels;; oror (2) managers identifyidentify aa quantitativequantitative basisbasis forfor sustainablesustainable yield using computer simulations and matrix models ofof populationpopulation growth.growth.

Scope for domesticationdomestication ofof speciesspecies

When yield, regenerationregeneration andand harvestharvest studiesstudies revealreveal thatthat actualactual harvests exceed a species' abilityability to regenerate,regenerate, collectorscollectors maymay havehave toto supplementsupplement wildwild sourcessources withwith domesticationdomestication (Haeruman,(Haeruman, 1995). Many forest species depend on the interrelationships of a forest ecosystem to survive, but others do lendlend themselvesthemselves toto domesticationdomestication oror cultivation.cultivation.

There oftenoften isis notnot aa clear clear border border between between unmanaged unmanaged andand domesticateddomesticated resources.resources. EvidenceEvidence suggests that atat leastleast 1212 percentpercent ofof Amazonian Amazonian forestsforests areare underunder indigenousindigenous forestryforestry andand agroforestry systemssystems for managingmanaging dozens of fruit and nutnut speciesspecies (Leakey and Newton, 1994).1994). These systemssystems involvinginvolving guided regeneration, or enrichmentenrichment planting, practisedpractised byby manymany forest-forest­ dwelling groups are a formform ofof domesticationdomestication inin thethe forest itselfitself (Reis,(Reis, op.op. cit.).cit.). This has beenbeen found truetrue alsoalso forfor wildlife;wildlife; ranchranch animals animals areare considered considered anan intermediateintermediate stepstep betweenbetween wildwild andand domesticated stock (Redford etet al., 1995).1995).

Domestication is therefore aa tooltool thatthat isis flexibleflexible to match communities' preferences for managing a species.species.

Advantages and disadvantagesdisadvantages

Domestication holds advantages and disadvantages.disadvantages. Advantages include the abilities to:

• help sustain steady and reliablereliable productionproduction to meet market demands; • help relieve pressure on naturalnatural forestforest stocks;stocks; • provide local incomeincome and resourcesresources for subsistence;subsistence; • facilitate easier collectioncollection andand harvesting;harvesting; • improve plant or animalanimal growthgrowth rates;rates; • offer a cropcrop ofof cultural cultural familiarityfamiliarity andand valuevalue (Wickens,(Wickens, 1991).1991).

Disadvantages ofof domesticationdomestication cancan include:include:

• increased speciesspecies susceptibilitysusceptibility to pestspests andand diseasesdiseases (particularly(particularly in monoculturemonoculture plantations), oftenoften leadingleading toto dependencedependence onon potentiallypotentially harmfulharmful pesticides;pesticides;

• loss of somesome ofof the the ecologicalecological functionsfunctions playedplayed byby thethe forestforest whenwhen plantationsplantations replacereplace natural forests;

14 • heavy dependence onon regular infusion ofof seed from wild sources, for betterbetter yieldyield andand resistance to diseases and pests;

• concentration of income-generatingincome-generating potentialpotential inin largerlarger corporatecorporate entities,entities, oftenoften far from the forest andand thethe communities,communities, andand causingcausing furtherfurther disadvantagesdisadvantages for poor householdshouseholds and minority groups.groups.

With an awarenessawareness of thesethese advantagesadvantages andand Text box 22.1:. 1: SpeciesSpecies domestication domestication andand inequityinequity ... disadvantages, a community can betterbetter managemanage the domestication process.process. For example, LeCupLeCup While domesticationdomestication cancan. initially give aa (1994) describes a medicinal plantplant programmeprogramme in community moremore controlcontrol over supplysupply ofof aa Nepal in whichwhich communitiescommunities first assessedassessed thethe market product (in terms oLharvest,ofharvest, ecological impact of harvesting, thenthen developeddeveloped seasonality, etc.), itit. does does notnot guarantee guarantee a strategystrategy based onon thethe populationpopulation densitydensity andand that thethe communitycommunity cancan maintainmaintain controlcontrol market valuevalue ofof each species. As landland tenuretenure and gain benefits. Historical patterns arrangements permitted, the commurutlescommunities suggest that domesticationdomestication contributes to the boomboom-bust-bust patternpattern experienced by established forest gardensgardens andand nurseriesnurseries for NWFPsNVVFF's in in internationalinternational markets.markets. In thisthis cultivating the high-value,high-value, low-density plants.plants. For sequence, the locallocal peoplepeople oftenoften loselose theirtheir •.. lower-value plants that occurred more commonly advantage. Rubber and quininequinine provideprovide twotwo in the wild, harvesters learnedlearned improvedimproved harvestharvest examples of thisthis. When rubber's valuevalue on techniques andand placed stricter limits on harvestharvest the international market roserose significantly inin levelslevels.. This approach improved local the late 1800s1800s,, supplysupply fromfrom cultivatedcultivated management, maintained wild genetic resources, sources inin Asia began to replacereplace wildwild and helpedhelped toto improveimprove thethe predictabilitypredictability andand sources in the plant'splant's native rangerange ofof Amazonia. The same patternpattern occurred with quality of supply.supply. quininequinine.. Producers in Asia were able toto turnturn this toto theirtheir advantage advantage because:because: For wildlife species to be candidates for domestication, theythey must be amenableamenable to somesome • the species, when introducedintroduced into aa newnew degree of humanhuman handling andand grouping inin a region, escaped the pestspests andand diseasesdiseases that limited space forfor feedingfeeding and handling,handling, the young had evolvedevolved with it (at(at leastleast temporarily);temporarily); must show fast growth, femalesfemales must have aa highhigh reproductive outputoutput (live(live weight of youngyoung perper • as a result,result, thethe speciesspecies couldcould bebe plantedplanted in monoculture with (temporarily)(temporarily) lessless riskrisk year), andand theythey mustmust bebe amenableamenable toto reproducereproduce of cropcrop failurefailure andand withwith greatergreater economiceconomic on a fairlyfairly inexpensiveinexpensive diet (Redford, op. cit.).cit.). efficiency; See alsoalso Chapter 44 forfor domesticationdomestication strategies.strategies.

• genetic improvementimprovement programmesprogrammes inin AsiaAsia Agroforestry led toto furtherfurther increasesincreases in yields. Agroforestry offers a flexible technology system, As aa result,result, wildwild AmazonianAmazonian sourcessources lostlost often indigenous,indigenous, byby whichwhich non-woodnon-wood productsproducts the internationalinternational market for rubberrubber andand quinine (Clay and Clement, 1993). can be domesticateddomesticated gradually,gradually, inin a way thatthat isis adapted toto local conditions and practices.practices. ThisThis has happenedhappened inin SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia withwith local favourite species suchsuch asas rambutanrambutan (Nephelium(Nephe/ium sppspp.),.), mangosteenmangos teen (Garcinia(Garcinia mangostana) and durian (Durio spp.),spp.), andand inin WestWest AfricaAfrica withwith bushbush mangomango (Irvingia(lrvingia gahonensis),gabonensis), African pear (Dacryodes edulis) and kola (Cola acuminataacuminata,, C.C. nitida)nitida) (Leakey(Leakey andand Newton,Newton, 1994).1994).

For regionally importantimportant plant species, strategiesstrategies for more intensive and systematic domesticationdomestication might include a sequencesequence of:of:

• screening of candidate species through species trials on farmlandfarmland inin collaborationcollaboration with farm households;households;

2. ResourceResource assessmentassessment andand developmentdevelopment 15 • identification of of preferredpreferred characteristicscharacteristics of of chosen chosen species species to to form form an an ideotype2.! ideotypg for improvement programmes;

• seed collection and distribution;distribution;

• study of interactionsinteractions betweenbetween genotypegenotype andand environment;environment;

• establishment of seed orchards.

This typetype ofof strategystrategy isis oftenoften best best organized organized byby a aregional regional researchresearch institutioninstitution (Leakey(Leakey andand Newton, op. cit.).cit.).

Summary

• Understand the rules ofof tenuretenure andand accessaccess that govern the non-wood resource and its use. Open-access resourcesresources shouldshould bebe converted to aa common-propertycommon-property regime for betterbetter management accountability.accountability.

• Conduct a resource inventoryinventory toto identifyidentify thethe ecologicalecological forest types, speciesspecies andand productsproducts of interest. ToTo reducereduce thethe costscosts ofof forestforest inventories,inventories, planplan carefully,carefully, andand clarifyclarify thethe forestforest types and speciesspecies ofof interestinterest throughthrough reviewreview ofof existing existing information,information, includingincluding maps.maps.

• For tree-basedtree-based products,products, assessassess thethe densitydensity andand size-classsize-class distribution of preferred species.species. This providesprovides a gaugegauge ofof thethe forest'sforest's generalgeneral healthhealth againstagainst whichwhich toto comparecompare laterlater management. Wildlife populationpopUlation size and trends should be similarly assessed.

• Assess each species'species' ecologicalecological amenabilityamenability for harvesting, local cultural and socialsocial preferences for itsits productsproducts andand thethe economiceconomic trade-offs.trade-offs. Higher-valueHigher-value products are usually the first toto bebe managed.managed.

• Monitor forestforest dynamicsdynamics regularlyregularly usingusing studiesstudies of yield, harvestsharvests andand regenerationregeneration rates.rates. When monitoring toolstools indicateindicate that that harvestharvest levelslevels exceedexceed naturalnatural regeneration,regeneration, eithereither reduce thethe harvestharvest levellevel oror beginbegin supplementarysupplementary measures to create new resources.

• Domestication is a tooltool forfor communitiescommunities to supplement wild sources of NWFPs. BeforeBefore intensifying species management through domestication, communities should consider the trade-offs between more reliablereliable supplysupply andand increasedincreased vulnerabilityvulnerability toto ecologicalecological decline of the resource material,material, andand equityequity issues.issues. AA locallocal strategystrategy cancan combinecombine productionproduction basedbased on domesticateddomesticated and wildwild resourcesresources toto bestbest advantage.advantage.

References

ATI.AT!. 1995. Non-timberNon-timber forest productsproducts manual.manual. Draft version.version. AppropriateAppropriate TechnologyTechnology International, Washington, D.C.

Clay, J.W.J.W. andand Clement,Clement, C.R.C.R. 1993. 1993. Selected Selected speciesspecies andand strategiesstrategies toto enhanceenhance incomeincome generation from Amazonian forests.forests. Forestry Working Paper FO:Misc/9316.FO:Misc/93/6. FAO, Rome.Rome.

1.' The conceptconcept of ideotypeideotype is usedused byby plantplant breedersbreeders toto definedefine aa plantplant modelmodel whichwhich thenthen becomesbecomes the targettarget forfor aa breedingbreeding programme.programme. TheThe ideotypeideotype specifies thethe idealideal attributesattributes ofof aa plantplant forfor a particular purposepurpose (Raintree,(Raintree, 1991).1991).

16 Falconer, J. 1992. Non-timber forestforest productsproducts inin southern Ghana:Ghana: aa summary report. ODAODA Forestry Series No.No.2. 2. London.London.

FAO. 1995.1995. GroupGroup reports.reports. InIn Report Report of of the the expert expert consultation consultation onon non-woodnon-wood forest products,products, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest ProductsProducts 3. Rome.Rome.

Grifo, F.T.F.T. 1994.1994. Chemical Chemical prospecting: prospecting: anan overview overview ofof the the InternationalInternational CooperativeCooperative DiversityDiversity Groups program. InIn J.J. Feinsilver,Feinsilver, ed., ed., Emerging Emerging connections: connections: biodiversity,biodiversity, biotechnology,biotechnology, andand sustainable developtnentdevelopment in health andand agriculture.agriculture. Pan AmericanAmerican HealthHealth Organization,Organization, Washington, D.C.D. C.

Haeruman, H. 1995.1995. EnvironmentalEnvironmental dimensionsdimensions of non-woodnon-wood forest products. InIn ReportReport ofof the the expert consultation on non-woodnon-wood forest products Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-2717-27 January 1995.1995. Non-Wood Forest Products 3. Rome.Rome.

Iqbal, M.M. 1993.1993. InternationalInternational tradetrade inin non-woodnon-wood forestforest products: an overview.overview. FAO ForestForest Products Working Paper Misc/93/11.Misc/93/11. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Leakey, R.R.B., andand Newton,Newton, A.C.,A.C., eds. eds. 1994. 1994. Domestication Domestication ofof tropicaltropical treestrees for timbertimber and non-timber products.products. MAB Digest 17. UNESCO,UNESCO, Paris.Paris.

LeCup, I.I. 1994.1994 .The The role role of of marketing marketing of of non-timber non-timber forest forest products products in in community community developmentdevelopment projects: Ayurvedic medicinalmedicinal plants plants in in Nepal. Nepal. In In Raintree,Raintree, J.B., J.B., andand Francisco,Francisco, H.A.,H.A., eds., Marketing of multipurpose treetree productsproducts in Asia: Proceedings of anan international workshop held in Baguio City,City, Philippines,Philippines, 6-96-9 December, December, 1993.1993. WinrockWinrock International, International, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Montagne, P. 1985.1985. ContributionsContributions ofof indigenous indigenous silviculturesilviculture to forestryforestry developmentdevelopment in ruralrural areas: examplesexamples from NigerNiger andand Mali.Mali. RuralRural AfricanaAfricana 23-2423-24 (Fall(Fall 1985-Winter1985-Winter 1986):61-65.1986):61-65.

Ocampo, R.A. 1994.1994. TheThe presentpresent situationsituation ofof non-timbernon-timber forest products in Costa Rica.Rica. Project for the Conservation andand Sustainable Development in CentralCentral America, Working Document No.7. Centro AgronómicoAgron6mico TropicalTropical dede InvestigaciónInvestigaci6n y EnseñanzaEnsefianza (CATIE), Turrialba, CostaCosta Rica.Rica.

Peters, C.C.M. M. 1994.1994. SustainableSustainable harvestharvest ofof non-timber non-timber plant resources in tropical moistmoist forest:forest: an ecological primer. BiodiversityBiodiversity SupportSupport Program-WWF,Program-WWF, Washington,Washington, D.C.D.C.

Raintree, J. 1991.1991. Socio-economicSocio-economic attributesattributes of treestrees andand treetree plantingplanting practices.practices. CommunityCommunity Forestry Note 9. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Redford, K.H., Godshalk,Godshalk, R.,R., andand Asher,Asher, K.K. 1995.1995. WhatWhat aboutabout thethe wildwild animals?: wildwild animal species in community forestry forestry inin thethe tropics.tropics. CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry NoteNote 13.13. FAO,FAO, Rome.

Reis, M.M. 1995.1995. ResourceResource developmentdevelopment for non-woodnon-wood forestforest products.products. InIn Report of the expertexpert consultation on non-wood forestforest products,products, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, 17-2717-27 January January 1995. Non-Non­ Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Salick, J. 1992.1992. TheThe sustainable sustainable managementmanagement of non-timbernon-timber rain forest products in the Si-a-Paz Peace Park, Nicaragua. In Plotkin, M and Famolare, L. eds.,eds., SustainableSustainable harvestharvest andand marketing of rain forestforest products.products. ConservationConservation International,International, Washington,Washington, D.C.D.C.

2. ResourceResource assessmentassessment andand developmentdevelopment 17 Sittenfeld, A., andand Lovejoy,Lovejoy, A.A. 1994.1994. BiodiversityBiodiversity prospectingprospecting frameworks:frameworks: thethe INBio experience in CostaCosta Rica.Rica. PaperPaper presentedpresented atat a aconference conference onon Biological Biological Diversity: Exploring thethe Complexities, held 25-2725-27 March, 19941994 inin Tucson,Tucson, Arizona.Arizona. UniversityUniversity ofof Arizona.Arizona.

Vantomme, P. 1995.1995 . InformationInformation requirementsrequirements andand planningpimming principles for managing non-wood forest resources inin mangrovemangrove forests.forests. InIn ReportReport ofof the the expertexpert consultationconsultation on non-woodnon-wood forestforest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.

Wickens, G.E. 1991.1991. ManagementManagement issuesissues forfor developmentdevelopment ofof non-timbernon-timber forestforest products.products. Unasylva 42 (165):3-8.(165):3-8.

For further readingreading

Adlard, P.G.P.G. 1990.1990. ProceduresProcedures forfor monitoring monitoring treetree growthgrowth andand sitesite change.change. TropicalTropical ForestryForestry Paper No. 23.23. OxfordOxford ForestryForestry Institute,Institute, Oxford,Oxford, UKUK

Avery, T.E.T.E. 1983.1983. ForestForest measurements, measurements, 3rd3rd edition. edition. McGraw-Hill,McGraw-Hill, NewNew York.York.

Booth,Booth, F.E.M.,F.E.M., and and Wickens, Wickens, G.E. G.E. 1988. 1988 Non-timber. Non-timber uses uses ofof selected selected arid zonezone trees andand shrubsshrubs in Africa.Africa. FAOFAO ConservationConservation GuideGuide 19.19. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Cunningham, A.B. 1993.1993 . AfricanAfrican medicinalmedicinal plants.plants. PeoplePeople andand PlantsPlants WorkingWorking PaperPaper No.No. 1. UNESCO, Paris.Paris.

Falconer, J.J. 1990.1990 .The The majormajor significance significance ofof "minor" "minor" forest products..products: thethe locallocal useuse andand value of forestsforests inin thethe WestWest African humid forest forest zone.zone. CommunityCommunity Forestry Forestry NoteNote No.6.No. 6. FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO. 1989.1989. CommunityCommunity forestryforestry..: rapid rapid appraisalappraisal of treetree andand land tenure. CommunityCommunity Forestry Note No.No.5. 5. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome. (Available(Available inin English,English, French,French, Spanish.)Spanish.)

FAOFAO.. 1981.1981. ManualManual ofafforest forest inventory.inventory. FAO Forestry Working Paper 27. FAO, Rome.Rome .

FAO. 1990.1990. CommunityCommunity Forestry..Forestry: RapidRapid Appraisal.Appraisal, Community ForestryForestry Note 3.3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO. 1994.1994. TreeTree andand landland tenure:tenure: rapidrapid appraisalappraisal tools. tools. CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry Manual No.No.4. 4. FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO. 1995.1995. SelectingSelecting treetree speciesspecies onon thethe basisbasis of of community community needs.needs. CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry FieldField Manual No.5. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Forestry/Fuelwood ResearchResearch andand DevelopmentDevelopment Project.Project. 1994. Selecting multipurposemUltipurpose treestrees (module 1)1) andand SpeciesSpecies factfact sheetssheets (module(module 9).9) . InIn GrowingGrowing multipurposemUltipurpose trees on smallsmall farms (2nd ed.). WinrockWinrock International-FAO, International-FAO, Bangkok.Bangkok.

United Nations. 1990.1990. ForestForest resourcesresources ofof thethe temperatetemperate zones,zones, the generalgeneral forest resourcesresources information. UN-ECE/FAO ForestForest ResourceResource Assessment, vol. 1.1. UNUN Publications,Publications, NewNew York.York.

18 Assessing local use of thethe resourceresource 3

Why assessassess locallocal use?use?

Having completed an inventoryinventory of thethe forestforest resource,resource, whywhy dodo forestforest managersmanagers needneed toto studystudy current forestforest useuse byby nearbynearby communities?communities? HowHow doesdoes thisthis justify using scarce funds and skills that otherwise might helphelp developdevelop thethe resource?resource?

There areare twotwo mainmain reasons. reasons .First, First successful, successful improvements improvements inin forestforest managementmanagement usuallyusually resemble andand buildbuild onon traditionaltraditional activitiesactivities alreadyalready practisedpractised inin thethe area.area. ManyMany attemptsattempts toto switchswitch suddenly to year-round,year-round, capital-intensivecapital-intensive activitiesactivities which differ drasticallydrastically fromfrom locallocal traditionstraditions have failed (Poole,(Poole, 1993).1993).

Second, if innovatorsinnovators do notnot understandunderstand locallocal practicespractices and knowknow which local groups relyrely onon which specificspecific products,products, theythey maymay introduceintroduce innovationsinnovations thatthat areare technicallytechnically feasiblefeasible but bringbring negative socio-economic effectseffects.. Too often,often, thethe actualactual valuevalue that communities place on their non-non­ wood resources is notnot fullyfully understoodunderstood until after the resource is gone (Wickens,(Wickens, 1991).1991).

This chapter surveys the more widespread rural uses of non-wood forestforest resources,resources, and describes how toto determinedetermine subsistencesubsistence and market uses of NWFPsNWFPs inin aa locality.locality. It alsoalso lookslooks atat thethe importance of locallocal management systems and how they can provide a basis for sustainable forest use.use.

Local importance of non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts

The followingfollowing paragraphsparagraphs describedescribe groups of NWFPsNWFPs thatthat areare commonlycommonly importantimportant toto locallocal communities, particularly those living near the forest.forest. ButBut importanceimportance isis location-specificlocation-specific and dynamic. The keykey toto goodgood forestforest managementmanagement is to identifyidentify trends in use, notnot merelymerely staticstatic facts.facts.

Cultural valuesvalues

Rural people use NWFPs for food,food, incomeincome and farm inputsinputs but also for social,social, culturalcultural andand religious functions.functions . The intangible,intangible, non-economic non-economic rolesroles of NWFPs can be moremore importantimportant andand even provide a foundation for thethe economiceconomic roles that development programmesprogrammes usuallyusually address.address. In many culturescultures,, communitiescommunities maintain certain areas as sacred groves where harvesting is banned or carefully controlled (Arnold,(Arnold, 1995).1995). HarvestsHarvests are,are, inin suchsuch cases,cases, restrictedrestricted toto meetmeet thethe needsneeds for religious/socio-culturalreligious/socio-cultural ceremoniesceremonies.. InIn villages of northernnorthern Thailand, forfor instance,instance, sacredsacred groves form anan integralintegral partpart ofof an an overall overall community community systemsystem thatthat combinescombines farm andand forestforest management (Uraiwan, 1993).1993).

Certain species may playplay aa crucialcrucial rolerole inin spiritualspiritual ceremonies,ceremonies, oror have have taboostaboos associatedassociated withwith them that forbid certain harvests.harvests. In central Africa, parents plant a treetree in the wild forfor a newborn child,child, andand thethe child'schild's growthgrowth isis foreverforever linkedlinked toto thethe tree'stree's growthgrowth (Vergiat,(Vergiat, 19691969 inin Falconer,Falconer, 1990).1990). Other trees figure inin burialburial rituals.rituals. ForestForest foodsfoods playplaya a partpart inin weddingwedding rites,rites, initiationinitiation ceremonies and other events.events. InIn manymany places,places, thesethese culturalcultural and spiritual roles are losinglosing theirtheir importance, but in otherother placesplaces theythey persistpersist and are eveneven renewedrenewed in thethe faceface ofof encroachingencroaching values from outsideoutside thethe community.community.

3.3 . AssessingAssessing locallocal useuse ofof thethe resourceresource 19 Table 3.13. 1 showsshows thatthat inin southern southern Ghana, Ghana ,people people value value intangible intangible culturalcultural andand spiritualspiritual benefitsbenefits fromfrom the forest asas highlyhighly asas physicalphysical productsproducts andand services.services. ItIt illustratesillustrates the widewide variationvariation of local values within the same society. This variation occurs even at the household level,level, and among individuals withinwithin households.households. Men,Men, women andand children in thethe samesame householdhousehold oftenoften citecite different uses and needs for forestforest products.products.

Table 3.1:3.1: The The highest highest valued valued forestforest benefits benefits inin eighteight villagesvillages inin SouthSouth GhanaGhana (figures(figures represent percentage of people who rank the benefit first).

Banso Betinasi EssamangEssamang Nkwanta EssuowinEssuowin Koniyao Kwapanin Nanhini No. of people ranking product first - all villagesvillages Benefit from forest

Pestle 28 9 27 33 45 31 38 24 71 Bushmeat 40 9 27 38 37 26 36 13 68 Canes 48 1818 33 48 29 15 1515 10 56 Building materials 24 1818 1313 33 8 15 30 10 43 Chewstick 40 9 1313 38 18 5 15 7 39 Timber 20 9 27 32 21 19 39 Water 4 9 7 5 11 33 6 10 27 Medicines 16 9 1313 10 5 5 6 27 24 Sponge 16 27 5 18 3 15 24 Gods - 16 - - 50 21 Land bank - 24 3 10 13 7 18 Wrapping leaves - 5 3 - 32 17 Fuelwood 20 13 3 8 6 7 16 Mortar 12 5 10 11 7 16 Fertility 8 9 5 3 13 13 16 Rains 4 18 5 5 11 10 15 Forest foodfood 16 14 3 3 11 14 Raphia 1616 9 7 10 3 3 4 12 Others 8 18 7 10 24 18 17 3 25 Total no. of people 25 11 15 21 38 39 47 30 226 interviewed

Note:Note: Some people namednamed more than oneone benefitbenefit as most important

(Falconer, 19941994 inin Arnold,Arnold, 1995)1995)

Household subsistence

Among all the many NWFPs, the most common worldwide areare usedused forfor food,food, fodder, medicine, and construction materials. Other uses include,include, amongamong others, farmfarm tools,tools, householdhousehold baskets,baskets, sleeping mats, pillows,pillows, spongessponges andand broomsbrooms (Arnold,(Arnold, 1995).1995).

Rural families provide for theirtheir needsneeds notnot justjust byby growinggrowing cropscrops butbut alsoalso withwith otherother householdhousehold income. Therefore assessmentsassessments ofof locallocal dependencedependence on NWFPs for food security must count local product salessales asas wellwell asas directdirect contributions contributions toto foodfood andand nutrition.nutrition. AA familyfamily oftenoften changeschanges itsits strategy for foodfood securitysecurity asas itsits economiceconomic optionsoptions change. This cancan havehave varyingvarying effects;effects; forfor example, moremore labour-intensivelabour-intensive harvestingharvesting methodsmethods forfor aa productproduct could force women to spend less time cooking and caring forfor theirtheir childrenchildren (Longhurst,(Longhurst, 19871987 cited inin Arnold,Arnold, 1995).1995).

20 Food andand nutrition

Foods from the forest includeinclude fruits, leaves,leaves, seedsseeds andand nuts, tuberstubers and roots, fungi,fungi, gumgum andand sap.sap. Beekeeping forfor honey is often a forest-basedforest-based activity. Wildlife isis an important source of food, particularly in Africa. InIn WestWest Africa,Africa, moremore thanthan 6060 wildlife wildlife speciesspecies areare commonlycommonly consumedconsumed (Falconer, 1990).1990). In partsparts ofof Africa,Africa, bushmeatbushmeat provides a major source of protein to people's diets. Smaller animals and invertebrates are more important food sources than largerlarger game (FAO(FAO,, 1995)1995)..

Forest foods oftenoften provideprovide essentialessential vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates andand proteinprotein (Table 3.2). Besides direct nutritional contributions, theythey provide variety and taste. EvenEven wherewhere peoplepeople consume only smallsmall amountsamounts of forestforest foods,foods, theythey playplay anan importantimportant rolerole byby addingadding varietyvariety andand spice and encouraging children, in particular, to eat moremore ofof otherwiseotherwise blandbland foodsfoods thatthat theirtheir bodies need.need.

Table 3.2:3.2: ContributionsContributions ofof forest forest foodsfoods toto humanhuman nutritionnutrition

Type of forest foodfood Nutritional contribution(s)contribution(s) fruits andand berriesberries carbohydrates (fructose and soluble sugars), vitamins (especially C), minerals (calcium, magnesium, potassium); some provideprovide protein,protein, fat or starch nuts oils and carbohydratescarbohydrates young leaves, herbaceousherbaceous plantsplants vitamins (beta-carotene, C)C),, calcium, iron gums and sapssaps proteins and mineralsminerals invertebrates (insects, snails)snails) protein, fat, vitaminsvitamins vertebrates (fish,(fish, birds,birds, mammals)mammals) protein

SourceSource:: FAO, 1995.1995.

Leguminous Parkia speciesspecies providesprovides popularpopular foods on threethree continents,continents, yetyet thisthis importantimpQrtant foodfood source is commonlycommonly overlookedoverlooked in assessmentsassessments ofof local resourcesresources and nutrition.nutrition. PeoplePeople inin Southeast AsiaAsia eateat the whole podspods ofof Parkia speciosa eithereither rawraw oror cooked as a vegetable. In West Africa, peoplepeople fromfrom thethe GambiaGambia toto CameroonCameroon ferment the beans of the savannah Parkia species to make aa nutritiousnutritious traditionaltraditional food that provides proteinprotein andand fat.fat. Children eat thethe pericarp raw,raw, andand gaingain vitaminvitamin C.C. InIn thethe semi-aridsemi-arid ChacoChaco regionregion ofof SouthSouth America, the fruit ofof the related carob treetree isis mademade intointo aa flourflour oror beverage beverage that that provides provides important important calciumcalcium (FAO,(FAO, op. cit.).cit.).

Attempts to gauge local use of forest foods must consider that harvestsharvests areare seasonal, and depend not just on when the forest species fruits but also on the farming cycle.cycle. For example, harvests of forest foods often peak not during thethe main fruitingfruiting season, but during thethe "hungry"hungry season"season" whenwhen staple agricultural crops areare notnot yet harvestable and food reserves and/or household cashcash is scarce.scarce.

Within a singlesingle community,community, different groups rely on forest foods to varyingvarying degrees. PoorPoor andand landless people often depend more heavily on forest foods than others. InIn manymany areas,areas, childrenchildren tend to snack on forestforest fruitsfruits andand seedsseeds moremore thanthan adults.adults. ThisThis variationvariation isis importantimportant forfor gauginggauging local resource use. IdentifyingIdentifying keykey indicatorindicator groupsgroups thatthat dependdepend mostmost heavilyheavily on NWFPsNWFPs providesprovides a tooltool forfor monitoringmonitoring resourceresource availability.availability.

Gender and otherother variablesvariables alsoalso influenceinfluence the processing ofof forest and tree foods. AllAll familyfamily members might help with collection, but it isis usuallyusually women who are responsible for processing

33.. AssessingAssessing locallocal useuse ofof thethe resourceresource 21 these items. In southwestern Nigeria, for Text boxbox 3.1:3.1: Beekeeping Beekeeping inin Zambia Zambia example, women process parkia beansbeans,, palmpalm oiloil In northwestern Zambia,Zambia, beekeepingbeekeeping is anan and soap (FAO, op. cit.).cit.). integral part ·ofof rural rural lifeJife andand livelihoods.. livelihoods. Nearly allaU beekeepersheekeepersarealso are also farmers, andand Fodder and grazinggrazing the timetime theythey spendspend beekeepingbeekeeping isis dictateddictated by the farmingfarming calendar.calendar. Forest fodder for stallstall feeding,feeding , inin additionaddition toto widespread forestforest grazinggrazing isis very importantimportant inin For a longlong time, foresters considered many developing countries where rural familiesfamilies beekeeping to tO bebe damagingdarnaging toto forests inin northwestern Zambia,Zambia, becausebecause manymany treestrees keep domestic animals, especially inin arid andand are felled to makemake hiveshives andand becausebecause semi-aridsemi-arid areas.areas. WhileWhile fodder,fodder , almostalmost exclusive-exclusive­ honey-hunters sometimes cause ly, isis usedused locally,locally, uncontrolleduncontrolled fodderfodder collectioncollection indiscriminateindiscriminate burning of thethe forests. InIn the and grazing often can leadlead toto forestforest depletion.depletion. 1960s, however,however, forestersforesters realizedrealized thatthat beekeeping in thethe woodlandSwoodlands offeredbetteroffered better Medicinal usesuses livelihood than did timber production. Furthermore, beekeepingbeekeeping does not cOnflictconflict Use of medicines from the forest oftenoften overlapsoverlaps with otherother landland usesuses in Miombo woodlands. In somesome places,places, beekeepersbeekeepers andand forestersforesters with forest food use. PeoplePeople addadd certaincertain itemsitems toto have recognized cornmoncommon managementmanagement foods for the dual purpose of improvingimproving tastetaste andand goals, for example, inin preventing adding healthhealth tonictonic propertiesproperties (Arnold,(Arnold, op. cit.).cit.) . unmanaged firefire (which(which destroysdestroys flowersflowers Often these uses are closelyclosely linkedlinked toto culturalcultural leading toto reducedreduced nectar flow).flow). InIn otherother valuesvalues,, and integrateintegrate traditionaltraditional andand Western-Western­ areas, traditional beekeepingbeekeeping doesdoesnot not easily style medicine. InIn Ghana, people in oneone studystudy harmonize with increasingincreasing pressurepressure on .the regarded diseases as caused by either "natural" oror forest. ThisThis requiresrequires innovationinnovation toto integrateintegrate "supernatural" problems,problems, using Western farming, beekeeping andand overall forest management (Fischer,(Fischer, 19931.1993). medicines for natural illness and traditional cures for supernaturalsupernatural problems.problems.

Local trade

In locallocal tradetrade ofof NWFPs,NWFPs, womenwomen oftenoften playplaya a majormajor role.role. InIn twotwo outout of of eight eight villagesvillages studiedstudied inin Ghana, collecting forestforest leavesleaves forfor wrappingwrapping food,food, sponge-makingsponge-making andand basket-weavingbasket-weaving (activities(activities mostly done by women) provided the main sources ofof incomeincome (FAO,(FAO, op.op. cit.)cit.).. LocalLocal processing and trade of NWFPsNWFPs isis oftenoften seasonal.seasonal. TheseThese activitiesactivities offeroffer aa cushioncushion ofof extraextra incomeincome inin timestimes of hardship.

How to studystudy locallocal resourceresource useuse

Because local use of the non-wood forestforest resourceresource variesvaries greatlygreatly,, prospective enterpriseenterprise managers need to conduct their ownown assessments.assessments. ThisThis assessmentassessment alsoalso provides an opportunity to learn howhow local communities manage key non-woodnon-wood resources and whatwhat practicespractices theythey employ.employ. RecordingRecording and studyingstudying thisthis knowledgeknowledge helps ensureensure thatthat forestforest managementmanagement plans consider all relevant information.

What informationinformation toto collectcollect

A study in GhanaGhana illustratesillustrates thethe typestypes ofof informationinformation to look for (Falconer,(Falconer, 1992):1992):

• forest foodfood consumptionconsumption andand itsits importanceimportance inin thethe diet;diet; • local use ofof plantplant medicines;medicines; • use ofof forestforest productsproducts forfor househouse construction,construction, tools,tools, fuelfuel andand fodder;fodder; • relative use ofof on-farmon-farm andand villagevillage trees,trees, andand attitudesattitudes towardtoward forests;forests;

22 • use of NWFPsNWFPs inin tradetrade andand processing;processing; • consumer demand for bustimeatbushmeat and other itemsitems suchsuch asas chewsticks,chewsticks, baskets,baskets, food-food­ wrapping leaves andand medicines.medicines.

For each activity,activity, itit isis necessarynecessary toto estimateestimate numbersnumbers ofof people people involved,involved, thethe quantitiesquantities tradedtraded or used, purchase and sellingselling pricesprices andand transportationtransportation costscosts..

How to collect the information

In the past decade,decade, aa varietyvariety ofof methodologies methodologies have evolved for assessing rural community needs quickly and with their participation.participation. TheseThese includeinclude Rapid Rural AppraisalAppraisal (RRA), ParticipatoryParticipatory Rural Appraisal (PRA),(PRA), andand DiagnosisDiagnosis and DesignDesign (D&D). AA numbernumber ofof excellentexcellent referencesreferences explain how to use thesethese information-gatheringinformation-gathering toolstools (see(see "For"For further reading").

These usually start with a background search of Text boxbox 3.2:3.2: Women's involvement in These usually start with a background search of processing in BrazilBrazil available literature from local government offices and other sources,sources, suchsuch asas researchresearch institutes.institutes. In Acre,Acre, womenwomen havehave responsibilityresponsibility forfor Studies that appear unrelated to non-wood processing allall plants intendedintended forfor hurnanhuman products may still describe important local valuesvalues and animalanimal consumptionconsumption:: foods,foods, beverages,peverages, concerning thethe forestforest oror people'speople's access toto it.it. For spicesspices,, medicines, andand animalanimal feed. WornenWomen exampleexample,, aa study onon the impact ofof a pulppulp andand iinn the areaarea havehave refinedrefined skillsskills inin managingmanaging fuelwood plantation inin WestWest AfricaAfrica containedcontained and exploiting some 150150species species.. PlantsPlants for local people's complaints of reduced availability foodfood includeinclude wild andand domesticateddomesticated · fruits local people's complaints of reduced availability and nuts,nuts, andand field and > gardengarden crops.crops. of forest produce and listed the mostmost importantimportant Processed products range from jams,jams, types: bushmeat,bushmeat, chewschewsticks, ticks , canescanes,, poles andand chocochocolatelate and cooking oiloil,, to coffeescoffees andand other housing materials (Falconer(Falconer,, 1990).1990). StudiesStudies herbal teasteas.. The women use over 50 plants of nutrition,nutrition, landland tenuretenure andand agricultureagriculture cancan for medicines.medicines. PestPest repellentsrepellents alsoalso comecome provide valuable indicators of local forest use. from thethe forest.forest. BothBoth menmen andand womenwomen make baskets,baskets, brooms, hatshatsandothercraft and other craft This background search is usually followed by aa productsproducts.. MoreMore thanthan halfhalf of aa groupgroup ofof combination of household and/or group women interviewed repliedreplied enthusiasticallyenthusiastically and/or that ifif aa marketmarket existed,existed, theythey wouldwould makemake interviews oror surveys and mapping exercises. A time toto regularly prepare items for salesale survey in six Asian countries asked households toto (Kainer and Duryea, 1992).1992). ..•. list the forest species they used, rankrank thethe speciesspecies by preferencepreference based on theirtheir use-value,use-value, andand listlist the different plant parts usedused (Mehl,(Mehl, 1991).1991). Households can furtherfurther helphelp byby keepingkeeping weeklyweekly estimatesestimates of the products they consume and sell,sell, in quantitative terms.terms.

Local markets and pricesprices cancan helphelp toto indicate~ndicate whatwhat non-woodnon-wood resources are important.important. WhereWhere local market informationinformation systems existexist (see(see Chapter 7), theythey may,may , withwith somesome adjustments,adjustments, helphelp to gauge locallocal harvest ratesrates forfor keykey products.products. MarketMarket figuresfigures alone,alone, however,however, dodo notnot supplysupply thethe full picture.picture. InIn Zaire,Zaire, studiesstudies foundfound thatthat mostmost smallsmall gamegame waswas tradedtraded oror exchangedexchanged locallylocally oror consumed within the household andand notnot recorded (Redford(Redford etet aI.,al., 1995).1995).

Identifying targettarget andand indicatorindicator groupsgroups

For anan accurateaccurate picturepicture ofof local local resourceresource use,use, forestforest managers managers shouldshould identifyidentify thethe groupsgroups thatthat depend most on thethe resourceresource andand monitormonitor their use as aa sensitivesensitive gauge. To optimize equity and stability,stability, thethe managersmanagers shouldshould alsoalso considerconsider howhow proposedproposed activitiesactivities would affect thesethese groups.groups.

3.3 . AssessingAssessing locallocal useuse ofof the the resource resource 23 The importance ofof women'swomen's concernsconcerns

Despite the factfact thatthat womenwomen tendtend toto dependdepend moremore onon non-woodnon-wood resources for household use and income than men, theythey frequentlyfrequently havehave lessless voicevoice inin resourceresource managementmanagement decisionsdecisions thanthan men,men, and theirtheir prioritiespriorities areare oftenoften overlooked.overlooked. InIn LatinLatin AmericaAmerica womenwomen havehave largelarge rolesroles inin huntinghunting using certain technologiestechnologies (nets, basket traps and poison fishing) butbut not in others;others; inin somesome societies, women are thethe ones to identifyidentify and track animals (Redford,(Redford, opop.. cit.)cit.).. Assessments ofof local NWFPNWFP useuse shouldshould recognizerecognize thesethese variationsvariations andand makemake aa specialspecial efforteffort toto includeinclude womenwomen and address theirtheir needs.needs.

Other indicatorindicator groupsgroups

Other groups that tendtend toto relyrely heavilyheavily onon forestforest productsproducts forfor foodfood andand otherother subsistencesubsistence needs include (FAO, 1989):1989):

• the landlesslandless poor, whowho oftenoften dependdepend onon commoncommon propertyproperty resourcesresources forfor fodder,fodder, fuel,fuel, handicraft materials and otherother needs;needs;

• forest dwellersdwellers andand shiftingshifting cultivators,cultivators, whowho frequentlyfrequently lack secure land tenure and are squeezed out whenwhen pressurespressures increaseincrease onon forestforest resources;resources;

• small-farm families,families, who may lacklack resourcesresources forfor subsistencesubsistence production,production, andand whowho experience decliningdeclining fertilityfertility andand shrinkingshrinking farm-sizefarm-size throughthrough inheritance;inheritance;

• pastoralists and and herders, herders, who who are are vulnerable vulnerable to to droughts droughts andand encroachmentencroachment byby cultivatorscultivators and governmentgovernment programmes;programmes;

• young children, whowho dependdepend on forestforest snackssnacks for certaincertain vitamins.vitamins.

By identifying these vulnerable groupsgroups andand the non-wood resourcesresources onon whichwhich theythey rely,rely, forest managers can anticipate and prevent (or reduce) conflicts and shortages causedcaused byby changeschanges in forest management.management.

Subsector analysisanalysis for marketedmarketed productsproducts

For major marketedmarketed products,products, subsectorsubsector analysisanalysis helpshelps inin understanding the commercialcommercial processesprocesses at work. AA fullfull subsectorsubsector studystudy cancan taketake aa monthmonth oror moremore toto complete,complete, butbut partsparts ofof it it cancan bebe donedone in several daysdays andand provideprovide usefuluseful informationinformation onon locallocal marketmarket flows.flows.

A fullfull subsectorsubsector analysisanalysis uncovers aa rangerange ofof information,information, includingincluding (ATI,(AT!, 1995):1995):

• the locallocal market'smarket's mainmain functions,functions, technologies, technologies, participantsparticipants andand productproduct flows;flows;

• a summary of participantsparticipants and alternativealternative channels for product flows, and trendstrends amongamong channels;

• regulations and policiespolicies thatthat influenceinfluence locallocal productproduct flows;flows;

• the number of enterprises thatthat marketmarket aa product, salessales valuevalue amounts, employmentemployment levels and increaseincrease inin productproduct valuevalue atat eacheach stage.stage.

24 Text box 3.3: Adapting assessment methods: the example of mangroves

Assessing resources and hovv nearby communities use them is a site-specific task. Resources range from desert oases and semi-arid savannas to montane forests, from herbs and vines to wildlife. Resource managers rnust adapt the assessment methods to suit the local species, ecosystem and human environment.

Mangroves and other wetlands,. for example, present a unique set of conditions for management and are subject to different pressures than land forests.

InIn mangroves,mangroves, non-wood activities such as fisheries often generate much more income than.,., timbertimber harvests.h Mangroves can also create incierne through algae cultivation (for example, for export) and producing salt from evaporating-seawater (FAO, 1989). Mangrove products include tannin for leather curingt:!.:medicinest-boneVt.vinegar, cooking oil, wildlife and fermented drinks. Mangroves contribute tei local food security partieelarly..ithrough their.StippOrt of coastal habitats. for fish, shrimp, oysters, crabs, cockles and molluscs..They also provide plant-borne food, such as nipa palm fruits, and high-protein fodder from Rhizophora leaves.

Pressures unique to mangrove ecosystems include land reclamation efforts, destructive and unmanaged construction of fish and shrimp ponds, and harvesting for fuelwood and poles. Mangroves are also very sensitive to pollution from urban wastes, food-processing industries, power stations and dam construction.

To manage mangmangroves effectively, a manager needs to know the dynamics of water bodies and forest cover.cover. Assessment of mangrove ecosystems andtheir products requires more interdisciplinary colcollaboration than for dryland forests. This makes it especially important to clearly define data needsneed before starting to collect them.

The general types of data needed are still the same as described in Chapter 2 (resource biology, socio-economic information, existing and future demand, and operational and institutional information), but mangroves involve a variety of particular trade-offs. For example, there are socio-economictrade-offsbetweenfisheriesand timberharvests.Additionallogistical considerations include river transportation and pond or canal construction (Vantomme, 1995).

Subsector analysis starts by defining the product's end market. In the case ofrattan,of rattan, for example, end market products could be furniturefurniture and handicrafthandicraft for both local and exportexport sale.sale. AfterAfter identifying the main end markets, thethe analysisanalysis shouldshould describe each step from growth toto harvestharvest to final consumer; this sequence is known as the product's value chain (ATI, op. cit.).cit.).

The analysis identifiesidentifies thethe participants at each stage (collectors, processors, governmentgovernment agencies,agencies, NG0s,NGOs, traders,traders, marketmarket agents, agents, etc.).etc.) .For For each each stage, stage, itit listslists allall stepssteps involved:involved: WhatWhat is required to complete each stage?stage? WhatWhat setset ofof skills,skills, equipment,equipment, andand capital?capital? WhichWhich participantparticipant performs which step?step?

When the informationinformation fromfrom thisthis partpart ofof a a subsectorsubsector marketmarket analysisanalysis isis combinedcombined withwith thethe resultsresults of the rapidrapid assessmentassessment ofof subsistence subsistence use,use, aa picturepicture emergesemerges ofof (1) (1) whowho collectscollects andand usesuses NWFPsNWFPs locally, (2) whowho gainsgains byby themthem andand (3)(3) aa roughrough estimateestimate ofof whatwhat quantitiesquantities are involved.involved.

Learning about locallocal forestforest managementmanagement

Few, ifif any,any, forestforest resourcesresources areare entirelyentirely unmanaged.unmanaged. EvenEven where the forest appears undisturbed,undisturbed, some form ofof managementmanagement isis probablyprobably takingtaking place.place. ForFor example,example, thethe KayapoKayapo IndiansIndians ofof thethe Amazon basin plant speciesspecies alongalong forest paths and inin naturalnatural forest openings for food, medicine,medicine,

33.. AssessingAssessing locallocal useuse ofof thethe resourceresource 25 building materials, dyesdyes andand insectinsect repellent.repellent. DamarDamar forestsforests inin Sumatra,Sumatra, Indonesia,Indonesia, appearappear quitequite natural but havehave beenbeen managedmanaged forfor generationsgenerations toto obtainobtain damar resin andand otherother products.products.

In many cases, locallocal forestforest managementmanagement has increased thethe diversity of forest species for non-wood products. InIn WestWest Kalimantan,Kalimantan, Indonesia,Indonesia, DalatDalat communitiescommunities havehave broadenedbroadened distributiondistribution andand increased the abundanceabundance of products,products, includingincluding illipe nuts (Shorea sppspp.).) and fruitsfruits ofof duriandurian (Durio zibethinus), rambutanrambutan (Nephelium(Nephelium spp.)spp.) and mangosteen (Garcinia(Garcinia mangostana),mangostana), as well as a timbertimber species,species, EusideroxylonEusideroxylon zwagerii. In Brazil'sBrazil's easterneastern Amazon,Amazon, inin thethe IlhaIlha dasdas Onças,On9as, people have maintainedmaintained a varietyvariety ofof fruitfruit andand latexlatex speciesspecies asas wellwell asas wood-producing wood-producing speciesspecies (Reis, 1995).1995).

In thesethese cases,cases, locallocal managementmanagement strategiesstrategies buildbuild onon basicbasic practicespractices suchsuch as:as: selectiveselective weedingweeding around valuedvalued plants;plants; enrichmentenrichment planting,planting, andand occasionaloccasional selectiveselective harvesting of timber species to openopen thethe canopycanopy andand stimulatestimulate seedlingseedling growth.growth. TheseThese elementselements form a soundsound basisbasis forfor sustainable forest management (see(see ChapterChapter 4).4). To learn whatwhat management practicespractices existexist in an area, prospectiveprospective forestforest managersmanagers shouldshould interviewinterview older local people and forest dwellers (both men and women), spendingspending time with themthem in thethe forest.forest.

Summary

• Assess how communities nearnear the forest already useuse the forest resource for non-woodnon-wood products, andand thethe influenceinfluence of locallocal cultural,cultural, spiritual,spiritual, socialsocial andand economiceconomic values. ThisThis helps to fullyfully accountaccount forfor existingexisting demand and prevent over-harvesting. It also helps to identify thethe typestypes ofof improvements improvements mostmost likelylikely toto succeedsucceed locally.locally.

• For thisthis assessment,assessment, examineexamine householdhousehold subsistencesubsistence uses.uses. ReviewReview backgroundbackground materialsmaterials and use rapidrapid appraisalappraisal methodologies methodologies toto gaugegauge thethe prioritypriority householdhousehold uses.uses.

• Gauge the importanceimportance of NWFPsNWFPs inin locallocal markets,markets, forfor exampleexample usingusing subsectorsubsector analysis.analysis. This method helps identify who sells, who buysbuys,, and how the products flow through the market.

• Investigate local managementmanagement systems forfor thethe resource.resource. Interview older villagers, forestforest dwellers and forestforest medicinemedicine providers to uncover information on how people use thesethese products. TheseThese systemssystems cancan includeinclude selective weeding around valuedvalued species,species, enrichmentenrichment planting of thesethese species in the forest and selective felling. Even where the forestforest appears unmanaged, local management systemssystems cancan bebe important andand offer keys to sustainablesustainable management.

• Look for indicatorindicator groupsgroups withinwithin thethe communitycommunity - peoplepeople who especially rely on NWFPs - inin orderorder to to understand understand people-resource people-resource dynamics.dynamics. ThisThis allows a managermanager toto monitormonitor forest health andand thatthat ofof nearby nearby communities. communities.

• Ensure thatthat women'swomen's interestsinterests andand preferencespreferences receive full weight in plansplans forfor forestforest management, inin recognitionrecognition ofof theirtheir rolerole inin productproduct collection,collection, processingprocessing andand marketing.marketing.

With a soundsound understandingunderstanding of thethe biologicalbiological resourceresource andand itsits relationship toto thethe humanhuman environment, the the forestforest managermanager or or communitycommunity is is ready ready forfor thethe next step -- identifyingidentifying opportunities for improvement. improvement.

26 References

Arnold, J.E.M..l. E. M.. 1995. 1995. Socio-economic Socio-economic benefitsbenefits andand issuesissues inin non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts use. In Report of the expertexpert consultationconsultation onon non-woodnon-wood forest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

AATI. TI. 1995.1995. Non-timberNon-timber forestforest productsproducts manual.manual. Draft version.version. AppropriateAppropriate TechnologyTechnology International, Washington, D.C.

Falconer, J.l. 1990.1990. TheThe majormajor significancesignificance of "minor" forestforest products:products thethe locallocal useuse andand valuevalue ofof forests inin thethe WestWest African humid forestforest zone.zone. CommunityCommunity Forestry Forestry Note Note No.6. No. 6. FAO, Rome.

Falconer, J.l. 1992. Non-timber forest forest products products in in southernsouthern Ghana:Ghana: aa summarysummary report. ODAODA Forestry Series No.No. 2.2. UKUK Overseas Overseas Development Development Authority,Authority, London.London.

FAOFAO.. 1989.1989. ForestryForestry andand foodfood security.security. ForestryForestry Paper No. 90. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO/Food andand NutritionNutrition Division.Division. 1995.1995. Non-woodNon-wood forestforest productsproducts inin nutrition.nutrition. In Non-wood forest productsproducts forfor sustainablesustainable forestry,Yogyakarta,forestry, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, 17-2717-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Fischer, F.U.F. U. 1993.1993. Beekeeping Beekeeping in in the the subsistence subsistence economy economy ofof the the MiomboMiombo savannasavanna woodlandswoodlands of south-centralsouth-central Africa. InIn NTFPsNTFPs - threethree viewsviews fromfrom Africa.Africa. RuralRural DevelopmentDevelopment ForestryForestry Network PaperPaper 15c.15c. OverseasOverseas DevelopmentDevelopment Institute,Institute, London.London.

Kainer, K.A., andand Duryea,Duryea, M.L.M.L. 1992.1992. Tapping Tapping women'swomen's knowledge:knowledge: plant resource use inin extractive reserves, Acre,Acre, Brazil.Brazil. EconomicEconomic BotanyBotany 46(4):408-425.46(4):408-425.

Mehl, C.B.C.B. 1991.1991. TreesTrees andand farms farms inin Asia:Asia: anan analysisanalysis ofoffarm farm andand villagevillage forest use practices in South and Southeast Asia. Report Number 16. MultipurposeMultipurpose TreeTree SpeciesSpecies Research Network, Bangkok.

Poole, P.J.P.l. 1993.1993. IndigenousIndigenous peoplespeoples and biodiversity protection.protection. In In Davis,Davis, S.,S., ed.,ed., The social challenge of biodiversitybiodiversity conservation. WorkingWorking PaperPaper No. 1.1. GlobalGlobal EnvironmentEnvironment Facility,Facility, Washington, D.C.D. C.

Redford, K.H., Godshalk,Godshalk, R.,R., andand Asher,Asher, K.K. 1995.1995. WhatWhat aboutabout thethe wildwild animals?:animals?: wildwild animal species inin communitycommunity forestry.forestry. Community Forestry Note 13.13. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Reis, M.M. 1995.1995. ResourceResource developmentdevelopment for non-woodnon-wood forest products. In Report of the expertexpert consultation on non-wood forestforest products,products, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, 17-2717-27 JanuaryJanuary 1995. Non-Non­ Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

UUraivan raivan Tan-Kim-Yong.Tan-Kim-Yong. 1993.1993 . TheThe KarenKaren cultureculture ofof watershedwatershed forestforest management:management: aa casecase studystudy at BanBan 0m-Long.Om-Long. ResourceResource ManagementManagement andand DevelopmentDevelopment Center,Center, ChiangChiang MaiMai University,University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.Thailand.

Vantomme, P.P. 1995.1995. InformationInformation requirements requirements andand planningplanning principlesprinciples forfor managingmanaging non-woodnon-wood forest resourcesresources inin mangrovemangrove forests.forests. InIn ReportReport gfC?f the the expertexpert consultationconsultation onon non-woodnon-wood forestforest products. Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-2717-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts 3.3. FAO,FAO, Rome.

3. AssessingAssessing locallocal useuse ofof thethe resourceresource 27 Wickens, G.E. 1991.1991. ManagementManagement issuesissues forfor developmentdevelopment of non-timbernon-timber forestforest products.products. UnasylvaUnasylva 42(165):3-8.

For further readingreading

FAO. 1990.1990. TheThe communitycommunity toolbox: thethe idea, methods andand tools forfor participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation inin communitycommunity forestry.forestry. Community Forestry Field Manual 2.2.

FAO. 1990.1990. CommunityCommunity Forestry:Forestry: RapidRapid AppraisalAppraisal.. CommunityCommunity Forestry Forestry Note Note 3. 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.

FAO. 1991.1991. Non-woodNon-wood forestforest products:products.. the the way way ahead. ahead. FAOFAO ForestryForestry PaperPaper No.No. 97.97. FAO,FAO, Rome.

FAO. 1991.1991. GuidelinesGuidelines for integratingintegrating nutrition nutrition concernsconcerns intointo forestryforestry projects.projects. CommunityCommunity Forestry Manual 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAOFAO.. 1994.1994. TreeTree andand landland tenure..tenure: rapid appraisal tools.tools. Forests,Forests, TreesTrees andand PeoplePeople ProgrammeProgramme Manual 4. FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO. 1995.1995. TheThe gendergender analysisanalysis andand forestryforestry trainingtraining package. FAO,FAO, RomeRome

Montagne, P. 1985.1985 . ContributionsContributions ofof indigenous indigenous silviculturesilviculture to forestryforestry developmentdevelopment inin ruralrural areas: examplesexamples from NigerNiger andand Mali.Mali. RuralRural Africana Africana 23-2423-24 (Fall(Fall 1985-Winter1985-Winter 1986):61-65.1986):61-65.

Ocampo, R.A. 1994.1994. TheThe present present situation situation of of non-timber non-timber forestforest productsproducts inin CostaCosta Rica.Rica. WorkingWorking Document No.7, ProjectProject forfor ConservationConservation andand SustainableSustainable DevelopmentDevelopment inin CentralCentral America.America. CACATIE,TIE , Turrialba, CostaCosta Rica.Rica.

28 Opportunities forfor improvedimproved management management 4

Earlier chapters havehave describeddescribed howhow toto understandunderstand the current extent, useuse andand managementmanagement of aa locality's non-woodnon-wood forestforest resources.resources. TheyThey havehave notednoted thatthat manymany traditionaltraditional systemssystems thatthat onceonce were environmentally soundsound mustmust nownow be adapted to handlehandle increasingincreasing pressurepressure onon thesethese resourcesresources for livelihoodlivelihood and income.income. ThisThis chapterchapter beginsbegins toto addressaddress howhow communitiescommunities andand enterprisesenterprises cancan adapt systems for managementmanagement thatthat areare culturally,culturally, economicallyeconomically andand environmentallyenvironmentally sustainable.sustainable.

This chapter exploresexplores thethe followingfollowing formsforms ofof adaptation: adaptation:

• improving productivity;productivity; • reducing waste inin harvestharvest andand post-harvestpost-harvest treatments;treatments; • improving multiple-usemultiple-use forestforest management;management; • domesticating key species;species; • innovations in management for production of goods and services (e.g.(e.g. medicinalmedicinal plants,plants, wildlife); and • ecotourism.

Chapters 5-7 willwill exploreexplore thethe closelyclosely relatedrelated issuesissues ofof better better market market linkages, linkages, processingprocessing techniques and business practices forfor adding value locally (usually throughthrough somesome formform of rural processing) toto ensureensure thatthat aa greatergreater portionportion ofof aa product's marketmarket valuevalue accrues to the people who manage the forest resource.resource.

For thethe optionsoptions discusseddiscussed inin thisthis chapter,chapter, somesome keykey principlesprinciples ofof managementmanagement apply (Vantomme, 1995)1995)::

• wood and non-woodnon-wood resources shouldshould be be managedmanaged in in anan integrated wayway to meetmeet subsistence and market needs;needs;

• harvests should not exceed the resource'sresource's ecologicalecological carrying capacity, and shouldshould bebe planned toto maintainmaintain thethe diversitydiversity ofof locallocal biologicalbiological resources;resources;

• planning is a continuous,continuous, dynamicdynamic process and must respond to new opportunitiesopportunities and conditions, includingincluding improvedimproved datadata collection;collection;

• the processprocess forfor makingmaking decisionsdecisions onon resourceresource managementmanagement should be transparenttransparent and equitable in order forfor decisionsdecisions toto bebe effective.effective.

Improving resource productivity

Chapter 33 identifiedidentified severalseveral measuresmeasures forfor improvingimproving plantplant productivityproductivity in forests,forests, practisedpractised byby some forest-dwelling groups. TheseThese were:were:

• selective weeding around valuedvalued species;species; • enrichment planting of these species in the forest;forest; • selective felling of trees toto openopen thethe canopycanopy andand stimulatestimulate seedling growth.

The threethree practicespractices areare interdependent.interdependent. ForFor example,example, selectiveselective weedingweeding (regular removal of allall vegetation withinwithin aa radiusradius ofof about about 11 m m ofof the the desireddesired plants)plants) succeedssucceeds onlyonly whenwhen selectiveselective fellingfelling has openedopened thethe canopycanopy overhead.overhead.

4. Opportunities forfor improvedimproved managementmanagement 29 Enrichment plantingplanting aims to increaseincrease the number of desirable plants in the forest withwith minimalminimal disturbance to thethe forestforest ecosystem.ecosystem. ItsIts successsuccess dependsdepends mainlymainly on:on:

• adequate opening of the overhead forest canopy early inin seedlingseedling growth;growth; • the amenability of thethe desireddesired plantplant species:species: fast-growing,fast-growing, gap-fillinggap-filling speciesspecies workwork well.well.

Experience suggests that the following (mainly timber)timber) speciesspecies,, amongamong others,others, areare amenable to enrichment plantingplanting:: inin West Africa,Africa, TerminaliaTerminalia superba and T.T. ivorensis; in EastEast Africa,Africa, Maesopsis eminii; in South America, Cordia alliodora, SimarubaSimaruba amara,amara, SwieteniaSwietenia macrophylla,macrophylla, Cedrela odorata, CarapaCarapa guayanensis, guayanensis, andand VirolaVirola species;species; andand inin Asia-Pacific, Asia-Pacific, ToonaToona ciliata.ciliata. Locally preferred speciesspecies shouldshould naturallynaturally receivereceive prioritypriority forfor testing.testing.

Producers cancan improveimprove forestforest plantplant yieldsyields byby propagatingpropagating seedsseeds oror cuttingscuttings fromfrom individualindividual plantsplants known to have goodgood yieldsyields and superiorsuperior growth.growth.

The above measuresmeasures cancan bringbring aboutabout relativelyrelatively smallsmall increasesincreases inin supplysupply fromfrom wildwild sources.sources. Often, more significantsignificant gains are possiblepossible by reducing waste in harvesting, storage and transport operations.

Improving harvestingharvesting methodsmethods

Harvesting - broadlybroadly includingincluding harvestharvest planning,planning, pre-harvestpre-harvest andand post-harvestpost-harvest treatmentstreatments - isis thethe most important process in managing a resource. It directlydirectly affects both the yield and the health of the livingliving resource.resource. ImprovementsImprovements inin thethe harvestingharvesting processprocess cancan makemake thethe differencedifference betweenbetween a healthy forest and degraded land; they can also decide whether anan enterpriseenterprise returnsreturns aa profitprofit or loss (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1:4.1: PotentialPotential benefitsbenefits toto producersproducers ofof improved improved harvestharvest activitiesactivities

Activity Potential financial benefitbenefit improve harvest techniquestechniques increase income 10 percent or more increase harvest efficiencyefficiency inin thethe forestforest increase income 5-10 percent or moremore reduce post-harvest losseslosses throughthrough improved:improved: forest storage and/or transport reduce losses by 5 percentpercent local warehouses reduce losses ofof 25 percent of product transport toto distantdistant processingprocessing plantsplants reduce losses of up to 35 percent of product

Source:Source: Clay, 1995)1995)

Pre-harvest preparations

Good harvesting requires good planning, linked closely toto the resourceresource inventory.inventory. LikeLike anan inventory, a good harvest strategystrategy startsstarts with a clear understanding ofof tenuretenure and resourceresource rights (see Chapter 2). ItIt requiresrequires carefulcareful timingtiming toto optimizeoptimize yield taking into consideration thethe transporttransport,, processing and marketingmarketing involved.involved. ForFor example,example, manymany fruits transport with fewer losses ifif they are harvested just beforebefore theythey fullyfully ripen.ripen. SoundSound harvestharvest plarmingplanning covers logistics,logistics, training for harvesters inin efficientefficient harvestingharvesting techniques,techniques, andand financingfinancing ofof operations.operations.

Depending on the tenure regime, harvestingharvesting isis typicallytypically arranged and funded in one of three ways (Reis, 1995):1995):

30 Post-harvest technologiestechnologies

Post-harvest losseslosses duedue to spoilagespoilage areare commoncommon andand robrob producersproducers ofof potential potential income.income. Fortunately, technologiestechnologies thatthat reducereduce thesethese losseslosses areare oftenoften availableavailable and economical,economical, includingincluding techniques for depulping fruits and drying plant materials (see also Chapter 5).

Better post-harvest storage further reduces losses. In many cases, research results describe what type of storage warehouse and conditions (temperature,(temperature, airflow,airflow, moisture levels,levels, etcetc.).) are best for reducing spoilage.spoilage.

Multiple-use management for woodwood andand non-woodnon-wood harvestsharvests

Combining harvestsharvests ofof a non-woodnon-wood product withwith otherother NWFPs, or withwith timbertimber harvests,harvests, cancan optimize overall forest management.management. This type ofof multiplemultiple andand diversifieddiversified uses, uses, traditionallytraditionally practised by somesome forestforest dwellers,dwellers, cancan easeease thethe economiceconomic pressures on both wood and non-wood resources. InIn planning,planning, resourceresource managersmanagers shouldshould analyzeanalyze the inventory information to determine complementary harvest strategiesstrategies andand uncoveruncover potentialpotential conflictsconflicts betweenbetween woodwood andand non-woodnon-wood harvests. TheThe locallocal communitycommunity shouldshould participateparticipate inin prioritizingprioritizing harvestableharvestable productsproducts andand strategies.

Strategies for domesticationdomestication

Chapter 2 discusseddiscussed advantagesadvantages andand disadvantagesdisadvantages of species domestication. InIn certain cases, maintaining the wild resource may require somesome kind of domestication strategy in order to reducereduce pressure on suchsuch wildwild resources.resources. InIn WestWest Africa,Africa, decliningdeclining forestforest resourcesresources andand increasingincreasing demand forfor certain products is causing people toto rely more on treestrees growinggrowing onon farmlandfarmland (Falconer, 1990).1990). TheThe samesame trendtrend appearsappears inin Asia.Asia.

Domestication cancan taketake place in severalseveral ways:ways : (1)(1) enrichmentenrichment planting in forestforest areas,areas, (2) smallholder cultivation, andand (3) commercial or community plantationsplantations (Wickens,(Wickens, 1991)1991).. TheThe rangerange of combinationscombinations allows communities toto adapt a domestication strategystrategy toto suitsuit their needs andand preferences.

Domestication helps to improve the NWFP resourceresource inin quantitativequantitative and qualitative terms. ItIt isis toto be noted,noted, however,however, thatthat domesticationdomestication calls for certaincertain researchresearch issues to bebe addressedaddressed andand information generated and analyzed before it can be widely adopted: can the species desired bebe domesticated?; if so,so, whatwhat areare the the specifics specifics involved? involved? is there variationvariation in thethe desireddesired characteristics?; ifif itit exists,exists, isis thisthis variationvariation geneticgenetic inin naturenature oror causedcaused byby environmentalenvironmental factors?;factors?; can improvement in desirable characteristicscharacteristics be best achieved by genetic (phenotypic) selection, by silvicultural interventions, and/or by aa combinationcombination ofof both?;both?; is such improvementimprovement economically practicalpractical and feasible?;feasible?; whatwhat parallelparallel action will be neededneeded toto ensureensure thethe conservation of thethe geneticgenetic resourcesresources ofof thethe species?species? (Chandrasekharan,(Chandrasekharan, 1994)1994)

Community forests

Community forestforest reserves of plantedplanted and volunteervolunteer species can provide forest products andand relieve pressure on thethe naturalnatural forest.forest. InIn Sumatra,Sumatra, Indonesia,Indonesia, farmers in thethe latelate 1800s1800s plantedplanted areas with thethe resin-producingresin-producing damar tree (Shorea javanica)javanica) and fruit speciesspecies (mainly(mainly Durio zibethinus and Lansium domesticum). The damar produces aa clearclear resin which is exported for use in paint andand varnishes.varnishes. TheseThese agroforestsagroforests - nownow comprisingcomprising roughlyroughly 65 percent damar trees, 25 percent fruit treestrees andand thethe remainderremainder wild trees for timber - continuecontinue to be managed by those farmers' grandchildren.grandchildren. SomeSome plantationsplantations contain 39 tree species at a meanmean density of 245 treestrees

32 • collectors with extractive rights harvest,harvest, often with some kind of patronagepatronage fromfrom a purchasing agent;

• lease holders with collection rightsrights hirehire contract labourerslabourers toto harvestharvest thethe materialmaterial forfor a daily wage;

• resource- or lease-ownerslease-owners financefinance harvest,harvest, usingusing credit.credit.

Secure tenure cancan provideprovide meansmeans (collateral)(collateral) byby whichwhich collectorscollectors can obtainobtain credit forfor meetingmeeting harvesting costs (see Chapter 10),10), andand incentiveincentive forfor usingusing harvestharvest techniquestechniques that maintain long-long­ term supply.supply. CollectorsCollectors withwith onlyonly short-termshort-term rightsrights (or(or nono tenuretenure rights)rights) oftenoften findfind ecologicallyecologically destructive harvests easiereasier andand moremore profitableprofitable thanthan sustainable sustainable techniques.techniques.

To financefinance futurefuture harvestharvest operations,operations, producerproducer groupsgroups shouldshould seekseek agreementsagreements with traderstraders oror manufacturers in order toto establishestablish and obtain royalty fees based on product resale. Few groups have already negotiatednegotiated such agreements, by whichwhich theythey receivereceive anan environmentalenvironmental premium of five percent of sales or otherother royaltiesroyalties based on the value ofof sale to the end user or consumer.consumer. Five percentpercent ofof the the end-valueend-value receivedreceived byby traderstraders inin NewNew YorkYork oror LondonLondon marketsmarkets cancan meanmean thatthat producers receive nearly a third moremore incomeincome from the product (Clay, op. cit.).

Harvest techniques

Producers shouldshould learnlearn aboutabout allall availableavailable harvestharvest technologies.technologies. TheyThey shouldshould assessassess themthem (perhaps(perhaps with technical assistance) on thethe basisbasis of:of:

• how much timetime andand labourlabour theythey demand;demand; • a comparison of costscosts andand returns;returns; • their environmentalenvironmental impact.impact.

Improved knowledge knowledge of of species. species .Harvest Harvest planners planners can can use use knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe species'species' biologybiology toto make harvests more efficient. For example,example, inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia, harvest of the essence of gaharu (Aquilaria malaccensis andand related species) dependsdepends onon a fungalfungal infectioninfection ofof thethe wood.wood. Experienced harvesters say they can determine if a tree'stree's woodwood isis infectedinfected withoutwithout destructivedestructive felling, therebythereby savingsaving efforteffort andand trees.trees. NewcomersNewcomers whowho lacklack thisthis knowledgeknowledge havehave destroyeddestroyed largelarge forest areas by fellingfelling trees toto determine if they are infected; this waste can bebe reduced byby havinghaving experienced harvesters traintrain thethe newcomers.newcomers.

Improved knowledgeknowledge ofof technicaltechnical options.options. ForFor some some products,products, harvestharvest efficiencyefficiency cancan bebe improved byby harvesting fewerfewer plantplant parts.parts. InIn the Amazon, for example, harvest ofof pau rosarosa (Aniba rosaeodora) forfor itsits essentialessential oiloil hashas almostalmost always entailed felling thethe tree. However, thethe oil can be harvestedharvested efficientlyefficiently andand sustainablysustainably by removingremoving only leaves and twigs, forfor exampleexample through coppicing (Clay,(Clay, op.op. cit.).cit.). InIn Indonesia, Indonesia, thethe StateState ForestForest Corporation, Perum Perhutani, has improved the harvesting of Melaleuca speciesspecies for cayuput oil by coppicing treestrees onon a five-yearfive-year cycle, permittingpermitting economicallyeconomically viable leaf harvests without killing the trees.

Improved equipment.equipment. SimpleSimple changeschanges ofof equipmentequipment can reducereduce thethe impactimpact of harvest.harvest. ForFor example, a common bracebrace andand bitbit cancan makemake itit possible to harvest the balsam of the same copaiba tree (Copaifera(Copaifera multijuga)multijuga) forfor decades;decades; byby contrast,contrast, harvestingharvesting withwith anan axeaxe causescauses woundswounds thatthat can kill the tree (Clay(Clay andand Clement, 1993).1993). InIn SouthSouth America, buritfburiti fruits (Mauritia(Mauritiaflexuosa) flexuosa) are often harvested by fellingfelling thethe tree;tree; "climbing"climbing bicycles"bicycles" could improveimprove access to the fruitsfruits forfor harvest without felling (Clay and Clement, op. cit.).

4. OpportunitiesOpportunities for for improved improved management management 31 per ha (Michon, cited in de Foresta and Michon, Text boxbox 4.1:4 .1 : IntegratedIntegrated forest management in Mexico 1994)1994)..

The PlanPlan PilotoPiloto ForestalForestal (PPF)(PPF) project in Household-based agroforestryagroforestry QuintanaQuintana Roo, Mexico, has adapted integrated forest managementmanagement toto local For small-farm households, agroforestry socio-economic conditions.conditions. BegunBegun in 1983, (involving combinationscombinations of of treestrees,, other plants,plants, the projectproject has promoted forest livestocklivestock and/orand/or farmfarm crops)crops) offersoffers a viable way conservation and locallocal developmentdevelopment byby to managemanage non-wood forest production on farm involving nearbynearby communitiescommunities inin rnanagingmanaging natural forest for woodwood andand non-woodnon-wood landland.. Throughout thethe tropics, farmers havehave productsproducts.. TheThe project focused onon twotwo incorporatedincorporated treestrees andand other forest plantsplants intointo species: mahogany (Swietenia(Swietenia their farmingfarming systemssystems forfor centuries.centuries. Besides macrophylla) and chicle gumgum (Manilkara(Manilkara being familiar in traditionaltraditional forms, agroforestryagroforestry zapota).zapota). ChicleChicle latexlatex andand honeyhoney productionproduction makes effective use of scarce resourcesresources (Leakey(Leakey provide aboutabout half of thethe total forest and Newton,Newton, 1994). It alsoalso cancan increaseincrease farmfarm income.income. household security by diversifying on-farm produceproduce.. First, to ensureensure local participation, the project had logging rightsrights assignedassigned to thethe ejidos, or local communities. PPFPPF thenthen Domestication strategies should address farmersfarmers'' helped these communities to organize short-term needs by including proven speciesspecies thatthat themselvesthemselves foforr managing thethe forest inin a yield somesome sort ofof produceproduce fairly quickly. way thatthat wouldwould ensureensure theythey receivedreceived thethe Usually farmers decide thethe compositioncomposition andand economic benefits. nature of theirtheir agroforestryagroforestry systemssystems themselvesthemselves (Lescure et al., 1995). Support services should should Essentially, the PPFPPF applied:applied: be directed by farmer demand for planting stock. • better harvest planningplanning and technology to reduce destruction of residualresidual treestrees (e.g.(e.g. Local domestication cancan start by studyingstudying basicbasic directional felling);felling); seed storage optionsoptions,, identifying promising cultivars, and establishingestablishing nurseries. Simple • enrichment plantingplanting ofof loggedlogged areas;areas; techniques cancan makemake bigbig economiceconomic differences.differences. In the IndianIndian state of AndhraAndhra Pradesh,Pradesh, twotwo smallsmall • strictly controlled access to the improvements inin nurserynursery procedureprocedure -- the use of permanent forest reservereserve (FAO,(FAO, 1995).1995). root trainerstrainers inin place of polybagspolybags and culling of seedlings - couldcould havehave savedsaved tree-growingtree-growing effortsefforts an estimatedestimated US$US$ 7373 toto $$ 127 127 millionmillion (Contreras-Hermosilla,(Contreras-Hermosilla, cited inin D'SilvaD'Silva andand Appanah,Appanah, 1993).

Selection andand breeding for farmers'farmers' preferencespreferences

In selectingselecting speciesspecies forfor agroforestry,agroforestry, farmersfarmers oftenoften aimaim toto maximize maXlIlllze stabilitystability - ratherrather thanthan quantity - ofof production. production. TheyThey alsoalso oftenoften selectselect speciesspecies forfor characteristicscharacteristics preferredpreferred forfor bothboth subsistence uses and marketablemarketable produce.produce.

In oneone study,study, farmersfarmers inin sixsix AsianAsian countries countries identifiedidentified breedingbreeding criteriacriteria forfor agroforestryagroforestry species,species, according toto theirtheir useuse ofof each each species.species. WhereWhere oneone speciesspecies providedprovided severalseveral locally-usedlocally-used products,products, farmers preferredpreferred aa combinationcombination ofof traitstraits thatthat accommodatedaccommodated allall usesuses.. But for species that had a clear primaryprimary use,use, farmersfarmers specifiedspecified thethe characteristicscharacteristics of that use; farmersfarmers oftenoften rankedranked thethe characteristics of mostmost valuablevaluable marketmarket useuse asas mostmost important important (Raintree (Raintree andand Wickramasinghe, Wickramasinghe, 1992).

Farmers' preferencespreferences for plantingplanting material vary depending onon their farmfarm size,size, cultural background, gender,gender ,wealth wealth andand marketmarket options. options .Any Any governmentgovernment oror NGONGO strategystrategy toto supportsupport the the

4. OpportunitiesOpportunities forfor improved improved management management 33 Text böx4.2:ibox 4.2: JointJ()int forest forest management management inin IndiaIndia

India's Joint ForestForest ManagementManagement programmeprogramme has revitalized thethe management ofof thatthat country's forests byby involvinginvolving locallocal communities,communities. InIn thethe Gorela Gorela village,village, Rajasthan,Rajasthan, thisthis hashas allowedallowed integrated management forfor timber andand 'twotwo forestforest productsproducts rarelyrarely consideredconsidered .by foresters - grass and fodder.

InIn Gorela, avarietya variety of socialsocial groupsgroups engage inin subsistence farming.farming. AtAt least 40 percentpercent ofof thethe village households practicepractice commercialcommercial dairying, dairying, with with a a securesecure market market just just 1010 km away.away. Livestock include cows, buffalobuffalo andand goats. Women traditionally collected fodder, fuelwood, gumsgums and oils frornfromthe the forest,forest, andand villagersvillagers grazedgrazed theirtheir animalsanimals onon grassesgrasses there.

In 1980, thethe villagersvillagers grewgrew concernedconcerned by increasingincreasing forageforage scarcityscarcity andand beganbegan working working with with thethe Forest Department (FD) to replant andand protect thethe resource.resource. The tabletable presentspresents plantingplanting figuresfigures for sixsix treetree. speciesspecies ininvarious various campaigns,campaigns, andand shows howhow thethe. emphasisemphasis on fodderfodder speciesspecies grew as thethe campaigns involved villagers more in the choice of species.species.

Table 4.2. TrendsTrends inin number number ofof seedlings seedlings plantedplanted forfor six six species species inin tree-plantingtree-planting campaignscampaigns in GorelaGorela

Species Uses 1980 1985 1987 1990 1991 1992

Australian acacia timbertimber 40004 000 90909 090 IngeInga dulce timber 4000040 000 2784927 849 khair (Acacia catechu) fuel, fodderfodder 44271 271 1500015 000 1001010 010 1000010 000 1006810 068 7070000 000 desi babul (A. nilotica) timber, fuel,fuel, 1475014 750 33000 000 55010 010 88000 000 fodder amla (Emblicaofficinalis)(Emblica officinalis) fruit, fodder,fodder, 325 22000 000 smailsmell timber, fuel Neem (Azadirachta indica) medicine, oil, 29982 998 22500 500 33000 000 timber, fodderfodder Sample survival rate (percent)(percent) 76 89 98 88 72 94

InIn 1992,1992, thethe villagevillage andand FDFD jointlyjointly formed formed a aForest Forest Protection Protection Committee, Committee, whichwhich organizes organizes regular patrols, andand meetingsmeetings everyevery otherother month.month. TheThe FDFD managesmanages timber harvestsharvests andand sharesshares proceeds with thethe village.village. UnauthorizedUnauthorized fellingfelling andand illegalillegal grazinggrazing is punishedpunished with heavyheavy fines,fines, but villagersvillagers can collect fallenfallen wood,wood, fodderfodder andand otherother non-woodnon-wood products.products.

Despite thethe diversity of social groups, they all agree onon the the needneed for for fodder fodder from from the the forest. forest. JointJoint management is addressingaddressing this immediateimmediate livelihoodlivelihood needneed for subsistencesubsistence andand incomeincome (Zutshi,(Zutshi, 1994). local farmers should be formedformed inIn discussiondiscussion with them,them, focusingfocusing on thethe mostmost desireddesired andand promising speciesspecies first.first.

Genetic conservation

Domestication andand cultivation doesdoes notnot substitute forfor conservationconservation of of geneticgenetic diversity.diversity. IfIf no provision is made forfor preservingpreserving thethe geneticgenetic variationvariation found only in wild sources, domesticationdomestication is often followedfollowed byby thethe declinedecline andand eveneven disappearancedisappearance of wildwild populationspopulations (Nair and Merry, 1995). BecauseBecause geneticgenetic improvementimprovement of domesticateddomesticated species requires infusions from wildwild populations, domestication programmes should maintain in situsitu (natural oror on site) and/or ex situ (planted elsewhere) stands of naturalnatural varieties.varieties. TheThe agroforestsagroforests ofof SumatraSumatra describeddescribed aboveabove combine the advantagesadvantages of domesticationdomestication with genetic conservation. So does the Nepalese project for medicinal plant products described inin Chapter 2. Farm-basedFarm-based agroforestryagroforestry cancan helphelp toto maintainmaintain some portion of thisthis diversitydiversity byby selectingselecting genetic resources from a range ofof wildwild sources.sources.

34 Commercial plantations

Commercial plantations are a commoncommon avenueavenue of promotingpromoting domestication. They often allocate resources effectively forfor selectionselection andand improvementimprovement ofof superiorsuperior individuals,individuals, butbut theirtheir highhigh capitalcapital requirements tendtend toto put themthem beyond the means of mostmost ruralrural producerproducer groups. Often commercial plantations are managed and owned by large-scale entrepreneurs who do not plan sufficiently for local benefit-sharing, leadingleading toto inequityinequity andand land-useland-use conflicts.41conflicts.~' Furthermore,Furthermore, thethe methods and equipment prevalent in commercial forestry tend to foster monoculture stands, which erode forest genetic diversity and greatly increaseincrease the risk ofof infestationsinfestations by p ests and disease.disease.

Innovative options inin thethe useuse ofof medicinalmedicinal plantsplants

In recent yearsyears innovationsinnovations inin thethe promotionpromotion ofof thethe useuse ofof medicinalmedicinal plants have shown potential to generate incomeincome forfor locallocal communitiescommunities andand provideprovide forfor long-termlong-term forestforest maintenance.maintenance. TheseThese include:

• commercial development of traditionaltraditional herbalherbal medicines;medicines;

• research onon bioactivebioactive compoundscompounds forfor pharmaceutical pharmaceutical products (often somewhatsomewhat inaccurately called biodiversitybiodiversity prospecting);

• ethnobotanical research (the scientificscientific studystudy ofof traditionaltraditional knowledgeknowledge andand customscustoms concerning plants).plants).

All three fields are still evolving,evolving, so their long-term prospects are not fullyfully knownknown.. Yet theirtheir rapid recent growth suggestssuggests that theythey shouldshould be consideredconsidered as possiblepossible components ofof an overalloverall strategy for forestforest management.management.

On a locallocal andand nationalnational scale,scale, traditionaltraditional healinghealing isis beingbeing re-appreciatedre-appreciated and offers anan under-under­ exploited marketmarket for NWFPs. TheThe traditionaltraditional medicine project in Nepal (see Chapter 2) created local markets and achieved a profit inin just over two years. InIn Indonesia,Indonesia, companies like PT Jamu Air Mancur, whichwhich citescites anan annualannual incomeincome of US$US$ 1010 millionmillion and employsemploys 700 people, are growing with rising urbanurban demanddemand forfor traditionaltraditional herbalherbal medicinemedicine (FAO,(FAO, 1995).1995).

Biological andand chemical compounds

The search forfor usefuluseful biologicalbiological andand chemicalchemical compoundscompounds has shown potential to increase local income and in-countryin-country technical capability, andand reduce forest destruction (see(see text box 4.3).4.3). Collaborations in this regard, ifif negotiatednegotiated properly, cancan developdevelop the sourcesource country'scountry's capacitycapacity to conductconduct sophisticatedsophisticated research on naturalnatural resources.resources. ProspectingProspecting of bioactive material from plant and animalanimal speciesspecies cancan alsoalso assignassign monetarymonetary values to conservation of these resources to counterbalance the tendency for resource degradation. Besides Costa Rica, such research isis beingbeing started in Argentina, Cameroon, Chile, Mexico,Mexico, Nigeria,Nigeria, PeruPeru andand SurinameSuriname (Grifo, 1994).1994).

i f There are aa fewfew notablenotable exceptionsexceptions to thisthis pattern.pattern. TheThe PaperPaper IndustriesIndustries CorporationCorporation of the Philippines andand Sabah ForestForest IndustriesIndustries ofof Malaysia Malaysia provideprovide examplesexamples ofof benefit-sharing benefit-sharing agreements with local farmersfarmers (Awang(Awang and Taylor, 1993).1993).

4. OpportunitiesOpportunities forfor improved improved managementmanagement 35 Ethnobotanical research Text box 4.3: BiologicalBiological resources resources in Costa Rican forests Since the midmid-1980s,-1980s, Western-styleWestern-style medicalmedical In 1991199 ltheN the National ationaLBiodiversity Biodiversity InstituteInstitute research has rediscoveredrediscovered thethe usefulness of of . CostaCosta . RicaF~ica( (INBio) I NBio) )signedsig nedatWo~year a two-year traditional healing systems as sources of agreementagreell1ent with the international knowledge on pharmaceutical products. pharmaceutical producer Merck andand Co.Co. InIn Ethnobotanical researchresearch has been enhanced due exchange forprelirninaryforpreliminary/ research on to renewedrenewed fieldworkfieldwork and thethe developmentdevelopment of biologically active compoundscompounds from forestforest more sophisticatedsophisticated means of determiningdetermining thethe plants, insects andand micro-organismsmicro-organisms found inin Costa RicanRican rainforests, MerckMerck paidpaid bioactivity ofof plantplant compounds.compounds. ThisThis opensopens upup US$ 11 millionmillion to INBio.INBio. InIn addition,addition, MerckMerck possibilities for preserving local healers' agreed toto return to CostaCosta RicaRica aa percentagepercentage knowledge through linkage with scientific otanyofany royalties generated by drugs pharmaceutical researchresearch.. BecauseBecause itit builds onon developedasadevelopedas a resLJltresult ofof thethe. researchresearch local knowledgeknowledge systems that havehave developeddeveloped (which probably couldtake1could take 15 5 toto2Qyears 20 years over a long time, ethnobotany represents aa more to realize).realize). focused plant-surveying method than prospecting ..... for bioactive material.material. Through another agreement,agreement, Bristol-MyersBristol-Myers SquSquibbibb is supportingsupporting researchresearch bybyJNBioand INBio and Cornell University thatthat will studystudy tropicaltropical In the ethnobotanical approach,approach, a professionally­professionally- insects and related species forfor compoundscompounds trained ethnobotanist worksworks withwith aa local healerhealer that. couldcould provideprovide \potential potential sourcessources of for an extended period.period. With permission from the drugs (Sittenfeldand(Sittenfeld and Lovejoy, 1994).1994). healer, villagevillage leaderleader andand otherother officials,officials, the ethnobotanist sendssends samplessamples ofof selected plants to These agreements include importantimportant a laboratorylaboratory forfor study.study. BioassaysBioassays cancan quicklyquickly provisions for developing Costa Rican screen the effect ofof a plant sample onon up to 6060 expertise in biochemicalbiochemical prospectingprospecting andand maintaining the biological conservation distinct types ofof human tumour cells (Cox(Cox andand areas where the researchresearch takestakes place.place. Balick, 1994). Scientists examine promisingpromising specimens toto compare their molecularmolecular structurestructure InIn thesethese agreements,agreements, the concept of with that of knownknown chemicals. Molecules intellectual propertyproperty rights serveserve as anan identified asas lead compounds proceed through a increasingly importantimportant legallegal .•mechanism forfor series of evaluationsevaluations leadingleading toto approval as aa returning an appropriateappropriate . share of valuevalue medicine, which cancan take 15 to 20 years. resulting> fromlrorndiscoveries discoveries such asas new drugs to sourcesource communitiescommunities andand countriescountries (see also Chapte(1Chapter 10), 0) . Factors that determine a locality's promisepromise forfor international ethnobotanical study include:include:

• a diverse flora (for(for example,example, tropicaltropical forest);forest);

• permanent settlementsettlement forfor manymany generationsgenerations (this suggests greater experimentation by local people withwith locallocal species);species);

• a tradition of healers who transmit their knowledge from generation to generation, usuallyusually through apprentices (this(this offers effective screening through generations of repetition).

In realizing locallocal benefitsbenefits fromfrom ethnobotanicalethnobotanical research, locallocal healershealers andand communitiescommunities must relyrely on the comrnitmentcommitment and efforts of the ethnobotanical researcher.researcher. In order to address the importantimportant question on how ethnobotanical researchresearch cancan be carried outout asas anan equitable partnership, guidelinesguidelines for ethobotanists have beenbeen developed,developed, andand theythey havehave beenbeen endorsedendorsed byby thethe InternationalInternational SocietySociety of Ethnobiology. TheThe researchresearch mustmust respectrespect thethe followingfollowing obligationsobligations (Cox,(Cox, 1995):1995):

• design and direct thethe researchresearch aimaim accuratelyaccurately to thethe healer;healer; • respect thethe "sacred""sacred" oror secretsecret informationinformation providedprovided byby thethe healer;healer;

36 • acknowledge the healer as source inin academicacademic papers; • provide forfor indigenous-languageindigenous-language abstractsabstracts ofof thethe research;research; • protect the financialfinancial interests of the healer, either through increased return to the source community from royalties to thethe patent,patent, oror pre-payment;pre-payment; • help conserveconserve importantimportant sourcesource habitatshabitats ofof medicinal medicinal plants.plants.

Ethnobotanical research alsoalso can help to restore or reinforce a group's traditionaltraditional knowledgeknowledge base:base: for example,example, thethe indigenousindigenous San CarlosCarlos ComancheComanche ofof Arizona, USA, collaborated inin an ethnobotanical survey for this reason (Davis(Davis and Dunn, 1994).1994).

International ethnobotanical researchresearch is still not widespread because fewfew scientists areare trained to conduct ethnobotanical research, andand itit requiresrequires muchmuch fieldwork. But this field continues to grow with the increasingincreasing globalglobal importanceimportance ofof traditional traditional medicine.medicine.

Ecotourism

Ecotourism aims toto helphelp locallocal communitiescommunities generategenerate incomeincome with minimalminimal impactimpact on thethe locallocal environment andand cultureculture.. In 1994,1994, ecotourismecotourism was the fastest growing sector ofof the world'sworld's US$ 3.4-trillion3 A-trillion dollar touristtourist industryindustry (IPS,(IPS, 1995).1995).

Ecotourism requires disciplined tour agencies to Text box 4.4: The Terra Nova ethnobiomedical reservereserve inin BelizeBelize maintain strict practices that limit the impactimpact on ecosystems andand ensure that funds contributecontribute toto The Belize Association of Traditional local employmentemployment andand conservationconservation.. InIn theory,theory, itsits Healers (BATH),(BATH), withwith support from the small-scale naturenature makesmakes itit possiblepossible forfor locallocal IxChel TropicalTropical Research Research FoundationFoundation andand businesses to retain controlcontrol over its development. the New YorkYork BotanicalBotanical Garden,Garden, establishedestablished the world'sworld's firstfirst forest forest reserve reserve specificallyspecifically However, lack of long-term working models give intended toto ensure the availability of rise to cautioncaution about ecotourism ventures. Even medicinal plantsplants forfor local use. BATHBA THwiU will .· · manage the 2,400-ha TerraTerra NovaNova reservereserve inin where pioneering efforts have developed a model the Yalbak region of Belize to obtain appealing to local communitiescommunities andand governments,governments, medicinal plantsplants andand toto teachteach youngyoung peoplepeople ecotourism can gaingain uncontrollableuncontrollable momentummomentum about their usesuses (Cox(Cox andand Balick,Balick, 1994).1994). and lead to foreign buy-ups of land, risingrising landland Researchers will will workwork with the healershealers toto and food prices,prices, destructive levels of tourist visits ensure that thethe plantsplants areare harvestedharvested onon aa and failure to comply with codes. Examples in sustainable basis. This arrangement Nepal and Thailand show that while ecotourismecotourism represents one way toto ensureensure preservationpreservation can generategenerate considerable income,income, itit cancan alsoalso of local knowledge systems while lead toto serious problems of garbage, waste maintaining the forestforest base.b~se. serious problems of garbage, waste disposal andand firewoodfirewood shortagesshortages (Braatz(Braatz etet ai.,al., 1992). Without carefulcareful preparation,preparation, villages can easily find theirtheir lifestyleslifestyles andand valuesvalues disrupted by powerful outside forces. The Kuna community of Panama managed to regain control over the touristtourist industryindustry in their territoryterritory onlyonly afterafter thethe destruction of twotwo hotelshotels thatthat werewere builtbuilt byby outsidersoutsiders withoutwithout KunaKuna consentconsent (Poole,(Poole, 1993).1993).

For ecotourism toto achieveachieve itsits potential,potential, thethe locallocal andand provincial/nationalprovincial/national governments must show strong political commitment to creatingcreating a workingworking modelmodel andand enforcingenforcing codescodes neededneeded toto handlehandle the powerfulpowerful forces which can leadlead toto harmfulharmful effectseffects onon locallocal cultureculture andand ecologyecology (see(see Chapter 10).10).

4. OpportunitiesOpportunities forfor improved improved management management 37 localLocal wildlife managementmanagement

Local wildlifewildlife managementmanagement can sustainsustain villagevillage nutrition,nutntIon, generategenerate local incomeincome and maintainmaintain wildlife populations.populations. Particularly in AfricaAfrica,, there areare manymany examplesexamples ofof goodgood wildlifewildlife management. In Zambia,Zambia, moremore thanthan aa decadedecade ofof government government attemptsattempts toto limitlimit poachingpoaching byby enforcing punitive lawslaws failed; but aa newnew policy,policy, basedbased onon locallocal participationparticipation inin wildlifewildlife management, reducedreduced elephantelephant poaching by over 90 percent ininjust just threethree yearsyears.. In Zimbabwe, the Communal AreasAreas ManagementManagement ProgrammeProgramme forfor IndigenousIndigenous ResourcesResources (CAMPFIRE)(CAMPFIRE) hashas enjoyedenjoyed remarkable success.success. InIn CAMPFIRE,CAMPFIRE, ruralrural communities communities tooktook fullfull controlcontrol ofof wildlife wildlife managementmanagement in conservation areas (Reis, op. cit.;cit.; seesee alsoalso texttext boxbox 10.2).10.2).

Redford et al. (1995)(1995) describedescribe examplesexamples ofof community-managed community-managed wildlife effortsefforts inin Africa, Latin America and Southeast Asia and the Pacific (see ChapterChapter 22 forfor thethe criteriacriteria developeddeveloped inin thatthat reportreport for decidingdeciding whenwhen improvedimproved wildlifewildlife managementmanagement isis feasible).feasible). ManyMany wildlifewildlife venturesventures yieldyield overall benefits, butbut communitiescommunities shouldshould carefullycarefully considerconsider questions such as thethe following:following:

• does thethe speciesspecies biology,biology, habitathabitat needsneeds andand local local socio-economic socio-economic situationsituation permitpermit management ofof the species? Wildlife ventures shouldshould focusfocus onon species already in thethe locality;locality; introducingintroducing wild animalsanimals to newnew environmentsenvironments often leads to majormajor ecologicalecological problems;problems;

• can thethe benefitsbenefits bebe sharedshared equitably equitably amongamong interestedinterested groups?groups? DomesticatingDomesticating certaincertain animals with high reproductionreproduction ratesrates could,could, forfor example,example, cause cause damagedamage toto homehome gardensgardens and therefore negativelynegatively affectaffect women,women, whowho managemanage thethe gardens.gardens. PowerfulPowerful cashcash incentivesincentives to sellsell gamegame meatmeat previouslypreviously consumedconsumed inin thethe householdhousehold cancan undermineundermine thethe nutritionalnutritional status of hunterhunter groupsgroups and,and, perhapsperhaps lessless noticeably,noticeably, disruptdisrupt theirtheir socialsocial customscustoms (for(for example, inin sharingsharing huntedhunted meat);meat) ;

• will animal farming encourage wisewise management ofof wildwild populations populations of of that that species,species, oror overexploitation? Often captive breedingbreeding,, by opening legal trade in animal products of a species, has aa negativenegative effecteffect onon wildwild populationspopulations ofof that species, by lending cover to illegal hunting andand renderingrendering conservationconservation effortsefforts seeminglyseemingly lessless urgent.urgent.

Some indigenous groups have generated income throughthrough controlledcontrolled sports sports hunting hunting.. InIn Canada,Canada, forfor example, thethe InuitInuit havehave accommodatedaccommodated sportssports huntershunters whowho wantwant toto experienceexperience traditionaltraditional InuitInuit hunting. RegulationsRegulations enforce strict quotasquotas andand ensureensure thatthat InuitInuit guidesguides receivereceive reasonablereasonable feesfees from sportssports hunters.hunters. AA similar similar scheme scheme hashas replenishedreplenished snowsnow leopardleopard populationspopulations inin aa mountainousmountainous area of Pakistan (Poole, op. cit.).cit.) .

Farmer-led initiativesinitiatives

To helphelp communitiescommunities fully explore the range of theirtheir managementmanagement options, there is needneed forfor research toto looklook atat problemsproblems fromfrom aa comprehensive, comprehensive, interdisciplinaryinterdisciplinary perspective.perspective. ResearchersResearchers need to addressaddress ruralrural problemsproblems asas ruralrural peoplepeople themselvesthemselves perceiveperceive them, and considerconsider thethe people's preferredpreferred initiatives.initiatives. ByBy involvinginvolving rural people as research partners, the search for better resource management options can gogo beyondbeyond conventionalconventional scientific research,research, which has oftenoften focused almost exclusively onon increasingincreasing productivity.productivity.

This participatory approachapproach hashas beenbeen gaininggaining momentum. Working with local people on research requires more timetime andand resourcesresources forfor trainingtraining andand data collection, but researchers find that if they accurately explain research objectives andand these areare consistentconsistent withwith locallocal interests,interests, peoplepeople collaborate enthusiastically. InIn thethe CanadianCanadian InuitInuit exampleexample mentionedmentioned above, locallocal communitiescommunities

38 have conductedconducted theirtheir ownown harvestharvest studies,studies, whichwhich havehave producedproduced valuablevaluable informationinformation onon environmental impactimpact andand seasonalseasonal changes in wildlife patternspatterns (Poole, 1989; see also Chapter 9).

This approach requiresrequires thatthat researchresearch managersmanagers makemake importantimportant changes in the nature of incentives for researchers.researchers. Typically,Typically, researchers researchers are are rewarded rewarded mainly mainly for for presenting presenting their their work work in in scientific scientific publications or conferences. These criteria do not ensure any link to ruralrural practices.practices. ResearchResearch institutes should reward timetime andand efforteffort dedicateddedicated to:to:

• involving rural people in thethe researchresearch process; • including them as co-contributorsco-contributors toto publishedpublished results;results; • publishing abstracts inin local-languagelocal-language and adapting techniques locally.

Research with communitycommunity partners might explore a broaderbroader rangerange ofof subsistencesubsistence issuesissues andand strategies, multiple-usemUltiple-use management, developmentdevelopment of of newnew marketable products,products, and marketmarket research (Nair, 1995).1995). SeeSee ChapterChapter 99 forfor moremore onon research.research.

Summary

• Sustainable forest yield can bebe improvedimproved through:through:

(a) better harvest planningplanning and operationsoperations - includingincluding selectiveselective weeding,weeding, selectiveselective felling, improvedimproved inventoryinventory and planning for integrated harvests of non-wood and wood products;

(b) reduction of harvest and post-harvest losses - throughthrough betterbetter knowledgeknowledge ofof species species biology and availableavailable equipmentequipment andand technologies;technologies;

(c) enrichment plantingplanting -- basedbased onon speciesspecies amenabilityamenability (for example, tolerance of shade);

(d) better market linkages - includingincluding schedulingscheduling of harvests to coincide with market or processingprocessing demand, moremore efficientefficient transport and storage arrangements, and provisions for an environmental premium to be paid to producers to support forest management.

• When wild sources of aa productproduct needneed toto bebe supplementedsupplemented with cultivated supply to meet demand, ensure thatthat aa selectionselection andand breedingbreeding programprogram accountsaccounts for farmer-farmer- andand market-market­ preferred traits.traits. AgroforestryAgroforestry speciesspecies shouldshould bebe chosenchosen toto provide relatively quick returns to farmers; activitiesactivities can startstart withwith community or private nurseries. Plan to conserve the genetic variation of wildwild populationspopulations through in situ and exex situsitu measures.measures.

• For wildlifewildlife management, considerationsconsiderations includeinclude the effects on otherother domesticateddomesticated species, the effect ofof domesticdomestic breedingbreeding onon wildwild populationspopulations and equitable sharing of benefits.benefits.

• Explore innovativeinnovative approaches and new areas of resource management. Promising areas include commercial development of traditional/natural medicines, ethnobotanical research and prospecting forfor bioactivebioactive compounds.compounds.

(a) Commercial processing of traditional medicine requires quality controlcontrol andand cooperationcooperation with locallocal healershealers regardingregarding thethe standardsstandards andand dosage;dosage;

4. OpportunitiesOpportunities forfor improved improved managementmanagement 39 (b) Ethnobotanical researchresearch involvesinvolves inventoryinventory ofof traditionally traditionally usedused medicines,medicines, scientificscientific study of physical and chemical properties, andand closeclose collaboration between local healers and professionallyprofessionally trained ethnobotanists; andand respectrespect byby the researchersresearchers ofof certaincertain obligations to the local healers;

(c) Prospecting for bioactivebioactive materials generallygenerally requires more centralizedcentralized coordination and moremore resourcesresources forfor long-termlong-term study,study, butbut offersoffers potentialpotential for improvingimproving thethe technological capacity of thethe sourcesource country.country.

• For ecotourismecotourism toto improveimprove long-termlong-term forestforest management,management, therethere shouldshould bebe strongstrong politicalpolitical commitment forfor creating a workingworking modelmodel and enforcingenforcing codes needed to ensureensure itsits proper functioning.functioning.

References

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Cox, P.A.,P.A., andand Balick, Balick, M.J.M.J. 1994. 1994. The The ethnobotanical ethnobotanical approachapproach toto drugdrug discovery.discovery. ScientificScientific American 270(6):82-87.270(6): 82-87 .

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40 Falconer, J. 1990.1990. TheThe majormajor significancesignificance of "minor" forestforest products:products: thethe locallocal useuse andand valuevalue ofof forests inin thethe WestWest AfricanAfrican humid forestforest zone. Community ForestryForestry NoteNote No.6.No. 6. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

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4.4 . OpportunitiesOpportunities forfor improved improved management management 41 Vantomme, P. 1995.1995. InformationInformation requirements requirements andand planningplanning principlesprinciples forfor managingmanaging non-woodnon-wood forest resources inin mangrovemangrove forests.forests. InIn ReportReport ofof the the expertexpert consultationconsuLtation on non-woodnon-wood forestforest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.

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For furtherfurther readingreading

Anon. 1993.1993. Ethics,Ethics, ethnobiologicalethnobioLogicaL researchresearch and and biodiversity. biodiversity. World Wildlife Fund,Fund, Washington, D.C.D.C.

Forestry/Fuelwood Research andand DevelopmentDevelopment Project. 1994.1994. GrowingGrowing multipurposemuLtipurpose trees onon smallsmaLLfarms farms (2nd ed.). WinrockWinrock International,International, Bangkok.Bangkok. Write to: MPTS Research Network, P.O.P.O. Box 1038,1038, KasetsartKasetsart PostPost Office,Office, BangkokBangkok 10900,10900, Thailand.Thailand.

Greaves, T.,T., ed.ed. 1994. 1994. Intellectual Intellectual property property rights rights for for indigenous indigenous peoples:peoples: aa sourcesource book.book . SocietySociety for AppliedApplied Anthropology,Anthropology, P.O.P.O. BoxBox 24083,24083, OklahomaOklahoma City,City, OKOK 73124,73124, USA.USA. People and Plants Initiative. Forthcoming. People and PlantsPLants Handbook:Handbook: sources of information on the management of bioLogicalbiological resources, conservationconservation andand community community development. UNESCO, Paris.

Reid, W.V. Laird,Laird, S.A.S.A. Meyer,Meyer, C.AC.A , Gamez, R.,R., Sittenfeld, A.A. Janzez, D.H., Gollin,GoUin, M.A.M.A. and Juma, C. eds.eds. 1993. Biodiversity prospecting:prospecting.. using using geneticgenetic resourcesresources forfor sustainablesustainable development. World ResourcesResources Institute,Institute, Washington,Washington, D.C.D.C.

42 Exploring commercialcommercial options 5

This chapter focusesfocuses onon characteristicscharacteristics andand strategiesstrategies that help enterprises succeed, andand onon howhow to diagnose and addressaddress thethe commoncommon problemsproblems thatthat small-scalesmall-scale producers face when entering commercial trade. ItIt outlinesoutlines anan approachapproach forfor planningplanning an enterprise, reducing the risks involvedinvolved and improving entrepreneurial skills. Finally,Finally, itit lookslooks atat credit needs and options for adding value locally,locally, often throughthrough locallocal processing, forfor greatergreater ruralrural income.income.

Many small-scale enterprisesenterprises startstart withoutwithout adequateadequate information information or or planning, planning, and, and, asas aa result, many of themthem fail.fail. SmallSmall (often(often household)household) enterprisesenterprises can comprise upup to 7070 percent of aa country's forest-basedforest-based manufacturersmanufacturers (Chipeta, 1995). But studies have found that onlyonly aboutabout 20 percent ofof newnew small-scalesmall-scale enterprisesenterprises succeedsucceed in the long run (FAO,(FAO, 1995).1995).

What do these statisticsstatistics mean?mean? In part, theythey signalsignal thatthat smallsmall enterprisesenterprises cancan enterenter marketsmarkets sellingselling forest products relatively easily, but only a smallsmall portion of these enterprises manage to adapt to the changing circumstances of supply,supply, marketmarket demanddemand andand competition.competition.

What types ofof enterprisesenterprises succeed?succeed? WhatWhat dodo theythey havehave inin common?common?

Characteristics ofof successfulsuccessful smallsmall enterprisesenterprises

Successful forest-based small-scale enterprises generally share the followingfollowing characteristics:

• able entrepreneurentrepreneur -- a aresourceful resourceful and and capable capable managermanager cancan overcome overcome manymany obstacles;obstacles;

• marketable product - thethe entrepreneurentrepreneur mustmust continuallycontinually assess thethe futurefuture ofof thethe product'sproduct's market: WillWill priceprice trendstrends forfor thethe productproduct (and(and itsits substitutes)substitutes) cause its market to growgrow oror decline? WhatWhat new new productsproducts threatenthreaten toto replacereplace it?it?

• reliable supplysupply of materials -- processorsprocessors andand traderstraders needneed aa predictablepredictable andand stablestable supplysupply for maintainingmaintaining markets.markets. ForestForest degradationdegradation can threaten an enterprise'senterprise's supplysupply ofof materials and itsits credibilitycredibility withwith traderstraders andand consumers;consumers;

• favourable infrastructureinfrastructure and access to creditcredit -- accessaccess toto transportation,transportation, utilitiesutilities andand credit for capitalcapital investmentinvestment heavilyheavily influence an enterprise's chanceschances forfor success.success. SmallSmall enterprises can overcomeovercome the conditionsconditions that favourfavour largerlarger operationsoperations byby groupinggrouping together.

Elements ofof a successful enterpriseenterprise strategy

With the factorsfactors describeddescribed above,above, combinedcombined withwith aa goodgood knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe resource,resource, producersproducers can exploreexplore waysways ofof increasingincreasing theirtheir incomeincome from NWFPs.NWFPs. Figure 5.1 illustratesillustrates how thethe improvementsimprovements outlined in Chapter 4 contributecontribute to anan enterpriseenterprise strategystrategy forfor increasingincreasing income.income. Experience withwith smallsmall enterprisesenterprises suggestssuggests thethe followingfollowing lessons (Clay, inin press):press):

• start withwith productsproducts forfor whichwhich aa locallocal marketmarket alreadyalready exists.exists. EnteringEntering anan existing existing marketmarket allows producers to startstart repayingrepaying costscosts immediately,immediately, but creating markets for newnew products takestakes time;time;

5. Exploring commercial optionsoptions 43 t Figure 5.1.5.1. Diagram Diagram illustrating illustrating how how small-scale small-scale NWFP NWFP producers producers can can increase increase theirtheir incomesincomes (adapted(adapted fromfrom ATI,AT!, 1994)1994)

Examples

Weeding, culturalcultural Remove competing vegetationvegetation practices Harvest more selectly, learnlearn Improve harvest Improve harvest about better equipment useuse Increase production techniques Construct ventilated storestore room,room, Improve post- Improve post- dry fruits for shipping harvest storagestora e Monitor insect damage, use Pest control Pest control bio-pesticides when needed

Improve qualiquality Sort produce byby qualityquality gradesgrades IncreaseIncrease the product value Assess processing options,options, installinstall Processing processing facilities, packaging

Group sales to traders at standard prices based on Organize for greater quality strenathstren th with traders Obtain higher prices for thethe product Collectively rent transport for taking products toto market;market; L Group marketing obtain credit for members; store direct to consumers product for off-season price benefits • improve harvesting techniquestechniques andand reduce post-harvest losseslosses (see(see Chapter 4). ThisThis includes storing a product until the "off" season,season, when itit can fetch a higher market price, and relatively lowlow transportationtransportation costs;costs;

• increase thethe product's competitivenesscompetitiveness by: (1)(1) reducingreducing costs of production, (2) creating a nicheniche market,market, oror (3) (3) improving improving managementmanagement of thethe resourceresource (for(for example,example, byby enrichment planting for betterbetter yieldsyields andand easiereasier harvesting);harvesting);

• adopt a simplesimple strategy. ComplexComplex production/marketingproduction/marketing strategiesstrategies permit more unforeseen difficulties. Management abilityability is the biggest challenge for most rural entrepreneurs;entrepreneurs; simpler managementmanagement strategiesstrategies favourfavour them;them;

• start withwith one product andand gradually diversify.diversify. First, choosechoose thethe easiest product that yields a goodgood revenue forfor thethe timetime involved.involved. InvestInvest profitsprofits inin thethe processes required to produceproduce a second market item. The incomeincome from the first product can also leverage creditcredit for a larger operation;

• diversify thethe markets forfor each product. Before expanding fromfrom locallocal toto regional or national markets, estimateestimate thethe addedadded costs and benefits. Stay informedinformed about research onon new products andand onon changeschanges inin populationspopulations andand preferences.preferences. NostalgiaNostalgia marketsmarkets areare growing in most countries (see Chapter 7);

• add valuevalue locally,locally, usuallyusually throughthrough processing.processing. SubsectorSubsector analysis (see Chapter 3) helpshelps to identifyidentify how muchmuch valuevalue accruesaccrues atat eacheach stagestage inin thethe production-marketproduction-market chainchain andand which stages are mostmost profitable;profitable;

• continually study the available technologytechnology for potentialpotential improvements;improvements;

• know the qualityquality standards required by buyers, and thethe standardstandard of thethe enterprise'senterprise's product. ProductsProducts suchsuch asas food,food, soap,soap, shampooshampoo andand cosmeticcosmetic productsproducts often must meetmeet health and safetysafety requirements.requirements. LearnLearn aboutabout thosethose minimumminimum standards, andand decidedecide howhow to have thethe productproduct evaluated;evaluated;

• organize with other producers for collectivecollective strength. ThisThis helps to reducereduce eacheach producer's costs costs forfor transportation,transportation, storagestorage oror materials, materials, andand also also helps helps inin negotiationnegotiation withwith manufacturers inin downstreamdownstream processingprocessing (See(See ChapterChapter 8);8);

• demonstrate the ecological viabilityviability of the enterprise.enterprise. Use resultsresults ofof regularregular harvestharvest impact assessments (see ChapterChapter 2)2) toto appealappeal toto environmentally-mindedenvironmentally-minded consumers.consumers.

Problems commonly faced byby smallsmall enterprisesenterprises

In locallocal markets,markets, thethe mostmost prominentprominent NWFPsNWFPs willwill usuallyusually bebe readilyreadily apparent.apparent. WhereWhere locallocal markets are notnot developed,developed, however,however, aa firstfirst problemproblem thatthat enterprisesenterprises encounterencounter isis identifyingidentifying aa marketable product.

Other problems faced by ruralrural producersproducers includeinclude thethe followingfollowing (Pswarayi-Riddihough andand Jones,Jones, 1995; FAO,FAa, 1987):1987):

• lack of marketing information. Producers often lacklack informationinformation on:on: (1)(1) thethe priceprice of their products, both inin locallocal marketsmarkets andand asas inputsinputs toto downstreamdownstream processing,processing, (2)(2) productproduct volume required by thethe marketmarket and how much competitors provide, and (3) quality standards;

5. Exploring commercial optionsoptions 45 • unreliable source ofof raw raw materials.materials. Small-scaleSmall-scale producers often have little land area and poor-quality growing stock;

• post-harvest losses.losses. PoorPoor transporttransport andand storagestorage facilitiesfacilities cancan causecause producersproducers toto loselose 25-25- 50 percent ofof aa harvest,harvest, losseslosses compoundedcompounded byby wastefulwasteful processing;processing;

• lack of processing. processing. Many producers do not process their items further,further, either because they lack informationinformation or equipmentequipment forfor processingprocessing oror theythey doubtdoubt thatthat processingprocessing willwill significantly improve theirtheir earnings;earnings;

• transportation andand infrastructure.infrastructure. In remoteremote areas, highhigh transporttransport costs andand poorpoor infrastructure (for example, roads or inter-islandinter-island ferry service) reduce many producers' ability to competecompete inin markets;markets;

• lack ofof effectiveeffective credit. LackingLacking collateralcollateral or flexibleflexible lendinglending terms,terms, manymany producersproducers cannot get credit for workingworking capital from formal financial institutions. They then rely on informal channels, suchsuch asas locallocal merchants,merchants, whowho usuallyusually commandcommand highhigh interestinterest rates;rates;

• unfavourable policies. PoliciesPolicies governing imports, exports and pricing can create highhigh economic barriers forfor producers.producers.

Many of thesethese problemsproblems areare duedue toto informationinformation gapsgaps that producers can bridge. OthersOthers requirerequire institutional changes that only a committedcommitted government can bring about.

An example fromfrom Indonesia: RattanRattan

Forest dwellers inin IndonesiaIndonesia havehave tradedtraded rattanrattan throughthrough charmelschannels leadingleading toto internationalinternational marketsmarkets for nearlynearly fifteenfifteen centuries.centuries. UntilUntil thethe mid-1960s,mid-1960s, EastEast Kalimantan,Kalimantan, on thethe islandisland ofof Borneo,Borneo, exported more rattanrattan thanthan timber.timber. RattanRattan continuescontinues toto bebe Indonesia'sIndonesia's mostmost importantimportant NWFPs.NWFPs.

In EastEast Kalimantan,Kalimantan, hundredshundreds ofof small-scalesmall-scale rattanrattan enterprisesenterprises trade with exporters.exporters. RuralRural households work inin rattanrattan andand rattanrattan handicraftshandicrafts becausebecause thesethese enterprisesenterprises useuse relativelyrelatively simplesimple technology, rely onon rawraw materialsmaterials thatthat havehave traditionallytraditionally been abundant, require little capital, and provide jobs forfor skilledskilled andand unskilledunskilled labourlabour (Hadi,(Radi, 1991).1991).

Most of the island's interiorinterior lowlandlowland forestsforests areare divideddivided amongamong moremore thanthan 100100 timbertimber concessionsconcessions (Peluso, 1991).1991). RattanRattan collectorscollectors pullpull thethe rattanrattan fromfrom thethe treetops, thenthen useuse machetes to cut it and remove the thorny sheath.sheath. Next, theythey fold itit inin bundlesbundles of 4-64-6 mm lengths,lengths, packpack thethe bundlesbundles inin units of about 2828 kgkg eacheach andand air-dryair-dry them,them, sometimessometimes removingremoving the stem's outerouter coating.coating. EachEach generation of forestforest dwellersdwellers hashas passedpassed onon thethe knowledgeknowledge ofof howhow toto collectcollect andand cultivatecultivate rattan.rattan.

The collector sells his produceproduce to aa riverriver trader,trader, whowho takestakes itit byby boatboat toto aa first-stage first-stage processingprocessing centre. ProcessorsProcessors washwash andand sandsand thethe rattanrattan andand thenthen air-dryair-dry itit inin thethe sunsun forfor 1-21-2 weeks.weeks. ItIt isis thenthen graded by sizesize andand treatedtreated (either(either byby smokingsmoking oror boiling)boiling) toto improve its colour and protect against pest damage. WholesalersWholesalers andand retailersretailers thenthen buybuy thethe sortedsorted rattan.rattan. AtAt aa furtherfurther processingprocessing stagestage (either in East KalimantanKalimantan or onon Java),Java), cottagecottage industriesindustries work the rattanrattan intointo handicraftshandicrafts and furniture. Furniture isis alsoalso producedproduced inin largelarge scalescale mechanisedmechanised units.units.

The rattan tradetrade asas itit hashas evolvedevolved tendstends toto dictatedictate specificspecific nichesniches forfor thethe ethnicethnic groupsgroups involved.involved. The collectors are mostlymostly tribaltribal groupsgroups suchsuch asas thethe DayaksDayaks andand Kenyahs,Kenyahs, mainlymainly rural swiddenswidden agriculturalists. In thethe riverriver trade,trade, MuslimMuslim groupsgroups suchsuch asas thethe BugisBugis andand BanjarsBanjars predominate.predominate. Chinese-Indonesian traders dominatedominate thethe coastal,coastal, inter-island inter-island andand internationalinternational trade.trade.

46 The rattan industryindustry continuescontinues toto keepkeep ruralrural collectorscollectors involved,involved, butbut eveneven inin thisthis well-establishedwell-established sectorsector they encounter most of thethe problemsproblems mentionedmentioned above. Table 5.1 illustratesillustrates how thesethese problems can be diagnosed,diagnosed, andand whatwhat measuresmeasures mightmight addressaddress eacheach problem.problem.

Table 5.1:5.1: ProblemsProblems in in rattan rattan production production in in East East Kalimantan, Kalimantan, withwith possiblepossible improvementsimprovements

Problem type SpecificSpecific situationsituation Possible remedy

Low production Over-exploitation:Over-exploitation: rampant over-harvesting, Rattan gardengarden cultivation,cultivation, asas initiated traditionaltraditional checkschecks havehave lostlost theirtheir force,force, and by Dayak and Kutai; creation of misuse of logging concession rights that more diverse village agroforestry wastefully destroy rattan-growing systemssystems systems; better enforcement and/orand/or coordination with logging operations Seasonality:Seasonality: only collected between Improve storage (see below) agriculturalagricultural activities; can be transported by riverriver only during certain seasonsseasons

Post-harvest losses DiscolorationDiscoloration ofof rattan and fungal growth Improve storage through collective caused by immersion in river or exposureexposure to organization; create first-stagefirst-stage rain; other losseslosses causedcaused by powderpowder post-post­ processing centres closer toto beetle, black water spots,spots, rotrot andand unevenuneven collection sitessites colour

Lack of processingprocessing Access to moremore advancedadvanced technologiestechnologies limitedlimited Create processing centres upriver at by ethnic connections bulking villages, closer to collection sites; obtain instruction in furniture-furniture­ making skills Weak managerial and VariesVaries byby ethnicethnic tradition:tradition: Bugis,Bugis, BanjarBanjar and Increase marketing contacts with trade skillsskills Chinese have strong tradetrade experience;experience; overseas importers, for exampleexample Kenyah, Busang and Pasir are uncomfortableuncomfortable through trade showsshows in business environment due to a moremore democratic social tradition, not profit-orientedprofit-oriented

Market information Downstream preferences not knownknown Increase marketing contacts

Labour costs Wages are relativelyrelatively highhigh (3(3 timestimes JavaJava Increased local processing would wages), competingcompeting with sawmillssawmills and plywood makemake highhigh wageswages effectiveeffective factories

Transportation Dominated by traders; competescompetes with lessless Higher-value processed products will bulky, higher-priced cargoes such as plywood bebe betterbetter ableable toto competecompete

Credit Obtained mainly through shopkeepers, settingsetting Create credit alternativesalternatives up ties of long-termlong-term obligation

Source: Peluso (1991).(1991).

Planning NWFP enterprises

Planning is a major partpart ofof modernmodern approachesapproaches toto management. PlanningPlanning builds on the assumption that anticipatinganticipating a rangerange ofof possiblepossible eventsevents enablesenables the manager to respond to eventsevents asas theythey occur. InIn somesome traditionaltraditional cultures,cultures, however,however, long-termlong-term planning is a foreign concept, and can be consideredconsidered arrogantarrogant oror presumptuous.presumptuous. TheThe NavajoNavajo languagelanguage contains no word for planning. Attempts to buildbuild commercialcommercial enterprises in NWFPsNWFPs mustmust considerconsider thisthis culturalcultural issueissue andand itsits influence.influence.

5.5. Exploring commercial optionsoptions 47 People starting anan enterpriseenterprise (particularly(particularly aa groupgroup enterprise)enterprise) should clearly identify their short-short­ and long-termlong-term goalsgoals forfor thethe enterprise,enterprise, andand thenthen reviewreview whatwhat experienceexperience andand resourcesresources (cash,(cash, credit, equipment,equipment, land)land) eacheach personperson bringsbrings to thethe enterprise.enterprise.

Next, thethe entrepreneursentrepreneurs should should review review theirtheir pastpast experience experience forfor activitiesactivities thatthat havehave mademade upup theirtheir strengths, andand weaknessesweaknesses thatthat needneed improvement.improvement. What problems have the members encounteredencountered in previous production, harvesting,harvesting, processingprocessing and and marketingmarketing activities?activities? HowHow havehave theythey dealtdealt withwith them?

Prospective entrepreneursentrepreneurs shouldshould particularlyparticularly consider consider their their experienceexperience and and lessonslessons inin thethe following areas (ATI,(A TI, 1995):1995):

• raw material supplysupply - HowHow willwill thethe enterpriseenterprise ensureensure anan adequateadequate supply of materials to meet buyers' demands?demands? CanCan sustainablesustainable harvests from wild sourcessources meetmeet thisthis demand,demand, asas estimated by subsectorsubsector analysisanalysis (see(see ChapterChapter 3)3) andand marketingmarketing information?information? (see(see Chapter 7)

• legal control/access toto thethe naturalnatural resourceresource -- WhatWhat other other communities/organizationscommunities/organizations or individuals claim access to the resource? By what arrangements willwill thethe enterpriseenterprise shareshare benefits with them, andand amongamong enterpriseenterprise members?members?

• markets forfor the forest product - WhatWhat marketsmarkets existexist forfor thethe productproduct asas harvested?harvested? WhatWhat are other marketsmarkets forfor possiblepossible processedprocessed products?products? (See(See ChapterChapter 6)6) WhatWhat isis thethe levellevel andand nature of accessaccess toto eacheach market?market? WhoWho areare thethe competitors?competitors? (See Chapter 7);7) ;

• appropriate processing technology -- WhichWhich technologiestechnologies permit the enterprise to startstart simple andand thenthen becomebecome moremore sophisticated? sophisticated? WhichWhich areare adequate/efficient?adequate/efficient? WhatWhat equipment is needed?needed? What energy and/or waterwater sourcessources doesdoes thethe technologytechnology require?require? What skills? What storage andand transporttransport facilities?facilities?

• good management - WhoWho hashas experienceexperience withwith managementmanagement of similar ventures? What roles dodo deal-makingdeal-making andand record-keepingrecord-keeping skillsskills play?play?

• financial requirementsrequirements - WhatWhat capitalcapital doesdoes thethe enterpriseenterprise possess? WhatWhat isis required forfor the first sixsix months?months? What formal (banks,(banks, extension services) and informal creditcredit sources exist? What are theirtheir terms?terms?

Finally, whenwhen enterpriseenterprise hashas identifiedidentified thethe areas where it lacks experience, it should explore what outside services can helphelp improveimprove skillsskills inin thesethese areas.areas. GovernmentGovernment andand universityuniversity extensionextension services, agriculturalagricultural marketingmarketing services,services, NGOsNGOs andand developmentdevelopment agenciesagencies areare allall potentialpotential sources of trainingtraining andand otherother formsforms ofof assistance.assistance.

Managing riskrisk

Before embarking on aa commercialcommercial enterprise,enterprise, everyoneeveryone involvedinvolved shouldshould clearlyclearly understandunderstand thethe risks and have a planplan thatthat wouldwould address them. Four measures for managing riskrisk in an enterprise were mentioned earlier: (1)(1) startstart withwith productsproducts for whichwhich a local market already exists; (2) adopt a simple strategy; (3)(3) startstart withwith oneone productproduct andand graduallygradually diversify; andand (4) diversify the markets for eacheach product.product.

An enterprise cancan minimizeminimize riskrisk byby startingstarting withwith small,small, pilot-scalepilot-scale commercialization,commercialization, based on known markets andand theirtheir preferencespreferences forfor thethe specificspecific product.product. Pilot-scalePilot-scale productionproduction and salesale

48 allow the enterprise toto getget aa moremore accurateaccurate picturepicture ofof the the market,market, makemake adjustmentsadjustments whilewhile costscosts are relatively low, andand refinerefine itsits marketingmarketing plan.plan.

The level of riskrisk variesvaries withwith thethe naturenature ofof thethe enterpriseenterprise and the type of markets. In general,general, distant markets involve greater risks to thethe producerproducer thanthan nearby markets (see Table 5.2).

Table 5.2:5.2: ComparisonComparison ofof risks risks andand benefitsbenefits ofof threethree levelslevels ofof NWFPNWFP tradetrade

Type of market Relative risk to producer Nature of trade

Local rural Low: low transport costs;costs; marketmarket Can experience slow growth, linked to markets preference informationinformation easily agricultural activity; demand for accessible NWFPs declines withwith increasedincreased exposure to cheapcheap manufacturedmanufactured products Urban and Medium: transport costscosts higher;higher; Potentially fast growth, duedue toto national markets information on marketmarket preferencespreferences growing urban migration of rural less accessible people who bring customary tastes to the city; forfor traditionaltraditional products,products, urban markets can be larger than international onesones Regional markets Somewhat higher: higher transport Potentially strong within regions with (neighbouring costs; more informationinformation neededneeded shared ecological and culturalcultural countries) not only on regionalregional marketsmarkets butbut characteristics; deserve more studystudy on export-import regulationsregulations andand duties International High: frequently requires Historically, tend to experienceexperience boom-boom­ markets intermediaries to gain informationinformation bust sequencessequences of quicklyquickly risingrising on product standards; more demand, followedfollowed byby swiftswift declinedecline asas sophisticated market preferences technologiestechnologies for makingmaking cheapercheaper (which often cause higherhigher substitutes become available production costs) and internationalinternational trade rulesrules

(Source: FAO, 1995)1995)

As Table 5.2 indicates,indicates, internationalinternational trade in NWFPsNWFPs involves more risk. Historically, NWFPs that attract internationalinternational marketsmarkets havehave quicklyquickly becomebecome thethe focusfocus of intensiveintensive effortsefforts toto replacereplace forest sourcessources withwith domesticdomestic sourcessources and/orand/or cheaper cheaper synthetic synthetic substitutes. substitutes. This riskrisk is compounded by the greatergreater needneed toto meetmeet international international standards,standards, ensureensure reliablereliable high-volumehigh-volume supply, track distantdistant market trendstrends and cover highhigh advertisingadvertising costs.costs. Figure 5.2 illustratesillustrates thethe fluctuations for three internationallyinternationally traded NWFPs: gum arabic, lac and rattan.rattan.

To reducereduce thethe riskrisk ofof producing producing anan exportexport item,item, anan enterpriseenterprise couldcould selectselect a productproduct thatthat thethe source country currently imports. This strategy can divide the riskrisk betweenbetween twotwo markets,markets, assuming that thethe exportexport andand nationalnational marketsmarkets havehave comparablecomparable preferences and standardsstandards (De(De Silva and Atal, 1995).1995).

5. Exploring commercial optionsoptions 49 Figure 5.25.2 ExportsExports ofof Sudanese Sudanese gumgum arabic,arabic, ThaiThai laclac exportsexports andand IndonesianIndonesian rattan forfor the period 1981-19881981-1988

160~---,160 - ----~--~r-"---r----'r----'----'----' 150+---150 -4----~·----f----_+----+---_+--4Tr_--~ 1404-140 ----~--~---~_r----_r-----i-· --·~--_1 · ~----~ U 130+"--~130 ~--'- ~----+~'----r---'-r----~-~- i r-----4 S 1201204-----~---~-----r----~----+---~--~ . ··. ~--~ $ 110110+----+----~---+----+----+- ---+-~· r--~ 100+--100 ---~-- -~·-----r----~-··---1~~-- I > f ~--~ . · •. I~--~ m 90 4----.j-.--...-:- ...-- . ~ --_i' : tt--f ··H-----I fit Gum arabic 80804-----~-~ · : ~·--~ ····· ~--~ > I ~--I .I

Source: Lintu 1995; Durst et ai.,al., 1994)1994)

Building entrepreneurial andand managementmanagement skillsskills

In aa commercialcommercial venture,venture, goodgood managementmanagement andand entrepreneurialentrepreneurial skillsskills are asas importantimportant asas goodgood planning. PlansPlans areare useftiluseful asas referencereference pointspoints andand forfor clarifyingclarifying goals.goals. GoodGood managementmanagement adaptsadapts plans to respondrespond toto changingchanging conditionsconditions andand opportunities.opportunities.

Entrepreneurial ability isis rarerare amongamong small-scalesmall-scale NWFPNWFP producers entering the business world.world. This isis aa problemproblem inin allall countries;countries; smallsmall enterprisesenterprises inin industrializedindustrialized countriescountries suchsuch asas thethe UnitedUnited States fail as frequentlyfrequently asas enterprisesenterprises inin BotswanaBotswana - aroundaround 8080 percentpercent overover aa five-yearfive-year periodperiod (FAO, 1995).1995).

Entrepreneurial trainingtraining forfor producersproducers

Some development agencies and NGOs offer trainingtraining inin deal-makingdeal-making and otherother entrepreneurialentrepreneurial skills for NWFP enterprises.enterprises. TheThe USAID-fundedUSAID-funded BiodiversityBiodiversity Support Program hashas linkedlinked small-small­ scale enterprises and cooperativescooperatives in southernsouthern IndiaIndia withwith sourcessources ofof informationinformation onon businessbusiness management, biologicalbiological resourcesresources andand social issues (FAO, 1995).1995). TheThe internationalinternational NGO,NGO, Conservation International, hashas a groupgroup ofof experiencedexperienced businessbusiness professionals who help local enterprises get establishedestablished and makemake marketmarket linkageslinkages for forest-basedforest-based products, includingincluding oils,oils, palm products, nuts and foods. In particular,particular, they help local enterprises in in thethe areas of management, marketmarket developmentdevelopment andand financefinance (Conservation(Conservation International,International, 1994).1994).

Marketing trainingtraining forfor producers, producers, extension extension workersworkers andand policy-makers policy-makers

Among enterprise skills, marketing is often a serious blind spot. This is because:because: (1) more than other activities,activities, marketingmarketing requires information fromfrom outsideoutside thethe producer'sproducer's domain, (2) inin extension, marketingmarketing hashas receivedreceived lessless emphasisemphasis thanthan production, and (3)(3) manymany ruralrural producersproducers have littlelittle experienceexperience inin aa marketmarket economy.economy.

50 (]'I m x ~ §t :J 10 n o 3 3 ....CD n [ o "C .-+o· :J C/)

5. In Indonesia, leafletsleaflets of nipa palm are made into roofingroofing materialmaterial byby anan 6. 1/ex/lex paraguayensis paraguayensis leaves leaves to to be be drieddried andand groundedgrounded to to produceproduce "mate", aa elderly lady who would otherwiseotherwise bebe unemployed.unemployed. (Photo:(Photo: FAO)FAO) popular drink in Argentina andand southern Brazil.Brazil. (Photo:(Photo: T. Frisk)Frisk)

en(71 7.7. Balanites aegyptiacaaegyptiaca nuts, oil extraction in Burkina Faso.Faso. (Photo: S. Guinko) 8. Rattan processing in West Malaysia. (Photo: M. Kashio)Kashio) ~ Text box 5.1: Matching technology and markets: Examples in Brazil and Kenya

.BtifrOle:oil 'production. in Brazil Beazilian Amazon shows how to reduce flik:,:by identifying an appropriate ,Procesejog:::::rnetihod and market$:::::.à.ti,:the,::::S.anie.::::#00::::::Witil.::iresearCh .suppOrt frorwthe::::Natural fieS.otfif,po*::::InOtute of the u..K.,;00,ppe..0.1è.ct-OyilitjAteg::,:rtatlye:--artIr.'natic !Stintsas candidates for agrOforeStry systems.::The project used

oils as ingredients-:__for the internationaf:ipetfume complex qUality-etendards and competitive]- pricing

H'f...4p,),q,A,0:000.-et.::¡:etiitibi(ypor:::til,tplditiètvium) showed promise for malqn9 .Produots withless- potentialTheshruVS:::::::leafeciriteinedhigh the ma:terialfor two prodticii:...- an-.iindustrial fragrance::':::Materief:?:tiieljOroOne1sientf::::a startinginsecticide...ingredient, piPeronyf: #'1:ethe.tiniJEté;::::th. :_i::iitiO(:00:01:;c:,,oiotdédùittito,,I,.p,. a mOre-::--00:iftitirrierttally soundTniannerbutoxide than. ildti*e::lier'Vete'tif:,.riettitet.forests in Brazil'. ffOr..0co'tea Nam atjd::::hitieffte,'COnamomum cefilp: bet a). From the market point of acce4,:tio an existint::::market without--majortisk of being replaced by a .:synthetieei.ib

...FrorttEtheporsoectliteof ePing it'1.-oiot.o!',. the pepper :shrub ..scored red highly highly for for three three reasonsreasons:: .(1:).:iti.:WeiiitHike::¡¡:rOWtfiA46estedit cOUtdi:beasiN*donleSticated,forIVlclOltieShca1~ edf()r repeated harvests, (2)(2) thethe Plent's essehtiali:O.W.Coul&00(extracted relatiVeteaeilY'end sold-_as__ . _~._ a a valued valued industrialindustrial chemical for)ts safrole::.coritont::::.diproduct qualitidepended:ortjfie genetic trait of leaf-oil content, ..!end-nOt

,Gunarehicprocessing. in Kenya__ NGO interested in prdducingoducing value-addedvalue-added gum arabicarabic :!.o:d4ots-:!or.:.:::.!the:.::ipterilptionat:,;pirintjpg,,i,aritt,':PhartnaceultideFindustries.es. Discussions :Discussions with with thesethese ::!Odustriet:hthei!!.4.K ,:v?.. .'0100.,.0..4. ::pi....o.00.c.#9:0:::ié'chtlotod:ié::-fbr:--SP.t.ay-dried-ory-dried or formulated formulated products products 'yútli,oh:::*Old:::re,dupe....:... . ", .•" _..,. . ...,, . .,._._r"'·.Tn.:> the ·· Iargerlumps larger lumps ofof gum W4Oirld.:.:1Aeid of-profits'its through 'through valuevalue :adiditf4r1:::t0:::.:trie'Kenvo:0:0;i0:0,00.itp:::!:17:to!iiiti tt*t.'p.'t.hditiEistitt-th'ati::the:,:pribcessingnrl1,,,c''"''ing approach 'approach thatthat -efirit-ap'Oears most atitreòtiVe-rive+triot be the 6OOietirlate-optionitopOerveta/ et et,. ,1995). 1995).

To addressaddress this,this, producersproducers and and extensionextension workersworkers shouldshould receivereceive trainingtraining inin marketingmarketing skillsskills (see(see Chapter 7).7). ToTo improve improve government government supportsupport forfor enterprises, enterprises, middle-middle~ toto upper-level upper-level officials officials should receive training inin providingproviding incentivesincentives and market information links. Surveys of training needs can pinpointpinpoint officesoffices andand trainingtraining topicstopics thatthat willwill produceproduce thethe greatestgreatest effect,effect, asas theythey havehave in IndonesiaIndonesia (011ikainen,(Ollikainen, 1991) andand the PhilippinesPhilippines (Lintu, 1991).1991). TheThe RegionalRegional CommunityCommunity Forestry Training CentreCentre (RECOFT'C)(RECOFTC) in Thailand offers short-term training courses in thethe marketing of NWFPs.NWFPs.

Training successful entrepreneurs inin other fields to make them aware about the benefitsbenefits from linkages with NWFP enterprisesenterprises cancan improveimprove thethe entrepreneurialentrepreneurial capability in the NWFP sector.sector. An example ofof thisthis comescomes fromfrom IndiaIndia where where thethe Canadian Canadian International International DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch Centre (IDRC)(IDRC) hashas sponsoredsponsored suchsuch linkageslinkages withwith entrepreneursentrepreneurs inin thethe medicinalmedicinal productsproducts sectorsector (IDRC, 1994).1994).

52 Credit support forfor smallsmall enterprisesenterprises

To understand the high failurefailure raterate forfor smallsmall enterprises,enterprises, oneone mustmust distinguishdistinguish between lacklack ofof skills and lack of conditions that permit enterprise success. An underlyingunderlying factorfactor inin thethe failurefailure ofof many small enterprises is their narrow margin for absorbing risk.risk. In Africa, for example, small-small­ scale ventures may failfail inin situationssituations wherewhere aa minimalminimal infusioninfusion of creditcredit couldcould leadlead toto success.success. Credit for ruralrural enterprisesenterprises cancan bebe mademade moremore flexibleflexible (for(for example,example, inin termsterms ofof collateral collateral guarantee), and developmentdevelopment agencies supplyingsupplying credit credit forfor new enterprises should share the financial risk as partners. CreditCredit institutionsinstitutions should also offeroffer greatergreater supportsupport toto women'swomen's groups, which frequently lack access to credit. ChapterChapter 1010 exploresexplores forms of institutionalinstitutional support that promote growth.

Overview ofof processingprocessing optionsoptions

NWFPs offer thethe fullfull rangerange ofof processingprocessing options,options, fromfrom littlelittle or nono processingprocessing (fresh(fresh foods, nutsnuts and spices), toto relativelyrelatively simplesimple technologiestechnologies (preserved(preserved foodsfoods andand handicrafts),handicrafts), toto intermediateintermediate processing (traditional medicines, vegetable oils, sweeteners, dyes, waxeswaxes and tannins) tannins) to moremore complex, expensive processes (such(such as for essential oils, gums,gums, andand balsams)balsams) that usually require centralized facilities (De SilvaSilva and Atal,Atal, 1995).1995).

To choosechoose thethe rightright processingprocessing technology,technology, anan entrepreneurentrepreneur needs informationinformation onon (1) thethe characteristics of thethe resourceresource andand thethe rawraw material,material, (2)(2) potentialpotential marketsmarkets and (3) thethe enterprise's capacity and technology.technology. ChapterChapter 66 lookslooks atat processingprocessing optionsoptions inin moremore detail.detail.

Summary

• To increaseincrease thethe competitivenesscompetitiveness of smallsmall ruralrural enterprisesenterprises inin NWFPs,NWFPs, entrepreneursentrepreneurs should:

improve production and itsits reliability;reliability; reduce losseslosses throughthrough improvedimproved harvestharvest andand post-harvestpost-harvest techniques,techniques, includingincluding transport; inform themselvesthemselves of marketingmarketing andand processingprocessing options;options; start with anan existingexisting productproduct and aa simplesimple strategy.strategy.

• Review the strengths,strengths, weaknessesweaknesses and sourcessources ofof supportsupport forfor thethe enterprise.enterprise.

• Keep risksrisks toto anan acceptable acceptable minimumminimum withwith aa considered considered managementmanagement strategystrategy thatthat monitors the risks associatedassociated withwith different markets, andand startsstarts withwith pilot-scalepilot-scale production.

• Improve skills and capabilitiescapabilities throughthrough trainingtraining andand reviewreview ofof experience.experience.

• Improve profitability andand sustainabilitysustainability with some form of local processing, or locallocal valuevalue addition. The keykey factorsfactors inin thisthis decisiondecision are:are: (1)(1) knowknow whatwhat processingprocessing optionsoptions are feasible for thethe givengiven resourceresource andand abilities,abilities, (2)(2) knowknow whatwhat marketmarket opportunitiesopportunities exist,exist, and (3) match the processing technology with the marketmarket prospect,prospect, perhaps starting on a pilot-scale basis.basis.

5. Exploring commercial options 53 References

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IDRC. 1994.1994. MedicinalMedicinal plantsplants networknetwork information.information. InternationalInternational DevelopmentDevelopment Research Centre, New Delhi.

Lintu, L.L. 1991.1991. AA surveysurvey ofof training training needsneeds inin marketingmarketing ofof forest forest productsproducts inin thethe Philippines.Philippines. FAO, Rome.Rome.

Lintu, 1995.1995. TradeTrade andand marketingmarketing ofof non-woodnon-wood Forest Products. InIn Report of thethe expertexpert consultation onon non-wood forestforest products,products, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, Indonesia, 17-2717-27 January January 19951995.. Non-Non­ Wood Forest ProductsProducts 3.3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

54 011ikainen,Ollikainen, T. 1991. Training needsneeds in marketing of forestforest productsproducts in Indonesia. UTF/INS/069/INS.UTF/INSI069/INS. FieldField DocumentDocument No. 1.1. MinistryMinistry ofof Forestry,Forestry, GovernmentGovernment of IndonesiaIndonesia and FAO, Jakarta.Jakarta.

Peluso, N.L.N. L. 1991.1991. RattanRattan industriesindustries in East Kalimantan, IndonesiaIndonesia.. In In Campbell, Campbell, J. J.Y., Y., eded.,., Case studies of forest-basedforest-based small-scalesmall-scale enterprises in Asia:Asia: rattan,rattan, matchmakingmatchmaking andand handicraft.handicraft. Community Forestry Case Study No.4.No. 4. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Pswarayi-Riddihough, 1.,I., andand Jones,Jones, N.N. 1995.1995. SomeSome marketingmarketing problemsproblems facedfaced byby agroforestryagroforestry farmers inin Asia.Asia. InIn Report Report of of the the expert expert consultation consultation on on non-wood non-wood forest forest products,products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-2717-27 JanuaryJanuary 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts 3.3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

For further readingreading

AT1.ATI. 1994.1994. EvaluatingEvaluating thethe managementmanagement of groupgroup enterprises.enterprises. InIn OpportunitiesOpportunities inin thethe coconutcoconut subsector: selectedselected coconut coconut processing processing options options forfor small-scalesmall-scale producersproducers. . AppropriateAppropriate TechnologyTechnology International andand thethe UniversityUniversity of of the the Philippines Philippines at at Los Los Baños, Banos, Washington, DC.

FAO.F AO. 1991.1991. Women'sWomen's rolerole inin dynamic dynamic forest-basedforest-based small-scalesmall-scale enterprises..enterprises: case studiesstudies onon uppage and lacquerwarelacquerware fromfrom India.India . CommunityCommunity Forestry Case Study NoNo.. 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Iqbal, M.M. 1993.1993 . InternationalInternational tradetrade inin non-wood non-wood forestforest products: anan overview.overview. Forest ProductsProducts Working Paper 11. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome .

Richards, E.M.E.M. 1993.1993 .Commercialization Commercialization ofof non-timber non-timber forestforest productsproducts inin Amazonia.Amazonia. Socio-Socio­ Economics Series No.No.2 2. .Natural Natural Resources Resources Institute/OverseasInstitute/Overseas DevelopmentDevelopment Authority,Authority, London.London.

5. Exploring commercial options 55 Processing venturesventures 6

This chapter gives anan illustrativeillustrative overviewoverview of thethe rangerange ofof processesprocesses byby whichwhich enterprisesenterprises can convert non-wood forest resources intointo marketmarket items,items, proceedingproceeding fromfrom lessless complexcomplex teclmologiestechnologies toto more sophisticated,sophisticated, capital-intensivecapital-intensive processes. Readers should explore references in "For"For further reading" forfor moremore possibilities.possibilities.

Evaluating options for processingprocessing requiresrequires up-to-dateup-to-date information onon thethe naturalnatural resource, markets, processingprocessing technologies,technologies, and trade practicespractices and regulations. It also also requiresrequires aa reviewreview of accessaccess toto thethe resourceresource forfor harvesting harvesting different different productsproducts andand thethe relativerelative socio-economicsocio-economic andand environmental impacts of differentdifferent harvesting combinations (Lintu,(Lintu, 1995). For example,example, neemneem (Azadirachta indica) can be managedmanaged for leavesleaves and seeds to produce many marketable products from soapsoap toto bio-insecticide;bio-insecticide; culturalcultural preferencespreferences andand thethe biologicalbiological resourceresource mightmight dictatedictate anan optimal productproduct combination.combination.

Simple-technology processing:processing: foods andand handicraftshandicrafts

Food processing and handicrafthandicraft production cancan employ locallocal skills and requirerequire lowlow capitalcapital investments.

Foods

Forest fruits, nuts,nuts, tubers,tubers, palmpalm heart,heart, tendertender shoots,shoots, wildlifewildlife andand insectsinsects provide many foods for which little or nono processingprocessing isis requiredrequired forfor locallocal sale.sale. ButBut withwith relativelyrelatively simplesimple techniques for drying, preserving,preserving, shelling,shelling, storing,storing, etc.,etc., producersproducers cancan increaseincrease thethe valuevalue ofof thesethese itemsitems andand reduce seasonal fluctuationsfluctuations in supply.supply.

These processes also permit a rural enterprise to reach urban markets (see texttext boxbox 6.1).6.1). In cities where consumer's environmentalenvironmental awareness allows nicheniche marketsmarkets toto develop,develop, anan enterpriseenterprise can increase its revenuesrevenues byby demonstratingdemonstrating thethe ecologicalecological soundnesssoundness of itsits operationoperation andand meetingmeeting market preferences.

Handicrafts

The exampleexample ofof rattanrattan handicraftshandicrafts inin ChapterChapter 55 showedshowed howhow locallocal processingprocessing cancan improveimprove producers' returnreturn fromfrom thesethese products.products.

Silk-making fromfrom silkworms raisedraised onon leaves fromfrom mulberry (Morus(Morus alba)alba) andand other trees is aa widespread cottage industry (Iqbal, op. cit.).cit.). RawRaw materialsmaterials areare tree-leaftree-leaf fodderfodder andand thethe wormsworms themselves (for mulberry silk,silk, BombyxBombyx man).moil). Silk production also opens a wide range of otherother products: mulberrymulberry producesproduces edible fruits, aa finefine woodwood andand branchesbranches useful for basketry. OtherOther silkworms include erieri (Philosamia riciniricini andand P. cynthia)cynthia) raised on castorcastor leaves,leaves, andand tassartassar silkworms (Antheraea(Antheraea spp.)spp.) raisedraised onon Terminalia sp., sp., oakoak and other species. Silk and silksilk products makemake upup aa significantsignificant internationalinternational trade,trade, withwith ChinaChina beingbeing thethe largestlargest exportingexporting country.country. Some Asian silk industriesindustries are seekingseeking newnew sourcessources ofof rawraw silksilk inin developing developing countries,countries, particularly in Africa (Iqbal, op. cit.).cit.).

6. ProcessingProcessing venturesventures 57 ...... - ,,',' ...... " ,' .. '.' .... . Text box 6.1: ProcessingProcessihg forestforestfrLJits fruits forfor urban.urb~nmarkets markets ··

The KalahanKalahanEducaticmalFoundationof Educational Foundation of northern Luzon, Philippipes,Philippines, foundedinl founded in 1973, 973, represents mernbersme . fl1bers9fth~ of the lkalahan( lkalahan . tribaltribalcpmmunities. communities. ThroughThrough the .·. first-everfirst-ever communitycorprnuniW) forest forest stewardshipst~ward shipagr~~rl1entwitQthePhilippi agreement with the Philippine ne .government,gpveJl1went,the the .FoundationFoun .dation •. secureds~cur~ .ci . }legal~gClLrightsto rights to Ikalahanancestralfore§tJandsIkalahan ancestral forest lands.; WithWiththis this .incentiveforforestpfotection,incentive for forest protection, thethe community decideddecided to produceproducepeededcashJromtheforest needed cash from the forest rather ratherthc3n than convert.convert it·itto to agriculture. agriculture; . . :::: /:::-:::::::::> -::.- ---:::::::::-><: ...... :.' :-.- .. . TheThefoundation foundation .. selected~electedtW()WildJOr~st two wild forest fruitsfruitstodeveloPintolhree to develop into three •.•products: products;· jelly, jamjarn and · butter. FromFrom thatstarttheyh;:lvethat start they have developed.developed1 15.5 recipesrecipes ofof preservespreserves ofof wildwild and cultivated fruits. . >:> :>: :: -:-: :,:::-:.,::, .. ,>:.) ::::::: :- -.:-: .. ,:'. ,.. :::<:,:,:<:,}}>::::::<-:::::::: ."--::::»<::<:-< . --: --::: - ,. ',' "-' -" -' --:- - :' .::::' :-: >:

With the ihelph.. elp~ftheAsian,... of the -Asian--... .. Institute< lnstitute()f...... of Management, Managem... ent, theythey ..identified · id.ent.ified marketsmar~e... ts inin ManilaManila/ andand consumer preferencesJorpreferences for packaging,packaging, .containercontainer sizesize,; and volume.volume. TheirTheir productproduct lineline grewgrew toto includeinclude a jelly madefrornamade from a small grapegrape-like~ likefruit fruit asweli as well asas ginger,tClmarind;:lndginger, tamarind and passion fruit.fruit.

The processing operationoperatiqnrequires requires iTluchmuch pianniD9,capital,planning, capital, storagestorage spacespace andcarefufand careful attentattentionion to qualityquality control and product standardisation.standardisation. RecipeRecipe development varied fromfrom yearyear toto year as variable weatherweather conditionscausedifferencesconditions cause differences inin acid;acid, sugarsugar andand pectinpectin contentscontents. ofof thethe fruits.fruits.

The enterprise has enhancedenhanced thethe forest'sforest' s local '9CCllvalue,t3nC9uraged value, encouraged enrichment. enrichment planting,planting, and provided local employment forfotskiHed skilled labour (Rice, J1994). 994). .

Intermediate processing: medicines, vegetable oils,oils, foodfood colorants,colorants, tannins andand gumgum navalnaval storesstores

With somewhatsomewhat moremore investmentinvestment and skills,skills, ruralrural processingprocessing centrescentres cancan produce produce medicines,medicines, vegetable oils, foodfood colorants,colorants, dyesdyes andand tannins.tannins.

Medicinal plant products

More thanthan 8080 percentpercent ofof the the world'sworld's people people depend depend onon traditionaltraditional medicinalmedicinal plantsplants forfor theirtheir healthhealth carecare.. Furthermore,Furthermore, aboutabout 2020 percentpercent ofof the the drugsdrugs inin modernmodern allopathicallopathic medicine are derived from plant sources. sources. MostMost plantsplants usedused inin traditionaltraditional medicinalmedicinal systems are stillstill collectedcollected from wildwild sources. InIn somesome cases,cases, thisthis industryindustry hashas causedcaused locallocal extinctionextinction of speciesspecies (De(De SilvaSilva and Atal,Atal, opop.. citcit.;. ; Zuhud,Zuhud, 1995).1995). WhereWhere communitiescommunities taketake stepssteps toto improveimprove andand controlcontrol harvestingharvesting practices, however,however, medicinalmedicinal plantsplants cancan provideprovide sustainablesustainable employmentemployment andand improvedimproved community health.

TradTraditionalitional medicines for ingestioningestion are usually prepared using the simplesimple methods of (De(De SilvaSilva and Atal, op.op. cit.):cit.):

• extraction in hot or coldcold water;water; • crushing an itemitem toto expressexpress thethe juice; • powdering drieddried material;material; • formulating powders intointo pastes using water, oiloil oror honey;honey; • fermenting.fermenting.

In preparing dosagedosage forms,forms, itit isis importantimportant toto controlcontrol qualityquality andand documentdocument traditionaltraditional healers'healers' standards (see Chapter 4).

Plants withwith medicinalmedicinal propertiesproperties cancan alsoalso provideprovide rawraw materialsmaterials forfor downstreamdownstream processingprocessing operations in thethe pharmaceuticalpharmaceutical industry.industry. RawolfiaRawolfia serpentinaserpentina andand StrychnosStrychnos nuxvomicanuxvomica are examples. The resinresin ofof VirolaVirola speciesspecies inin thethe nutmegnutmeg familyfamily isis usedused inin Colombia,Colombia, EcuadorEcuador andand

58 Text box 6.2: The package is the product: leaves and cane baskets in West Africa

Producers explore all options for non-wood items, including packaging for other products. In Ghana, leaves for wrapping food and cane baskets as container for other products are important commercial items.

Food-sellers and other traders commonly use leaves from three main specieseCiesof of herbaceousherbaceolls forest plants as packaging. They are preferred for their strength, .. .durability,.~ . ~.. ~._ ..., ity,impermeabilityand impermeability and ability to withstand heat. Fish, vegetables, cola nuts, soap and salt, allI comecome wrapped inin these these leaves. They are also the exclusive wrapping material for cooked rice, yams,yams,

Cane baskets also have a strong and growing demand as containers, both in local subsistence and commercial use, by rural and urban people alike. Most traded cane goes to processors in cities and neighbouring countries. In Kumasi, cane processors provided full-time jobs for 70 people in 1992. In a village of 720 people, basket weaving was a major source of livelihood for more than 100 households..VVornen dominate the cane trade, although most gatherers, weavers nd furniture rnakers are men.

Demand for baskets fluctuates seasonally. In urban markets, demand can depend on markets for other products, such as fish. Rural markets for baskets fluctuate with the farming calendar, increasing during cocoa harvests. While overall demand continues to grow, little has been done to manage the resource (Falconer, 1992).

Surinam to treattreat fungalfungal infections infections forfor whichwhich modernmodern allopathicallopathic medicine hashas no realreal curescures (Shultes, 1992).1992). ResearchResearch suggestssuggests that VirolaVirola may provide the basisbasis ofof anan internationalinternational anti-anti­ fungal ointment.

Vegetable oils

Many forest treestrees produceproduce seedsseeds thatthat containcontain fattyfatty oils; thesethese can be processed into vegetable oils for useuse inin cooking,cooking, foodfood industryindustry andand soap-making,soap-making, and also as fuel.fuel. ProducingProducing fixedfixed oils isis aa simple process and can be donedone locally,locally, withwith locallylocally made equipment. In the first stage,stage, thethe oiloil is extracted fromfrom thethe seedsseeds byby drydry expressionexpression or byby boilingboiling thethe crushed raw material in water.

Vegetable oils also provideprovide inputsinputs toto thethe moremore complexcomplex detergentdetergent industry,industry, whichwhich usesuses fattyfatty alcohol derivatives of lauriclauric oils,oils, whichwhich currentlycurrently comecome mainlymainly fromfrom palmpalm kernelskernels - primarily coconut (Cocos nucifera) andand AfricanAfrican oiloil palmpalm (Elaeis(Elaeis guineensis),guineensis), withwith smallersmaller amountsamounts fromfrom wild stands of babassu palm (Orbignya sp.)sp.) (De Silva andand Atal,Atal, op.op. cit.).cit.).

Dyes andand food colorants

As with many processed NWFPs,NWFPs, syntheticsynthetic substitutessubstitutes have restricted the use of natural dyes and colorants. Still, marketsmarkets forfor certaincertain naturalnatural foodfood colorantscolorants havehave increasedincreased (De(De SilvaSilva andand Atal,Atal, op. cit.).cit.). TheThe annattoannatto plantplant (Bixa(Bixa orellana)orellana) producesproduces aa seedseed fromfrom whichwhich aa reddish-orangereddish-orange food colorant, bixin, isis derived.derived. TheThe international international marketmarket forfor annattoannatto hashas fluctuatedfluctuated widely in recentrecent years but consumption inin Japan,Japan, for example, has increased steadilysteadily (Iqbal,(Iqbal, op.op. cit.).cit.). Native to tropical America, annatto is now also grown for export in Africa and Asia. ItIt isis importantimportant toto know market quality standards: thethe internationalinternational annattoannatto market demands seeds with bixin contents of 2.7-3.52.7-3.5 percent, percent, which which disappointed disappointed many many growersgrowers ofof varieties varieties withwith lowerlower bixinbixin contents.contents.

6. ProcessingProcessing venturesventures 59 Tannins

Besides curingcuring leather, tannins also go intointo dyes,dyes, inks,inks, antioxidants,antioxidants, drugsdrugs andand lubricantslubricants (including aa viscous agent in oiloil drilling).drilling). ProcessingProcessing tannin extracts and powder from beans, nuts, fruits, galls,galls, barksbarks andand stemsstems isis notnot complex,complex, butbut itit requiresrequires careful monitoring and control of conditions.conditions. ImportantImportant tannin-producingtannin-producing tree species include: Terminalia chebulachebula,, Rhus sp.,sp., CassiaCassia auriculata andand UncariaUncaria gambiergambier inin Asia;Asia; mangrovemangrove (Rhizophora(Rhizophora mangle) in west Africa and Latin America; SchinopsisSchinopsis lorentzii and Caesalpinia spp.spp. inin Latin America and the Caribbean; and Acacia species worldwide.worldwide.

Turpentine and otherother navalnaval storesstores

Naval stores isis thethe broadbroad termterm coveringcovering pinepine oleoresinsoleoresins and their derivatives, suchsuch as turpentine.turpentine. (The term comes fromfrom centuries whenwhen pine resin and pitch prevailed in ship building andand repair.)repair.) Turpentine andand rosinrosin (a(a solidsolid resin)resin) areare twotwo constituentconstituent of pine oleoresins obtained byby tapping of living pine trees. ProducingProducing gumgum navalnaval storesstores requiresrequires plentifulplentiful labour (which comprises 50-80 percent of production costs);costs); thisthis particularlyparticularly favoursfavours developingdeveloping countries.

Carefully tapped trees can yield exudateexudate for 15-2015-20 years before being harvested for wood.wood. InIn some developing countries, pinepine plantationsplantations and distillationdistillation facilities have been developed to produce gum rosin and turpentine. In one typetype of processingprocessing facilityfacility,, pine resin is placed in a tank, where itit isis mixedmixed withwith solventssolvents andand pouredpoured intointo decanters, after which it proceedsproceeds to anan evaporator. The rosinrosin isis thenthen packedpacked inin aluminumaluminum drums. The portion intended forfor turpentine is passed through a separator and on toto aa storagestorage tank.tank.

In most countries, thesethese products are mostly for national markets, with about aa thirdthird of all rosin going to internationalinternational trade. IfIf supplysupply andand stablestable pricesprices cancan bebe ensured,ensured, naturalnatural rosinrosin productsproducts appear safe from thethe threatthreat ofof syntheticsynthetic substitutessubstitutes (Iqbal, op.op. cit.).cit.).

Complex processing: essential oils, waxes andand otherother productsproducts

Essential oils, balsams,balsams, sweeteners,sweeteners, gumsgums andand waxeswaxes 'are are allall producedproduced withwith more complex, capital-capital­ and technology-intensive processes.

Extraction processes for thesethese products favour centralized, large-scalelarge-scale operations that useuse productsproducts from intermediate processing operations,operations, asas inputs.inputs . BecauseBecause theythey removeremove operationsoperations further awayaway from thethe household levellevel and requirerequire full-timefull-time employment and specialized skills, such processing operations tend toto disfavourdisfavour womenwomen comparedcompared toto thethe processesprocesses mentionedmentioned above. above.

Essential oilsoils

Essential oils are volatilevolatile aromaticaromatic compoundscompounds located in many plant parts. They are used inin many industries for adhesives,adhesives, pharmaceuticals,pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and toiletries, paints, paper andand printing,printing, insecticides, textiletextile making, polishes, solvents, rubberrubber and plastic products, and foodfood andand beverages (De Silva and Atal,Atal, op.op. cit.).cit.) .The The common common method method forfor extractingextracting essentialessential oilsoils isis steamsteam distillation, although some,some, likelike citruscitrus oils,oils, areare processedprocessed byby coldcold expression.expression. SteamSteam distillationdistillation involves generating steam with a separate boiler and passing itit throughthrough thethe plantplant materialmaterial inin order to carrycarry offoff the the volatilevolatile constituents.constituents.

Extraction withwith solventssolvents oror essentialessential oilsoils fromfrom flowers,flowers, oror oleoresins oleoresins fromfrom spicesspices (for(for example, example, ginger, pepperpepper andand cardamon)cardamon) requiresrequires anan additional additional stepstep ofof separation. separation.

60 A plant'splant's yieldyield ofof essential essential oiloil depends depends onon harvesting harvesting andand post-harvestpost-harvest operations,operations, includingincluding (De Silva andand Atal,Atal, opop.. cit.):cit.):

• stage of harvestingharvesting (maturation,(maturation, floweringflowering stage);stage); • time of dayday whenwhen harvested;harvested; • raterate of drying; • temperature of drying; • moisture content after drying;drying; • storage conditions;conditions; • storage timetime beforebefore processing.processing.

The requirementsrequirements are beyondbeyond the meansmeans ofof mostmost ruralrural enterprises,enterprises, butbut inin somesome developingdeveloping countries the government operates processing centres to feed national industries (Table(Table 66.1)..1).

Table 6.1:6.1: EssentialEssential oilsoils obtainedobtained fromfrom wildwild andand cultivatedcultivated forestforest species,species, in main producing countries

Product Botanical source Main origin Amyris AmyrisArnyris balsamiferabalsamifera Haiti Anise/star aniseanise Pimpinella anisum Spain, Poland, formerformer SovietSoviet UnionUnion Anise, star Anisum verum China, VietViet NamNam BayBay/laurel /laurel leaf Pimenta racemosa/Laurus nobilisnobilis Dominica, Turkey, ItalyItaly,, CoteCôte d'Ivoire Cabreuva Myrocarpus frondosus Brazil Caraway seed Carum carvi Many Asian, Western European and North African countries,countries, USAUSA Cedarwood Cedrus spp.1Juniperusspp./Juniperus spp.spp. India, Sri Lanka,Lanka, Guatemala,Guatemala, USA, China,China, Kenya Cinnamon/ cassia Cinnamomum verumverum/C./C. cassia Sri Lanka (cinnamon), China (cassia)(cassia) Citronella Cymbopogon spp. Indonesia, ChinaChina,, Sri Lanka, India,India, Taiwan,Taiwan, Guatemala Davana Artemisia pallanspallans India, PakistanPakistan Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.spp. China, Portugal,Portugal, Spain,Spain, SouthSouth Africa, Brazil,Brazil, Australia Lavender Lavendula spp.spp. France, Italy, Spain,Spain, HungaryHungary LemonL,emon grass Cymbopogon flexuosus India, Guatemala, ChinaChina Litsea LLitseaitsea cubeba China Muhuhu Brachylaena hutchinsii Tanzania UR Nutmeg/mace Myristica fragransfragrans Indonesia,Indonesia, GrenadaGrenada,, Sri LankaLanka Palmarosa Cymbopogon martinii India Patchouli Pogostemon cablin Indonesia, China Pimento (allspice)(allspice) Pimenta dioica Jamaica,Jamaica, USAUSA Rosewood Aniba rosaeodora Brazil, PeruPeru Sandalwood Santalum albumalbum India, IndonesiaIndonesia Sassafras Ocotea pretiosa Brazil Tagetes Tagetes glandulifera Eastern and SouthernSouthern AfricaAfrica Thyme Thymus vulgaris Spain Vetiver Vetiveria zizanioides Haiti, Indonesia,Indonesia, China,China, ReunionReunion Is.Is. Ylang-ylang Cananga odorata Comoro Is.,Is ., Madagascar,Madagascar, IndonesiaIndonesia

(Source:(Source: Iqbal,Iqbal, 1993)1993)

For example,example, inin IndonesiaIndonesia cayuputcayuput oiloil isis extracted from the leaves of Melaleuca spsp.. (cayuput) for sale as a medicinal unguent, mainlymainly withinwithin Indonesia. The State Forest Enterprise inin JavaJava (Perum(Perum Perhutani) managesmanages 12 distillation centrescentres forfor extractingextracting thethe oil,oil, and 9 000000 haha ofof Melaleuca Melaleuca plantations. In 1993,1993, cayuputcayuput oiloil productionproduction waswas 279,800279,800 kg,kg, accountingaccounting forfor aa considerable considerable portion of thethe StateState ForestForest Enterprise'sEnterprise's totaltotal income.income.

6. ProcessingProcessing venturesventures 61 Farmers managemanage cayuput trees inin agroforestryagroforestry systems. Starting in the fourth year, the farmersfarmers coppice the trees, stripstrip thethe leavesleaves fromfrom branchesbranches and bag them for transport to a nearby facility. There the leavesleaves areare boiledboiled andand thethe leafleaf oil oil passespasses throughthrough separators.separators. WasteWaste leavesleaves are used to fuel the boilers, andand forfor organicorganic matter.matter. AnAn eight-boilereight-boiler cayuputcayuput distillation plant producesproduces about 78000 litres of oiloil annually,annually, fromfrom almostalmost 99 thousandthousand tonstons ofof cayuputcayuput leafleaf (FAO,(FAO, 1995).1995).

Waxes andand other products

Natural waxes from forestforest sourcessources areare usedused inin makingmaking candles,candles, varnishes,varnishes, pharmaceuticalspharmaceuticals andand cosmetics. Some waxes are collected,collected, meltedmelted and shapedshaped into cakes. OthersOthers areare obtainedobtained byby solvent extraction.extraction. Natural waxeswaxes suffersuffer fromfrom heavyheavy competitioncompetition withwith cheapercheaper syntheticsynthetic substitutes, but some of its specific properties help to maintainmaintain aa demand.demand. ProcessingProcessing ofof wax oils can be simple,simple, butbut requiresrequires rigorousrigorous qualityquality control.control.

Some plant residues can be used to produce market items. For example, inin thethe HimalayanHimalayan region of India pinepine needlesneedles underunder naturalnatural pinepine forestsforests areare collected,collected, baledbaled and processed as boards (De(De Silva andand Atal,Atal, op. cit.).

Steps in processingprocessing

The stepssteps involvedinvolved inin developingdeveloping aa processingprocessing operationoperation areare thethe following:following:

• Select non-wood product(s) for processingprocessing based on availableavailable resources,resources, facilitiesfacilities andand marketability.marketability .

• Start small-scale pilot production toto test thethe feasibility ofof thethe process,process, product quality and market preferences.preferences. Gain a clearclear understandingunderstanding of quality goals.goals. ForFor pilotpilot-scale-scale testingtesting ofof medicinal and aromatic plants and spices, producers can use aa transportable,transportable, small-scalesmall-scale plant,plant, suchsuch asas thethe polyvalentpolyvalent pilotpilot plant designed by UNIDO (De Silva and Atal, op. cit.).cit.). This portableportable plant isis intendedintended asas aa tool tool for fo rcollaboration collaboration betweenbetween researchersresearchers andand producersproducers (Figure 66.1)..1). At thisthis pilotpilot stage,stage, facilityfacility designdesign shouldshould considerconsider how to accommodate productionproduction ofof severalseveral productsproducts (for(for example,example, fromfrom plantplant partsparts produced in different seasons).seasons).

• Determine the cultivation, harvesting and/or post-harvest treatments best suited for thethe enterprise andand toto ensureensure sustainablesustainable supplysupply (see(see ChaptersChapters 44 andand 5).5).

• Make or purchasepurchase equipmentequipment and arrange for thethe space,space, utilitiesutilities (water and energy) and human resources for production. Plan for storagestorage and transport. This stepstep oftenoften entailsentails preliminary estimation of production volume and unit price, andand arrangementsarrangements toto obtainobtain credit forfor capitalcapital investments.investments.

• arrange for training staffstaff inin processing methods and quality control.control. Establish measures for ensuring continualcontinual monitoringmonitoring ofof these.these.

• start processingprocessing operationsoperations with technicaltechnical assistance as needed.needed. ContinueContinue toto reviewreview estimates of productionproduction capacity,capacity, costscosts andand productproduct price.price.

Processing requirements can includeinclude steadysteady supplies of water (for example,example, inin steamsteam distillationdistillation or cooling engines) and/or energy. Where running water is scarce, condensers can be air cooled instead. Where electricityelectricity isis notnot available,available, alternativesalternatives may includeinclude fuelwood oror other material; if so, thethe enterpriseenterprise shouldshould promotepromote fuelwoodfuelwood plantationsplantations earlyearly toto supplysupply itsits needs.needs.

62 Ol Figure 6.1.6.1. UNIDO UNIDO polyvalent polyvalent pilot pilot plant plant for for processingprocessing medicinalmedicinal andand aromaticaromatic plantsplants andand spicesspices

....~ o o Condenser IIII I» en en :i" IC @ < (I) Condenser I Air ventvenl :J "*C Cil TI en @

Flellux divider

Cooler Phase separator Florentine \flask

VI S81ely vel ve V4

Flexible!,Iexibls hose00'8

V9 Lc?

Evaporator filters V6 V7 Solvent tank

V21 11- V3 1~Li ~~x:mJ' , or?J ~;4V14 II IvV17A '< V1707.'~ J V3 V5 r-1 vio '-' j PeceiversReceivers 0) w - CirculationCirculation pump (De Silva and Atal,Atal, 1995).1995). Quality standardsstandards

Processed products are frequentlyfrequently subjectsubject toto nationalnational (and(and sometimessometimes international)international) minimumminimum standards for quality. Particularly for itemsitems intended forfor personal useuse oror ingestion, such as soaps or medicines, these standards are important.important. TheyThey oftenoften cover processing operations and screening of rawraw materials (for example, to ensure good-quality genetic stock andand post-harvestpost-harvest treatmenttreatment thatthat prevents contamination).contamination).

For productsproducts destineddestined forfor internationalinternational markets,markets, thethe normsnorms ofof the the International International StandardsStandards Organization (ISO) apply, usually the ISO 90009000 seriesseries ofof specifications,specifications, which aim toto ensureensure safety for workers,workers, thethe environmentenvironment andand consumers.consumers. ComplianceCompliance also has benefitsbenefits forfor thethe processing enterprise: companies withwith ISO 9000 certification reportreport thatthat this has savedsaved themthem money and yielded marketing benefits (De Silva andand Atal,Atal, op. cit.).cit.).

Producers intendingintending toto sellsell toto urbanurban andand nationalnational marketsmarkets shouldshould consultconsult governrnentgovernment agencies and regulatory institutionsinstitutions concerning specifications, including limitslimits onon pollutants emitted by thethe processing facility.facility .

The WorldWorld HealthHealth OrganizationOrganization hashas preparedprepared internationalinternational guidelinesguidelines for countriescountries toto evaluateevaluate quality, safetysafety andand effectivenesseffectiveness of long-termlong-term useuse ofof herbalherbal medicines.medicines. TheThe guidelinesguidelines covercover pharmaceutical assessmentassessment,, crude plant material, plant preparations such as powders, extracts,extracts, tinctures and oils,oils, descriptionsdescriptions ofof thethe finishedfinished product, testingtesting of stabilitystability and safety in long-term use, toxicology,toxicology, andand assessmentassessment ofof efficacy.efficacy. TheyThey also suggest criteria for product labelling and promotion (WHO,(WHO, 1991).1991).

New productproduct developmentdevelopment andand researchresearch supportsupport

Research for identifyingidentifying goodgood processingprocessing optionsoptions for non-woodnon-wood resources can proceed inin severalseveral ways. ForFor aromaticaromatic andand medicinalmedicinal plantplant products,products, oneone wayway isis thethe kindkind ofof collaboration collaboration mentioned mentioned earlier forfor trialtrial distillationdistillation andand chemicalchemical analysis.analysis. OtherOther internationalinternational agenciesagencies can similarlysimilarly support research and collaborate with entrepreneur groups.groups. TextText boxbox 5.15.1 illustrated examples ofof such supportsupport forfor studiesstudies onon processing, processing, exportexport marketing,marketing, productproduct qualityquality andand laboratorylaboratory evaluation.

In SouthSouth Asia,Asia, the MedicinalMedicinal PlantsPlants NetworkNetwork establishedestablished byby thethe CanadianCanadian InternationalInternational Development ResearchResearch Centre (IDRC) supports research and small-scalesmall-scale activities related toto medicinal plants. TheThe NetworkNetwork aimsaims toto documentdocument traditionstraditions inin plant-basedplant-based health care, protectprotect andand conserve medicinal plantsplants (including(including cultivation), and share technology, standards, quality-control measures and studies on thethe impactsimpacts ofof medicinalmedicinal plant trade (IDRC,(IDRC, 1994).1994).

In manymany countries,countries, consortiumsconsortiums of NG0s,NGOs, universitiesuniversities andand thethe privateprivate sectorsector areare evolvingevolving toto bridge the information gap between forest-product research and producers. These consortiums can help evaluateevaluate newnew processingprocessing opportunitiesopportunities and disseminatedisseminate valuable informationinformat!on onon newnew technologiestechnologies - thosethose thatthat ruralrural enterprises enterprises can can use use and,and, equallyequally important,important, thosethose thatthat maymay competecompete with them.them. EffectiveEffective consortiumsconsortiums havehave growngrown upup inin Australia,Australia, thethe PhilippinesPhilippines andand ZimbabweZimbabwe (see(see Chapter 9 andand 10).10).

As regional centres ofof excellenceexcellence emerge,emerge, theythey shouldshould furtherfurther helphelp toto exploreexplore processingprocessing optionsoptions for keykey speciesspecies commoncommon toto severalseveral countries,countries, withwith reducedreduced burdensburdens toto eacheach country'scountry's scarcescarce research resourcesresources (see(see ChapterChapter 9).9) .

64 Summary

• IfIf therethere isis predictablepredictable resourceresource availabilityavailability andand goodgood marketingmarketing information,information, exploreexplore processing optionsoptions nearnear thethe locationlocation ofof forestforest resourceresource toto increaseincrease thethe valuevalue thatthat producersproducers receive for theirtheir product.product. ForFor urbanurban markets,markets, exploreexplore marketmarket nichesniches thatthat aa processedprocessed product might fill.

• Identify the scale of processing appropriate toto the resource, product and enterprise skills. Household-scale processing options include food-drying and -packaging-packaging andand handicrafts.handicrafts. Community-scale operationsoperations cancan process medicinal products,products, vegetable oils, soaps, dyesdyes and tanninstannins.. Still more complexcomplex rural processingprocessing centres can produce turpentine, waxeswaxes andand inputs for downstreamdownstream industries.industries.

• Start with pilot-scale production to test thethe process,process, product qualityquality andand marketmarket preferences.preferences. A pilot trialtrial cancan alsoalso helphelp inin designingdesigning flexibleflexible facilities for processing several products, reducing costs for each one.one.

• Before starting a processingprocessing venture,venture, learnlearn aboutabout thethe regulationsregulations andand qualityquality standardsstandards toto which processed goods are subject. EstablishEstablish means for monitoring product quality. Public-Public­ prprivateivate consortiums can transfertransfer importantimportant informationinformation on standardsstandards andand processingprocessing technologies fromfrom researchers to producers.producers.

• Stay informed on processingprocessing research relating to the enterprise's productproduct andand substitutesubstitute productsproducts.. PilotPilot processingprocessing plants, informationinformation networks, nationalnational consortiums and regional research centres allall provideprovide optionsoptions forfor this.this.

References

De SilvaSilva,, T. andand Atal,Atal, C.K.C.K. 1995.1995 .Processing, Processing, refinement refinement and and valuevalue additionaddition ofof non-woodnon-wood forestforest products.products. InIn ReportReport ofof the the expertexpert consultationconsultation onon non-woodnon-wood forestforest products.products. FAO, Rome.Rome.

FalconerFalconer,, J.J. 1992. Non-timber forest forest products products inin southernsouthern Ghana:Ghana: a summarysummary report.report. ODAODA Forestry Series No.No.2 2. . UKUK OverseasOverseas DevelopmentDevelopment Authority,Authority, London.London.

FAOFAO.. 1995.1995. ReportReport ofof the the expert expert consultation consultation onon non-wood non-wood forestforest products,products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts 3.3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

IDRC. 1994.1994. MedicinalMedicinal plantsplants networknetwork information.information. Xerox.Xerox. InternationalInternational DevelopmentDevelopment Research Centre, NewNew Delhi.Delhi.

Iqbal, M.M. 1993.1993. InternationalInternational trade trade in in non-wood non-wood forest forest products..products: an overview.overview. ForestForest ProductsProducts Working Paper 11.11. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Lintu, L.L. 1995.1995 . TradeTrade and and marketing marketing ofof non-wood non-wood forestforest products.products. InIn ReportReport ofof the the expertexpert consultation on non-woodnon-wood forestforest products,products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, 17-2717-27 JanuaryJanuary 1995. Non-Non­ Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Rice, D.D. 1994.1994. MarketingMarketing multipurpose mUltipurpose treetree products:products: thethe IkalahanIkalahan experience. In Raintree, J.B.J.B. and Francisco,Francisco, H.A.,H.A., edseds.,., MarketingMarketing ofof multipurposemultipurpose tree products inin Asia.Asia. Winrock International, Bangkok.Bangkok.

6. Processing venturesventures 65 Shultes, R.E. 1992.1992. EthnobotanyEthnobotany andand technologytechnology inin thethe NorthwestNorthwest Amazon:Amazon: a partnership.partnership. InIn Plotkin, M. andand Famolare,Famolare, L.,L., eds., eds., Sustainable Sustainable harvest harvest and and marketing marketing ofof rain rain forestforest products.products. Conservation InternationalInternational,, Washington, DD.C..C.

WHO. 1991.1991. GuidelinesGuidelines forfor thethe assessmentassessment ofof herbal herbal medicines.medicines. ProgrammeProgramme onon TraditionalTraditional Medicines, WorldWorld HealthHealth Organization,Organization, Geneva.Geneva.

Zuhud, ErvizalErvizal A.M.A.M. 1995.1995 .Sustainable Sustainable utilizationutilization ofof medicinalmedicinal plantsplants andand animalsanimals diversity inin Indonesian tropical forests. Paper contributedcontributed to anan FAOFAO ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation onon Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest Products,Products, 17-2717-27 JanuaryJanuary 1995,1995, inin Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.Indonesia. IndonesianIndonesian TropicalTropical InstituteInstitute Secretariat, Bogor,Bogor, Indonesia.Indonesia.

For further readingreading

ATI.A TI. 1994.1994. OpportunitiesOpportunities inin thethe coconutcoconut subsector:subs ector: selectedselected coconut processing options forfor small­small- scale producers. AppropriateAppropriate TechnologyTechnology InternationalInternational and the University of the PhilippinesPhilippines at Los Baños,Banos, Washington,Washington, DC.DC.

Coppen, J.J.W.J.J.W. andand Hone, Hone, G.A.,G.A. eds., eds. 1992. 1992 Eucalyptus. Eucalyptus oils.. oils: aa reviewreview ofof production and markets. Bulletin 56. NaturalNatural ResourcesResources Institute,Institute, Kent,Kent, UK.UK.

FAO. 1987.1987. Small-scaleSmall-scaleforest-basedprocessing forest-based processing enterprises.enterprises. Forestry Paper No. 79. FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO. 1988.1988. SilkwormSilkworm rearing.rearing. AgriculturalAgricultural ServicesServices BullettinBullettin No. 73/1.73/1.

FAO, 1988.1988. SilkwormSilkworm rearing.rearing. AgriculturalAgricultural ServicesServices BullettinBullettin No.No . 73/2.73/2.

FAO.FAO. 1993.1993 . ChemicalChemical processingprocessing and utilisation ofof AcaciaAcacia catechu.catechu. FAO/RAPA,FAO/RAPA, Bangkok.Bangkok.

UNIDO. 1991.1991. DesignDesign optionsoptions for aa polyvalentpolyvalent pilot plant unit for the distillation and extraction of medicinalmedicinal andand aronuIticaromatic plants.plants. DepartmentDepartment forfor IndustrialIndustrial Promotion,Promotion, ConsultationsConsultations and Technology.Technology. UNIDO,UNIDO, Geneva.Geneva.

Zinkel, D.F.D.F. andand Russell,Russell, J.,J. ,eds. eds 1989.. 1989. Naval Naval stores: stores: production, production, chemistry, chemistry, utilization.utilization. PulpPulp Chemicals Association, New York. 1,0601,060 pp.pp.

66 Markets, marketing andand tradetrade 7

This chapter takes a closer looklook at twotwo majormajor forcesforces playing in any effort to link rural economiceconomic development toto non-woodnon-wood forest resources: markets and thethe means toto reach them.them. For thisthis chapter, marketingmarketing isis defineddefined asas anan information-basedinformation-based technology that producers can use to (Lintu(Lintu,, 1995):1995):

• identify market opportunities in the formform ofof marketmarket needsneeds andand wants;wants; • analyze competition; • develop appropriate approaches to reach identifiedidentified markets; • make a profitable income.income.

Proper marketing startsstarts withwith linkinglinking thethe resourceresource and product development to marketmarket preferences.preferences. In sustainablesustainable forestry, thethe rolerole ofof marketing marketing isis toto createcreate effectiveeffective linkageslinkages betweenbetween resource managers, processors, and end users.

This chapter willwill discussdiscuss thethe basicbasic aspectsaspects ofof marketingmarketing toto meetmeet customercustomer preferences:preferences: product,product, place (channels of distribution), promotion and price. ItIt willwill looklook atat thethe rolerole ofof intermediariesintermediaries inin distribution channels, andand thethe tradetrade environmentenvironment formedformed byby socialsocial andand economic,economic, technological,technological, political, regulatory, legal,legal, andand institutionalinstitutional factors,factors, particularlyparticularly forfor nationalnational andand internationalinternational markets.

Markets

NWFPs are soldsold inin variousvarious markets:markets: local,local, urban,urban, national,national, regionalregional andand international.international. InIn CostaCosta Rica, products from thethe bitterwoodbitterwood tree (Quassia(Quassia amara) areare marketedmarketed inin locallocal marketsmarkets (as(as a medicinal substance), national markets (processed asas herbal teas or medicinalmedicinal drops), andand on aa pilot scale in internationalinternational markets (as(as aa pesticide).pesticide). InIn manymany places,places, dailydaily marketsmarkets focusfocus onon locallocal demand, while weeklyweekly markets can addressaddress bothboth ruralrural retailretail andand wholesalewholesale demandsdemands (Falconer, 1992).

Each market holds a differentdifferent set ofof values,values, eveneven forfor thethe samesame product.product. ConsumersConsumers in anan industrialized country maymay purchasepurchase canecane basketsbaskets from WestWest AfricaAfrica forfor theirtheir environmentalenvironmental valuevalue if they know thatthat thethe cane harvest diddid notnot destroy thethe forest, oror forfor theirtheir aestheticaesthetic valuevalue asas "exotic"exotic objects". AnAn urbanurban consumerconsumer inin WestWest AfricaAfrica maymay purchase the basket for its functionalfunctional value, or if cheaper thanthan plasticplastic baskets,baskets, forfor itsits economiceconomic value.value. GoodGood marketingmarketing involvesinvolves knowingknowing which values a particularparticular marketmarket seeks,seeks, andand makingmaking one'sone's product product more more desirable desirable than than competing competing products based onon thatthat information.information.

Each market place alsoalso involvesinvolves different influencinginfluencing factors relating to the productproduct,, promotion, and priceprice.. (See(See ChapterChapter 55 onon thethe relativerelative risksrisks associatedassociated withwith each type of market.) ForFor example,example, sellingselling herbal medicinemedicine inin aa locallocal marketmarket maymay involveinvolve no packaging, broad quality categories, and few transporttransport costs.costs. However,However, marketingmarketing thethe same product inin a citycity cancan requirerequire preciseprecise identification of qualityquality standards, moremore sophisticated packaging and advertising, and incorporating transport costs intointo the product's price.price.

In many countries,countries, urbanurban marketsmarkets forfor traditionaltraditional rural productsproducts are growinggrowing as people move to the city, butbut retainretain ruralrural customs.customs. MarketsMarkets forfor traditionaltraditional forest-basedforest-based medicines in Indonesia, for example, have grown;grown; thethe numbernumber ofof companies companies producingproducing thesethese itemsitems hashas doubleddoubled inin twentytwenty

7.7. Markets, marketingmarketing andand tradetrade 67 years. ToTo exploitexploit thisthis trendtrend ofof nostalgia nostalgia markets,markets, producersproducers must identifyidentify whichwhich customarycustomary products are inin demanddemand andand inin whatwhat formform (package(package size, packaging,packaging, etc.) they are desired.desired.

Each market alsoalso entailsentails differentdifferent levelslevels of ecological constraints. For example, plant species in tropical forests that occuroccur atat veryvery lowlow densitiesdensities maymay yieldyield enoughenough materialmaterial toto supportsupport locallocal demand for aa product,product, butbut notnot thethe volumevolume neededneeded toto covercover costscosts ofof processing processing forfor nationalnational marketing. In thisthis case,case, producersproducers should recognize at at thethe startstart thatthat it isis notnot financiallyfinancially or ecologically feasible for themthem toto expandexpand theirtheir market.market.

Downstream processingprocessing can can serveserve asas markets forfor primary products. The same principle of learning conditions and demandsdemands applies to them. IfIf aa soapsoap manufacturingmanufacturing firm isis thethe marketmarket forfor coconut, coconutcoconut producersproducers mustmust knowknow whatwhat quantitiesquantities the soap factory requires, itsits productionproduction schedule and what criteriacriteria thethe managermanager usesuses toto buybuy coconutscoconuts forfor soap-making.soap-making.

Neighbouring countries may share culturalcultural oror ecologicalecological featuresfeatures thatthat makemake regionalregional marketsmarkets worth exploring.exploring. InIn Asia,Asia, forfor example, example, thethe rattan rattan furniture furniture manufacturing manufacturing industryindustry inin thethe Philippines andand India's essentialessential oils industryindustry benefit fromfrom the existence ofof a regional market (Cubberly, 1995). TheThe CostaCosta RicanRican teatea industryindustry hashas begunbegun small-volumesmall-volume exportationexportation of aa packaged tea toto otherother CentralCentral AmericanAmerican countriescountries usingusing plantsplants valuedvalued throughoutthroughout the regionregion (Ocampo, 1994).1994). InIn WestWest Africa,Africa, regionalregional marketsmarkets areare importantimportant inin thethe trade of cane baskets (see text box 6.2).

International markets require moremore complexcomplex research on preferences, prices and trends. TheyThey alsoalso typically have more exacting standards andand requirerequire stablestable supplysupply ofof at at leastleast aa specifiedspecified minimumminimum volume.

Table 7.1 presentspresents severalseveral methodsmethods forfor evaluatingevaluating markets. ProducersProducers shouldshould alsoalso talktalk withwith private firms andand NGOsNGOs thatthat havehave experience experience inin marketing marketing related related products, products, development development agencies,agencies, universities andand otherother informationinformation clearinghouses.clearinghouses.

Table 7.1:7.1: MethodsMethods forfor evaluatingevaluating markets, by typetype of productproduct

Type of product Type of Method of evaluationevaluation market Established Local Conduct a simple survey ofof shopsshops (at(at least 5-10)5-10) toto identify currentcurrent products being sold and their prices. ShopkeepersShopkeepers might indicate how much they sell each month.month. Established Local Survey households in the target area (preferably at least 30-5030-50 consumers) toto find out how much ofof variousvarious productsproducts theythey useuse inin a week or month. SpeakSpeak to peoplepeople whowho actuallyactually do thethe buyingbuying (often(often women).women). Note household size and income class (high, middle, low). UseUse locallocal government statistics to determine number of householdshouseholds andand incomeincome levels.levels. Then multiply thethe average usage per household by the number of households (per income class) to get a rough estimate of thethe totaltotal locallocal demand. Established Manufacturing Survey industry representatives (3-5)(3-5) toto findfind outout productproduct demand and industry and/or prices. Ask them if they would consider purchasingpurchasing fromfrom aa new supplier, export and under what terms of price, payment, quantity, quality and packaging. Not established Local Identify who would bebe most likely toto buy the productproduct.. InterviewInterview themthem toto consumption gauge their potential interest and what level of price, quality,quality, packagingpackaging and quantity they desire. Not established Manufacturing Identify who would be most likely to buy the product. InquireInquire fromfrom thethe industry and/or agency concerned with trade about what companies mightmight bebe interested in export the product, and what quality regulations apply,apply, ifif any. Then contact those companies directlydirectly toto learn their potential interest and preferences. (Based on AT!,ATI, 1995)1995)

68 Texfbox1.EW0rt1eflinilieffi~rketPlaceText box 7.1Women in the marketplace Once an enterpriseenterprise has learned about a illin Ghana prospective market andand itsits requirements,requirements, it .•••••.•...... •. ...•<> ...•••••...••••.•.. .. < should furtherfurther narrownarrow thethe scope toto a targettarget In <3Ghana's hap(i'sia largestrgest dailyqa UY LJurbanrp80 f11armarket, ket,mo morere market (AT!,(ATI, op.op. cit.)cit.).. How large is the target than 90.percent.of..t.he traders::are worryen. tharl90per(;en.::. . :::...... :...... ::...... :.....,,.h ol th~trad~::.:...... :.:::..:::::.:...rw ~rew().f11ew market? Who areare thethe competitors forfor that There,tradein~WFPSlnv()lThere; trade in :NWEPsinvolves/00yes .700people people product? What is their current share of the . product? What is . .... their current share of the > orlon. afulla fu ktime:basis,~timebasis ~ including;il1cluc:lirlg : · ...... market andand how fast do theythey planplan toto expand?expand? Answering these questions may identify ways to ... • .100traderspfieavesforwrappingfoods 100 traders of leaves for.wrapping foods .•.. Answering these questions may identify ways to raise the product's value. For example, a (momh(monthlylys(ileval :sale .Valyé u~ .·. ~x.cee exceeds. dsl)§$AZ/OOO) U.S 47,000) For example,a ~lO()I11~didnetr1Q0,:rnecliCine,#aders, ~ders , lT1()stI mostlyY \Noinewomen n .. •• purchaser maymay bebe willingwilling toto paypay a higher price > . i 225. 5 > fuufull-time~tnne .·. baskebaskett traders < {selnng(selling... forfor a productproduct sortedsorted byby gradinggrading categoriescategories thatthat J1,000,-5;000- ,OOO-5,QOQbasketslrrionth) batketalmoryth): · ...•. .i«·· guarantee consistentconsistent qualityquality,, andand this maymay requirerequire >. 50 i:full-timeuIHirnetraders() treders...ptstnokedr smok~dbushmeat bushmeat: ... packaging and storage.storage. Purchasers of morelmorel ··· andj$f()rf,.e!iand '1:5::for freshH m~at Meatlarinualf~rlflUaL!ialeNalueo sale Value off mushroomsmushrooms,, forfor example,example, cancan be willing to pay Q$$Z09,OOO}.US$ 209,000). . ... : "':-: .»:::::.:>: :->:::;::::::: ::::::" :» ::::::::::::::::::;::::::>>;:::::::>>>>:::>::::>.: -:. .. ::. ::::: ',' .',' ',', a higher price for morels that have been cleaned (Iqbal(Iqbal,, 1993).1993) . InIn thethe marketformarket for blJshmeabushmeatt (6ft~nide(often identifiedl1tified .as .the mostrl1()~t importantimportant forestfo rest pr()duct), Once an enterprise has identified a target market w6mwomen.~n · are/ the.. main main traders;trader~ ;

Key factors inin marketingmarketing non-woodnon-wood productsproducts

This section provides aa quickquick reviewreview ofof the the mostmost essentialessential aspects/factorsaspects!factors that producersproducers needneed toto understand inin selling theirtheir productproduct -- the "Four"Four P's"P's" ofof product, product, place,place, promotionpromotion andand price.price. Producers should determine thesethese factorsfactors atat the beginningbeginning ofof an enterprise,enterprise, andand developdevelop aa marketing mix that balances the four factors to strengthen their enterprise to be capable of meeting any competition. ThisThis evaluationevaluation shouldshould bebe repeatedrepeated regularlyregularly onceonce thethe business is under way,way , andand the marketing mix adjustedadjusted inin responseresponse toto changes (ATI,(ATI, op.op . cit.).cit. ).

Product

Selling a productproduct requiresrequires thethe producerproducer toto understandunderstand the valuesvalues that a a buyerbuyer attachesattaches toto thethe product. FromFrom thethe buyer'sbuyer's viewpoint, viewpoint, thethe product product includes includes notnot justjust thethe physicalphysical productproduct but alsoalso the economic, moral,moral, aesthetic,aesthetic, andand otherother valuesvalues associatedassociated with it,it, asas mentionedmentioned above;above; thesethese values vary dependingdepending on how it isis marketedmarketed (Lintu, op. cit.).cit.).

The firstfirst questionquestion thatthat aa producerproducer shouldshould askask is:is : isis thethe productproduct already already establishedestablished inin thethe marketmarket or not?not? InIn general, general ,established established productsproducts involveinvolve less risk thanthan newnew products.products. Also,Also, moremore marketing informationinformation willwill existexist forfor establishedestablished products.products.

A product thatthat isis establishedestablished inin oneone countrycountry or eveneven localitylocality may not be desired or demandeddemanded inih another place. IfIf several several traderstraders alreadyalready dealdeal inin thethe product,product, thenthen itit isis mostmost likelylikely anan establishedestablished productproduct (ATI,(AT!, 1995).1995).

7. Markets,Markets, marketing marketing andand tradetrade 69 Other questions about the product, among others,others, are: is it available throughout thethe yearyear oror only during a certain season?season? InIn whatwhat quantitiesquantities is it producedproduced in the area? WhatWhat are thethe factorsfactors thatthat determine its quality as perceived byby customerscustomers -- are these factorsfactors inin producer'sproducer's control, or not?not?

Place and the rolerole ofof intermediariesintermediaries

Place refersrefers toto channelschannels ofof distribution distribution andand marketingmarketing throughthrough whichwhich productsproducts andand informationinformation move betweenbetween producersproducers andand consumersconsumers (Lintu,(Untu, 1995). This factor ofof marketingmarketing involvesinvolves transportation and intermediariesintermediaries inin distribution.distribution.

Intermediaries, or middlemenmiddlemen can serve important roles that can either help or hurthurt small-scalesmall-scale producers of forestforest products.products. InIn manymany placesplaces middlemenmiddlemen keep a strongstrong gripgrip onon marketsmarkets becausebecause they provide producersproducers withwith threethree essentialessential services:services: quickquick credit,credit, quickquick andand non-bureaucraticnon-bureaucratic payment for products andand good organization (Pswarayi-Riddihough(Pswarayi-Riddihough andand Jones,Jones, 1995). Middlemen can also be essential for centralizing supply among disperseddispersed producersproducers andand helpinghelping toto absorbabsorb riskrisk in marketsmarkets thatthat requirerequire productproduct volumesvolumes tootoo largelarge forfor individualindividual producers toto provide (e.g.(e .g. industries for gums,gums, resinsresins andand essentialessential oils).oils).

On thethe otherother hand,hand, middlemenmiddlemen can,can, andand oftenoften do,do, unfairlyunfairly exploitexploit producers'producers' weaknessweakness andand ignorance of market factorsfactors inin orderorder toto claimclaim aa disproportionatedisproportionate share of the productproduct's's valuevalue forfor themselves.themselves.

An exampleexample fromfrom PeninsularPeninsular MalaysiaMalaysia illustratesillustrates both situations.situations. In oneone village,village, coconutcoconut andand cocoa producers hadhad difficultydifficulty enteringentering thethe marketmarket directlydirectly becausebecause thisthis involvesinvolves largelarge initialinitial capital investmentinvestment (for(for aa vanvan oror otherother formform ofof transport) transport) andand heavyheavy competition.competition. ThisThis competitioncompetition kept middlemen's profitsprofits relativelyrelatively low,low, andand producersproducers diddid notnot complaincomplain of beingbeing exploited.exploited. OnOn the other hand,hand, inin thethe villagevillage ofof Kampung Kampung BandarBandar Terai,Terai, producer-gatherersproducer-gatherers of duriandurian fruitsfruits (Durio zibethinus) andand petai (Parkia(Parkia speciosa)speciosa) foundfound thatthat enteringentering thethe marketmarket requiredrequired littlelittle investment forfor themthem andand offeredoffered significantlysignificantly greater returnsreturns thanthan dealingdealing throughthrough middlemenmiddlemen (Table 7.2).

Producers can avoidavoid unfairunfair exploitationexploitation byby middlemenmiddlemen by:by:

• educating themselves about marketmarket conditions;conditions; • organizing themselves into groups for greater collective strength;strength; and • pressing for market chchannelsannels that areare transparenttransparent (that is, traceable in terms of transactions and profit margins).margins) .

Table 7.2:7.2: Farmers'Farmers' access access to to markets markets in in two two locations locations ofof Peninsular Peninsular MalaysiaMalaysia inin 19901990

Sungai Burung Kampung Bandar Terai

Products Coconut, cocoacocoa DurianDurian,, petai Investment Overhead,Overhead, manpowermanpower Minimal Product price Relatively fixed Flexible Marketing channelchannel Well established Loose Average selling price coconut cocoa seed durian petai to middleman US$ 0.060.06 ea.ea. US$ 0.24 /kg US$ 0.40 ea. US$ 55.60/100.60/100 to urban consumer US$ 0.20-00.20-0.24.24 - US$ 1.60 US$ 7.207.20 Market entry Difficult Easy Potential for direct farmerfarmer Poor Good involvement in marketingmarketing

(Adapted from Lim andand Woon,Woon, 1994)1994)

70 Promotion

Promotion involves advertising or other ways of raisingraising purchasers' awarenessawareness of thethe product.product. Key questions in promotionpromotion forfor aa targettarget marketmarket include:include:

• Why would consumers buybuy thethe enterprise's productproduct insteadinstead of of aa competitor's, oror a substitute?

• How will purchaserspurchasers learnlearn ofof the the product?product? WhatWhat areare thethe costscosts andand expectedexpected effectivenesseffectiveness of advertising optionsoptions forfor reachingreaching thethe targettarget market?market?

• Should any labellinglabelling or brandbrand namename bebe usedused toto identifyidentify thethe product?product?

• Do purchasers expect a certain kind of packaging (size, durability, attractiveness) oror other characteristics?

In rural markets,markets, word-of-mouthword-of-mouth recommendationrecommendation cancan bebe thethe most effective promotion. Urban andand national marketing likely require more formalformal campaigns. NewNew products, oror establishedestablished productsproducts in new niches, requirerequire moremore resourcesresources forfor promotion.promotion. For example,example, an effort inin NepalNepal toto createcreate a largerlarger marketmarket forfor AyurvedicAyurvedic medicinemedicine required a greatgreat dealdeal ofof advertisingadvertising toto overcomeovercome consumer bias inin favourfavour ofof Western-styleWestern-style medicine (LeCup, 1994). A supplier's reputationreputation for reliability is also aa favourablefavourable factorfactor forfor promotion.promotion.

Price

To arrivearrive atat aa competitive competitive priceprice thatthat compensates compensates productionproduction effort (including(including promotion), an enterprise must consider a varietyvariety ofof questions,questions, includingincluding (ATI, op. cit.):cit.):

• What is thethe locallocal availabilityavailability andand costcost ofof rawraw materials,materials, includingincluding packaging?packaging?

• What is thethe costcost ofof equipment equipment andand operationsoperations (including(including maintenancemaintenance and repair) neededneeded to produceproduce thethe itemitem ?? WhatWhat areare thethe labourlabour costs?costs? WhatWhat areare thethe infrastructuralinfrastructural costs of energy, workshopsworkshops andand storage?storage?

• What are thethe costscosts associatedassociated withwith maintainingmaintaining marketmarket specificationsspecifications ofof quality (for exampleexample,, inspectors,inspectors, testingtesting equipment)?equipment)?

• How muchmuch transportationtransportation cost is required?required? How far awayaway areare thethe targettarget markets?markets?

• What costs areare involvedinvolved inin productproduct marketingmarketing andand promotion?promotion? WhoWho willwill bearbear thesethese costscosts - thethe producerproducer oror distributor?distributor?

• What are thethe costscosts andand benefitsbenefits ofof usingusing intermediariesintermediaries forfor marketing?marketing?

• What are thethe financingfinancing costscosts (for(for example,example, loanloan repayment)?repayment)?

• How many days per yearyear willwill thethe enterpriseenterprise operateoperate withwith availableavailable supplies of labour, rawraw materials, productproduct demand,demand, energyenergy andand water?water? HowHow muchmuch timetime will equipment repairs and maintenance take?take?

• In view of thethe aboveabove expectedexpected costs and thethe volumevolume of demand, can thethe productsproducts bebe soldsold at a competitive price?

7.7 . Markets,Markets, marketing marketing andand tradetrade 71 Once the costs are calculated, thethe enterpriseenterprise shouldshould againagain compare the benefits of the production effort with alternatives, to makemake sure that thethe ventureventure offers the best return to itsits labourlabour andand resources. ProducersProducers shouldshould regularlyregularly calculatecalculate thethe enterprise'senterprise's profitabilityprofitability comparedcompared toto otherother investments. This highlightshighlights thethe needneed forfor goodgood record-keepingrecord-keeping of costscosts andand transactions.transactions.

Text box 7.2: Matching markets and processing technology

As with matching appropriate technology to market demand (see text box 5.1)0 producers must learn to recognize prOceSsing solutions to marketing problems. Decentralized shelling and grading of Brazil nuts, for example, reduces production and transport costs and can therefore increase the product's competitiveneSs in the international market.

Countries can improve their producers' ability to meet international-scale market demands for NWFPs by providing incentives for investing in crop management and new plantings. Clear and secure land-use rights is a particularly effective incentive (LaFleur, 1992).

At the enterprise level, producers should maintain a marketing strategy that considers the four areas of: (1) grovving/managintraw-.:material resource, (2) enterprise organization, (3) market environment, and -(4) marketing- plan effectiveness (Charit, 1994). Questions to consider in a marketing checklist include the following:

Raw material resource Market environment

What is the outlook for the next 10-20 What changes in market prices should years for resource availability, (based on the enterprise consider in its marketing soil fertility, rainfall and other factors)? plan?

What changes are likelyin growing Is competition among buyers likely to patterns and use of differentvarieties? increase? What new cost-effective processes can ncrease productiVity? Marketing plan effectiveness

What new laws or regulations might Does the enterprise know why buyers affectproduction(e.g.pricecontrols, buy its products? subsidies, tax incentives)? Do themarketingobjectivescover What does the nearby community think everythingfromspeciesselectionto of the enterprise? Can anything be done to product delivery? improve its involvernent? Do themarketing objectives match Enterprise organization resources and market opportunities?

Arathere problems with the enterprise's Are adequate resources allocated to cash. flow or accesS to credit? marketing?

Are any significant obanget,taking place Is the costing of the product accurate? in ho.w::.:.: .the ehterprise obEtains raw Is labour included? materials?

Placing a valuevalue onon sustainablesustainable supplysupply

Proper valuation of long-termlong-term supply poses a problemproblem in sustainablesustainable forestry. Producers who employ wise managementmanagement willwill oftenoften have toto compete with others who do not. ThisThis cancan meanmean thatthat the sustainablesustainable enterprise must:must: (a)(a) distinguishdistinguish itselfitself fromfrom othersothers throughthrough promotionpromotion andand publicpublic education efforts on environmental problems, or (b) find other ways to reduce costs so that it can

72 sellsell the product at thethe samesame oror lowerlower priceprice asas theirtheir competitors. competitors. TheThe decisiondecision dependsdepends on consumer attitudes and public awarenessawareness of thethe importanceimportance of sustainablesustainable forest utilization.

Market information systemssystems

Effective marketing depends on reliable, up-to-dateup-to-date marketingmarketing informationinformation on the Four P's. OnceOnce anan enterpriseenterprise is started, howhow doesdoes it update information on marketmarket demand,demand, competitioncompetition andand tradetrade factorsfactors on a regularregular basis?basis? MarketMarket informationinformation systemssystems are the answer.

National and regionalregional systemssystems

Market information systems for agricultural products are better established thanthan thosethose forfor NWFPs and some efforts toto provideprovide NWFPNWFP producersproducers withwith marketmarket informationinformation have started through the agricultural sector. ExamplesExamples includeinclude (Lintu, op. cit.):cit.):

• Tribal Cooperative Marketing DevelopmentDevelopment Federation Federation ofof India, India, Ltd.Ltd. (TRIFED). TRIFEDTRIFED disseminates priceprice information fromfrom Indian national andand export markets toto membermember cooperatives in a bi-weekly mimeograph. It focuses on agricultural productsproducts butbut alsoalso covers some NWFPs;NWFPs;

• Indonesian Agricultural MarketMarket Information Service. This service gathers price information at markets throughoutthroughout Indonesia,Indonesia, entersenters itit intointo computerscomputers andand disseminates it by radioradio andand local blackboards;

• Marketing Information System ofof Ghana.Ghana. This government-run system provides wholesalewholesale and retailretail pricesprices forfor 3030 agricultural agricultural commoditiescommodities on a bi-weeklybi-weekly basis, mainlymainly forfor government use.

In India,India, anan ambitiousambitious planplan byby thethe NationalNational WastelandsWastelands DevelopmentDevelopment Board uses regional radio and televisiontelevision centrescentres toto provideprovide farmersfarmers withwith informationinformation onon agriculturalagricultural commoditycommodity pricesprices (Issar, 1994).1994). AllAll IndianIndian newspapersnewspapers nownow devotedevote oneone pagepage eacheach weekweek toto agriculturalagricultural commoditycommodity prices and articlesarticles onon trends.trends. StatesStates suchsuch asas HaryanaHaryana andand PunjabPunjab havehave organizedorganized statestate marketingmarketing boards that provideprovide intra-stateintra-state priceprice information.information.

Government trade officesoffices andand universitiesuniversities maymay possess information on market factors which are less accessibleaccessible toto entrepreneurs.entrepreneurs. WhereWhere marketmarket researchresearch services exist, producer groups maymay organize collectively to commissioncommission a marketmarket studystudy and shareshare thethe cost.cost.

FAO has publishedpublished aa CompendiumCompendium of computer-based databases of relevance to forest-products marketing, and isis currentlycurrently testingtesting itit withwith potentialpotential users with the aim of revisingrevising it forfor widerwider distribution (FAO, 1995).1995).

Local market systemssystems

Producers can createcreate informationinformation systemssystems forfor trackingtracking locallocal marketsmarkets relativelyrelatively easily easily withwith assistance from extensionextension workers.workers. FAOFAO hashas developeddeveloped aa methodmethod forfor developingdeveloping suchsuch aa systemsystem in collaboration with thethe PhilippinesPhilippines government for use by locallocal producers, extensionextension workers,workers, and NGOsNGOs involvedinvolved inin communitycommunity forestry.forestry. TheThe guidelinesguidelines were testedtested inin thethe Philippines,Philippines, Uganda, PeruPeru andand thethe SolomonSolomon Islands,Islands, andand areare nownow beingbeing publishedpublished byby thethe CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry Unit of FAO. InIn outline, outline, the the process process consists consists of of the the following following steps,steps, toto bebe adaptedadapted toto eacheach locallocal situation:

7. Markets,Markets, marketing marketing andand tradetrade 73 • a pre-feasibilitypre-jeasibility studystudy assessesassesses thethe appropriatenessappropriateness ofof aa marketmarket informationinformation systemsystem basedbased on locallocal perceptions,perceptions, existingexisting informationinformation sources,sources, productsproducts andand marketmarket access;access;

• a locallocal situationsituation analysisanalysis identifiesidentifies locallocal marketsmarkets and current sourcessources and uses of marketmarket information;

• system establishment determinesdetermines thethe system'ssystem's scope, selectsselects and trainstrains datadata collectors,collectors, prepares guidelines for record-keeping,record-keeping, and selects the mostmost appropriateappropriate mediamedia (blackboards,(blackboards, newsletters,newsletters, radioradio broadcast);broadcast);

• monitoring and evaluationevaluation seeksseeks inputinput fromfrom peoplepeople whowho use the systemsystem and from those whowho do notnot useuse thethe system,system, andand evaluatesevaluates thethe useuse ofof thethe information.information.

Data gathering for marketmarket informationinformation systems, like otherother NWFPNWFP research,research, shouldshould accountaccount forfor the effects of non-economicnon-economic factors, suchsuch as culturalcultural preferences,preferences, taboostaboos and thethe existenceexistence ofof ethnic or kinshipkinship linkslinks inin marketmarket chains.chains.

Information on internationalinternational marketsmarkets

In internationalinternational markets,markets, accurateaccurate informationinformation is vital because more variablesvariables are beyondbeyond producers' controlcontrol andand tradetrade fluctuationsfluctuations for commoditiescommodities cancan be more pronounced and faster paced. InformationInformation on internationalinternational marketsmarkets isis more difficult toto obtain because sources of consumer preferences, importimport regulationsregulations andand policiespolicies areare moremore distantdistant andand oftenoften closelyclosely guardedguarded by agentsagents oror intermediaries.intermediaries. Some of thisthis informationinformation for NWFPsNWFPs is availableavailable from thethe International Trade Centre, FAO,FAO, andand othersothers listedlisted inin AppendixAppendix 1.1.

Green marketing

Green marketingmarketing isis anan environmentalenvironmental nicheniche inin NWFPNWFP marketingmarketing that has growngrown inin recentrecent years.years. Green marketing isis basedbased onon thethe understandingunderstanding thatthat a growing number of consumers (particularly(particularly in industrializedindustrialized countries) are moremore likelylikely toto purchasepurchase a productproduct ifif theythey know that itsits productionproduction is environmentallyenvironmentally sustainable (see text box 7.3). Generally,Generally, greengreen marketingmarketing venturesventures requirerequire rural producersproducers toto workwork through through international international intermediariesintermediaries with officesoffices inin thethe destinationdestination countries, whichwhich cancan moremore easilyeasily collectcollect marketmarket informationinformation and promote the product in thesethese markets. SomeSome mail-ordermail-order cataloguescatalogues managedmanaged by non-profit organizations alsoalso linklink producersproducers in developing countries withwith overseasoverseas consumersconsumers ofof environmentally-safe environmentally-safe productsproducts withwith lowerlower transaction costs.

It is too early to know ifif optimism about green marketing is entirely justified,justified, but public education about the needneed forfor sustainablesustainable forestforest managementmanagement can help improveimprove its prospects.prospects.

The tradetrade environmentenvironment

Market transactions are influencedinfluenced by trade regulationsregulations and other relatedrelated factorsfactors andand trends.trends. Although a full discussion of these factors is beyond the scopescope of this volume, thisthis section briefly reviews their effecteffect onon producersproducers enteringentering NWFPNWFP markets.markets.

National and local trade

Policies and regulationsregulations governinggoverning NWFPsNWFPs areare oftenoften confusing.confusing. BecauseBecause thesethese productsproducts cancan originate from eithereither domesticateddomesticated sources or natural forests, theythey can come under agricultural,agricultural, forestry and/orand/or otherother governmentgovernment policiespolicies (see(see ChapterChapter 10).10). InIn India,India, tree-farmertree-farmer cooperativescooperatives

74 Text boxbox 7.3:7.3: SomeSome lessonslessons inin greengreen 5. Local enterprises should be supported marketing with loansloans ratherrather thanthan grants,grants, whereverwherever possible,topossible, to encourage focus andand aa sensesense The ''Tagua"Tagua Initiative" managed by of ownership. Conservation InternationalInternational aims at marketingmarketing "vegetable ivory" from thethe 6 . Options for locallocal processingprocessing should bebe taguapalmtagua palm ofof EcuadorEcuador andand ColombiaColombia toto pursuedpursued.. garment manufacturers inin the United States forfor use as buttons. In its first year,year, Opportunities inin local andand nationalnational the project generated sales of markets, in addition to internationalinternational US$US $ 500,000.500,000. The The project project promoted promoted tagua tagua markets shouldshould be exploredexplored (Tangley,(Tang ley , as a high-qualityhigh-quality materialmaterial andand.its its salesale asas aa 1993). way toto conserveconserve tropicaltropical forestsforests throughthrough Sustainablesustainable community development.development. Cultural Survival Enterprises,Enterprises, alsoalso begun inin After almostalmost threethree years,years, lessonslessons learnedlearned 1990, has worked with groupsgroups in thethe included: Brazilian AmazonAmazon to market NWFPsNWFPs in the United States.States. In itsits firstfirst twotwo yearsyears it 1 . The conservationconservation impact isis greatestgreatest averaged 400 400 percent growth. FurtherFurther when integrated with community lessons inin green marketing fromf om itsits development, scientific research, experience include: education, and policypolicy work,work. • Start withwith products already onon thethe 2. International marketing ofof NWFPsNWFPs market. Introducing new productsproducts cancan brings togethertogether at least twotwo very different take up to fivefive yearsyears for foods,foods, 1010 forfor cultures and economies.economies. ToTo succeed,succeed, personal-care products,products, and 20 forfor projects must bebe carefullycarefully designeddesigned tOto pharmaceuticals. accommodate the distinct needsneeds ofof thesethese disparate worlds, andand good communication • Organize forfor strength in numbers.numbers. among all parties is a must. • Monitor the sustainability of production. 3. Community-level enterprise Green-market consumers are interested in development must bebe gearedgeared to local protecting ecosystems, notnot thethe peoplepeople development. who livelive in themthem (Clay(Clay andand Clement,Clement, 1993). 4 . The products must bebe profitableprofitable for every player in the economic.economicchain chain,. knew the obstacles posed by lawslaws forbiddingforbidding transport of tree products across state borders,borders, andand managed to negotiate better legal terms (see Chapter 8).

Regional andand international trade

Neighbouring countries in a regionregion oftenoften llavehave similar resources and markets. TableTable 7.37.3 showsshows some internationally traded species common to LatinLatin AmericanAmerican countriescountries andand thethe non-woodnon-wood products they yield. ProducersProducers of NWFPsNWFPs in AsiaAsia havehave begunbegun toto exploreexplore thethe speciesspecies andand technology theythey useuse inin common (Durst etet al.,ai., 1994).1994). Where this kindkind ofof overlapoverlap exists,exists, neighbouring countries can benefit from collaborative research in harvestingharvesting andand processing,processing, and in negotiating trade terms.terms.

7. Markets,Markets, marketing marketing and and tradetrade 75 Table 7.3:7.3: AmazonianAmazonian forestforest speciesspecies withwith marketmarket potentialpotential in agroforestryagroforestry and sustainable NWFP managementmanagement systemssystems

SpeciesSpecies name Uses' Current markets2markets2

AssaiAssaf (Euterpe(Euterpe oleracea)oleracea) F,B,Ph,H FF,L,N,I,L,N,I Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa) F,B,H F,L PatauaPatauá (Jessenia bataua) F,B,OF,B4O F Pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes) F,B4O,F,B,O, PhPh F,L Piqui (Caryocar villosum)villosum) F,O,T,Ch F Brazil nut (Bertholletia(Bertholletia excelsa)excelsa) N,O,T,Ch,H,N F,L,N,I Pendula nut (Couepia longipendula)longipendula) N F Bacuri (Platonia insignis)insignis) F,N,T,Ch F,L Camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia)dubia) F F,L Cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum) F,O,C F,L,RF,L,R,N,I,N,I CopaibaCopafba (Copaijera(Copaifera inultijuga)multijuga) 0,P,MO,P,M F,L,R,I JJatobá atoba (Hymenaea courbaril) F,R,T F Andiroba (Carapa guianensis)guianensis) 0,M,TO,M,T F,R Babassu (Orbignya phalerata)phalerata) 0,ChO,Ch F,L,R,N UcuubaUctulba (Virola surinamensis) T,OT,0 ? Cumaru (Dipteryx odorata) 0,E,P,TO,E,P,T F,L,I Rosewood (Aniba duckei)duckei) E,P,T,H II Sacaca (Croton cajucara) M,E F,L Tagua (Phytelephas aequatorialis) N,H F,N,I

IUses'Uses:: BB=beverage =beverage;; CC=cosmetic; = cosmetic; ChCh=charcoal; = charcoal; EE=essential =essential oil; FF=fruit; = fruit; HH=handicrafts; =handicrafts; M=medicinal;M =rnedicinal; N N=nut; = nut; P=perfume;P=perfume; Ph=palm heart; R=resin;R=resin; TT=timber; =timber; O=other.0=other. 'Current2Current markets:markets: F=family;F=family; L=local;L=local; R=regional R=regional (subnational); (subnational); N=national;N = national; I=I=international. international.

(Clay and Clement, 1993)1993)

Trends in international NWFP trade

Table 7.4 summarizessummarizes thethe mostmost economicallyeconomically important NWFPsNWFPs in world trade, totalling about US$ 1111 billionbillion annually.annually. These productsproducts originate from aa widewide varietyvariety ofof geographic geographic sources,sources, but a significant portion come from the forests of Southeast Asia,Asia, especiallyespecially fruits,fruits, resins,resins, fungi, wild honey, medicines,medicines, aphrodisiacs,aphrodisiacs, sandalwood,sandalwood, bamboobamboo and rattan ware. ChinaChina processesprocesses andand trades inin moremore productsproducts fromfrom wildwild sourcessources thanthan probablyprobably anyany otherother country,country, andand nownow dominatesdominates world trade inin NWFPsNWFPs (Iqbal,(Iqbal, 1995).1995). OtherOther majormajor supplierssuppliers toto worldworld marketsmarkets includeinclude India,India, Indonesia, Malaysia, ThailandThailand andand Brazil.Brazil.

76 Table 7.4:7.4: NWFPsNWFPs mostmost prominent prominent inin worldworld trade*,trade *, with with threethree mainmain marketsmarkets

Item Total imports EEC USA Japan (US$ million) Other plants used in pharmacypharmacy 689.92 171171.23.23 88.59 9191.96.96 Other ffreshresh fruits (including, i.a.jujubes)La.jujubes) 685685.22.22 263263.22.22 51.30 127.91127 .91 Natural rubber latex in primary formsforms 519.92 109109.24.24 84.08 337.097.09 EssEssentialential oilsoils,, resins resins 312312.52.52 95.53 108108.54.54 22.43 Ginseng roots 389.34 11.11.9090 11.10 3939.89.89 MatsMats,, mattings and screensscreens ofof vegetablevegetable 215.95 22.03 1717.13.13 135135.12. 12 matmaterialserials Other live animalsanimals 183183.92.92 61.67 43.48 8.058.05 Natural honey 268268.18. 18 143.39 5353.92.92 35.1235 . 12 Edible products of animalanimal originorigin 8080.38.38 66.75.75 44.02.02 1.46 Ambergris, castoreum, civet, muskmusk 134134.08.08 44.48 33.02.02 42.9242.92 Brazil nutsnuts,, fresh oror chilledchilled 4444.34.34 22.1122. 11 16.78 0.20 Walnuts in shell 115.33 91.11 0.03 1.26 Walnuts without shells 100100.56.56 37.6837 .68 00.27.27 1313.03.03 Chestnuts 109109.95.95 22.01.01 10.46 64.1464.14 Other nuts 222222.91.91 21.01 91.68 24.39 Mucilages, thickeners derived fromfrom locustlocust 141.141.3333 34.0234.02 45.3545 .35 25.9525 .95 beans, locust bean seed or guarguar seedsseeds Cinnamon and cinnamon-treecinnamon-tree flowersflowers 9595.62.62 10.05 28.91 2.58 Nutmeg 2424.16. 16 12.5612.56 22.51.51 22.58.58 Other spicesspices 4848.34.34 5.65 20.85 2.2.2222 Flour and mealmeal ofof sagosago 1818.06.06 00.77.77 0.92 0.0.3333 Liquorice roots 33.45 55.74.74 9.39 77.54.54 Locust beansbeans 2222.39.39 1818.30.30 0.45 00.18. 18 Lac 2525.28.28 44.67.67 99.37.37 22.38.38 Gum arabic 101.31 53.7453 .74 1818.89.89 66.18. 18 Other natural gums,gums, resins,resins, balsamsbalsams 92.7592 .75 29.9529.95 1111.00.00 22.14. 14 Liquorice sap 5757.27.27 22.7922.79 1515.48.48 5.38 Bamboos 37.5637 .56 12.57 33.13. 13 77.58.58 Rattans 118.98 13.75 5.44 66.53.53 Other vegetable materialsmaterials forfor plaitingplaiting 3939.67.67 20.9020.90 44.73.73 8.338.33 Kapok 11.92 1.45 00.73.73 55.23.23 Vegetable materials espesp.. for brooms,brooms, brushesbrushes 28.1128 . 11 10.2010.20 8.59 3.963.96 Raw veg. materialsmaterials esp. forfor dyeing,dyeing, tanningtanning 31.06 9.40 22.03.03 2.48 Other vegetable products (doum(doum palmpalm flour,flour, 6363.85.85 18.43 11.49 20.2920.29 Panama bark, bidi leaves, etc.) Tung oil and itsits fractionsfractions 49.5949.59 4.53 9.36 11.8611 .86 Jojoba oil and its fractionsfractions 11.59 77.61.61 22.29.29 0.42 Other fixed vegetable fats and fractionsfractions 98.90 33.73 8.678.67 1010.06.06 Vegetable waxes 44.0244.02 13.49 1313.08.08 6.136.13 Beeswax, other insectinsect waxwax 1919.14.14 88.65.65 2.38 2.772.77 Maple sugar andand maplemaple syrupsyrup 43.63 9.64 28.09 1.30 Quebracho extractextract 51.9351 .93 20.6620.66 6.366.36 0.980.98 Wattle extract 63.8763 .87 15.41 8.07 5.49 Tanning extracts ofof vegetablevegetable originorigin 20.51 1.54 7.59 0.660.66 Colouring matter of veg.veg. andand animalanimal originorigin 152.08 3232.21.21 31.8031 .80 1212.94.94 Resinoids 61.35 77.92.92 34.88 3.013.01 Concentrates of essential oils in fatsfats 39.95 9.239.23 7.307.30 3.713.71 GumGum,, wood oror sulphatesulphate turpentineturpentine oils 31.23 12.1612 .16 2.122. 12 7.847.84 Balata, gutta-percha 26.7226.72 5.255.25 4.874.87 6.71 Corks and stoppersstoppers ofof naturalnatural corkcork 157.16 17.45 59.2659.26 6.186. 18 Other articles of natural cork 13.71 2.812.81 3.053.05 1.30

* Categorized byby HarmonizedHarmonized CommodityCommodity DescriptionDescription andand CodingCoding SystemSystem (HS)(HS) codes.codes.

(Source:(Source: Iqbal,Iqbal, 1995)1995)

7. Markets, marketingmarketing andand tradetrade 77 A strikingstriking patternpattern inin internationalinternational trade of NWFPsNWFPs isis thatthat developingdeveloping countries are thethe majormajor producers and exportersexporters ofof rawraw oror semi-processed semi-processed products;products; andand developed,developed, industrializedindustrialized countries are thethe majormajor importersimporters (Iqbal,(Iqbal, 1995).1995). JustJust threethree marketsmarkets (the(the EuropeanEuropean Community,Community, the United States and Japan) comprise about 60 percent of the world trade.trade. Table 7.5 showsshows thethe direction of trade forfor somesome ofof the the most-tradedmost-traded products.products.

Table 7.5:7.5: DirectionsDirections ofof internationalinternational trade for major NWFPs

Product Main source countriescountries Main markets

Brazil nuts Brazil, Bolivia, Peru USA, UK, Germany,Germany, Australia,Australia, Canada Pine nuts ChinaChina,, Afghanistan,Afghanistan, PakistanPakistan Middle Eastern countries Pignolia nuts SpainSpain,, PortugalPortugal USA, Canada, Hong Kong, Japan, EEC Walnuts China,China, India, Afghanistan,Afghanistan, PakistanPakistan EEC,EEC, Japan,Japan, Canada,Canada, SwitzerlandSwitzerland MorelsMores Pakistan, India,India, AfghanistanAfghanistan France, Switzerland,Switzerland, GermanyGermany Pine mushroomsmushrooms Chile USA, France, Peru, Netherlands,Netherlands, Switzerland Bamboo shoots China,China, Thailand, IndonesiaIndonesia USA, Japan, UK,UK, Germany,Germany, Australia, the Netherlands,Netherlands, France,France, Korea Sago Indonesia, Malaysia Japan, HongHong Kong,Kong, SingaporeSingapore Shea nutsnuts West and central AfricanAfrican countriescountries Japan, Sweden, EECEEC Nutmeg and macemace Indonesia, GrenadaGrenada USA, EEC, JapanJapan Cinnamon and cassiacassia Sri Lanka,Lanka, Seychelles,Seychelles, MadagascarMadagascar USA, EEC, JapanJapan Gum arabic Sudan,Sudan, NigeriaNigeria USA, EEC (UK(UK andand Germany),Germany), Switzerland, Scandinavia, Japan Gum tragacanth Iran, TurkeyTurkey EEC, USA, Japan,Japan, CIS*CIS* Gum karaya India USA, Japan, France,France, Germany,Germany, UK,UK, Belgium, UAE, NetherlandsNetherlands Carob gum Spain, Italy,Italy, PortugalPortugal Western Europe, USA, JapanJapan Annatto Peru, Kenya,Kenya, BrazilBrazil USA, EEC,EEC, JapanJapan Gum rosin China, Indonesia, PortugalPortugal Japan, WesternWestern EuropeEurope Rattan Malaysia, Indonesia, VietViet Nam,Nam, ChinaChina Europe, USA,USA, Egypt,Egypt, Japan,Japan, Thailand Bamboo China, Southeast Asian countriescountries France, Germany,Germany, NetherlandsNetherlands Cork Portugal, Spain, MoroccoMorocco EC countriescountries Lac India, Thailand Germany, Egypt,Egypt, Indonesia,Indonesia, USAUSA Natural honeyhoney CIS, China, USA,USA, Mexico,Mexico, TurkeyTurkey Germany, USA, UK,UK, JapanJapan Beeswax China, Tanzania, NewNew Zealand,Zealand, Canada,Canada, EC countriescountries Netherlands Mulberry andand non-non­ China, India, BrazilBrazil EC countries, Japan, Korea, Hong mulberry silk Kong Liquorice rootsroots China, Western AsianAsian countries, RussiaRussia USA, Japan, EECEEC Ginseng roots Japan, China, Taiwan,Taiwan, Singapore,Singapore, EECEEC USA, Korea, Canada,Canada, ChinaChina Medicinal plants China, Korea, USA,USA, India,India, Chile,Chile, Egypt,Egypt, Japan, USA, Gennany,Germany, France,France, Argentina, Greece, Poland,Poland, Hungary,Hungary, Italy, Malaysia, Spain, UKUK Zaire, CzechCzech Republic,Republic, AlbaniaAlbania Essential oilsoils China, India,India, Indonesia,Indonesia, BrazilBrazil EEC, USA,USA, JapanJapan Cochineal Peru, CanaryCanary IslandsIslands EEC, USA,USA, JapanJapan Truffles France, ItalyItaly USA Birds' nestsnests Malaysia Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan,Japan, Taiwan Bidi leaves India Pakistan, Sri LankaLanka

* CommonwealthCommonwealth of Independent States (part of States of the fomierformer USSR).USSR).

(Source: Iqbal, 1995)1995)

78 ..J s: Q) ~ CD r+ In 3 Q) ~"" CD r+

(Q:r

Q) ::J Co r+ Q)"" Co CD

10. Non-wood handicrafts inin Iran.Iran. (Photo:(Photo: L.L. Gronchi)Gronchi)

11. Sugar tappedtapped from sugar palm isis widely used inin Myanmar.Myanmar. 9. Cosmetics from NWFPsNWFPs in Myanmar. (Photo:(Photo: M.M. Kashio)Kashio) ..... (Photo: M.M . Kashio)Kashio) <0 Importing and exporting countries use tariffstariffs and other measures to influence trade.trade. Developing countries commonly tax exports to raise government revenue. Industrialized countriescountries useuse tariffs,tariffs, standards and safetysafety regulationsregulations toto controlcontrol NVVFPNWFP imports.imports. In general, industrialized industrialized countries keep tariffs onon NWFPsNWFPs veryvery lowlow inin orderorder to to ensureensure aa sustained sustained supplysupply forfor theirtheir markets.markets. TheseThese countries usually feel nono needneed forfor "protection""protection" againstagainst competitioncompetition because they do not produce these products andand becausebecause collectingcollecting andand processingprocessing NWFPsNWFPs isis oftenoften aa labour-intensivelabour-intensive sectorsector for which theythey do notnot aimaim toto protectprotect jobsjobs (Iqbal,(Iqbal, 1995).1995).

International tradetrade agreementsagreements

International agreements havehave a greatgreat effecteffect onon thethe internationalinternational marketmarket prospectsprospects forfor certaincertain products. So far,far, onlyonly oneone studystudy hashas addressedaddressed thesethese impactsimpacts on producers (Iqbal, 1995).1995). Key conventions are describeddescribed below.below.

• General Agreement onon Trade and TariffsTariffs (GATT).(GATT). ThisThis series of agreementsagreements aims to deregulate international trade by reducingreducing tariffs andand encouragingencouraging multilateral negotiation of trade issues.issues. ItIt paved paved thethe wayway forfor establishmentestablishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 19951995 asas aa moremore powerful powerful organizationorganization forfor resolvingresolving disputes.disputes. WTOWTO aimsaims toto provideprovide intellectual propertyproperty rightsrights (patents,(patents, tradetrade secrets,secrets, trademarks, etc.),etc.), and measuresmeasures for enforcing these rightsrights (see(see ChapterChapter 10).10).

• In 1987,1987, thethe BnindtlandBrundtland CommissionCommission called for reform of GATT for greater environmental equity and soundsound management,management, noting that thethe goalgoal ofof unregulated unregulated internationalinternational tradetrade conflicts with nationalnational policies that wouldwould account for environmentalenvironmental costs of resourceresource degradation. SomeSome claimclaim thatthat "a"a countrycountry thatthat internalizesinternalizes environmental costs into its prices will be atat aa disadvantage,disadvantage, at leastleast inin thethe shortshort term,term, inin unregulatedunregulated trade" with countriescountries that do notnot (Daly(Daly andand Goodland,Goodland, 1994).1994). ThisThis argues,argues, forfor instance,instance, inin favourfavour ofof applying applying import tariffs on products from countries that would priceprice theirtheir forest resources low, inin order toto bebe capablecapable ofof facing facing externalexternal competition.competition.

• Convention on on InternationalInternational TradeTrade inin Endangered SpeciesSpecies ofof WildWild FaunaFauna and FloraFlora (CITES). RatifiedRatified byby more than 111 nations, CITES establishesestablishes lists of endangeredendangered speciesspecies for whichwhich internationalinternational tradetrade isis eithereither prohibited or strictlystrictly regulated. ExamplesExamples of NWFPs which are restrictedrestricted areare ivoryivory andand rhinorhino horn.horn. PlacingPlacing aa speciesspecies inin thethe mostmost restrictiverestrictive categories requiresrequires approvalapproval byby two-thirdstwo-thirds of the signatories; the least restrictive categories can bebe mademade byby aa single single signatory. signatory. Each Each signatory signatory nation nation designates designates managementmanagement andand scientific authorities forfor grantinggranting and reviewingreviewing the ConventionConvention permits. The UNUN Environment Programme (UNEP) hosts the CITESCITES Secretariat.Secretariat. TRAFFICTRAFFIC International,International, a monitoring body of thethe WorldWorld ConservationConservation Union (IUCN) and WWF, coordinates an international network to track wildlife trade and compliance with CITES, and producesproduces aa journal, TRAFFICTRAFFIC Bulletin.Bulletin.

• The Agreement onon Trade-Related Intellectual PropertyProperly Rights (TRIPs). Like WTO, TRIPsTRIPs provides more enforceableenforceable protection for trade-related intellectual property rights. In this,this, it encouragesencourages developingdeveloping countries to conduct more research and innovation,innovation, andand helpshelps better accessaccess toto newnew technology,technology, includingincluding environmentalenvironmental technology.technology. An importantimportant provision permitspermits aa countrycountry to excludeexclude anan inventioninvention from patentpatent protectionprotection if thatthat invention's commercializationcommercialization seriously endangers the environment.

• Convention on the ConservationConservation ofof Migratory Migratory SpeciesSpecies ofof Wild Wild Animals. ThisThis ConventionConvention obligates countries to protectprotect endangeredendangered migratorymigratory speciesspecies andand precludesprecludes commercialcommercial trading of some 51 listedlisted species, includingincluding antelopes, 24 bird speciesspecies and 6 marine turtles.turtles.

80 It encourages species conservation and international actionaction.. UNEP provides the Secretariat (Braatz et aial.,., 1992).1992) .

Summary

• Use market studies asas aa tooltool to identify commercial opportunities in resource utilisation and match supply to demand.demand. UsedUsed properly, marketingmarketing tools can improve an enterprise'senterprise's potential for economiceconomic andand environmentalenvironmental sustainability.sustainability.

• Develop a proper planplan forfor marketingmarketing a productproduct based on studystudy of keykey marketmarket factorsfactors (the(the "Four Ps"):Ps"): product,product, placeplace (that (that is,is, channelschannels ofof distribution distribution andand marketing),marketing), promotion and price.price.

• Use informationinformation onon marketsmarkets andand transporttransport costscosts toto assessassess andand decidedecide whenwhen intermediariesintermediaries (middlemen) areare useful. Where an intermediary is useful (for(for example,example, in helping toto absorbabsorb risk oror coordinatingcoordinating transport),transport), producersproducers shouldshould useuse marketmarket informationinformation andand groupgroup organization to preventprevent unfairunfair exploitation.exploitation.

• Use marketmarket informationinformation availableavailable fromfrom existingexisting agriculturalagricultural marketingmarketing systems.systems. WhereWhere necessary, organizeorganize marketingmarketing informationinformation systemssystems for locallocal markets.markets.

• International marketing requires more specialized information whichwhich isis often difficult to obtain. RuralRural producersproducers cancan reachreach foreignforeign marketsmarkets byby joiningjoining nationalnational associationsassociations (for(for trade fairs,fairs , etc.)etc.) and/or and/or green green marketing marketing ventures ventures with with international international non-governmentalnon-governmental organizations.

• Obtain informationinformation onon tradetrade regulationsregulations and thethe tradetrade environmentenvironment (national(national andand international), whichwhich affectaffect commercial options in all markets. Both producers and supportsupport service staffstaff (extension(extension agentsagents andand others)others) needneed familiarityfamiliarity withwith these.these.

References

AT!.ATI. 19951995.. Non-timberNon-timber forestforest products manual. DraftDraft version.version. Appropriate TechnologyTechnology InternationalInternational,, Washington,Washington, D.C.D.C.

Braatz, S.,S. , Davis,Davis, J,J, Shen,Shen, S.,S., and and Rees, Rees, C.C .1992. 1992. Conserving Conserving biologicalbiological diversity:diversity: a strategy forfor protected areasareas inin thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region.Region. WorldWorld BankBank Technical PaperPaper NoNo.. 193.193 . World Bank,Bank, WashingtonWashington,, D.C.D. C.

Charit Tingsabadh. 1994.1994. SellingSelling treetree crops.crops. ModuleModule 77 ofof Growing Growing multipurposemUltipurpose trees onon smallsmall farms. WinrockWinrock International-FAO,International-FAO, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Clay, J.W.J.W. andand Clement,Clement, C.R.C.R. 1993. 1993. Selected Selected speciesspecies andand strategiesstrategies toto enhanceenhance incomeincome generation from Amazonian forestsforests.. Forestry Working PaperPaper FO:Misc/93/6FO:Misc/93/6.. FAO, Rome.Rome.

Cubberly, P.P. 1995. Value chainchain information.information. ATIATI BullettinBullettin 26.26. AppropriateAppropriate TechnologyTechnology International, Washington, D.C.

Daly, H., andand Goodland,Goodland, R.R. 1994. An ecological-economicecological-economic assessmentassessment ofof deregulation of international commerce under GATT.GATT. EcologicalEcological EconomicsEconomics 9:73-92.9:73-92.

7. Markets,Markets ,marketing marketing and and tradetrade 81 Durst, P.B., Ulrich,Ulrich, W.,W., and and Kashio, Kashio, M.,M., eds. eds. 1994. 1994. Non-wood Non-wood forestforest products inin Asia. RAPARAPA Publication 1994/28.1994128. FAO-RAPA,FAO-RAPA, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Falconer, J. 1992.1992. Non-timberNon-timber forestforest productsproducts inin southern Ghana:Ghana: aa summatysummary report. ODAODA Forestry Series No.No.2. 2. UKUK OverseasOverseas DevelopmentDevelopment Authority,Authority, London.London.

FFAO. AO. 1995.1995. CompendiumCompendium of computer-based databases for relevance to forestforest productsproducts marketing. FO:Misc/94110.FO:Misc/94/10. Working Paper. FAO, Rome.

FAO. Forthcoming.Forthcoming. GuidelinesGuidelines forfor the the creation creation of of community-managed community-managed marketingmarketing informationinformation systems forfor non-timber forestforest products. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Iqbal, M.M. 1993.1993. InternationalInternational tradetrade in in non-wood non-wood forestforest products:products: anan overview.overview. ForestForest ProductsProducts Working PaperPaper 11. FAO, Rome.Rome.

Iqbal, M. 1995.1995. AA study study of of trade trade restrictions restrictions affecting affecting internationalinternational tradetrade inin non-woodnon-wood forestforest products. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Issar, R.R. 1994.1994. DevelopmentDevelopment ofof market market intelligenceintelligence andand infrastructureinfrastructure for agroforestryagroforestry inin India.India. In Raintree, J.B.J.B.,, and Francisco, H.A.,H.A., eds.,eds., Marketing Marketing ofof multipurpose mUltipurpose treetree productsproducts inin Asia:Asia: Proceedings of an international workshopworkshop held in Baguio City, Philippines, 6-9 December, 1993. Winrock International, Bangkok.Bangkok.

LaFleur, J.R.J.R. 1992.1992. Marketing Marketing ofof Brazil Brazil nuts:nuts: aa case case study study from Brazil. ForestForest ProductsProducts Division,Division, FAO, Rome.Rome.

Le Cup, I.I. 1994.1994. TheThe rolerole of of marketing marketing ofof non-timber non-timber forestforest productsproducts inin community development projects: Ayuverdic medicinalmedicinal plants plants in in Nepal. Nepal. In In Raintree,Raintree, J.B., J.B., andand Francisco,Francisco, H.A.,H.A., eds., Marketing of multipurposemUltipurpose tree products in Asia: Proceedings of an international workshopworkshop held in Baguio City,City, Philippines,Philippines, 6-96-9 December,December, 1993.1993. WinrockWinrock International, International, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Lim Hin Fui and Woon Weng Chuen. 1994.1994. Marketing of agroforestry products: some Malaysian experience. InIn Raintree, J.B., andand Francisco,Francisco, H.A.,H.A., eds.,eds., Marketing Marketing ofof Multipurpose Multipurpose TreeTree Products inin Asia.Asia. WinrockWinrock International,International, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Lintu, L. 1995.1995. TradeTrade andand marketing marketing ofof non-wood non-wood forestforest products.products. InIn ReportReport ofof the the expertexpert consultation on non-wood forestforest products,products, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, 17-2717-27 JanuaryJanuary 1995. Non-Non­ Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Ocampo, R.A.R.A. 1994.1994. TheThe present present situation situation ofof non-timber non-timber forestforest productsproducts inin CostaCosta Rica.Rica. WorkingWorking Document No.No.7, 7, ProjectProject for for Conservation Conservation and and Sustainable Sustainable DevelopmentDevelopment inin CentralCentral America.America. CATIE, Turrialba,Turrialba, CostaCosta Rica.Rica.

Pswarayi-Riddihough, I.,I., andand Jones,Jones, N.N. 1995.1995. SomeSome marketingmarketing problemsproblems facedfaced by agroforestryagroforestry farmers inin Asia.Asia. InIn Report Report of of the the expert expert consultation consultation on on non-wood non-wood forest forest products products,Yogyakarta, ,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-2717-27 JanuaryJanuary 1995,1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts 3.3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Tangley, L. 1993. Marketing biodiversity products:products: the taguatagua initiative. Conservation International, Washington, D.C.

82 ForFor furtherfurther readingreading

IFPRI. Forthcoming.Forthcoming. ProcProc.. ofof aa workshop workshop onon Non-Timber Non-Timber TreeTree ProductProduct (NTTP)(NTTP) MarketMarket ResearchResearch,, held DecemberDecember 12-14,12-14, 1994,1994, Annapolis,Annapolis, Maryland,Maryland, USA.USA . InternationalInternational Food PolicyPolicy Research Institute, Washington, D.CD.C..

Lewington, AA.. 1993.1993. MedicinalMedicinal plantsplants and plant extracts:extracts: a reviewreview ofof theirtheir importationimportation into EuropeEurope.. AA TRAFFICTRAFFIC NetworkNetwork Report.Report. TRAFFICTRAFFIC International,International, Cambridge, UK.

7. Markets,Markets, marketing marketing andand tradetrade 83 Organizing producer groups 8

Previous chapters have mentioned advantagesadvantages that that ruralrural producersproducers can can gaingain throughthrough organizedorganized efforts. TheThe threethree mainmain advantagesadvantages are:are:

• greater leverageleverage forfor enterpriseenterprise success,success, including: greater economieseconomies of scalescale in production, transporttransport andand marketing;marketing; aa strongerstronger basisbasis forfor negotiatingnegotiating withwith middlemenmiddlemen andand others in thethe processing-marketprocessing-market chain; and a better basis for competingcompeting with larger-scale producers;

• better prospects for sustainablesustainable harvestingharvesting through agreementagreement byby allall local users of thethe forest resource, thusthus helpinghelping toto ensureensure sustainablesustainable supply;supply;

• more equitable sharingsharing ofof benefits benefits from common property resources. This is important to foster the general perception of fairness in using a resource traditionally viewedviewed asas "open access"access". .

This chapter describes factorsfactors involvedinvolved inin successful local organization forfor resourceresource use and some tools for organizingorganizing communitiescommunities forfor processing,processing, marketingmarketing andand resolvingresolving conflicts.conflicts.

Factors in successfulsuccessful organizationorganization

Successful community organizationsorganizations forfor natural resourceresource managementmanagement often shareshare similarsimilar characteristics related to the local user group and the natural resource (ATI,(ATI, 1995). User group here means the communitycommunity with local access rights to the forest resource.

The user group

The characteristics ofof useruser groupsgroups thatthat generallygenerally promotepromote goodgood communitycommunity organization,organization, whichwhich are oftenoften foundfound inin indigenousindigenous systemssystems forfor commoncommon propertyproperty management,management, includeinclude (ATI,(A TI, 1995):1995):

• identification as a group.group. TheThe groupgroup recognizesrecognizes itsits members,members, andand outsidersoutsiders seesee thethe groupgroup as distinct. NotNot all thethe group's membersmembers maymay actively use the group's access rights; inin this sense there may be "user"user sub-groups";sub-groups";

• group size. TheThe groupgroup shouldshould bebe largelarge enoughenough toto supportsupport harvestingharvesting and processing at thethe threshold of economic sussustainability. tainab ility . OnOn thethe otherother hand,hand, it should be smallsmall enoughenough toto manage common property resources effectively.effectively. InIn shiftingshifting from subsistence to commercial resource use, thethe sub-groupssub-groups thatthat useuse accessaccess rightsrights maymay changechange size.size. ThisThis involvesinvolves important dynamics of sustainable harvestharvest raterate and the threshold at which a member'smember's benefits make participationparticipation inin thethe groupgroup worthwhile;worthwhile;

• control over resource.resource. TheThe groupgroup mustmust havehave accessaccess toto thethe non-woodnon-wood resourceresource thatthat isis recognized byby legallegal rightsrights oror customarycustomary law.law. TheThe groupgroup shouldshould bebe ableable toto enforceenforce exclusiveexclusive authority overover thethe resourceresource andand guaranteeguarantee continuedcontinued rights forfor subsistencesubsistence uses even when it acquires commercialcommercial value;

• mitigating incomeincome effects.effects. Poorer communitycommunity membersmembers shouldshould be represented inin anyany changechange in resource use. PoorerPoorer householdshouseholds shouldshould have equal rights to participate inin thethe enterpriseenterprise and receive their fairfair shareshare ofof benefits;benefits;

8. OrganizingOrganizing producerproducer groupsgroups 85 • recurrent interaction.interaction. FrequentFrequent meetings meetings ofof group group membersmembers promotepromote cooperativecooperative behaviourbehaviour and adherence toto the group's rules.rules. TheyThey alsoalso make it moremore likelylikely that thethe groupgroup willwill identifyidentify and penalize violations;

• reciprocity. Group members realize that they will receive benefits only if they fulfil their obligations to the group. This condition,condition, particularlyparticularly inin smallersmaller groups,groups, promotespromotes internalinternal self-monitoring;

• disciplinary mechanisms. TheThe group can imposeimpose sanctions or penalties that have a real deterrent effect.effect.

The natural resourceresource

In general, thethe forestforest resourceresource managedmanaged byby thethe groupgroup shouldshould be:be:

• clearly defined. ClearlyClearly defineddefined systemssystems areare easiereasier toto managemanage sustainably;sustainably;

• recognized by the community as as valuable.valuable. Often, user groups will agree to the added effort of sustainable management only if they see that destructive over-use threatens the resource. There is generallygenerally aa timetime laglag betweenbetween whenwhen resourceresource degradationdegradation starts and whenwhen itit isis noticed by the community. Organizing for sustainablesustainable use should be based on the perceived value of the resourceresource toto thethe community.community.

Some toolstools for organizingorganizing

A number ofof referencesreferences describedescribe how how toto organizeorganize communitiescommunities to managemanage their resourcesresources (see(see "For furtherfurther reading").reading"). TheThe toolstools includeinclude groupgroup meetings,meetings, landland useuse mapping mapping andand community community education.

Community meetingsmeetings

Repeated group interactioninteraction developsdevelops aa forumforum thatthat buildsbuilds cooperationcooperation andand commoncommon values.values. AsAs thisthis forum develops throughthrough repeatedrepeated meetings,meetings, sharedshared problemsproblems cancan bebe identifiedidentified andand discusseddiscussed andand possible solutions proposed. Depending onon an area's socialsocial normsnorms regardingregarding gendergender rolesroles andand public gatherings, specialspecial arrangements maymay bebe needed to ensureensure thatthat women'swomen's concernsconcerns areare represented in such forums.forums .

Land-use mapping

Mapping is a tangible tool that community groups frequently find useful in organizing themselves. Maps of locallocal landland useuse capturecapture geographicgeographic informationinformation thatthat communitiescommunities often need to assessassess efficiency of managementmanagement and planplan adjustments.adjustments. Chapter 2 explainedexplained howhow mappingmapping helpshelps inin inventories of non-wood forest resources.resources. MappingMapping cancan alsoalso help toto identifyidehtify potential conflicts in land-use claims before theythey become confrontations.confrontations. Furthermore, mapping can help forge a clear political and social identity for community members (Brown etet al.,al., 1995).1995). LocalLocal groupsgroups oftenoften cancan use maps toto planplan andand defenddefend theirtheir landland useuse withwith governmentgovernment agencies,agencies, fundingfunding organizationsorganizations andand credit institutions.institutions.

In somesome countries,countries, satellitesatellite imagesimages ofof localities localities areare availableavailable fromfrom governmentgovernment agenciesagencies inin chargecharge of cartographycartography oror naturalnatural resources.resources. UsingUsing imagesimages ofof particularparticular infraredinfrared bands,bands, communitiescommunities or supporting agencies can identify the forest and its bordersborders withwith communitycommunity oror householdhousehold clearings,clearings,

86 water courses, etc.etc. OnceOnce thesethese clearingsclearings areare identified,identified, residentsresidents can help in naming them and matching land-use units with thethe image.image.

Community education

Community educationeducation developsdevelops futurefuture capacitycapacity forfor informed participation.participation. InIn Colombia, for example, an NGONGO workedworked withwith conununitiesconununities near thethe LaLa PlanadaPlanada WildlifeWildlife Refuge to manage a curriculum forfor practicalpractical instructioninstruction onon community-scalecommunity-scale development and a mobile environmentalenvironmental educational unit. TheThe educationeducation waswas designeddesigned forfor adults,adults, children,children, indigenousindigenous AmerindiansAmerindians andand recent settlers (Poole,(Poole, 1989).1989). IfIf public public educationeducation successfullysuccessfully changes attitudesattitudes ofof thosethose inin and around the reservereserve (and(and inin thethe nationalnational government),government), itit can reducereduce the long-termlong-term costs of protecting an extractive reserve.reserve.

Where itit isis promoted byby anan outsideoutside organization,organization, publicpublic educationeducation efforts must avoid eroding local language and culture, forfor exampleexample byby providingproviding bilingualbilingual instructioninstruction. Efforts shouldshould achieveachieve technical and scientific advances that are inin tunetune withwith locallocal worldworld views,views, andand appropriateappropriate toto thethe student groups (IAITPTF,(lAITPTF, 1992).1992).

Organizing producers for marketingmarketing andand processingprocessing

Organizing groups toto marketmarket non-woodnon-wood products employs the same tools used in organizing for resource management or enterpriseenterprise formationformation (see Chapter 5).5) . Often,Often, aa sharedshared problemproblem providesprovides the focusfocus forfor groupgroup formation;formation; forfor example,example, aa desiredesire toto reducereduce unfairunfair treatmenttreatment fromfrom marketmarket intermediaries. In respectrespect ofof eacheach problem,problem, thethe newnew groupgroup shouldshould clarifyclarify (ATI,(A TI, 1994):1994):

• why thethe currentcurrent situationsituation isis unacceptable;unacceptable; • the root causes,causes, includingincluding those which are in the group's control;control; • options,options, obstaclesobstacles andand trade-offstrade-offs toto bebe consideredconsidered inin decidingdeciding howhow to changechange thethe situation;situation; • resources andand informationinformation neededneeded forfor individualindividual andand groupgroup action.action.

Experience from tree-growing and marketing cooperatives in IndiaIndia (Pati!,(Patil, 1992; see text box 88.1).1) suggests the following factors forfor ensuringensuring successsuccess ofof producers'producers' organizations:organizations:

• cooperative disciplinediscipline amongamong members.members. OftenOften this emerges from village or ethnic traditionstraditions of collectivecollective organization;organization;

• credible leadership.leadership . GroupGroup leadersleaders shouldshould havehave expertiseexpertise inin management,management, consensus-consensus­ building and entrepreneurship. TheyThey shouldshould alsoalso recognizerecognize the interests of poorer members;

• credible andand efficientefficient marketingmarketing sy,stem.system. AA group's marketing structure/arrangementstructure/arrangement mustmust ensure compensatory prices toto itsits members;members;

• appropriate technical supportsupport.. The groupgroup shouldshould havehave accessaccess toto enoughenough technicaltechnical knowledge to advise members andand toto enable them to make informed choices on species and products;

• pragmatic andand promptprompt institutionalinstitutional support.support. InIn particular,particular, producerproducer groupsgroups needneed toto findfind flexible credit sources.sources. InIn groups,groups, producersproducers areare betterbetter ableable toto negotiate negotiate customizedcustomized mechanisms for collateralcollateral guarantee,guarantee, forfor example.example. TheThe groupgroup shouldshould identifyidentify otherother groupsgroups with shared interests andand join withwith themthem to advocate for unbiased production incentives and harmonized regulations;regulations;

8.8 . OrganizingOrganizing producerproducer groupsgroups 87 • demonstrable success.success. ClearlyClearly observableobservable successsuccess inin aa resourceresource managementmanagement oror marketingmarketing strategy builds confidence in the group venture, ensures unified effort and makes members comfortable with justified risk-taking later.later. A groupgroup shouldshould carefullycarefully choosechoose itsits first activities for greatestgreatest chancechance ofof success.success.

Text boxbox 8.1:8.1: Tree-growingTree-growing cooperatives cooperatives inin IndiaIndia

The Agroforestry FederationFederation of Maharashtra,Maharashtra, based inin Nasik,Nasik, consistsconsists ofof 25 district-level tree-tree­ growers'growers cooperatives. cooperatives. ItIt provides provides marketing marketing andand technicaltechnical supportsupport toto itsits member member cooperativescooperatives and individual farmers, mainly for marketingmarketing eucalyptus wood and oil seeds ofof Jatrophacurcas.Jatropha curcas. To join a cooperative, farmers pay an entry fee of about US$US $ 100100 perper hectarehectare of landland they farm;farm; poor farmers pay aa reducedreduced fee of aboutabout US$US$ 55 perper ha.ha.

The Nasik Tree Growers'Growers' Cooperative Society obtains forfor its members aa 3030 toto 40 percent higher return than whatwhat theythey couldcould getget individually. individually. OtherOther benefitsbenefits toto membersmembers include:include:

• advice on market conditions at the district,district, region,region, andand nationalnational levelslevels • lower transportationtransportation costscosts throughthrough combinedcombined loadsloads • technical adviceadvice onon harvestharvest timingtiming andand methodsmethods • greater responsiveness to changes in regulations • economies of scale for storagestorage ofof produceproduce atat optimumoptimum locationslocations • collective bargainingbargaining andand eveneven cashcash advancesadvances during periods of storagestorage

The cooperative coordinates members' harvests forfor bulk transport and efficient useuse ofof labour.labour. Records documentdocument each member's harvests and the return.return. TheThe cooperativecooperative managesmanages a salessales depot, where productsproducts areare sorted byby severalseveral grades ofof quality and sold at a fixed price for eacheach grade. This standardizationstandardization benefitsbenefits members,members, whowho receivereceive US$US$ 80 80 perper tonne of produceproduce compared toto US$ 28 perper tonnetonne receivedreceived by individual farmers at auction. It alsoalso benefitsbenefits locallocal retail consumers. WholesaleWholesale traders have slowly adjusted to thethe reducedreduced profit marginsmargins resultingresulting from thisthis arrangementarrangement (Issar,(Issar, 1994).1994).

Organizing producers for processingprocessing ventures makes possible similarsimilar gainsgains forfor producers. In Xapuri, Brazil, producersproducers in 19901990 organizedorganized the firstfirst shellingshelling factory owned by Brazil nutnut collectors. CreditCredit arrangementsarrangements includedincluded US$ 60,000 forfor thethe factoryfactory plusplus salariessalaries forfor thethe factoryfactory manager andand technicaltechnical assistanceassistance (which(which inin manymany processingprocessing venturesventures costscosts moremore thanthan thethe facilitiesfacilities and equipment). TheThe factoryfactory hashas mademade aa tremendoustremendous differencedifference by (Clay and Clement, 1993):1993):

• reducing spoilage of thethe nuts;nuts; • eliminating intermediaries' profits;profits; • providing local employment; • dramatically increasing the price paid to nutnut collectors.collectors.

Organizing forfor conflict managementmanagement

Conflicting demandsdemands onon a resourceresource can emergeemerge whenwhen different groups compete forfor the samesame resource (for(for example,example, loggersloggers competingcompeting withwith gatherersgatherers ofof non-woodnon-wood products), or whenwhen peoplepeople interested in a resource areare unableunable toto participateparticipate inin managing. Such conflicts cancan occuroccur within a community, betweenbetween neighbouringneighbouring communities, or betweenbetween communities and outsiders.

Conflict management,management, alternativealternative disputedispute resolutionresolution andand resourceresource sharingsharing areare allall terms that refer to a strategy thatthat hashas developeddeveloped inin thethe lastlast fewfew decadesdecades asas aa wayway toto addressaddress conflictingconflicting claimsclaims overover natural resource use.use. ConflictConflict managementmanagement inin managingmanaging forestforest resourcesresources offersoffers aa meansmeans byby whichwhich community groups cancan peacefullypeacefully resolveresolve land-useland-use conflicts.conflicts.

88 DifferentDifferent societies have different ways for dealing withwith conflict.conflict. InIn conflictconflict management, the aim isis to reachreach aa mutuallymutually agreeableagreeable solutionsolution byby usingusing thethe institutionalinstitutional means available within that societysociety togethertogether with an understanding ofof the interests of everyone involved inin the conflict. In general,general, conflict management employs negotiation and/or mediation by a neutral third party using thethe followingfollowing principlesprinciples (Pendzich(Pendzich etet alal.,., 1994):1994):

• any attempt to resolve conflictingconflicting claims must includeinclude the informed participation of all whowho have a stake inin how thethe forestforest resourceresource is used;used;

• identify the true source of thethe conflicts. This permits a better understandingunderstanding of each party's interests and thethe incentivesincentives thatthat couldcould leadlead toto resolvingresolving thethe conflict;conflict;

• each side involvedinvolved inin negotiatingnegotiating a solutionsolution must believe that negotiating is in theirtheir bestbest interest and should do soso inin goodgood faith.faith.

The exampleexample inin thethe followingfollowing paragraphs,paragraphs, summarizedsummarized fromfrom VillarealVillareal (in(in PendzichPendzich op. cit.),cit.), illustratesillustrates thethe role andand importanceimportance ofof communitycommunity organization in resolving land-use disputes. It also shows how locallocal organizationsorganizations can develop from very littlelittle formalformal foundation.foundation. ChapterChapter 99 describes sources ofof technicaltechnical and informationinformation support that groups should seek and use to develop their strengths.strengths.

Example: Creation of the AwtlAwá IndianIndian territory inin Ecuador

The AwdAwa people inhabit a forestforest thatthat straddlesstraddles thethe borderborder betweenbetween Ecuador and Colombia.Colombia. In Ecuador, thethe Awds'Awas' biologicallybiologically richrich forestforest isis highlyhighly coveted by the surrounding communities ofof poor farmer groupsgroups andand lumberlumber andand miningmining companies.companies. In 19841984 a process known as Plan AwáAwa began to helphelp AwdAwa peoplepeople securesecure rightsrights toto thethe areaarea forfor theirtheir management. management.

Plan AwdAwa faced enormousenormous obstacles,obstacles, including:including:

• lack of formalformal AmidAwa organizationorganization fforor defendingdefending theirtheir rightsrights from outside threats;

• high illiteracy among AwdAwa (nearly 63 percentpercent,, compared to a national rate of 14.814.8 percent);

• competing claims on AwdAwa landslands byby poorpoor peasantpeasant communities,communities, commercialcommercial interests,interests, andand conflicting governmentgovernment interestsinterests (particularly(particularly forfor roadroad constructionconstruction andand mining);mining);

• lack of recognitionrecognition forfor thethe AwdA wa byby thethe nationalnational society,society, andand lacklack ofof socialsocial oror biophysicalbiophysical information;

• a tendency by the MOA wa toto abandonabandon theirtheir languagelanguage andand cultureculture inin thethe faceface ofof pressurespressures fromfrom the dominantdominant nationalnational society.society.

Yet despitedespite these,these, aa strategystrategy ofof conflict conflict management management andand gradualgradual organizationorganization by thethe AwáAwa successfully helped them toto securesecure theirtheir rightsrights toto managemanage thethe forest.forest.

A commissioncommission formedformed byby thethe EcuadorianEcuadorian governmentgovernment toto coordinatecoordinate support activity in thethe AwdAwa region,region, financedfinanced byby aa smallsmall grantgrant fromfrom thethe US-basedUS-based groupgroup CulturalCultural Survival,Survival, beganbegan toto developdevelop a planplan forfor conservingconserving andand developingdeveloping thethe AwdAwa region.region. TheThe firstfirst goalgoal waswas toto establish establish an an Awá. A wa IndianIndian territory,territory, withwith thethe longer-termlonger-term aimaim ofof conserving conserving thethe naturalnatural resourceresource andand alleviatingalleviating thethe poverty in thethe area.area.

8.8 . Organizing producerproducer groupsgroups 89 The NationalNational BoardBoard forfor CoordinationCoordination ofof IndianIndian NationsNations ofof EcuadorEcuador (CONACNIE),(CONACNIE), laterlater calledcalled the Federation ofof thethe IndianIndian NationsNations ofof Ecuador,Ecuador, becamebecame involved.involved. CONACNIECONACNIE providedprovided aa voicevoice of advocacyadvocacy for thethe AwáAwa andand helpedhelped toto guide guide the the communities communities towardtoward formingforming theirtheir ownown organization. Important elements and lessons from that five-year process are described below.

Prioritize aa strategy.strategy. PlanPlan Awá A wa identifiedidentified threethree priorities:priorities: (1)(1) generategenerate public and political support for recognitionrecognition of thethe Awá'sAwa's rights,rights, (2)(2) demarcatedemarcate andand gaingain legallegal appropriationappropriation ofof thethe IndianIndian territory andand (3)(3) strengthenstrengthen Aw6A wa capacitycapacity forfor participationparticipation inin thethe process.

Build institutional support.support. PlanPlan Awá Awa launchedlaunched aa campaigncampaign amongamong government agencies to include the project inin thethe strategiesstrategies forfor strongerstronger nationalnational sovereigntysovereignty inin borderborder regions.regions. ByBy identifyingidentifying thethe Plan with thisthis governmentgovernment goal, itit gainedgained supportsupport andand aa basisbasis forfor inter-agencyinter-agency cooperation.cooperation. AA census of thethe AwáAwa confirmedconfirmed anan overwhelmingoverwhelming majoritymajority liadhad been born inin EcuadorEcuador (counter(counter toto opposing arguments). ThisThis ledled toto stepssteps toto getget theirtheir citizenshipcitizenship officiallyofficially acknowledged.acknowledged.

Demarcate and gaingain legallegal appropriationappropriation ofof Awá Awd lands.lands. First,First, thethe commissioncommission outlinedoutlined the AwáAwa territory on aa mapmap inin itsits office. office .Correcting Correcting flawsflaws inin thatthat informationinformation requiredrequired twotwo yearsyears ofof fieldwork in difficult terrain.terrain.

During this time, thethe AwdAwa facedfaced fourfour mainmain conflictsconflicts over their land:land: (1)(1) withwith anan associationassociation ofof outside farmers, (2)(2) withwith aa pre-cooperative pre-cooperative ofof wealthy wealthy landowners,landowners, (3)(3) withwith lumberlumber companiescompanies and (4) withwith governmentgovernment inin creatingcreating aa basisbasis forfor anan IndianIndian territory.territory. InIn managingmanaging thesethese conflicts,conflicts, the AvidAwa learned to:to:

• define the source ofof conflict. conflict. InIn oneone case,case, AwáAwa preventedprevented neighbouringneighbouring cornmunitiescommunities fromfrom panning for goldgold inin AwdAwa landslands because the outsiders (liddid notnot abideabide byby AwaAwá rulesrules prohibitingprohibiting sale of timber,timber, animalsanimals oror fishfish inin outsideoutside markets.markets. TheThe twotwo sidessides satsat downdown withwith aa facilitatorfacilitator and defineddefined thethe problemproblem fromfrom bothboth perspectives.perspectives. They reached a solution in whichwhich thethe miners were allowedallowed to pan for goldgold onon AwáAwa landslands provided they abideabide byby AwaAwá rulesrules of resource use.use. ThisThis simplesimple solutionsolution avertedaverted anan escalationescalation ofof conflict; conflict;

• use thethe powerpower ofof information information inin anan unfavourableunfavourable negotiatingnegotiating environment.environment. WhenWhen timbertimber companies violatedviolated agreementagreement conditionsconditions ofof forestry forestry managementmanagement onon Amid A wa lands, thethe AwáA wa brought forthforth compellingcompelling documenteddocumented evidenceevidence ofof negativenegative impactimpact causedcaused byby companies'companies' activities on thethe region'sregion's ecosystems,ecosystems, exploitationexploitation of indigenousindigenous people, violations of national policies and blackmailblackmail of officials.officials. TheThe evidenceevidence convincedconvinced authoritiesauthorities toto suspendsuspend logging in thethe areaarea andand helpedhelped toto turnturn public public opinionopinion againstagainst thethe guiltyguilty companies;companies;

• separate conflicts.conflicts. ByBy dealingdealing withwith eacheach competingcompeting landland claimclaim inin separateseparate negotiations,negotiations, thethe AwdAwa achieved greater successsuccess than ifif theythey hadhad attemptedattempted to settlesettle allall atat once.once.

Strengthen Awd participation.participation. At the start,start, thethe AwáAwa hadhad nono clearlyclearly identifiableidentifiable leadersleaders andand nono process forfor involvinginvolving ailall ofof the the communitycommunity inin analyzing their problems, except for certain spiritualspiritual rites that gathered smallsmall groups.groups. TheThe non-Awánon-Awa commissioncommission members promoted large meetings of the AwáAwa Pre-federationPre-federation toto raiseraise awareness,awareness, build local capacity, andand provideprovide aa way forfor thethe commission to consultconsult withwith thethe Awá.A wa. TheThe ANAAwa developeddeveloped capacity for participating inin conflictconflict resolution by debating thethe needneed forfor formingforming aa representativerepresentative organization. This debate took place at thethe locallocal levellevel and and in in large large meetings meetings of ofthe the ANA/A. Awa Pre Pre-federation,-federation. In In thesethese meetings,meetings, a groupgroup decision emerged to defenddefend theirtheir landslands againstagainst competingcompeting claims, creating a focus and purposepurpose for theirtheir organization.organization. UntilUntil theirtheir ownown organizationalorganizational structurestructure developed,developed, theythey adoptedadopted thethe guardianship ofof CONACNIE,CONACNIE.

90 Later, thethe AwdAwa electedelected aa DirectorDirector forfor their their Pre-federation Pre-federation andand thethe organizationorganization developeddeveloped aa stronger parliamentaryparliamentary practice.practice. GraduallyGradually thethe AwdAwa populationpopulation recognizedrecognized thethe pre-Federation'spre-Federation's authority and itsits leadersleaders nono longerlonger reliedrelied onon thethe adviceadvice ofof intermediaries. intermediaries.

Summary

• Organize local groupsgroups toto provideprovide thethe NWFPNWFP producersproducers thethe benefitsbenefits ofof greatergreater economiceconomic leverage, betterbetter meansmeans forfor ensuringensuring wisewise forestforest managementmanagement andand moremore equitableequitable sharingsharing of benefitsbenefits fromfrom commercialcommercial enterprise.enterprise. OrganizingOrganizing isis easiereasier inin communitiescommunities wherewhere therethere is a clear groupgroup sensesense ofof identity,identity, patternspatterns ofof cooperative cooperative behaviourbehaviour and established rights to aa clearlyclearly boundedbounded resource.resource.

• Use the tools of regular groupgroup meetingsmeetings and mapping of local landland-use-use patternspatterns.. These can form a basisbasis forfor groupgroup planning,planning, actionaction andand dealingdealing withwith outsiders.outsiders.

• Depending onon the situation,situation, producers may first needneed toto organizeorganize toto obtainobtain harvestingharvesting rights.rights. WhereWhere locallocal organizationsorganizations areare notnot wellwell developed,developed, intermediariesintermediaries suchsuch asas NGOsNGOs may help the community build its own organization. Producer groups shouldshould develop good management skills and access to technicaltechnical information, training and resources.

References

ATI. 1994.1994. Selected coconut processing options for small-scalesmall-scale producers.producers. AppropriateAppropriate Technology InternationalInternational andand thethe UniversityUniversity ofof the the PhilippinesPhilippines atat LosLos BariosBanos (UPLB),(UPLB), Washington, D.C.D.C.

AATI.TI. 1995. Non-timberNon-timber forest productsproducts manual.manual. Draft version.version. Appropriate TechnologyTechnology International, Washington, D.C.

Brown, I.F., Alechandre,Alechandre, A.S.,A.S., Sassagawa,Sassagawa, H.S.Y.,H.S.Y., andand Aquino,Aquino, M.A.M.A. de.de. 1995. 1995. EmpoweringEmpowering local communities in land-useland-use management: the Chico MendesMendes ExtractiveExtractive Reserve,Reserve, Acre, Brazil. Cultural SurvivalSurvival QuarterlyQuarterly WinterWinter 1995:54-57.1995: 54-57.

IAITPTF. 1992.1992. CharterCharter ofof the the indigenous-tribal indigenous-tribal peoplespeoples ofof thethe tropicaltropical forests.forests. InternationalInternational Alliance of thethe Indigenous-TribalIndigenous-Tribal Peoples of thethe TropicalTropical Forests,Forests, Penang,Penang, Malaysia.Malaysia.

Issar, R.R. 1994.1994. DevelopmentDevelopment ofof market market intelligenceintelligence andand infrastructureinfrastructure forfor agroforestryagroforestry inin India.India. In Raintree, J.B.,] .B., andand Francisco,Francisco, H.A.,H.A., eds., eds., Marketing Marketing of of multipurpose multipurpose treetree productsproducts inin Asia.Asia. Winrock International,International, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Pati!,Patil, V. 1992.1992. FarmFarm forestryforestry cooperativescooperatives inin Maharashtra:Maharashtra: reasons for success andand failure.failure. In Taylor, D.D .A.,A., ed.,ed., NGOs NGOs and and tree-growing tree-growing programs.. programs: working working betweenbetween farmers andand governments. governments. Winrock-IDRC-FAO/RAPA, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Pendzich, C., Thomas,Thomas, G.,G., and and Wohlgenant, Wohlgenant, T.T. 1994.1994 .The The rolerole ofof alternative alternative conflictconflict management inin community forestry. forestry. Forests,Forests, TreesTrees andand PeoplePeople ProgrammeProgramme II II WorkingWorking Paper Paper No. No. 1. FAO, Rome. (Contains TheThe creation ofof the AvidAwa Indian TerritoryTerritory -- Ecuador,Ecuador, byby CarlosCarlos Villarreal,Villarreal, 1993.)1993.)

Poole, P.J.P.]. 1989.1989. DevelopingDeveloping a partnership ofof indigenous indigenous peoples, conservationists, and land-use planners inin LatinLatin America.America. EnvironmentEnvironment Policy,Policy, PlanningPlanning and ResearchResearch Working Paper. WorldWorld Bank, Washington, DD.C..C.

8.8. Organizing producer groupsgroups 91 For further readingreading

Clay, J.W. andand Clement,Clement, C.R.C.R. 1993.1993 .Selected Selected speciesspecies andand strategiesstrategies toto enhanceenhance incomeincome generation from Amazonian forests. forests. ForestryForestry Working PaperPaper FO:Misc/93/6.FO:Misc/93/6. FAO, Rome.Rome.

Davis, R., andand Dunn,Dunn, W.W. 1994.1994. Report Report ofof the the international international workshopworkshop on naturalnatural resourceresource management onon tribaltribal lands, January 1994.1994. USUS ForestForest Service,Service, Washington,Washington, D.CD.C..

FAO. 1990.1990. TheThe community'scommunity's toolbox..toolbox: thethe idea, methods and tools forfor participatory assessment,assessment, monitoring and evaluationevaluation inin communitycommunity forestry.forestry. CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry ManualManual No.2.No. 2. FAO,FAO, Rome · (English-French-Spanish).

Fisher, R.J.R.J. 1994.1994. IndigenousIndigenous forestforest managementmanagement inin Nepal: why common propertyproperty isis not a problem. In Allen,Allen, M.,M., ed., ed., Anthropology Anthropology ofof Nepal: Nepal: people,people, problemsproblems andand processes.processes. MandalaMandala Book Point, Kathmandu.Kathmandu.

92 ResearchResearch andand extensionextension 9

In thisthis chapterchapter andand thethe next,next, thethe focusfocus shiftsshifts fromfrom locallocal producers'producers' activitiesactlvitles to thethe kindskinds ofof technical support, infrastructureinfrastructure andand policypolicy thatthat cancan meetmeet theirtheir needs.needs. TheseThese twotwo chapterschapters areare thusthus intendedintended primarily for researchers andand policy-makers,policy-makers, andand describe approaches by which they can collaborate with locallocal producersproducers toto improveimprove forestforest management.management.

Although research on non-woodnon-wood forest resources andand products is growing, thisthis fieldfield stillstill receivesreceives little support inin most national institutes. In an informal survey in thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific region,region, lessless thanthan 4 percent ofof forestryforestry researchersresearchers citedcited NWFPsNWFPs asas anan areaarea ofof their their specializationspecialization (Nair,(Nair, 1995).1995). Less than 1717 percentpercent ofof 137137 researchresearch institutionsinstitutions responding toto a separate FAO survey in thatthat region cited NWFPsNWFPs asas aa prioritypriority areaarea of of research. research. Among Among institutions institutions workingworking onon non-wood non-wood products, coveragecoverage isis extremelyextremely skewedskewed towardtoward majormajor internationalinternational commodities.commodities.

The scarcity ofof researchresearch resourcesresources dedicateddedicated toto non-woodnon-wood resourceresource managementmanagement makesmakes itit essentialessential to involveinvolve locallocal producersproducers inin focusingfocusing onon thethe mostmost urgenturgent problemsproblems and thethe searchsearch forfor technicaltechnical solutions. This isis anan opportunityopportunity forfor innovativeinnovative partnershipspartnerships between researchers and producer-producer­ clients, andand amongamong governmentgovernment agencies, NGOsNGOs and the private sector.

Involving producersproducers inin problem-solvingproblem-solving researchresearch

Collaboration betweenbetween locallocal groupsgroups andand supportingsupporting agenciesagencies startsstarts byby clearlyclearly recognizingrecognizing thatthat locallocal producers areare thethe clientsclients ofof research research andand partnerspartners inin managingmanaging thethe resource.resource. ScientistsScientists conductingconducting research on ruralrural areasareas shouldshould makemake itit aa pointpoint toto consultconsult withwith ruralrural peoplepeople toto identifyidentify problemsproblems or priorities.priorities. InIn thisthis regard,regard, researchers researchers cancan facilitatefacilitate discussion,discussion, but shouldshould bebe attunedattuned toto producers' pointspoints andand refrainrefrain fromfrom imposingimposing theirtheir ownown professional interests.interests. (See(See "For further reading" on rapid ruralrural appraisal,appraisal, followingfollowing Chapter 3.)

Scientists should alsoalso review the literature for existing research findingsfindings thatthat mightmight relaterelate toto the communities' problems, and identifyidentify gaps wherewhere small-scalesmall-scale studies could lead to potentialpotential solutions. In situationssituations wherewhere thethe prioritiespriorities areare socio-economicsocio-economic inin naturenature itit couldcould bebe beneficialbeneficial toto involve sociologists and economists inin definingdefining researchresearch problemsproblems andand approaches.approaches.

In building the researcher-producer collaboration, producersproducers shouldshould be involved in data collection and analyzing observations (for example, inin harvest assessmentsassessments as in Chapter 2).2). Public-privatePublic-private coalitions can help supplysupply communitiescommunities with support services for buildingbuilding local capacitycapacity forfor adaptive research, andand influencinginfluencing policypolicy decisions.decisions.

Technical support shouldshould aimaim toto buildbuild locallocal capacitycapacity to thethe point where local groups cancan conductconduct their own studiesstudies onon topicstopics thatthat serveserve theirtheir interestsinterests (see(see texttext boxbox 9.1).9.1).

National research efforts

Adaptive research dependsdepends onon high-qualityhigh-quality supportsupport fromfrom nationalnational andand sub-nationalsub-national researchresearch institutes. The resourcesresources dedicated to researchresearch related to NWFPsNWFPs areare extremelyextremely limited.limited. TheThe research that is underwayunderway can bebe generallygenerally categorized as (Nair, op. cit.):cit.):

• status surveyssurveys toto gaugegauge thethe understanding,understanding, usesuses andand availabilityavailability ofof variousvarious productsproducts (including ethnobotanicalethnobotanical studies);studies);

9. ResearchResearch andand extensionextension 93 Text box 9.1:9.1: Locallocal research research capacity capacity in in CanadaCanada

In 1982, thethe MakivikMakivik Research Research LaboratoryLaboratory inin Kuujjuac,Kuujjuac, Arctic Quebec,Quebec, camecame about as a resultresult of thethe InuitInuit LandLand .Claim Claim Settlement.Settlement. ItsIts objectivesobjectives were were to:

• develop indigehOusscientificcapacityindigenous scientific capacity for conductingconducting wildlife researchresearch andand management,management, . incorporating ·locallocaJknowledge; knowledge;

• collect, .analyze analyze and disseminatedisseminate relevant scientific and technical inforrnationinformation to InuitInuit communities;

• provide aa base fOltrainingfor training InuitInuitcommunitiesinwildlife communities in wildlife research research andand management;management;

• provide an information centrecentre onon. environmental enviJonmentaland and wildlifewildlife research research andand managementmanagement issues.issues.

Now calledcalled thethe KuujjuacKuujjuac ResearchResearch Centre, it monitorsmonitors subsistencesubsistence andand commercialcommercial fisheries, conducts>communityharveststudiesconducts community harvest studies toto recordrecord individual huntershunters' takestakes andand assesses populationspopulations of salmon, ducksducks andand caribou.caribou. The centrecentre producesproduces managementrnanagement manualsmanuals inin EnglishEnglish andand inin thethe local language. Staffed . byby non-Inuitnon-Inuit scientificscientific instructorsinstructors andand InuitInuit manager/technicians, manager/technicians, thethe centre · has trained youngyoung Inuit toto conductconduct field field measurements, measurements, laboratorylaboratory analysisanalysis andand rnap-map­ making.

Inuit-conductedInuit-.conductedfield field surveyssurveys ofof eidereider duckduck havehave produced valuable informationinformation on environmental impact and seasonalseasonaLchangesinpatternsotwildlife changes in patterns of wildlife harvest. Study results are entered intointo a computer-based geographic information system (GIS). Current informationinformation technologiestechnologies are well­well- suited toto suchsuch locallocaL research research efforts.

TVIanyMany developing developing countries countries could could benefit benefit by by sharing sharing with with Inuit researchers theirtheir expertise in capacity-buildin~landlocalresearchcapacity-building and local research (Poole,19.8.9;.1993).(Poole, 1989; 1993).

• technology developmentdevelopment studiesstudies for better production (including domesticationdomestication ofof commercial species),species), utilizationutilization andand processing;processing;

• socio-economic studies, includingincluding marketingmarketing..

Of these,these, socio-economicsocio-economic studies tend to suffersuffer rnostmost neglect,neglect, withwith marketmarket researchresearch severelyseverely lackinglacking.. Information onon trading channels andand pricingpricing atat eacheach stagestage inin the chain - informationinformation which would greatly enhance producers' bargaining power - isis rarelyrarely available.available. Because Because of this, many developing countries forfeitforfeit aa sizablesizable advantageadvantage to industrializedindustrialized countries that importimport rawraw materials.

National research bodiesbodies shouldshould seekseek toto addressaddress otherother imbalancesimbalances in the current research situation,situation, including (Nair, 1995):1995):

• neglect ofo/traditional traditional sector.sector. ResearchResearch agendasagendas tendtend toto bebe determineddetermined by nationalnational economic development goalsgoals (vs.(vs. actual locallocal use).use). For NWFPs, this can skew research away from sustainable systems for locallocal subsistencesubsistence and locallocal markets;markets;

• over-emphasis on commercialcommercial products and under-emphasisunder-emphasis on sustainablesustainable productionproduction systems. Most researchresearch hashas understandablyunderstandably focusedfocused on improvingimproving commercial production, often using the modelmodel ofof thethe plantationplantation system.system. HoweverHowever support services could better appreciate all options and resource potentials if the goal were a moremore self-sufficientself-sufficient rural system that optimizesoptimizes subsistencesubsistence with marketablemarketable surplus;surplus;

9494 (.0(0

:0 (!) CD cnen CD(!) IIIo :::T III ::J 0..ta.

(!)CD X.... CD(!) ::J COen o· 7::J

12. Wild animalanimal farming can provide off-farm incomeincome to farmers,farmers , likelike inin thethe 13. Mangrove ecosystems areare habitathabitat forfor a great varietyvariety of marinemarine life,life, andand case ofof this deerdeer farming inin Thailand.Thailand. (Photo:(Photo: M.M. Kashio)Kashio) provide many NWFPs.NWFPs. (Photo:(Photo: C.C. Chandrasekharan)Chandrasekharan)

(0 1414.. InIn drylands of NorthernNorthern Peru,Peru, the leguminousleguminous speciesspecies Prosopis pal/idapallida is 15. Local management for NWFPs hashas increasedincreased thethe diversitydiversity and distribution U1 also anan importantimportant sourcesource forfor honeyhoney productionproduction fromfrom its flowersflowers (Photo:(Photo: T.T. Frisk)Frisk) ofof products like in the casecase of durian,durian, inin WestWest Sumatra.Sumatra. (Photo:(Photo: dede Foresta)Foresta) • lacklack ofof problem-solvingproblem-solving orientation. Research tendstends to focusfocus almostalmost exclusivelyexclusively on increasingincreasing production. As a result,result, muchmuch nationalnational research neglects producers' importantimportant questions, such as: HowHow toto bestbest managemanage forestforest resourcesresources forfor multiplemultiple uses?uses? HowHow to select bestbest alternative from processingprocessing options?options? What dynamics affect product markets?

• lacklack of linkages between institutions. This results in unnecessary duplication ofof research and under-utilization of research findings.

Research organizations need clear goals for assigningassigning priorities. SuchSuch a priority systemsystem shouldshould employ criteria of usefulnessusefulness ofof researchresearch resultsresults andand responsivenessresponsiveness of itit toto problemsproblems perceivedperceived by producers.

Responding to farmers' problemsproblems andand theirtheir complexcomplex trade-offstrade-offs requiresrequires moremore cross-disciplinarycross-disciplinary thinking. It alsoalso requiresrequires moremore linkageslinkages likelike thosethose fosteredfostered throughthrough thethe consortiumsconsortiums describeddescribed below.

For researchresearch findingsfindings to bebe moremore applicable,applicable, theythey needneed toto bebe availableavailable toto thethe communitiescommunities thatthat need them. Local-languageLocal-language abstracts and manuals are essential toto reach rural audiences.audiences. ShortShort radio and televisiontelevision programmesprogrammes can alsoalso bebe cost-effectivecost-effective ways of communicatingcommunicating with rural groups (Mody, 1991).1991).

National extensionextension servicesservices

At oneone time,time, forestforest servicesservices inin manymany countriescountries hadhad mainlymainly anan enforcementenforcement role. ForestersForesters protected state-owned forests and this waswas donedone throughthrough aa systemsystem ofof finesfines andand penalties.penalties. Now,Now, however, foresters inin somesome casescases havehave assumedassumed thethe rolerole ofof extension extension workers,workers, helpinghelping farmersfarmers to adapt technologicaltechnological innovationsinnovations from research.

This shift isis improvingimproving thethe relationshiprelationship betweenbetween forestforest servicesservices andand ruralrural communitiescommunities inin manymany countries. In thisthis newnew role,role, forestersforesters workwork withwith communitiescommunities as partnerspartners andand advisorsadvisors inin forestforest management, ratherrather than asas adversaries.adversaries. ForestersForesters areare becomingbecoming extensionextension workers also inin agroforestry, whichwhich previouslypreviously waswas leftleft neglectedneglected inin betweenbetween agricultureagriculture andand forestry.forestry.

Besides technology transfer, forestry'sforestry's rapid rapid evolution evolution has has involvedinvolved fieldfield forestersforesters inin documentingdocumenting indigenous technologies, developingdeveloping newnew technicaltechnical solutions with farmers, communicating policiespolicies and resolving land-use conflicts. FieldField forestersforesters nownow needneed toto understandunderstand disciplines that earlier generations of foresters diddid not,not, includingincluding anthropology, economics and conflictconflict resolution.resolution. When forestry projects beganbegan using terms like people's participation andand communitycommunity organizing,organizing, neither forestry officialsofficials nor villagersvillagers knewknew what they meant (Shrestha, 1993). Table 9.1 shows several ways of providingproviding thethe neededneeded trainingtraining forfor forestersforesters inin thethe areaarea ofof NWFPs.NWFPs.

This gap between whatwhat forestryforestry trainingtraining schoolsschools havehave traditionallytraditionally offeredoffered andand whatwhat fieldfield forestersforesters now needneed createscreates aa tremendoustremendous challengechallenge andand somesome confusion.confusion. InIn thisthis transition,transition, non-woodnon-wood products have generally sufferedsuffered neglect, but the transition itself signals betterbetter prospectsprospects thatthat ruralrural producers willwill receivereceive thethe typetype ofof technical technical supportsupport thatthat non-woodnon-wood forestforest enterprisesenterprises require.require.

Training centres, suchsuch asas thethe RegionalRegional CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry TrainingTraining Centre inin Thailand,Thailand, areare equipping field foresters with newnew toolstools ofof rapidrapid ruralrural appraisalappraisal andand techniquestechniques forfor conflictconflict resolutionresolution and market research.research. These skills make them better able to supportsupport the rangerange ofof activities involvedinvolved inin developingdeveloping allall forestforest resources,resources, including including non-wood non-wood products.products.

96 Table 9.1:9.1: SuggestionsSuggestions forfor enhancingenhancing forestryforestry educationeducation andand trainingtraining inin NWFPsNWFPs

Education/ Training Suggestions Level

Specialization Increase the areas of specializationspecialization to include NWFP topics and interrelationships Promote research related to NWFPsNWFPs inin universitiesuniversities Support multidisciplinary approaches and programmes inin specializationsspecializations Encourage pre- and in-servicein-service specializations in NWFP areas

Pre-Service Incorporate relevant NWFPNWFP topicstopics Professional/ Establish facilities for teaching NWFP-related subjectssubjects,, including materials, Managerial improved methods and qualifiedqualified teachersteachers Widen the base for studentstudent selection,selection, allowingallowing diversediverse skillsskills intointo forestryforestry As part of instruction,instruction, incorporateincorporate NWFPs in planningplanning and policy analysis at thethe sectoral level and in studiesstudies related toto inter-sectoralinter-sectoral linkageslinkages

Establish new facilities for training in aspectsaspects ofof NWFPNWFP managementmanagement andand Technical and utilizationutilization,, and for specific products in the area VocVocationalational Improve existing facilities in polytechnic institutesinstitutes andand forestryforestry schools, incorporate courses on NWFPsNWFPs

In-Service Professional/ Upgrade training to keep up withwith technicaltechnical andand methodologicalmethodological developments Managerial Refresher training

Technical and Short training programmes onon specific aspectsaspects ofof NWFP or technology related to VocVocationalational specific non-wood products Retraining in the use of toolstools andand techniquestechniques

Extension and Public Strengthen the system of extensionextension andand informationinformation disseminationdissemination includingincluding Information materials and methods related toto conservationconservation andand sustainablesustainable development,development, cultivation andand management,management, harvesting,harvesting, processing,processing, marketingmarketing andand tradetrade ofof NWFPsNWFPs.. Target groupsgroups includeinclude rural producer groups, processors,processors, tradingtrading organizations andand academicacademic communitycommunity

(Chandrasekharan, 1993)1993)

National programmes inin countries such as ZimbabweZimbabwe and Indonesia are addressing the gapgap between conventional trainingtraining andand practical needs in collaborationcollaboration with NGOsNGOs thatthat havehave experience in providing training in these areas (see text box 9.2).

Consortiums forfor researchresearch andand trainingtraining

Consortiums of public andand privateprivate institutionsinstitutions have emerged in recentrecent yearsyears asas powerfulpowerful forcesforces for linking ruralrural producersproducers toto thethe technicaltechnical informationinformation they can use to better manage theirtheir natural resources.

These consortiums havehave emergedemerged inin variousvarious ways.ways. InIn thethe Philippines,Philippines, thethe UplandUpland NGONGO AssistanceAssistance Committee (UNAC) resulted from a 19901990 meeting of organizations onon Problems andand IssuesIssues ofof Upland Development. Member groups includedincluded NG0s,NGOs, professionalprofessional organizationsorganizations ofof businessbusiness people and lawyers,lawyers, fourfour universityuniversity institutionsinstitutions andand aa governmentgovernment agency.agency. TheThe discussionsdiscussions atat thethe 1990 meeting identified three major priority areasareas forfor uplandupland farmers:farmers: agroforestryagroforestry (including(including technical information, transfer of skillsskills andand financialfinancial resources),resources), landland tenure,tenure, andand marketingmarketing (including producers'producers' organizationsorganizations and post-harvest technology). TheseThese threethree areasareas became the

9. ResearchResearch andand extensionextension 97 basis for UNAC'sUNAC's agenda.agenda. UNAC'sUNAC's members members identifiedidentified theirtheir relativerelative strengthsstrengths forfor training,training, information andand researchresearch support.support. TheThe lawyerslawyers associationassociation developeddeveloped trainingtraining for NGOsNGOs onon land-land­ tenure issues;issues; thethe businessbusiness people'speople's foundationfoundation providedprovided trainingtraining inin entrepreneurshipentrepreneurship andand management.

In addition to collaborative research and training, UNAC provides a forum for grassroots dialogue with government officials. TheseThese activities, coordinated by UNAC, received funding support from international development agencies (Bafiez,(Banez, 1992).

The consortiumconsortium approachapproach hashas alsoalso provenproven successful successful forfor supporting supporting community-based community-based wildlifewildlife management in ZimbabweZimbabwe (see texttext boxbox 10.2)10.2) andand elsewhere.elsewhere.

As theythey develop,develop, thesethese consortiumsconsortiums sometimessometimes discover the need to createcreate provincialprovincial oror statestate subgroups to provide training to communities andand groupsgroups farfar fromfrom national centrescentres.. The state or provincial level is the crucialcrucial oneone forfor policypolicy andand programmeprogramme implementation.implementation. It is alsoalso thethe levellevel where ecological differences can bebe clearlyclearly recognisedrecognised (Haeruman,(Haeruman, 1995).1995).

Scope for regionalregional andand internationalinternational researchresearch

Collaboration among neighbouring countriescountries cancan give a boost to nationalnational and privateprivate research.research. This collaboration can:can:

• distribute the costcost ofof researchresearch amongamong thethe clientclient countries;countries; • reduce duplication of researchresearch effort;effort; • foster collaboration in other areas,areas, suchsuch asas policypolicy readjustmentreadjustment andand communicationcommunication of results.

Regional centres ofof excellenceexcellence couldcould emergeemerge from from amongamong existingexisting researchresearch institutions.institutions. WithWith supplemental resourcesresources from donors andand membermember governments,governments, thesethese cancan developdevelop regionallyregionally appropriate inventoryinventory methods,methods, processingprocessing techniquestechniques and/orand/or marketmarket researchresearch studies.studies. TheyThey couldcould also be focal points for North-SouthNorth-South transfer of sophisticatedsophisticated technologies, such asas those used in bioprospecting for pharmaceuticalpharmaceutical products inin CostaCosta RicaRica (FAO,(FAO, 1995).1995).

International research centres inin thethe ConsultativeConsultative Group for InternationalInternational Agricultural Research (CGIAR) have a mandatemandate toto workwork throughthrough regionalregional researchresearch networks.networks. TheseThese could could delegatedelegate regional studies to nationalnational researchresearch institutionsinstitutions based on a review of eacheach institution'sinstitution's relativerelative strengths. International developmentdevelopment agencies agencies should should seriously seriously consider consider support support forfor suchsuch networking arrangements.

International organizations couldcould supportsupport non-woodnon-wood forestforest resourceresource developmentdevelopment by:by:

• compiling and disseminating directories ofof available databases on non-wood forestforest resource development (including marketing and processing) and environmentalenvironmental dimensions;

• funding researchresearch onon methodologiesmethodologies forfor internalizinginternalizing environmental costscosts andand benefitsbenefits ofof developing forest resources, andand forfor conductingconducting cost-effectivecost-effective inventories ofof plant and animal resources, asas wellwell asas ecotourismecotourism options;options;

• refining policy guidelines and policy-relatedpolicy-related linkages,linkages, includingincluding effortsefforts forfor classifyingclassifying NWFPs inin internationalinternational systemssystems ofof statisticsstatistics andand systemssystems of nationalnational accounts.accounts.

98 ...... A number of industrialized countries are Text box 9.2:9.2: In"serviceIn-service training forfor A number industrializedcountriesare foresters inin IndonesiaIndonesia providing specialized bilateral technicaltechnical and networking supportsupport for NWFPNWFP developmentdevelopment PerumPerum Perhutani,Perhutani, a State ForestForest Enterprise,Enterprise, (Doran, 1995).1995). managesmanages forestforest areas illin Java,lndonesia,ltJava, Indonesia. It also managesmanages manymanynon non-vvood-wobd enterpriSes>enterprises SomeSome prioritypriority researchresearch areasareas that produceproduce silk, turpentine,turpentine, medicinalmedicinal extracts andand honey.honey. InIn thethe .. mid-1980s,ffiid."1980s, While priorities forfor technical support and PerhutaniPerhutani recognized thethe needloneed to lin~f()restlink forest technicalsupportand managementwithirnprovedmanagement with irnproved opportunitiesopportunities research vary with locallocal needs,needs, thethe followingfollowing for nearby communities. PerhutaniPerhutani launched general priorities emerged at thethe internationalinternational aa programme called Java SocialSoclaLForestry, Forestry, Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest whichwhich involves communitiescommunitiesrnore more activelyactively Products held in YYogyakarta,ogyakarta, Indonesia inin inin forestforest management throughthrough forestfarmerforest farmer January 1995 (FAO, 1995):1995): groups. Forest farmer..farmer groups work with field forestersforesters toto ..improve improve communitycommunity self-self­ • develop mechanisms forfor involvinginvolving locallocal reliancereliance and income. producers/stakeholders in planning, InIn launching JavaJava Social Forestry, thethe implementing andand monitoringmonitoring researchresearch on IndonesianIndonesian government had to grapple with NWFPs. These should reward local the obstacleobstacle ofof earlier.earlier forest-useforest-use conflictsconflicts ..•. technical know-how andand facilitate its between PerhutaniPerhutani andand communities.communities. In refinement; 1986,1986, PerhutaniPerhutani engagedengaged aa nationalnational NGO,NGO, Bina Swadaya, toto provide training forfor its • document and disseminate fast-fast­ field forestersforesters inin communitycommunity development.development. disappearing local knowledge ofof non-wood The coursescourses instructed fieldfield forestersforesters inin rapidrapid rural appraisal and designdesign of resources; community projects.projects. Other coursescourses for forest farmerfarmer groups,groups, forestforest guardsguards andand • conduct inventories of non-woodnon-wood forestforest foremen, and administrationadrninistration assistants resources and practices governing covered topics of organizing farmers' production, processing andand marketing;marketing; groups forfor self-sufficiency,self-sufficiency I community motivation andand managementmanagement proceduresprocedures • increase product quality throughthrough betterbetter (Yuniati, 1993). harvesting, processing and handling, andand identifyidentify opportunities for locallocal processing;

• study managementmanagement systemssystems and theirtheir environmentalenvironmental and socio-economicsocio-economic impacts on local communities;

• improve methodology for valuation ofof all benefits of NWFPs and theirtheir tradetrade inin informalinformal and formal markets;markets;

• pay moremore attentionattention toto socio-economic,socio-economic, cultural cultural and and spiritual spiritual issues issues associated associated with with NVVFPs NWFPs in all areas,areas, includingincluding marketingmarketing andand technology;technology;

• communicate research findings to producers andand otherother interestedinterested partiesparties inin local-languagelocal-language formats.

For betterbetter research-policyresearch-policy linkages,linkages, marketmarket researchers,researchers, forfor example,example, needneed aa clearclear ideaidea ofof policy- policy­ makers' prioritiespriorities andand shouldshould reviewreview thesethese inin anan iterativeiterative way.way. EmpiricalEmpirical toolstools ofof rapidrapid appraisalappraisal can makemake marketmarket studiesstudies moremore situation-specificsituation-specific and valuable for policypolicy (Vosti and Witcover,Witcover, 1995).

At the Expert ConsultationConsultation inin Indonesia,Indonesia, thethe followingfollowing emergedemerged asas importantimportant regionalregional needsneeds (FAO(FAO op. cit.):cit.):

9. ResearchResearch andand extensionextension 99 Asia-Pacific

• Conduct research on local (formal(formal and informal),informal), nationalnational and regional markets;

• study technologies for improvedimproved naturalnatural regenerationregeneration and sustainablesustainable cultivation of keykey species identified through assessmentsassessments of communitycommunity perceptions, biologicalbiological amenabilityamenability and market demand;demand;

• translate research abstracts and relevant manuals intointo locallocal languageslanguages forfor useuse by locallocal producers;

• use geographicgeographic informationinformation systems (GIS) to mapmap resourceresource patternspatterns andand toto coordinatecoordinate research;

• inin Asia-Pacific (and other regions), an overriding equity issueissue isis thethe need forfor greater local involvementinvolvement inin decisions on resource management. Policy research should address means for gaininggaining greatergreater locallocal participationparticipation inin thesethese decisionsdecisions andand implementation,implementation, includingincluding tenure policies.policies.

Some of thethe plantplant speciesspecies ofof regional regional importanceimportance forfor NWFPsNWFPs inin Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific areare ArtocarpusArtocarpus heterophyllus, Acacia catechu, A.A. nilotica,nilotica, AegleAegle marmelos, Azadirachta indica,indica, Bambusa spp., Calamus spp., Ceiba pentandra,pentandra, Cinnamomum sppspp.,., DendrocalamusDendrocalanzus spp., Diospyros melanoxylon, JuglansJuglans regia, MadhucaMadhuca spp.,spp., MorchellaMorchella spp.,spp., MoringaMoringa oleifera,oleifera, NepheliumNephelium lappaceum, Nypafruticans,Nypa!ruticans, ParkiaParkia speciosa,speciosa, PinusPinus roxburghii, Pterocarpus spp., Shorea robusta, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia spp.,spp., ToonaToona ciliataciliata andand ZizyphusZizyphus spp.spp. (Durst et al.al.,, 1994).1994).

Latin AmericaAmerica

• Forest productsproducts harvestedharvested fromfrom thethe wildwild havehave beenbeen subjectedsubjected to internationalinternational market boom-boom­ bust patterns,patterns, causingcausing destructiondestruction ofof resourcesresources andand cultures.cultures. ImprovedImproved classificationclassification of these products cancan facilitatefacilitate betterbetter marketingmarketing studiesstudies at the national and international levels;levels;

• develop more appropriateappropriate harvestingharvesting and processingprocessing options for addingadding valuevalue locally,locally, perhaps throughthrough South-SouthSouth-South cooperation;cooperation;

• ethnobotanical studies should further exploreexplore thethe region'sregion's richrich indigenous indigenous knowledgeknowledge systems as a basisbasis forfor integrated,integrated, sustainablesustainable managementmanagement ofof non-woodnon-wood forestforest resources.resources.

See Table 7.3 forfor aa partialpartial listlist ofof important important NWFPNWFP speciesspecies inin LatinLatin America.America.

Africa

• Conduct research on grazing/pastoral andand wildlife systems, which are particularlyparticularly important in the region;

• the fragilityfragility ofof semi-aridsemi-arid ecosystemsecosystems inin AfricaAfrica makemake itit importantimportant forfor researchresearch toto improveimprove strategies for avoidingavoiding risk,risk, bothboth economiceconomic andand environmental;environmental;

• Africa has a proportionatelyproportionately larger rural population thanthan otherother regions,regions, reliying moremore onon subsistence usesuses of NWFPsNWFPs thanthan onon marketingmarketing thethe products.products. ResearchResearch studiesstudies shouldshould recognize this inin assigningassigning priority;priority;

100 • research should not assume privatization ofof resources,resources, as common property regimes are widespread inin Africa.Africa.

Some of the plantplant speciesspecies of regionalregional importanceimportance forfor NWFPs in West Africa are AfteliaAfzelia spp.,spp., Alchornea spp.,spp., Anacardium occidentale,occidentale, BrachystegiaBrachystegia spp., spp., CeibaCeiba pentandra, pentandra, ColaCola spp.,spp., Elaeis guineensis,guineensis , Ficus spp., GarciniaGarcinia spp.,spp., IrvingiaIrvingia gabonensis,gabonensis, GnetumGnetum spp., MaesobotryaMaesobotrya spp., Monodora spp., ParkiaParkia spp.,spp., Pterocarpus Pterocarpus spp., spp., Tamarindus Tamarindus indica indica and and TerminaliaTerminalia spp.spp. (Falconer,(Falconer, 1990)1990)..

Gender-sensitive research and extension

Research and extension efforts can show greater impactimpact if they consider the effect of gendergender onon activities related to NWFPs. IfIf a a programme'sprogramme's designdesign givesgives fullfull weightweight toto gendergender considerations,considerations, its implementation will moremore likelylikely supportsupport women'swomen's actualactual rolesroles as as NWFP NWFP producers, producers, processors,processors, traders and household food providers. ForFor instance,instance, womenwomen often notice pest and insect damage earlier than men,men, whowho areare sometimessometimes involvedinvolved onlyonly inin harvestingharvesting and planting (Stoney, 1992).1992). InIn that case, aa programmeprogramme thatthat aimsaims toto improveimprove monitoringmonitoring ofof plant plant healthhealth wouldwould showshow bestbest resultsresults if it identifiedidentified women as a targettarget group.

GenderGender-sensitive-sensitive researchresearch cancan alsoalso help to selectselect speciesspecies oror croppingcropping systemssystems thatthat minimizeminimize additional drain onon householdhousehold resources.resources. In notingnoting desireddesired plantplant traits,traits, plant-breeding programmes should seek the preferences of women and men, and understand who is responsible for harvesting, processing and trade (see text box in 3.2).3.2).

Designing gender-sensitive research research requires requires researchers researchers to to be be awareaware ofof cultural barriers toto women's participationparticipation inin researchresearch studies.studies. ForFor example,example, restrictionsrestrictions onon malemale fieldfield workers' abilityability to interviewinterview ruralrural womenwomen frequentlyfrequently makesmakes itit necessarynecessary toto employemploy femalefemale researchersresearchers andand extension workers. OtherOther constraintsconstraints usuallyusually dictatedictate thatthat thethe NVVFPNWFP activitiesactivities where women women participate mostly take place close to the households. Training in participatory research is more effective when carried out in a villagevillage (Stoney, op. cit.).

Gender-sensitive research also benefits researchers by makingmaking theirtheir findingsfindings moremore applicable.applicable. Research managers, however, shouldshould ensureensure thatthat researchersresearchers receivereceive moremore immediateimmediate incentivesincentives for any added timetime andand costscosts involvedinvolved (Warren,(Warren, 1992).1992).

Summary

• In viewview ofof thethe scarcityscarcity ofof research research resources,resources, itit isis especiallyespecially importantimportant thatthat researchresearch onon NWFPs:

• involve producers inin clearlyclearly definingdefining researchresearch problems;problems; • focus research on problem-solving;problem-solving; and • communicate results to the target rural groups,groups, inin locallocal language.language.

• Establish collaborative modes of consortiums and centres of excellenceexcellence forfor interdisciplinaryinterdisciplinary research and reducedreduced duplicationduplication of effort.effort.

• Customize in-service training and improve forestry curricula to provide field foresters and other extension workers with thethe skillsskills they need to work with communities andand producer groups.groups.

9. ResearchResearch andand extensionextension 101 • For results thatthat areare applicableapplicable forfor ruralrural targettarget groups,groups, ensureensure thatthat studiesstudies taketake thethe gender issues into accountaccount inin design,design, datadata collectioncollection andand analysis.analysis. ThisThis requiresrequires trainingtraining and appropriate incentives for thethe staffstaff involved.involved.

References

Banez,Bafiez, G.G. 1992.1992. NGOsNGOs supportingsupporting eacheach other:other: thethe UplandUpland NGONGO AssistanceAssistance Committee. In Taylor, D.A.,D .A., ed., ed., NGOs NGOs and and tree-growing tree-growing programs: programs: working working betweenbetween farmers and governments.governments. Winrock International-FAO, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Chandrasekharan, C. 1993.1993. Non-woodNon-wood forest products in forestry education. Paper presentedpresented toto the FAO Advisory Committee on Forestry Education, Bangkok, Thailand 13-15 DecemberDecember 1993. Rome, FAO.

Doran, J.C.J. C. 1995.1995. Non-woodNon-wood forestforest productsproducts researchresearch atat CSIROCSIRO Division ofof Forestry. In Report of the expertexpert consultationconsultation onon non-woodnon-wood forest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-2717-27 JanuaryJanuary 1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest ProductsProducts 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Durst, P.B.,P.B., Ulrich,Ulrich, W.,W., and and Kashio, Kashio, M., M., eds. eds. 1994. 1994. Non-wood Non-wood forest forest productsproducts inin Asia.Asia. RAPARAPA Publication 1994/28.1994/28. FAO-RAPA,FAO-RAPA, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Falconer, J. 1990.1990. TheThe majormajor significancesignificance of "minor" forestforest products:products: thethe locallocal useuse andand value ofof forests inin thethe WestWest African humid forest forest zone. zone. Community Community Forestry Forestry NoteNote No.6.No. 6. FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO. 1989.1989. WomenWomen inin communitycommunity forestry:forestry: aafield field guide for project designdesign andand implementation.implementation. Community Forestry GuidelinesGuidelines No.No. 1.1. FAO,FAO, Rome Rome (English-French-Spanish). (English-French-Spanish).

FAO. 1995.1995. SummarySummary of of recommendations. recommendations. ReportReport of of the the expertexpert consultationconsultation onon non-woodnon-woodforest forest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.

Haeruman, H.H. 1995.1995. EnvironmentalEnvironmental dimensionsdimensions of non-wood forestforest products.products. In Report of the expert consultationconsultation onon non-woodnon-wood forest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Mody, B.B. 1991.1991. Developing Developing messagesmessages for for development development communication..communication: anan audience participation­participation- based approach.approach. SageSage Publications,Publications, NewNew DelhiDelhi andand London.London.

Nair, C.T.S.C.T.S. 1995. 1995. Status Status of of research research on on non-wood non-wood forest forest products: products: thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific situation.situation. InIn ReportReport ofof the the expertexpert consultationconsultation onon non-woodnon-wood forest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-2717-27 January 1995.1995. Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Poole, P.J. 1989.1989. DevelopingDeveloping aa partnershippartnership of of indigenous indigenous peoples, conservationists, andand land-useland-use plannersplanners inin LatinLatin America.America. EnvironmentEnvironment Policy,Policy, PlanningPlanning and Research Working Paper. World Bank, Washington, D.C.D. C.

Poole, P.J. 1993.1993. IndigenousIndigenous peoples and biodiversitybiodiversity protection. protection. In In Davis,Davis, S.H.,S.H., ed.,ed., The social challenge of biodiversitybiodiversity conservation. Working PaperPaper No. 1.1. GlobalGlobal EnvironmentEnvironment Facility,Facility, Washington, D.C.D. C.

102 Shrestha,Shrestha, N.J. 1993.1993. AA common-sense common-sense framework framework forfor developingdeveloping non-formalnon-formal trainingtraining curricula.curricula. InIn Developing curricula for agroforestryagroforestry andand community community forestryforestry in Asia-Pacific. APAN ReportReport No.8.No. 8. Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific AgroforestryAgroforestry Network,Network, Bogor,Bogor, Indonesia.Indonesia.

Stoney, C. 1992.1992. ApplicationsApplications ofof gendergender analysis.analysis. FarmFarmforestry forestry newsnews 5(4):8.5(4):8.

Vosti, S., andand Witcover,Witcover, J. 1995.1995. Non-timber treetree product market researchresearch workshopworkshop - anan overview. Draft. IFPRI,IFPRI, Washington,Washington, D.C.D.C.

Warren, S. 1992.1992. MoreMore practicepractice andand lessless exhortation.exhortation. FarmFarmforestry forestry newsnews 5(4):6.

Yuniati, S.S. 1993. Bina Swadaya's experiencesexperiences in in trainingtraining for for social forestryforestry inin Java. InIn Developing curricula for agroforestryagroforestry andand community community forestry in Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific.. APAN Report No.No. 88.. Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Agroforestry Network,Network, Bogor,Bogor, Indonesia.Indonesia.

For further readingreading

FAO. 1990.1990. TheThe communitycommunity toolbox..toolbox: thethe idea,idea, methods andand tools forfor participatory assessment, monitoring andand evaluation in communitycommunity forestry.forestry. CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry FieldField ManualManual 22.. FAO,FAO, RomeRome..

FAO. 1995.1995. TheThe gendergender analysisanalysis andand forestry trainingtraining package. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

ICRAFICRAF.. Forthcoming.Forthcoming. ProceedingsProceedings of anan InterregionalInterregional MeetingMeeting onon AgroforestryAgroforestry Research,Research, Development andand Education forfor Africa, Asia and Latin America, held in Nairobi,Nairobi, Kenya,Kenya, MayMay 19941994.. International Centre for Research on Agroforestry, Nairobi.

MacDicken, K.G.K.G. andand Lai,Lai, C.K.C.K. 1993.1993. AgroforestryAgroforestry training approaches. APANAPAN Field Document NoNo.. 2.2. FAOFAO Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific AgroforestryAgroforestry Network,Network, Bogor,Bogor, Indonesia.Indonesia.

99.. ResearchResearch andand extensionextension 103 Institutional andand policypolicy supportsupport 10

Although the topic appears lastlast inin thisthis volume,volume, thethe policypolicy andand institutionalinstitutional environmentenvironment is oftenoften the most influential force shaping the potential forfor sustainable resourceresource management.management. This chapter suggests how thethe institutionalinstitutional backgroundbackground which shapes local enterprises can promote improvedimproved management ofof non-wood forestforest resources.resources. ThisThis is the areaarea wherewhere ruralrural producersproducers havehave leastleast control; however,however, byby informinginforming themselves,themselves, combiningcombining their resourcesresources andand formingforming themselvesthemselves into producer groups,groups, theythey cancan sometimes sometimes influenceinfluence policypolicy changes.changes.

This chapter describes actions that governments cancan taketake toto promotepromote betterbetter useuse ofof NWFPs. It examines (1) patternspatterns in thethe growthgrowth ofof NWFPNWFP sectorsector andand theirtheir implications implications forfor policypolicy interventions, (2)(2) areasareas forfor directdirect institutionalinstitutional supportsupport andand (3)(3) areasareas forfor internationalinternational support.support.

Public education

A first obstacleobstacle toto thethe improvingimproving thethe prospectsprospects ofof NWFPsNWFPs isis aa widespreadwidespread negativenegative viewview aboutabout traditional rural ways.ways. BecauseBecause manymany non-woodnon-wood forest products are linkedlinked toto customscustoms thatthat havehave conflicted with "modern""modern" development,development, they are oftenoften consideredconsidered "backward"."backward". ThisThis biasbias influences institutional responsesresponses atat allall levels:levels: field foresters,foresters, governmentgovernment officials,officials, credit institutions, politicians andand developmentdevelopment agencies.agencies.

Public-awareness campaigns, tailoredtailored forfor target audiences, can change these negativenegative views.views. RadioRadio and televisiontelevision spotsspots cancan dramatizedramatize thethe environmentallyenvironmentally "progressive","progressive", culturalcultural andand economiceconomic benefits ofof NWFPsNWFPs toto aa society. society. CampaignsCampaigns forfor consumerconsumer educationeducation cancan raiseraise products'products' environmental value and foster wise resource management. Nutrition programmes should consider the role of locallocal forestforest foodsfoods andand promotepromote theirtheir useuse toto reducereduce reliancereliance onon foodsfoods whichwhich maymay notnot be available locally (FAO, 1995a).1995a). ProgrammesProgrammes thatthat provideprovide creditcredit andand technical support for smallsmall enterprises should distribute distribute postersposters andand brochures,brochures, explainingexplaining thethe benefitsbenefits ofof well-managed well-managed NWFP enterprises.

To give forest produceproduce andand traditionaltraditional customscustoms greater valuevalue inin the eyes of thethe public,public, campaignscampaigns might employ traditional/cultural as well as audio-visual mediamedia toto highlighthighlight thethe forest'sforest's values - for sustenance,sustenance, health, shelter, income,income, food security -- inin aa newnew contextcontext ofof environmental environmental awareness.

Patterns of economiceconomic changechange and implications for policypolicy

In manymany countries,countries, policiespolicies governinggoverning NWFPsNWFPs areare scatteredscattered overover manymany sectors:sectors: agriculture,agriculture, forestry, health andand industry.industry. BecauseBecause thesethese policiespolicies were oftenoften notnot formulatedformulated to addressaddress non-non­ wood forest enterprises oror ruralrural livelihood,livelihood, theythey oftenoften failfail toto provideprovide adequateadequate incentives and often provide disincentives, oftenoften conflictingconflicting inin waysways thatthat causecause stagnation.stagnation.

If policies are harmonized andand redefinedredefined withwith anan aimaim of stabilizingstabilizing rural economies and promoting rural enterprise,enterprise, communitiescommunities couldcould becomebecome more self-reliantself-reliant and generate surplus for export.

Policy reformulation toto promotepromote non-woodnon-wood forestforest enterpriseenterprise shouldshould bebe guidedguided byby thethe experiencesexperiences of locallocal groupsgroups andand enterprises,enterprises, andand goodgood marketmarket informationinformation (FAO,(FAO, 1995b).1995b). TheThe followingfollowing paragraphs tracetrace severalseveral commoncommon patternspatterns ofof commercialization commercialization inin NWFPsNWFPs andand theirtheir implicationsimplications for policypolicy adjustment.adjustment.

10. Institutional andand policypolicy supportsupport 105 Changes inin local andand urban marketsmarkets

People's involvementinvolvement inin non-woodnon-wood forestforest enterprisesenterprises changeschanges asas economieseconomies grow andand opportunityopportunity costs change (Arnold,(Arnold, 1995).1995). SmallSmall processingprocessing enterprisesenterprises predominatepredominate inin conditionsconditions where:where:

• factors favour locallocal processingprocessing (e.g.(e.g. widely-scatteredwidely-scattered raw materials, small markets or high transport costs); • economies of small scale exist, asas inin handicrafthandicraft production;production; • subcontracting isis preferable toto integratedintegrated operations.operations.

Rural markets for non-woodnon-wood products are linked to the rate of agricultural change.change. These markets are large inin aggregate,aggregate, tendingtending toto growgrow slowly.slowly. AA moremore significantsignificant sourcesource ofof growthgrowth inin thethe NWFPNWFP sector isis growinggrowing urbanurban demand.demand. UrbanUrban marketsmarkets forfor thesethese productsproducts inin developingdeveloping countriescountries tendstends to grow quicklyquickly asas ruralrural peoplepeople migratemigrate toto citiescities andand bringbring preferencespreferences forfor customarycustomary products of their ruralrural backgroundbackground (nostalgia(nostalgia markets)markets) (Arnold,(Arnold, 1995).1995).

Inequities. Unmanaged Unmanaged commercialization commercialization tendstends toto work against small enterprisesenterprises,, disadvantaged groups, and women.women. AsAs thethe valuevalue ofof tradetrade grows,grows, urbanurban traders seek to gain more control over supplies through vertical integration, by-passing ruralrural gatherersgatherers (Arnold,(Arnold, op.op. cit.)cit.).. Likewise,Likewise, menmen tend to taketake overover tradetrade fromfrom womenwomen asas itit becomesbecomes moremore commercialized.commercialized. SmallSmall enterprises find themselves unable to obtain credit and other services, which often favour larger operations.

Growth inin forest-productforest-product tradetrade increasesincreases pressure on a resourceresource andand tendstends toto restrictrestrict traditionaltraditional rights of access toto thatthat resource. InIn somesome cases,cases, however,however, communitiescommunities have reinforced traditionaltraditional common property systemssystems inin thethe faceface ofof intensifying intensifying pressure.pressure. ConditionsConditions thatthat helphelp communitycommunity groups maintainmaintain collectivecollective controlcontrol againstagainst mounting pressures include (Arnold, op. cit.):cit.):

• a legal systemsystem whichwhich isis ableable toto helphelp thethe groupgroup enforceenforce itsits rights;rights; • strong socialsocial institutions;institutions; • well-defined rights of use; • small homogeneous groups of users; • rapid returnsreturns toto investmentinvestment inin collectivecollective management.management.

Increased competition.competition. Improvements Improvements inin ruralrural infrastructureinfrastructure are,are, forfor ruralrural producersproducers ofof NWFPs NWFPs a double-edged sword. RoadsRoads andand communicationcommunication linkageslinkages improveimprove thethe flowflow ofof theirtheir goods to urban markets, butbut alsoalso causecause competitioncompetition inin locallocal marketsmarkets fromfrom urbanurban manufacturers.manufacturers. CheaperCheaper factory-made itemsitems beginbegin toto replace forest-based productsproducts in in ruralrural markets.markets. InIn Indonesia, for example, HadiHadi (1986)(1986) foundfound thatthat mass-producedmass-produced metalmetal andand syntheticsynthetic productsproducts quicklyquickly displaceddisplaced home-made bamboobamboo umbrellasumbrellas and and woodenwooden clogs clogs whichwhich werewere onceonce soldsold in ruralrural markets.markets. Commercialization also also attractsattracts newnew producersproducers toto competecompete inin the market; crafts thatthat requirerequire complex skills, such as wood-working,wood-working, are less affected than sectors thatthat useuse basic skills, such as mat-weaving (Arnold, op. cit.).cit.).

Types ofof change.change .In In general, general, small small enterprises enterprises gain gain importance importance inin threethree typestypes ofof economiceconomic change (Arnold, op. cit.):cit.):

• where per capitacapita incomeincome isis effectivelyeffectively declining, people with fewer employable skills turn to low-return,low-return, labour-intensivelabour-intensive taskstasks inin cottagecottage industriesindustries suchsuch asas mat-making;mat-making;

• where per capitacapita incomesincomes are rising,rising, smallsmall enterprisesenterprises are likelylikely toto emergeemerge inin growth-growth­ related, higher-returnhigher-return ventures; small enterprises inin low-return activities areare likely toto decrease;

106 • inin times ofof growth andand change, smallsmall enterprises play an important bufferbuffer role,role, providing incomeincome for facing natural or economiceconomic crises.

Disruption inin resource resource supply. supply When. When harvest harvest rates rates outstrip outstrip natural natural regeneration/replenishment regeneration/replenishment rates to satisfy growing market demand, the supplysupply inin naturalnatural forestforest declines.declines. WithoutWithout coordination, timbertimber harvestsharvests inin naturalnatural forestsforests willwill likelylikely disrupt harvests of non-wood products. This disruption can be compoundedcompounded by policies and enforcement that favour timber production, or by complicatedcomplicated license requirementsrequirements.. AsAs aa result,result, NWFP producers areare likelylikely toto shift their harvesting operations to forestforest fallowfallow andand domesticateddomesticated sources (Arnold, opop.. cit.).cit.).

Boom-bust patternspatterns in international and export markets

Chapter 5 showedshowed how NWFPsNWFPs thatthat attractattract internationalinternational markets tend to experience a boom-bust pattern. ThisThis cancan havehave particularlyparticularly damagingdamaging long-term effectseffects.. In the Amazon in the 1890s, for example,example, rubberrubber fromfrom naturalnatural forestsforests experiencedexperienced aa tremendoustremendous growthgrowth inin tradetrade beforebefore ultimatelyultimately being replacedreplaced byby domesticateddomesticated sourcessources elsewhere.elsewhere. ThisThis short-lived,short-lived, unmanagedunmanaged exploitationexploitation proved toto benefitbenefit onlyonly urban-basedurban-based traders. InIn thethe forest areas where rubber was native, land-useland-use conflicts ravaged the resource and caused many deaths among Amazonia's indigenous population (FAD,(FAO, 1995b).1995b). AA soundsound policypolicy frameworkframework couldcould have promoted balanced rural and urban growth.

Effects ofof subsidies.subsidies. When When exports exports of of forest forest products products (both(both woodwood andand non-wood)non-wood) command high prices inin internationalinternational markets,markets, governmentgovernment forest servicesservices often becomebecome producers to earnearn government revenue. ThisThis cancan interfereinterfere withwith locallocal forestforest use. InIn effect,effect, thethe forestforest serviceservice becomesbecomes a subsidizedsubsidized competitorcompetitor ofof privateprivate producers;producers; andand thisthis discouragesdiscourages privateprivate enterpriseenterprise (Arnold,(Arnold, opop.. cit.).

In manymany developingdeveloping countries,countries, nationalnational policiespolicies promotepromote industrialindustrial investmentinvestment byby providingproviding subsidy incentives to companies that exploit naturalnatural resources.resources. In doing this,this, they assume that the country's short-termshort-term competitivecompetitive advantageadvantage is worthworth thethe riskrisk ofof environmental environmental damagedamage thatthat thethe subsidy may cause by supporting short-sightedshort-sighted production methodsmethods (Haeruman,(Haeruman, op.op. cit.).cit.). Policy-Policy­ makers shouldshould questionquestion thisthis underlyingunderlying assumption, particularly for fragile ecosystems.ecosystems. Rather,Rather, taxes onon exportsexports ofof unprocessed unprocessed rawraw materialsmaterials cancan encourageencourage locallocal processingprocessing andand provideprovide investment funds forfor sustainablesustainable managementmanagement (FAO,(FAD, 1995b).1995b). Long-termLong-term subsidiessubsidies forfor NWFPNWFP development programmes generally can not prove sustainablesustainable in a marketmarket situation.situation.

Implications forfor policy-makingpolicy-making

In view of thethe above,above, policy-makerspolicy-makers committedcommitted toto healthyhealthy and equitable economic growth in rural areas should:should:

• enact clear tenuretenure policiespolicies byby whichwhich ruralrural producersproducers can securesecure accessaccess to thethe forestforest resource, soso thatthat theythey areare notnot forcedforced outout ofof productionproduction as marketsmarkets prosper;

• ensure that producerproducer groupsgroups receivereceive informationinformation on resourceresource and market conditions, andand environmental guidelines;guidelines; thisthis shouldshould includeinclude support for problem-focusedproblem-focused research;

• promotepromote flexibleflexible creditcredit mechanism,smechanisms for small producers and processors;

• remove size-scale biases againstagainst smallsmall enterprisesenterprises inin creditcredit programmes, programmes ,licensing licensing arrangements andand otherother mechanismsmechanisms (many(many of which result from thethe factfact thatthat agenciesagencies findfind itit costlycostly toto supportsupport smallsmall enterprisesenterprises onon anan individual individual basis);basis);

10.1 O. Institutional andand policypolicy supportsupport 107 • avoid subsidizingsubsidizing low-return enterprises whenwhen opportunitiesopportunities for higher-returnhigher-return activitiesactivities become available;

• support formationformation of local producer groups, whichwhich increase the overall competitiveness ofof the sector;

• foster transparenttransparent transactionstransactions inin marketmarket chains,chains, withwith betterbetter priceprice andand tradetrade informationinformation throughout the chain and economiceconomic incentivesincentives like those used in agriculture;

• correct gendergender discriminationdiscrimination wherewhere itit displacesdisplaces women's roles inin production,production, harvesting,harvesting, processing and marketing products;

• recognize that policy responses to actual conditions and producers' needs are likelylikely toto bebe more effective thanthan generalizedgeneralized approaches.approaches.

To ensure that the overall policypolicy environment provides incentives forfor wisewise forestforest use,use, government offices should:should:

• ensure thatthat tenuretenure policiespolicies decentralizedecentralize resourceresource managementmanagement and encourageencourage people's participation inin sustainablesustainable forestforest management;management;

• properly account for thethe contributioncontribution ofof NWFPsNWFPs toto thethe nationalnational economy;economy;

• remove subsidiessubsidies for wastefulwasteful enterprises,enterprises, bothboth largelarge andand small;small;

• fully recognizerecognize traditionaltraditional rural knowledgeknowledge and socialsocial andand culturalcultural practices,practices, andand securesecure appropriate rightsrights forfor ruralrural communities,communities, thatthat acknowledgeacknowledge andand compensatecompensate thisthis knowledgeknowledge (intellectual property);

• effectively put intointo practicepractice missionmission statements and plans that explicitly strengthen their commitment to stewardship of non-wood forest resources and partnerships with local users of the resource.resource.

Policy reform isis onlyonly asas goodgood asas itsits implementation.implementation. ToTo bebe effective,effective, policiespolicies mustmust provideprovide forfor regular monitoringmonitoring andand refinementrefinement ofof incentives, incentives, andand leadersleaders mustmust showshow commitmentcommitment toto thethe goalsgoals embodied in thosethose policies.policies.

Better nationalnational accountingaccounting

Improved definitiondefinition andand classificationclassification of of NWFPsNWFPs andand incorporatingincorporating them them in in thethe System of National Accounts mark earlyearly stepssteps towardtoward achievingachieving thethe policypolicy adjustmentsadjustments describeddescribed above.above.

By clearly grouping thethe varietyvariety ofof non-woodnon-wood products that originate from forestforest sources,sources, officialsofficials and programme managersmanagers can:can:

• call attentionattention toto thethe collectivecollective importanceimportance ofof these these items;items; • highlight the needneed forfor policypolicy coordination;coordination; • generate the politicalpolitical andand administrativeadministrative supportsupport neededneeded forfor more direct support forfor producers.producers.

108 Definition

For internationalinternational classificationclassification andand accounting,accounting, FAOFAO has recommendedrecommended adoption of the definition of NWFPs given inin ChapterChapter 1:1: goodsgoods ofof biologicalbiological origin other than woodwood,, as well as services,services, derived fromfrom forestsforests and allied landland uses.uses. ForFor gaininggaining recognitionrecognition ofof thesethese products'products' economiceconomic importance,importance, itit isis hopedhoped thisthis definitiondefinition cancan bebe generallygenerally followed.followed.

Classification

A system ofof classificationclassification for NWFPsNWFPs waswas proposedproposed atat thethe ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation onon Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest Products held inin Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, IndonesiaIndonesia in January 1995, as a meansmeans toto incorporateincorporate thesethese products intointo thethe existingexisting internationalinternational systemssystems ofof classificationclassification for economic activity and tradetrade (Chandrasekharan, 1995). These systems include: the International Standard Industrial Classification of All EconomicEconomic Activities (ISIC), thethe StandardStandard International Trade Classification (SITC), thethe HarmonizedHarmonized CommodityCommodity Description and Coding System (HS) and the Provisional Central Product Classification (CPC)(CPC) system.system. (The(The tradetrade datadata inin TablesTables 7.3 7.3 andand 7.47.4 areare basedbased onon HS classificationsclassifications.).) To create aa clearclear economiceconomic identity for NWFPs, itit isis proposedproposed thatthat anan annexannex be added to ISICISIC thatthat willwill groupgroup togethertogether allall forestforest products,products, woodwood andand non-wood.non-wood. AA similarsimilar approach has helpedhelped unifyunify coveragecoverage forfor thethe diversediverse componentscomponents ofof thethe internationalinternational tourismtourism industry.

The classificationclassification system proposedproposed wouldwould provideprovide aa basis for betterbetter statisticalstatistical coverage of NWFPs, whichwhich inin turnturn wouldwould improveimprove thethe marketmarket andand tradetrade informationinformation availableavailable toto producersproducers and policy-makerspolicy-makers (Padovani, 1995). StatisticalStatistical coveragecoverage providesprovides aa foundation forfor a policypolicy constituency that can bolsterbolster producerproducer groupsgroups andand researchersresearchers seekingseeking supportsupport forfor sustainablesustainable forest management.management. ItIt isis toto bebe ensured ensured that that statistical statistical informationinformation isis readilyreadily availableavailable andand accessaccessible. ible .

National governments may choose other appropriateappropriate classification schemes thatthat fit the specificspecific nature of NWFPNWFP useuse inin their their country. country. For For better better international international linkages,linkages, though,though, governmentsgovernments should aim toto clarifyclarify howhow thethe customized customized nationalnational systemsystem correlatescorrelates withwith anan internationally internationally accepted one, inin orderorder toto facilitatefacilitate comparisonscomparisons andand aggregations.aggregations.

Economic classification alone cannot adequately recognize the non-economic valuesvalues ofof non-wood products and services;services; complementarycomplementary efforts efforts need need to to better account for thethe "external" environmental functions (unquantifiable(unquantifiable benefits) of forest resources.resources.

Economic valuation of environmental functionsfunctions

In many marketsmarkets therethere isis aa sizablesizable gapgap betweenbetween a NWFP'sNWFP's financialfinancial valuevalue andand itsits realreal economiceconomic value.value. Similarly, resourceresource degradationdegradation doesdoes not appear in most governments'governments' calculations ofof GrossGross National Product (GNP). These cause governments andand thethe private sector to act onon incorrectincorrect market signals.signals. ForFor example,example, thethe disastrousdisastrous EXXON-ValdezEXXON-Valdez oiloil spillspill inin AlaskaAlaska increasedincreased thethe USUS GNP calculation because billions were spent on clean-up but resource losses did not appear in thethe accounts (WRI-IUCN-UNEP, 1992).1992).

Informed policies can reduce thesethese distortions. UsingUsing improved methods forfor assigning value to resources, plannersplanners cancan comparecompare benefitsbenefits ofof conservationconservation measures with costs suffered if no such measures are undertaken. NationalNational governmentsgovernments shouldshould incorporateincorporate values of biological resources and reviserevise officialofficial cost-benefitcost-benefit formulasformulas toto recognizerecognize resourceresource degradation.degradation. EconomicEconomic valuesvalues cannot reliably be assignedassigned to allall factors,factors, butbut itit isis possiblepossible toto estimateestimate relativerelative costscosts ofof speciesspecies

110. O. Institutional andand policypolicy supportsupport 109 disappearance, soil lossloss andand carboncarbon emissionsemissions basedbased onon keykey ecosystemecosystem parametersparameters (Vosti(Vosti andand Witcover, 1995).1995).

For thethe publicpublic sectorsector toto valuevalue forestsforests mostmost effectively,effectively, itit mustmust firstfirst sortsort outout thethe valuesvalues attachedattached to forests by thethe differentdifferent groupsgroups withwith interestsinterests inin thethe forest, and define the policy contextcontext forfor any proposed change in forestforest useuse (Gregersen(Gregersen et al.,al., 1995).1995). TheThe relevant relevant costs costs andand benefits benefits shouldshould then be assigned toto different situations.situations. TheThe valuevalue forfor thethe case with the proposed change can then be compared withwith thethe valuesvalues forfor thethe casecase withoutwithout thethe change.change. TheThe resultsresults shouldshould bebe adjustedadjusted toto account for uncertainties in information on forest systems and future values; and this shouldshould formform the basis forfor policypolicy decisions.decisions.

Intellectual property rightsrights

In recentrecent years,years, intellectualintellectual propertyproperty rightsrights (IPR)(lPR) havehave emergedemerged as anan importantimportant mechanismmechanism for securing anan equitableequitable share ofof benefitsbenefits fromfrom forestforest activitiesactivities toto developingdeveloping countriescountries andand coinmunities.communities. Particularly withwith thethe dramaticdramatic growthgrowth ofof forest-based forest-based medicinesmedicines andand biomedicalbiomedical research (see Chapter 4),4), securingsecuring intellectualintellectual property rights is a priority issue for some national governments.

The concept of intellectual property originated centuries ago in western legal systems to provide economic rewards forfor individualindividual creativity.creativity. Patents reward newnew knowledgeknowledge (inventions(inventions or discovered techniques)techniques) for aa fixedfixed periodperiod ofof time.time. ThereThere areare difficultiesdifficulties inin adaptingadapting IPRIPR toto rewardreward long-standing traditional knowledge, but itit contributes an important early step toward refining that recognition and providing rewards.rewards.

The patent protectionprotection offered byby nationalnational governmentsgovernments varies widely. The UnitedUnited StatesStates grantsgrants patents on novelnovel geneticgenetic sequences,sequences, plantplant parts,parts, plantplant oror animalanimal varietiesvarieties andand biotechnologicalbiotechnological processes. On thethe otherother hand,hand, EuropeanEuropean countriescountries havehave onlyonly recentlyrecently extended patent protection to plant varieties (Reid etet al., 1993).1993).

Another variable isis thatthat differentdifferent stagesstages ofof product product developmentdevelopment require differentdifferent typestypes ofof IPR.IPR. For example, wherewhere patentingpatenting is premature,premature, tradetrade secretsecret protectionprotection may be applicable.applicable. InIn otherother casescases,, thethe relationshiprelationship betweenbetween traditionaltraditional knowledge andand the product may justify trademark protection (Grifo, 1994).1994).

The International ConventionConvention onon BiodiversityBiodiversity protects property rightsrights ofof developingdeveloping countriescountries toto native plants and otherother species.species. SignedSigned by moremore thanthan 160160 countries,countries, thethe ConventionConvention calls on national governments toto create aa frameworkframework forfor regulatingregulating biologicalbiological resources, IPRIPR andand environmental protection. ItIt alsoalso callscalls onon governmentsgovernments toto harmonizeharmonize commercialcommercial lawslaws withwith locallocal goals and thethe equitableequitable sharingsharing ofof benefits benefits fromfrom sustainablesustainable resourceresource managementmanagement (Sittenfeld(Sittenfeld andand Lovejoy, 1994).1994).

The 19941994 MarrakeshMarrakesh agreementagreement on internationalinternational trade and the related TRIPs agreement are two other key conventionsconventions relating to IPR. TRIPsTRIPs mandatesmandates patent or other IPR coveragecoverage for plantplant varieties in internationalinternational trade andand stipulatesstipulates that the proceduresprocedures should be fair, equitableequitable andand effectively enforcedenforced.. Developed countries areare expected toto adjust their lawslaws andand practicespractices toto conform with TRIPs withinwithin oneone year;year; developingdeveloping countries and countries in transition have five years toto makemake thisthis adjustment;adjustment; andand least-developedleast-developed countriescountries have 1111 years.years.

With thisthis mandate,mandate, nationalnational governmentsgovernments cancan useuse casecase studystudy experienceexperience toto formulateformulate mechanismsmechanisms for ensuring IPRIPR protectionprotection toto locallocal groups.groups. OneOne factorfactor inin determiningdetermining appropriateappropriate compensationcompensation for traditionaltraditional knowledgeknowledge isis the community'scommunity's value system.system. ForFor somesome traditionaltraditional healers,healers,

110 compensation entails respect for the "sacred""sacred" or secretsecret naturenature ofof thethe informationinformation provided.provided. This spiritual value can bebe asas crucialcrucial asas financialfinancial compensationcompensation (Cox, 1995).1995).

Intellectual property rights do notnot substitutesubstitute for securesecure tenuretenure overover locallocal resources.resources. DevelopingDeveloping non-wood forest resources stillstill requiresrequires thatthat (1)(1) tenuretenure policy be clear and consistently enforced, (2) communitiescommunities participateparticipate in decisionsdecisions governinggoverning locallocal resource management,management, andand (3) communities are able toto weighweigh thethe trade-offstrade-offs involvedinvolved inin economiceconomic development (Davis, 1993).1993). Nor dodo IPRIPR mechanismsmechanisms replacereplace technicaltechnical oror creditcredit assistance assistance thatthat communitiescommunities needneed toto developdevelop their traditionaltraditional resources.resources.

...... TextTexfbox box 10.1:10.1: IPR, IPR, national national policy policyandlNBio's and INBio's prospecting prospecting research research

TheThe INBio-Merck agreement,agreement; by which CostaCosta Rica received several millionmillion dollars from the MerckMerck pharmaceutical companycompany to to prospectprospect Jor for bioactivematerialsbioactive materials (Section(Section 4.6), 4.6), diddid notnot occuroccur in a policy vacuum.vacuum. PolicyPolicy measuresmeasures paved the wayway..

The Costa RicanRican governmentgovernment establishedestablished a clearlyclearly defineddefined NationalNational SystemSystem ofof ConservationConservation Areas, covering 2727 percentpercent ofof thethe country'scountry's area.area. It createdcreated INBioINBio as an instrumentinstrument forfor inventorying biologicalbiological resourcesresources and encouraging w wiseise useuse oLtheof the country's biodiversity.biodiversity. TheThe clear definition ofof protected protected areasareas helpedhelped to justifyjustify thethe investrnentinvestment neededneeded forfor thethe inventories.inventories. InIn 1992, aanew nevv lawlaw protectedprotected resourcesresources fromfrom over-exploitationover-exploitation byby requiringrequiring bioprospectorsbioprospectors inin conservation areasareas to havehaveapermitfr'om a permit from the the MinistryMinistry of of Natural Natural Resources. Resources.

Social policiespolicies also c.ontributedcontributed. . ..Costa Rica'sRica'slarge large investment in education has created a pool of skilled technicians and andtheuniversitylaboratories the university laboratories neededneeded for thethe complexcomplex processprocess ofof collectingcollecting bbiodiversiodiversity ty iinformation.nformation.

IPR andand thethe determination of royaltyroyalty ratesrates werewere majormajor businessbusiness issuesissues inin negotiatingnegotiating INBio'sINBio's contracts. AA teamteam ofoflNBio INBio representatives representatives andand Costa Rican environmentalenvironmental lawyerslawyers workedworked with management consultants andandpio pro bono corporate lawyerslawyers from developeddeveloped countriescountries to negotiatenegotiate royalty rates.rates. BargainingBargaining povverpower required goodgood knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe pharmaceutical pharmaceutical industryindustry,, the biological resource, legallegaLprecedents precedents in otherother industriesindustries andand conservationconservation needsneeds (Sittenfeld(Sittenfeld andand Lovejoy, 1994).1994).

Direct support fromfrom national-levelnational-level institutions

With sound policies in place,place, governmentgovernment services can offer effective support toto producersproducers.. The Joint ForestForest ManagementManagement programmeprogramme in in IndiaIndia (see(see texttext box 4.2) illustratesillustrates one modemode ofof government collaboration withwith communitiescommunities to to managemanage resources resources and and shareshare benefitbenefits.s. InIn other cases, governmentsgovernments provide technicaltechnical support with less managerial involvemeninvolvement.t. AtAt a minimumminimum,, key areas for institutionalinstitutional support are information,information, education,education, training, credit and promotion of local organizations.

As with policypolicy,, direct institutionalinstitutional supportsupport requiresrequires coordinationcoordination among the agencagenciesies ththatat dedealal with non-wood resources andand NWFPNWFP producers,producers, usuallyusually including:including: forestryforestry departments,departments, veterinaryveterinary and livestocklivestock services,services, foodfood cropcrop services,services, healthhealth andand medicalmedical services,services, andand industryindustry andand commerce agencies. CoordinationCoordination shouldshould emphasize clear identification ofof areas where supportsupport is needed and thethe majormajor steps/actionssteps/actions forfor addressingaddressing thesethese throughthrough cooperationcooperation (Sène,(Sene, 1995).1995).

10.1 O. InstitutInstitutionalional andand policypolicy supportsupport 111 Information,Information, training andand educationeducation

Producers need information from supportsupport servicesservices on:on:

• techniques for moremore efficientefficient harvestingharvesting andand post-harvestpost-harvest treatments;treatments; • marketing and processing options;options; • conditions throughout thethe market/productionmarket/production chain;chain; • policies and rules regulating NWFP utilisation, i.e.i.e. tenure, access, transport,transport, processingprocessing and trade.

Programmes for training shouldshould be closely linked to research and technical support (see Chapter 9), andand specificspecific trainingtraining needsneeds shouldshould bebe identifiedidentified and courses developed forfor differentdifferent levelslevels ofof personnel involvedinvolved inin NWFPNWFP development:development: policy-makers,policy-makers, programmeprogramme administratorsadministrators andand managers, locallocal supportsupport workersworkers andand producersproducers (FAO,(FAO, 1995b).1995b).

Local knowledge is the starting point forfor solutionssolutions to producers'producers' problems;problems; thereforetherefore assessingassessing locallocal knowledge andand presenting itit in training courses is vital. WithoutWithout this, trainingtraining effortsefforts cancan result in top-down transfertransfer ofof generalizedgeneralized conceptsconcepts thatthat could squelch the local innovations, ratherrather thanthan promoting it.

Training should also provide informationinformation on networksnetworks thatthat exist inin thethe locallocal andand nationalnational contextcontext of the trainees.trainees. MaterialsMaterials shouldshould describedescribe relevantrelevant cooperativecooperative programmes among forestry and agriculture departments, universitiesuniversities andand thethe privateprivate sector.sector. NationalNational forestryforestry educationeducation institutionsinstitutions should develop and offer courses on products for whichwhich theythey have particular capacity and topicstopics particularly important to thethe country or region.region.

Education and training programmes should employemploy aa wide range of channels, including (Sene, op. cit.):cit.):

• public awarenessawareness raisingraising onon thethe vitalvital importanceimportance of existing resources andand the value of traditional skillsskills andand knowledgeknowledge forfor managingmanaging thesethese resources;resources;

• local transfertransfer ofof technologies technologies andand skillsskills regardingregarding utilisationutilisation of resources thatthat maymay bebe wellwell developed in one locality but totally ignored in another,another, through farmer-to-farmer exchange visits and/orand/or seminars;seminars;

• primary education,education, includingincluding exposureexposure toto naturalnatural sciences,sciences, geographygeography andand knowledgeknowledge ofof local resources andand theirtheir contributioncontribution toto locallocal economy;economy;

• secondary education, continuingcontinuing the work startedstarted atat primaryprimary school,school, dealingdealing withwith thethe environment and thethe economiceconomic potential of all locallocal resources;resources;

• job-oriented technical,technicaL, vocationalvocational andand professionalprofessional trainingtraining inin formsforms outlinedoutlined inin Table 9.1.

Credit

Governments possess a variety of meansmeans for improvingimproving credit availability toto rural producers. ForFor example, clearclear landland tenuretenure policiespolicies andand securesecure titletitle cancan provideprovide aa farmfarm familyfamily withwith loanloan collateralcollateral for investinginvesting inin production/processingproduction/processing equipment.equipment. CreditCredit programmesprogrammes cancan increaseincrease flexibilityflexibility byby (Clay, 1995):1995):

• using aa producer'sproducer's production production historyhistory asas aa basisbasis forfor forecastingforecasting production;production;

112 • allowing physical product stock to guarantee loans for workingworking capital; • countingcounting forest inventoriesinventories ofof economicallyeconomically valuablevaluable speciesspecies asas collateral.

InIn the 1950s,1950s, thethe KenyanKenyan governmentgovernment recognizedrecognized black wattle trees (Acacia(Acacia mearnsii) asas a form ofof farm loan guarantee in view of the species' value for tannin, charcoal, building poles and other usesuses (Dewees, 1991).1991).

CreditCredit programmes couldcould usefullyusefully distinguishdistinguish between new enterprises and existing enterprises seeking toto expand. NewNew enterprisesenterprises showshow high attritionattrition and are often lessless efficientefficient thanthan smallsmall enterprises seeking toto grow.grow. ThisThis suggestssuggests thatthat scarcescarce creditcredit fundsfunds maymay bebe more effectively used ifif focused on enterprises seekingseeking incrementalincremental expansion (Arnold, opop.. cit.),cit.), eveneven thoughthough theythey maymay requirerequire more customizedcustomized servicesservices thanthan newnew enterprises.enterprises.

Support for NGOsNGOs

NGOs have played a keykey rolerole inin improvingimproving locallocal forestforest management.management. NGOsNGOs vary widely in their attributes and abilities, but manymany have proven that they can (Sène,(Sene, 1995):1995):

• document local knowledgeknowledge andand traditionaltraditional technologies;technologies; • promote traditionaltraditional andand income-generating income-generating activitiesactivities usingusing NWFPs;NWFPs; • organize producers andand marketing marketing channels;channels; • advocate for policypolicy reform.

Their pivotalpivotal rolerole inin thethe futurefuture ofof sustainable sustainable forestforest managementmanagement has beenbeen widelywidely recognized.

National governments cancan furtherfurther theirtheir effortsefforts byby workingworking withwith NGOsNGOs asas partnerspartners andand byby offeringoffering training thatthat strengthensstrengthens NGOs'NGOs' technicaltechnical andand institutionalinstitutional abilities. Technical needs range from production, harvestingharvesting andand marketingmarketing toto collectivecollective organization.organization. Institutional needs range from management and record-keepingrecord-keeping toto policypolicy researchresearch andand analysis.analysis.

Consortiums of government, private sector, andand NGOsNGOs

Chapter 99 describeddescribed howhow public-privatepublic-private consortiumsconsortiums can provide technical support for local forest-forest­ based enterprises. SuchSuch consortiumsconsortiums can alsoalso arrangearrange servicesservices suchsuch asas creditcredit andand managerialmanagerial support (see text box 10.2).10.2).

Regional and international supportsupport

Chapter 9 described somesome opportunities for collaborative research atat thethe regionalregional level.level. AA regionalregional resource centre forfor neighbouringneighbouring countriescountries cancan also:also:

• act asas anan informationinformation clearinghouse;clearinghouse; • preserve thethe region'sregion's main main indigenous indigenous knowledgeknowledge systems;systems; • identify knowledge gaps best addressedaddressed throughthrough collaborativecollaborative research.research.

A regionalregional resourceresource centre or centrecentre ofof excellenceexcellence cancan also act as conduitconduit for transfertransfer ofof sophisticated technologies from industrializedindustrialized countriescountries toto developingdeveloping countries.countries.

Countries that shareshare similarsimilar resourcesresources (cultural(cultural and/orand/or biological)biological) and problemsproblems can alsoalso collaborate throughthrough twinningtwinning arrangementsarrangements andand cosponsoredcosponsored activities.activities. TwinningTwinning involvesinvolves short-short­ and long-term exchangeexchange ofof experienceexperience between universities or research organizations through staff visits, collaborativecollaborative researchresearch andand training,training, andand exchangeexchange ofof publications. publications. FAOFAO hashas supportedsupported suchsuch

110. O. Institutional andand policypolicy supportsupport 11113 3 Text box 10.2:Support for local wildlife exchanges through the ForestryForestry Research Support management in Zimbabwe for Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific (FORSPA) andand thethe ForestryForestry Research and ForestForest ResearchResearch NetworkingNetworking in The Communal Areas Management Sub-Saharan Africa (FONESSA) (Sène,(Sene, 1995).1995). Programmefor Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) started in 1988 to rnaintain Agencies of the United Nations,Nations, thethe ConsultativeConsultative wildliferesourcesthrough local Group forfor InternationalInternational AgriculturalAgricultural ResearchResearch management and use. The legislation that (CGIAR) and thethe GlobalGlobal EnvironmentEnvironment FacilityFacility most promoted CAMPFIRE was Zimbabwe's Parks and Wildlife Act, which facilitated (GEF) support programmes thatthat relate to theirtheir decentralization. mandates of alleviatingalleviating poverty and improvingimproving food security forfor the poorpoor.. International NGOs,NG0s, CAMPFIREconsistsoftheZimbabwe such as the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Department of National Parks and .Wildlife support efforts to promote sustainable Management,!Management, the University of Zimbel3WW:s.:::: management ofof the world's ecosystems.ecosystems. CentreforAppCentre for Applied an",..",'" Social Science Researdh: and two NG0s:NGOs World\fHr,,,,, Wide Fund for Nature.. Among UN agencies, FAO has taken the lead on and theZimbabweTrust. CAMPFIRE: NWFPs per se by exchanging information on providescommunitieswithmanagerial NWFPs per se by exchanging information on support and technical assistance for wildlife sustainable production, harvesting,harvesting, marketing,marketing, management. community organization, etc. FAOFAO isis alsoalso leadingleading efforts to:to : CAMPFIRE districtdistrict councils manage and effectively own the wildlife resources in • harmonize the trade classification of theirareas,employinghuntingquotas, NWFPs; strategically located water pumps and fire management. Economic evaluations have • develop methodologies forfor analyzing focused ontheprogramme'sfinancial impact at the household level(IFPRI,in market chain interactionsinteractions andand resourceresource press). The programme arid its assessments; interdisciplinary support system, with policy support from the relevant government • compile tradetrade statlstlcsstatistics andand assess thethe department for promoting community impact of tradetrade regulations.regulations. particparticipation,ipation, has / shown successand flexibility (Erdmann,(Erdmann, 1993).1993). A volumevolume ofof guidelinesguidelines to supportsupport nationalnational biodiversity policy reform resulted from aa collaboration of UNUN Agencies,Agencies, thethe WorldWorld ResourcesResources InstituteInstitute andand IUCNIUCN (WRI-IUCN-UNEP,(WRI-IUCN-UNEP, 1992).

In thethe CGIARCGIAR system,system, thethe researchresearch centres that deal most with NWFPs are:are: the CentreCentre forfor International ForestryForestry Research (CIFOR)(CIFOR) inin Bogor, Indonesia; the International CentreCentre for Agroforestry ResearchResearch (ICRAF)(ICRAF) basedbased inin Nairobi,Nairobi, Kenya;Kenya; thethe InternationalInternational InstituteInstitute forfor TropicalTropical Agriculture (IIT(IITA) A) in Ibadan,Ibadan, Nigeria;Nigeria; andand thethe InternationalInternational FoodFood PolicyPolicy ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute (IFPRI) in Washington, D.C.,D.C. , USA.USA.

The CentroCentro AgronómicoAgron6mico Tropical de InvestigaciónInvestigaci6n yy EnseñanzaEnsefianza (CA(CATIE) TIE) inin TurrialbaTurrialba,, CostaCosta Rica, carries outout researchresearch andand trainingtraining relatedrelated toto variousvarious aspectsaspects ofof NWFPsNWFPs inin CentralCentral America.America.

The GEFGEF isis a arelatively relatively newnew source source of of international international supportsupport forfor locallocal forestforest management management initiatives, helping developingdeveloping countries protect biodiversity andand otherother resources.resources. JointlyJointly implemented byby UNDP (technical(technical assistance), UNEPUNEP (policy guidance)guidance) andand thethe World Bank (trustee and investment),investment), GEF supportssupports projects in various countries thatthat expandexpand thethe roles of indigenous communities in environmental research and management (Poole(Poole,, 1993).1993). The FacilityFacility is committed to workingworking withwith community-basedcommunity-based NGOs on projects of up toto US$US$ 50,00050,000 (Braatz(Braatz et al.,al., 1992).1992).

114 The internationalinternational Expert ConsultationConsultation on Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest ProductsProducts held inin Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia in JanuaryJanuary 19951995 recommendedrecommended that,that, toto provideprovide institutionalinstitutional support,support, internationalinternational organizations should (FAO, 1995b):1995b):

• make NWFP activitiesactivities anan importantimportant componentcomponent of theirtheir policiespolicies andand programmes,programmes, withwith more support forfor nationalnational institutionsinstitutions andand programmes;programmes;

• compile and disseminatedisseminate industrialized-countryindustrialized-country experience with non-wood forest resourceresource management and use;use;

• support interdisciplinaryinterdisciplinary compositioncomposition ofof internationalinternational programmeprogramme managementmanagement teams;teams;

• further examineexamine thethe implicationsimplications ofof internationalinternational agreementsagreements andand conventionsconventions (CITES,(CITES, GATT and others) onon locallocal developmentdevelopment of non-woodnon-wood forest resources and refine themthem toto foster wise resourceresource use;use;

• disseminate existing information relevant toto producers'producers' needs more broadly (in proceedings,proceedings, published research andand extensionextension materials)materials) throughthrough nationalnational informationinformation centrescentres andand networks;

• support South-SouthSouth-South cooperation throughthrough collaborativecollaborative activities activities i .i.e.:e.: studiesstudies,, research programmes, seminars, etc.etc.

In thisthis way,way, internationalinternational agenciesagencies cancan reducereduce thethe burdenburden onon developingdeveloping countries,countries, where thethe potential for sustainablesustainable utilization of NWFPs and thethe dangerdanger ofof over-exploitationover-exploitation of resourcesresources are the greatest.greatest.

Summary

• Use awarenessawareness campaigns to reversereverse negativenegative attitudes aboutabout rural traditions in whichwhich NWFPs playplaya a role.role.

• Implement policy adjustments forfor developing thethe NWFPNWFP sector.sector. Key changes should: (1)(1) clarify tenure andand accessaccess rights,rights, (2)(2) reviewreview tradetrade regulationsregulations toto promotepromote long-termlong-term investment and ensure scale-neutrality for small enterprises and (3) refine mechanisms such as intellectualintellectual propertyproperty rightsrights (IPR)(IPR) toto compensatecompensate communitiescommunities andand protectprotect theirtheir interests.interests.

• Maintain community control against outside commercial pressurespressures usingusing legallegal enforcementenforcement of clearly defineddefined rightsrights ofof useuse andand strongstrong socialsocial institutions.institutions.

• Government agencies should ensure that producers receivereceive better informationinformation andand guidanceguidance on: resourcesresources andand tenure;tenure; techniquestechniques forfor harvesting,harvesting, processingprocessing and marketing;marketing; andand thethe effects trade regulations.regulations. InnovativeInnovative governrnent-NGOgovernment-NGO collaborations cancan enhanceenhance supportsupport for education and trainingtraining onon thesethese topics.topics.

• Use flexible credit mechanisms (including(including acceptance of physical product stock to guarantee loans, andand forestforest inventoriesinventories ofof economic economic speciesspecies asas collateral)collateral) toto extendextend creditcredit availability availability and improveimprove ruralrural productivity.productivity.

• Secure intellectualintellectual property rights for forest/ruralforest/rural communitiescommunities in thethe nationalnational legallegal framework.

10.1 O. Institutional andand policypolicy supportsupport 11115 5 • Improve publicpublic accountingaccounting ofof NWFP NWFP contributionscontributions toto locallocal andand nationalnational economieseconomies byby usingusing comprehensive classificationclassification systems,systems, better information on NWFPs and improved systems for estimating environmental assets, gaingain andand losses.losses.

• Establish regionalregional collaborationcollaboration on technicaltechnical issues and internationalinternational support for sharingsharing experience and strengtheningstrengthening institutions.institutions.

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Haeruman, H. 1995.1995. EnvironmentalEnvironmental dimensions ofof nonnon-wood-wood forest forest products. products. In In Report of the expert consultation on non-woodnon-wood forestforest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

IFPRI. In press.press. Proc.Proc. ofof a a workshop workshop onon Non-Timber Non-Timber TreeTree ProductProduct (NTTP)(NTTP) MarketMarket Research,Research, held December 12-14,12-14, 1994,1994, Annapolis,Annapolis, Maryland,Maryland, USA.USA. InternationalInternational Food PolicyPolicy ResearchResearch Institute, Washington, D.C.

Padovani, F.F. 1995.1995. StatisticalStatistical informationinformation onon non-woodnon-wood forest products. InIn ReportReport ofof the the expertexpert consultation on non-wood forestforest products,products, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, 17-2717-27 JanuaryJanuary 1995. Non-Non­ Wood Forest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Poole, P.J. 1993.1993. IndigenousIndigenous peoplespeoples and biodiversity protection.protection. In In Davis, Davis, S.H., S.H., ed.,ed., The social challenge of biodiversitybiodiversity conservation. Working Paper No.No. 1. GlobalGlobal EnvironmentEnvironment Facility,Facility, Washington, D.D.C. C.

Reid, W.V. Laird,Laird, S.A.S.A. Meyer,Meyer, C.A.,C.A., Gamez,Gamez, R.,R., Sittenfeld,Sittenfeld, A.A. Janzen,Janzen, D.H.,D.H., Gollin,Gollin, M.A.M.A. and Juma, C.,C., eds. eds. 1993. 1993. Biodiversity Biodiversity prospecting:prospecting: usingusing geneticgenetic resourcesresources for sustainablesustainable development. World ResourcesResources Institute, Washington,Washington, D.C.D.C.

Sene,Sène, EIEl HadjiHadji M.M. 1995.1995. Non-woodNon-wood forestforest products:products: thethe institutionalinstitutional aspects. In Report of the expert consultation on non-woodnon-wood forest products, Yogyakarta,Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995.1995. Non-Wood ForestForest Products 3. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Sittenfeld, A. and Lovejoy, A.A. 1994.1994. BiodiversityBiodiversity prospectingprospecting frameworks:frameworks : the INBio experience in CostaCosta Rica.Rica. PaperPaper presentedpresented atat a aconference conference on on Biological Biological Diversity: Diversity: ExploringExploring Lhethe Complexities, held in Tucson, Arizona, USA, 25-27 March, 1994.1994.

Vosti, S., andand Witcover,Witcover, J.J. 1995.1995. Non-timber treetree productproduct marketmarket researchresearch workshop workshop - - an overview. Draft. IFPRI,IFPRI, Washington,Washington, D.C.

WRIWRI-IUCN-UNEP.-IUCN-UNEP. 1992.1992. GlobalGlobal biodiversitybiodiversity strategy: guidelines for for actionaction toto save,save, study, and use Earth's bioticbiotic wealthwealth sustainablysustainably and equitably. World Resources Institute,Institute, Washington,Washington, DD.C..C.

For furtherfurther readingreading

FAO. 1992.1992. AAframeworkfor framework for analyzing analyzing institutionalinstitutional incentivesincentives inin communitycommunity forestry.forestry. Community Forestry Note 10.10. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Greaves, T., ed.ed. 1994.1994. Intellectual Intellectual property property rights rights for for indigenous indigenous peoples: aa sourcesource book.book. SocietySociety for Applied Anthropology, P.O. BoxBox 24083,24083, OklahomaOklahoma City,City, OKOK 73124,73124, USA.USA.

10. Institutional andand policypolicy supportsupport 117 Panayotou, T. and Ashton, P.S.P.S. 1992.1992 .Not Not byby timbertimber alone: economics andand ecology for for sustainingsustaining tropical forests.forests. IslandIsland Press, Washington,Washington, D.C.

Pearce, D. andand Moran,Moran, D.D. 1994.1994. Economic Economic valuevalue ofof biodiversity. biodiversity. Earthscan, London.London.

Taylor, D.A., Lai,Lai, C.K.,C.K., and and Mancebo, Mancebo, S.T.S.T. 1993. 1993. Developing Developing curriculacurricula for agroforestryagroforestry and community forestry forestry inin Asia-Pacific.Asia-Pacific. ReportReport ofof anan expert consultation heldheld 8-128-12 June,June, 1993 in Chiang MaiMai,, Thailand.Thailand. APANAPAN Report No.No.8 8.. FAOFAO Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Agroforestry Network, Bogor, Indonesia.

United Nations Publications.Publications. 1992.1992. ApplicationApplication ofof environmental environmental impact assessment principles to policies,policies, plansplans andand programmes. programmes. EnvironmentalEnvironmental SeriesSeries No.No . 5.5. UNUN Publications,Publications, NewNew York.York.

United Nations Publications. 1992.1992. HandbookHandbook of national accounting: integrated environmentalenvironmental and economic accountingaccounting.. UN Publications,Publications, NewNew York.York.

World Wide Fund for Nature.Nature. 1993.1993. TheThe vitalvital wealthwealth of plants.plants. WWF, Gland,Gland, Switzerland.Switzerland.

118 Appendix 11

CONTACTS FOR FURTHER INFORMATIONINFORMATION

No listlist ofof contacts contacts inin this this dynamic dynamic fieldfield couldcould bebe complete. complete. TheThe followingfollowing providesprovides aa "snapshot" of research sources on NWFPs,NWFPs, toto complementcomplement the "For"For furtherfurther reading"reading" listslists thatthat follow each chapter.chapter.

General Dr.Dr. JohnJohn DransfieldDransfield Mr. DonDon GilmourGilmour Herbarium Programme CoordinatorCoordinator Dr. YaaYaa Ntiamoa-BaiduNtiamoa-Baidu Royal Botanical GardensGardens Forest ConservationConservation ProgrammeProgramme Zoology DepartmentDepartment Kews, RichmondRichmond IUCN University of GhanaGhana Surrey TW9 3AE3AE Rue MauvernayMauvernay 2828 Legon, Accra United Kingdom CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland Ghana Mr. PatrickPatrick DurstDurst Ms. RietjeRietje GritGrit Dr. KamaljitKamaljit S. BawaBawa Regional Forestry Officer, Asia-Asia­ Netherlands ConunitteeCommittee for IUCN Professor, BiologyBiology DepartmentDepartment Pacific Plantage Middenlaan 2B2B University of Massachusetts/Massachusetts/ FAO RAPARAPA 1018 DD Amsterdam Boston Maliwan MansionMansion The NetherlandsNetherlands 100 Morrissey Blvd.Blvd. Phra Atit Road Fax: 31-20-627-934931-20-627-9349 Boston, MA 02125, USA.USA. Bangkok, 1020010200 Fax: 1-617-287-66501-617-287-6650 'ThailandThailand Prof Herman Haeruman JsJ s FaxFax:: 66-2-280-044566-2-280-0445 Deputy Minister Dr.Dr. GerardGerard BudowskiBudowski E-mail: [email protected]@fao.org Ministry ofof DevelopmentDevelopment PlanningPlanning Aptdo 198 2300 Curridabat National Planning DevelopmentDevelopment San JoséJose Environment and NaturalNatural Agency Costa Rica Resources Division 2 Jl.J1. TamanTaman SurapatiSurapati International Development Development Jakarta 1251512515 Dr. C.C. ChandrasekharanChandrasekharan Research Centre Indonesia Chief, Non-WoodNon-Wood ProductsProducts P.O. BoxBox 85008500 Branch Ottawa, Ontario K1GKl G 3H93H9 Mr.Mr. AlanAlan HamiltonHamilton Forest ProductsProducts DivisionDivision Canada WWF InternationalInternational Forest Department,Department, FAOFAO Panda House Viale delle Terme didi CaracallaCaracalla Ms Julia Falconer WeysideWeyside Park 00100 RomeRome Technical Cooperation OfficerOfficer Catteshall LaneLane Italy Collaborative Forestry ManagementManagement Goldaming, Surrey GU7 1XR,1XR, UKUK Fax: 39-6-5225-561839-6-5225-5618 Unit Forest ResourceResource ManagementManagement Dr. M.R.M.R. JavedJaved HussainHussain Dr. NarongNarong Chomchalow Chomchalow Project 32 FernowFernow HallHall RAPA Forestry DepartmentDepartment Cornell UniversityUniversity Maliwan Mansion P.O. BoxBox 1457,1457, Kumasi,Kumasi, GhanaGhana Ithaca, NYNY 1485314853 Phra Atit RoadRoad USA Bangkok 10200 Mr. Torsten Frisk Thailand Regional Forestry Officer, LatinLatin Dr.Dr. MarilynMarilyn HoskinsHoskins America Director, Forests,Forests, TreesTrees andand Dr. BhaaratBhaarat P.P. DhitalDhital FAO RLAC People ProgrammeProgramme GPO BoxBox 42184218 Santiago, Chile FAO Kathmandu FaxFax:: 56-2-218-254756-2-218-2547 Viale delle Terme di CaracallaCaracalla Nepal E-mail: [email protected][email protected] Rome Fax: 39-6-5225-561839-6-5225-5618 E-mail:E-mail: [email protected]@fao.org

Appendix 11 119 Dr. NormanNorman JonesJones Dr.RDr.R.R.B..R.B. LeakeyLeakey MrMr.. Peter May Senior Forestry SpecialistSpecialist Director of Research DivisionDivision Pojeto Eco-Brasil AGRNR ICRAF ABDLIFunda!;aoABDL/Fundaç5o Rockefeller The World Bank United Nations Avenue Av. Presidente Vargas, 417417 1818 HH.. Street NWNW Gigiri 808o andar, 20071-003 Rio de Washington DC 2043320433 P.OP.O.. BoxBox 3067730677 JaneiroJaneiro RJ,RJ, BrasilBrasil USA Nairobi, Kenya Mr AnupamAnupam KumarKumar MukerjiMukerji MrMr.. John Joseph MsMs.. AnnaAnna LewingtonLewington Vice ChairmanChairman Director, CommunityCommunity BiodiversityBiodiversity Cambridge Cottage National Afforestation andand Programme Brantridge Lane Ecodevelopment Board MM.S..S. SwaminathanSwarninathan ResearchResearch Ba1combeBalcombe Paryavaran BhavanBhavan Foundation Sussex RH17RH 17 6JR CGO ComplexComplex 3rd Cross Street, TaramanTaraman United KingdomKingdom New Delhi,Delhi, IndiaIndia Madras 600113600113 India DrDr.. Ariel E. LugoLugo Dr. JulioJulio RuizRuiz MurrietaMurrieta FaxFax:: 91-44-2351-31991-44-2351-319 DirectorDirector,, InternationalInternational Tropical Programme OfficerOfficer Forestry Research InstituteInstitute World Conservation Union (IUCN)(IUCN) Dr. JunusJunus KartasubrataKartasubrata USDA - ForestForest ServiceService Rue Mauvernay 2828 Head, PROSEAPROSEA NetworkNetwork OfficeOffice Call Box 25000, Rio PiedrasPiedras CH-1196 GlandGland Plant Resources of SouthSouth EastEast Puerto Rico Switzerland Asia (PROSEA) Foundation Fax: 41-22-999-002541-22-999-0025 Herbarium BogorienseBogoriense Prof Wangari M. MaathaiMaathai JL. H.H . DjaundaDjaunda 22,22, Coordinator Dr. BiplabBiplab KantiKanti NandiNandi PP.O..O. Box 234, BogorBogor 16122,16122, The GreenGreen BeltBelt MovementMovement Regional Food Policy andand Indonesia PP.O..O. BoxBox 6754567545 Nutrition Officer, AsiaAsia Nairobi FAO-RAPA Mr. Jay B.S.B.S. KarkiKarki Kenya 39 PhraPhra AtitAtit RoadRoad Tribuvan UniversityUniversity Bangkok 1020010200 Institute of Forestry Dr.Dr. ManokaranManokaran Thailand P.O. BoxBox 4343 FRIM Fax: 66-2-281-9757/280-044566-2-281-9757/280-0445 Hariyo Kharka Kepong, SelangorSe1angor Pokhara CampusCampus (Gandaki(Gandaki Zone)Zone) 52109 KualaKuala LumpurLumpur Ms.Ms. SaraSara OdlfieldOdlfield Nepal Malaysia The OldOld PloughPlough 2 CaxtonCaxton RoadRoad Mr. J.DJ.D.. KeitaKeita Dr. FuFu MaoyiMaoyi Sandy Regional Forestry Officer, RAFRRAFR Secretary General, ChineseChinese Beds. SG19 3BE, UKUK PP.O..O. BoxBox 16281628 Bamboo Society Accra Research Institute of SubtropicalSubtropical Dr.Dr. L.L. PancelPance1 Ghana Forestry GTZ E-mail: [email protected] Chinese Academy of Forestry P.O.P.O. BoxBox 51805180 Mr. Chun K.K. Lai 42, DaqiaoDaqiao Rd.,Rd., FuyangFuyang Dag Hammarskjold-WegHamrnarskjold-Weg 11+2 +2 Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Zhejiang 311400,311400, ChinaChina D-6263 Eschborn,Eschborn, GermanyGermany Network (APAN) Fax: 86-571-332-4508/332-271986-571-332-4508/332-2719 PP.O..O. BoxBox 481481 Dr. VitoonVitoon ViriyasakultornViriyasakultorn Bogor 1600416004 Dr.Dr. N.N. MarshallMarshall Regional FTPP NetworkNetwork Indonesia IUCN Regional Office for Eastern Facilitator FaxFax:: 62-251-315-22262-251-315-222 Africa RECOFTC P.O.P.O. BoxBox 6820068200 Kasetsart UniversityUniversity Mr. C.G.C.G. KushalappaKushalappa Nairobi Bangkok 10900, ThailandThailand Assistant Professor Kenya Fax: 662-561-4880662-561-4880 Department of ForestryForestry UAS, GKVKGKVK CampusCampus Bangalore 560-065560-065 India

120 Dr. Meka R. RaoRao Mr. Bai-MassBai-Mass Taal Biodiversity Unit Coordinator, ComponentComponent Senior Programme Officer Conservation Policy Division Interactions Programme Terrestrial Ecosystems Branch WWF International ICRAF UN Environment ProgrammeProgramme World Conservation Centre P.O. BoxBox 3067730677 PP.O..O. BoxBox 3055230552 Avenue du Mont Blanc Nairobi, Kenya Nairobi, Kenya 11961196 Gland Fax: 254-2-226-890254-2-226-890 Switzerland DrDr.. SyamaSyama PrasadPrasad RaychaudhuriRaychaudhuri Fax:Fax: 41-22-364-821941-22-364-8219 IUFRO Group leader on NWFP MrMr.. DavidDavid TaylorTaylor DivDiv.. of MicologyMicology andand PlantPlant 1909 Kenyon Street, NWNW Mr.Mr. GuidoGuido BroekhovenBroekhoven Pathology Washington DD.C.20010,.C.20010, USAUSA Eastern Africa Forest ConservationConservation Indian Agricultural Research Programme Institute Dr. A.B. Temu IUCN A-61, Alakandana,Alakandana, ShivalikShivalik Apts.Apts. ICRAF P.OP.O.. BoxBox 6820068200 Kalkaji, New DelhiDelhi 110019110019 IndiaIndia United Nations Avenue Nairobi, Kenya P.O.BoxP.O.Box 3067, Gigiri FaxFax:: 254-2-503-511254-2-503-511 Sr. JorgeJorge CamposCampos RoasioRoasio Nairobi, KenyaKenya Asessor de DirecciónDirecci6n Dr. BruceBruce CampbellCampbell Instituto de InvestigacionesInvestigaciones DrDr.. Tewari Professor, ChairChair ofof BotanyBotany Tecnol6gicasTecnológicas Director General University ofof ZimbabweZimbabwe Casilla 1900219002 Indian Council for ForestryForestry Box MP 167,167 , MountMount PleasantPleasant Santiago, ChileChile Research and EducationEducation Harare Fax: 56-2-218-530756-2-218-5307 DehraDelira Dun,Dun, UU.P.,.P., IndiaIndia Zimbabwe Fax:Fax: 263-4-333-407263-4-333-407 Dr. CherlaCherla SastrySastry Dr. G.E.G.E. WickensWickens Principal Programme Officer, 5050 Mr. K.C.K.C. ChackoChacko Forestry, IDRCIDRC Uxbridge Road Silviculturist 17 Jorbagh, NewNew DelhiDelhi 110003110003 Hampton Hill IICI/C Division of SilvicultureSilviculture India Middlesex TW12 3AD, UKUK Kerala Forest ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute Peechi 680653680653 DrDr.. M.P.M.P. ShivaShiva Assessing Non-Wood Forest Kerala,Kerala, IndiaIndia Managing Director Resources FaxFax:: 487-78-22-49487-78-22-49 Centre for MinorMinor ForestForest ProductsProducts HIG-2 No.No . 88 Prof. OmarOmar BerkatBerkat Dr. RichardRichard CowlingCowling Indirapuram, Dehra Dun,Dun, IndiaIndia DepartementDépartement dd'Ecologie 'Ecologie VégétaleVegetale Institute for Plant ConservationConservation Institut AgronorniqueAgronomique et VéterinaireVeterinaire Private BagBag,, University of CapeCape Dr. TogaToga SilitongaSilitonga Hassan II, RabatRabat Town Senior Adviser to the Minister of Morocco Rondebosch 7700 Forestry Fax: 212-7-775-838212-7-775-838 South Africa Manggala Wanabakti BlockBlock 11 Fax: 27-21-650-372627-21-650-3726 Jakarta, IndonesiaIndonesia Dr. NirmalNirmal BhattaraiBhattarai FaxFax:: 62-21-570-022662-21-570-0226 Research DirectorDirector Dr.Dr. RodolfoRodolfo DirzoDirzo Biodiversity UnitUnit Centro de EcologiaEcologia Mr. WormWorm SorensenSorensen Asia NetworkNetwork forfor Small-ScaleSmall-Scale Ap. Post. 70-275,70-275, CuidadCui dad UNESCO Regional Office forfor Agricultural BiotechnologiesBiotechnologies Universitata Science and Technology for SouthSouth (ANSAB) Universidad NacionalNacional AutonomaAutonoma East AsiaAsia (ROSTSEA)(ROSTSEA) P.O.P.O. BoxBox 16, lazimpatLazimpat de MexicoMexico JalanJ alan Thamrin 124124 Kathmandu,Kathmandu, NepalNepal 04510 Mexico D.F.,D.F., MexicoMexico Tromolpos 273/JKT273/JKT Fax:Fax: 977-1-411-964977-1-411-964 Fax:Fax: 52-56-228-99552-56-228-995 Jakarta 10012,10012, IndonesiaIndonesia Fax: 62-21-315-038262-21-315-0382 Mr.Mr. BarryBarry EvansEvans WWF South Pacific Program Dr. SomsakSomsak SukwongSukwong Suya,Suva, FijiFiji Director Fax:Fax: 679-301-758679-301-758 Regional Community Forestry Training CenterCenter (RECOFTC)(RECOFTC)

AppendixAppendix 11 1121 21 Mr. Timothy J.J. SynottSynon DrDr.. KathrynKathryn SatersonSaterson MrMr.. GerardGerard BodekerBodeker Executive Director Director, BiodiversityBiodiversity SupportSupport Global Initiative for Traditional The Forest StewardshipStewardship CouncilCouncil Program Systems ((GIFTS)GIFTS) of Health AAvenida venida Hidalgo 502 WWF/USAWWF/USA National MuMuseumseum of Health andand Oaxaca, Mexico 12501250 24th24th Street, NW Medicine FaxFax:: 52-951-6211052-951-62110 Washington, DCDC 20036,20036, USAUSA PP.O..O. BoxBox 5974859748 FaxFax:: 1-202-861-83241-202-861-8324 Washington, DC 20012, USAUSA MsMs.. Alison Hoare FaxFax:: 1-202-576-35731-202-576-3573 International Programme Dr. PremPrem SrivastavaSrivastava World Wide Fund for Nature/UKNature/UK Research and DevelopmentDevelopment Dr. John G.G. BruhnBruhn Panda House Manager President Weyside Park IwokramaIwokrama International Rain Forest International Society for Surrey GU7 1XR,lXR, UKUK Programme Ethnopharmacology, Fax: 44-483-426-40944-483-426-409 41 BrickdamBrickdam and BoyleBoyle PlacePlace ACO LokemedeLokemede Georgetown, GuyanaGuyana ABAB,, Box 3026, S-17103,S-17103 , SwedenSweden Klaus JJanzanz Fax: 592-2-59199 Senior Forestry Officer DrDr.. A.B.A.B. CunninghamCunningham Forest ResourcesResources AppraisalAppraisal and Dr. ElizabethElizabeth WidjajaWidjaja PP.O..O. BoxBox 42 Monitoring Herbarium BogorienseBogoriense Betty's BayBay 71417141 FAO 11.J1. Raya Juandaluanda 22 South Africa Via delle TermeTerme didi CaracallaCaracalla Bogor 1612216122 Rome Indonesia Dr.Dr. PaulPaul AlanAlan CoxCox FaxFax:: 39-6-522539-6-5225 51375137 Fax: 62-251-325-85462-251-325-854 Botany DepDepartmentartment E-mE-mail:ail: [email protected] BrBrighamigham Young UniversityUniversity ResearchResearch on Traditional MedicineMedicine 302 Maeser Bldg.Bldg. ManagManager,er, Non-timber Forest P.OP.O.. BoxBox 2260022600 Products Programme Asian Network on MedicinalMedicinal andand Provo, UTUT 84602-2600,84602-2600, USAUSA Natural Resources InstituteInstitute Aromatic Plants (ANMAP)(ANMAP) Fax:Fax: 1-801-378-59761-801-378-5976 Central AvenueA venue Regional Plant ProductionProduction OfficerOfficer Chatham Maritime FAO RegionalRegional OfficeOffice Dr.Dr. C.L.C.L. GreenGreen Kent ME4 4TB, UKUK Maliwan MansionMansion Phyto Chemistry GroupGroup FaxFax:: 44-634-880-066/7744-634-880-066/77 PhraPhra AtitAtit RoadRoad N.R.I.N.R.1. Bangkok 10200, Thailand Central AvenueAvenue Ing. RafaelRafael OcampoOcampo Fax:Fax: 66-2-280-044566-2-280-0445 ChathamChatham Maritime PlPlantant Scientist Kent ME4 4TB4TB C.PC.P.. 92,92,7170 7170 CATIECATIE Ms. ManjulManjul BajajBajaj USA Turrialba,Turrialba, CostaCosta RicaRica Coordinator, MedicinalMedicinal PlantsPlants Research NetworkNetwork Dr. M. HadleyHadley Dr. CharlesCharles PetersPeters IDRC SouthSouth AsiaAsia OfficeOffice Programme Specialist,Specialist, Division of West Kalimantan ProgrammeProgramme 17 Jor BaghBagh Ecological SciencesSciences Institute of EconomicEconomic BotanyBotany New Delhi 110110 003003 UNESCO The New YorkYork BotanicalBotanical GardenGarden India 7 PlacePlace dede FontenoyFontenoy 11.J1. GG.M..M. Said No.No . 4747 FaxFax:: 91-11-462-270791-11-462-2707 75700 Paris,Paris, FranceFrance Pontianak, West KalimantanKalimantan Indonesia Dr. K. HusnaHusna C.C. BaserBaser MrMr.. Robert S.S. McCalebMcCaleb DirectorDirector,, AnadoluAnadolu UniversityUniversity President, Herb Research Dr. MauroMauro ReisReis Medicinal Plants Research Centre Foundation Tropical Forest ResourcesResources 26470-Eskisehir, TurkeyTurkey 1007 Pearl Street, SuiteSuite 200 Rua PalmiraPalmira Fax:Fax: 90-222-335-012790-222-335-0127 Boulder,Boulder, CO 80302,80302, USAUSA 254254/Apt./Apt. 601601 Fax: 1-303-449-78491-303-449-7849 30.220.11030.220.110 SERRASERRA Belho Horizonte,Horizonte, MinasMinas GeraisGerais Ms.Ms . KatyKaty MoranMoran Brazil Executive Director Fax: 55-31-531-264355-31-531-2643 oror 221-8033221 -8033 The HealingHealing ForestForest ConservancyConservancy 3521 S Street,Street, NWNW Washington,Washington, DC 20007,20007, USAUSA FaxFax:: 1-202-337-32111-202-337-3211

122 MsMs.. Christine PadochPadoch Dr. JulieJulie FeinsilverFeinsilver Processing andand product InstituteInstitute of Economic BotanyBotany Program of Research and development TheThe New York BotanicalBotanical GardensGardens Technological Development in BronxBronx,, New YorkYork 10458-512610458-5126 Health MrMr.. J.W.J.W. AnzerAnzer USA Pan-American Health Organization Executive Secretary (PAHO) International Federation of DrDr.. U.U. SchipmannSchipmann 525 23rd St.,St. , NWNW Essential Oil and Aroma Traders Co-chairman Washington, DC 20037,20037 , USAUSA (IFEAT) IUCN/SSCIUCN/SSC Medicianl Plant Fax: 1-202-861-84721-202-861-8472 Kemp House SpeSpecialistcialist Group, 152-160 City Road Bundesamt furfür Naturschutz Dr. RodrigoRodrigo GamezGamez London ECEC1V 1V 2NP2NP,, UK Konstantinstrasse 110110 Director General FaxFax:: 44-71-250-096544-71-250-0965 D-53179 Bonn, GermanyGermany INBIO FaxFax:: 49-228-954-347049-228-954-3470 Ap. 22-310022-3100 Australian Bamboo Network Santo Domingo de Heredia P.OP.O.. BoxBox 174174 MrMr.. VinayVinay TandonTandon Costa Rica Fremantle WA 6160 Foundation for revitalisation of Australia LocLocalal Health Traditions Dr. JaimeJaime HurtubiaHurtubia 50,MSH Layout,Layout, 2nd stage Bio-diverBio-diversitysity Programme Australian Tree Seed CentreCentre 3rd main, AnandnagarAnandnagar Management CSIRO Division of Forestry Bangalore 560024, India U.N.EU.N.E.P..P. DrDr.. J.C.J. C. DoranDoran (essential(essential oils)oils) PP.O..O. BoxBox 3055230552 Dr C.E.C.E. HarwoodHarwood (food)(food) Sheba Thayil Nairobi Mr M.W.M.W. MoncurMoncur (cut(cut flowers,flowers, No.50, Msh LatLat OitOit Kenya honey) 11 Stage III MainMain,, II CrossCross Dr N.N. MalajczukMalajczuk (edible(edible fungi)fungi) FRLHT,FRLHT, Anandnagar,Anandnagar, Dr. AlejandroAlejandro C.C. ImbachImbach Mr T.K.T.K. VercoeVercoe (seeds)(seeds) Bangalore 560024 India Jefe Mr K.K. PinyopusarerkPinyopusarerk (resins)(resins) Fax:Fax: +91+91 803803 3416734167 Area Biodiversidad Ms S.S. SearleSearle (tannins)(tannins) c.P.C.P. 92 P.O.P.O. BoxBox 40084008 Dr. XiaoruiXiaorui ZhangZhang 7170 Catie-TurrialbaCatie-Turrialba Queen Victoria TerraceTerrace Traditional Medicine ProgrammeProgramme Costa Rica ACT 2600,2600, AustraliaAustralia World Health OrganisationOrganisation Fax: 61-6-281-826661-6-281 -8266 CH-1211 Geneva 2727 DrDr.. RichardRichard RichinaRichina Switzerland Project Coordinator Mr. AtalAtal Biodiversity Support progranuneprogramme 81,81 , VigyanVigyan L,okLok Biodiversity prospecting and cc/o/o WWf New Delhi,Delhi , 92-India92-India related technologytechnology 1250 24th Street NWNW Washington DC 20037,20037, USAUSA Mr. BrianBrian MurrayMurray BelcherBelcher Dr. AmarnathAmarnath BhatBhat Economist, InternationalInternational NetworkNetwork Fogarty InternationalInternational CenterCenter Dr. AnaAna SittenfeldSittenfeld for BambooBamboo andand RattanRattan (INBAR)(lNBAR) National Institutes of HealthHealth Director ofof Biodiversity Biodiversity IDRCIORC SouthSouth AsiaAsia OfficeOffice 31 Center Drive,Drive, MSCMSC 22202220 Prospecting 17 Jor BaghBagh Bethesda, MD 20892,20892, USAUSA Instituto NacionalNacional dede BiodiversidadBiodiversidad New DelhiDelhi 110 003 Fax:Fax: 1-301-402-20561-301-402-2056 de Costa RicaRica (INBio)(lNBio) India A.P.A.P. 22-310022-3100 Fax: 91-11-462-270791-11-462-2707 Dr. GeraldGerald BillsBills Santo Domingo de HerediaHeredia Microbial BioChemistryBioChemistry andand Costa RicaRica Dr.Dr. BenBen ChikamaiChikamai Process ResearchResearch Fax:Fax: 506-236-2816506-236-2816 Kenya Forestry ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute MerckMerck ResearchResearch LaboratoriesLaboratories Forest ProductsProducts ResearchResearch P.O.P.O. BoxBox 20002000 Programme -- KARURAKARURA Rahway, NJNJ 07065,07065 , USAUSA P.O.P.O. BoxBox 3024130241 Fax:Fax: 1-904-594-54681-904-594-5468 Nairobi,Nairobi, KenyaKenya

Appendix 11 123 Dr. 1.1.J.J.W. W. CoppenCoppen Prof. SarniSami A. KhalidKhalid Mr. O.K.O.K. SouvannavongSouvannavong Flavours and PhytochemistryPhytochemistry Dean, Faculty of PharmacyPharmacy International Neem Network Section University of KhartoumKhartoum Forest Resources Division Natural Resources InstituteInstitute (SIGMA-TAU(SIGMA-TAU Sudan Ltd.Ltd. FORM/FAO Chatham Maritime Phytopharmaceutical Division) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla Kent ME4 4TB PP.O..O. BoxBox 19961996 00100 Rome, ItalyItaly UK Khartoum Fax: 39-6-522-5666139-6-522-56661 Fax: 44-634-880-066/7744-634-880-066/77 Sudan Fax: 249-11-451-743249-11-451-743 Mr. Frank Taylor Dr. Tuley DeDe SilvaSilva Managing DirectorDirector Special Technical Advisor Prof. GillesGilles LemieuxLemieux Veld Products Research Chemical Industries BranchBranch DépartementDepartement des SciencesSciences PP.O..O. BoxBox 20202020 United Nations Industrial ForestièresForestieres Gaborone, BotswanaBotswana Development Organization UniversitéUniversite LavalLaval Fax: 267-347-047267-347-047 (UNIDO) QuébecQuebec G1KGlK 7P4 Room D-1222 VICVIC Canada World Federation of ProprietaryProprietary PP.O..O. BoxBox 300300 Medicine Manufacturers A-1400 Vienna Mr Jean-PaulJean-Paul LescureLescure (WFPMM) Austria Director of Research, Dept. MAAMAA FaxFax:: 43-1-230-961543-1-230-9615 French ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute for Dr. Jerome A. Reinstein,Reinstein, Development Cooperation Director General Ms. Sharon EngEng (ORSTOM) 15 Sydney House, WoodstockWoodstock Environmental BambooBamboo 213 Rue LaLa Fayette,Fayette, Road, Foundation 75010 Paris, FranceFrance ChisChiswick, wick, London W4 1DP\DP P.O.P.O. BoxBox 196196 United Kingdom. Ubud 8057180571 BaliBali Mr. EnriqueEnrique OrtizOrtiz Fax: 44 181181 747-8711747-8711 Indonesia Coordinator, Andean Network of Sustainable Alternative ProductsProducts Marketing and tradetrade informationinformation International Fragrance Conservation InternationalInternational Association (IFRA)(IFRA) 1015 18th St., NWNW SuiteSuite 10001000 Mr. MehtnetMehmet ArdaArda 8 Rue CharlesCharles HumbertHumbert Washington, DC 20036,20036, USAUSA Chief, EnvironmentalEnvironmental IssuesIssues 1205 Geneva Fax: 1-202-887-51881-202-887-5188 Section SSwitzerland witzerland ConunoditiesCommodities Division, UNCTADUNCTAD Dr. J.A.J.J .A.J. PereraPerera Palais desdes NationsNations International Society of Project Officer,Officer, ScienceScience andand CH-1211 Geneve 1010 Ethnopharmacology Technology DivisionDivision Switzerland DrDr.. XiaoXiao Peigen,Peigen, Commonwealth Science CouncilCouncil Director, Marlborough House Prof Shen ZhaoZhao BangBang Institute of Medicinal PlantPlant Pall Mall, LondonLondon SW1YSWIY 5HX Director Development, UK Research Institute of ChemicalChemical Chinese Academy of MedicalMedical FaxFax:: 44-71-930-082744-71-930-0827 Processing Sciences, and UtilizationUtilization of ForestForest Xi Bei Wang, Dr. P.P. PoschenPoschen Products Beijing. Forestry andand WoodWood IndustriesIndustries Chinese Academy of Forestry People's RepublicRepublic of ChinaChina Specialist Nanjing 210037, China International Labour OrganisationOrganisation International Standards CH-1211 GenevaGeneva 2222 Mr.Mr. AlecAlec ChangChang Organisation (ISO)(ISO) Switzerland Permanent Secretary for Case Postale 56, Commerce, Trade, IndustryIndustry andand 1,I, rue de Varembe,V arembe, Research Institute of FragranceFragrance Public Enterprises CH-1211 Geneva 2020 Materials (RIFM)(RIFM) Nalbati House Switzerland (same address as forfor IFRA,IFRA, above)above) 9, GoodenoughGoodenough St. Fax: 41-22-733343041 -22-7333430 Suya,Suva, FijiFiji Fax: 679-302-617679-302-617

124 Dr. Eric L.L. HymanHyman MsMs.. Teresa MullikenMulliken Mr. JeanJean LouisLouis SolariSolari Programme Economist ATIATI Programme Officer Pontare S.A.S.A. 18281828 LL Street NW, Suite 10001000 Traffic International Cedros 305 y Calle Ira.,Ira., UrdesaUrdesa Washington DC 20036 IUCN Guayaquil USA 219c Huntingdon Road Ecuador Cambridge CB3CB3 ODLODL Tel/fax: 593-4-381-567593-4-381-567 Dr. MohammadMohammad IqbalIqbal UK General Manager, OperationsOperations FaxFax:: 44-122-3-27723744-122-3-277237 Ms.Ms . PatricePatrice VanVan RiemsdykRiemsdyk North West Frontier ProvinceProvince Social Ventures Network EuropeEurope Forest DevelopmentDevelopment Corporation TRIFED P.O.P.O. BoxBox 2336723 367 Officers Enclave, Phase VV Tribal Cooperative MarketingMarketing 1100 DW Amsterdam, NetherlandsNetherlands Hayatabad, Peshawar Development phone: 3120-69712203120-6971220 Pakistan Federation of IndiaIndia LimitedLimited fax:fax : 31-2-9696378631-2-96963786 Fax: 92-521-814-00292-521-814-002 Savitri, Sadan-11,Sadan-lI, 15 Preet ViharVihar Community Center, VikasVikas MargMarg Rural developmentdevelopment and socio-socio­ Dr.Dr. LeoLeo LintuLintu Delhi-lIoo92,Delhi-110092, IndiaIndia economic research Forestry Officer, MarketingMarketing Forest Products DivisionDivision MrMr.. YangYang Zu WuWu Dr. J.E.M.J.E.M. ArnoldArnold Forestry Department,Department, FAOFAO Yunnan Flavour and FragrancesFragrances Senior ResearchResearch OfficerOfficer VialeVia1e delle Terme didi CaracallaCaracalla R&DR & D CentreCentre Oxford Forestry InstituteInstitute 00100 RomeRome No.110No .lIO BejingBejing RoadRoad Department of Plant SciencesSciences Italy Kunming 650057650057 University of OxfordOxford Fax: 39-6-5225-561839-6-5225-5618 Yunnan, PR ChinaChina South Parks RoadRoad Oxford OXI0X1 33 RB,RB, UKUK Dr. P.K.P.K. MuraleedharanMuraleedharan Green marketingmarketing FaxFax:: 44-865-275-074/270-07844-865-275-074/270-078 Forest Economist Kerala Forestry ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute Dr. JasonJason ClayClay Dr. JoshuaJoshua BishopBishop Peechi 680653 WWF/USA Programme DirectorDirector Kerala, India 2253 North UptonUpton StreetStreet Environmental EconomicsEconomics Fax: 487-782-249487-782-249 Arlington, VVAA 2220722207 Programme, IIEDlIED USA 3, EndsleighEndsleigh StreetStreet DrDr.. A. ParadiesParadies Fax:Fax: 1-703-524-04711-703-524-0471 London WCIH ODD Head, Trade InformationInformation United KingdomKingdom Dissemination Unit Cultural SurvivalSurvival EnterprisesEnterprises International Trade Centre 46 BrattleBrattle StreetStreet Mr. WilWi! dede JongJong Palais des NationsNations Cambridge, MAMA 02138,02138, USAUSA The NewNew YorkYork BotanicalBotanical GardenGarden 1211 Geneva 1010 Fax: 1-617-441-54171-617-441-5417 Dayak Forest ManagementManagement Switzerland Research Project DrDr.. CynthiaCynthia MackieMackie PP.O..O. BoxBox 60576057 Dr. SarahSarah Scherr or Senior Director, AsiaAsia PacificPacific Pontianak 78060 Dr. StephenStephen VostiVosti Region West Kalimantan, Indonesia IFPRI (local(local markets,markets, policy)policy) Conservation InternationalInternational 1200 Seventeenth St., NWNW 1015, 18th Street NW, suitesuite 10001000 Ms. AnneAnne DeruyttereDeruyttere Washington, DC 20036, USAUSA Washington DC 2003620036 Indigenous People and CommunityCommunity Fax: 1-202-467-44391-202-467-4439 USA Development Unit Inter-American Development BankBank Mr. VivekVivek MenonMenon Mr. MichaelMichael SaxenianSaxenian 1300 New York Ave, NWNW TRAFFIC IndiaIndia Director, ConservationConservation EnterpriseEnterprise Washington, DC 20577, USAUSA 172-B Lodhi EstateEstate Conservation InternationalInternational Fax:Fax: 1-202-623-14631-202-623-1463 New Delhi 110110 003003 1015 18th Street, NWNW India Washington, DC 20036,20036, USAUSA Dr. AnilAnil K.K. GuptaGupta RM CentreCentre forfor EducationalEducational InnovationInnovation IndianIndian InstituteInstitute ofof ManagementManagement Vastrapur,Vastrapur, AhmedabadAhmedabad 380380 015015 Gujarat, IndiaIndia Fax:Fax: 91-79-427-89691-79-427-896

Appendix 11 125 MsMs.. SatyawatiSatyawati HadiHadi Other researchresearch Communications Agency for Forestry ResearchResearch 11JI.. Gn. BaruBatu 11 Dr. DennisDennis Garrity,Garrity, Adlai J. Amore,Amore, SecretarySecretary P.O. BoxBox 8484 Dr. GenevieveGenevieve MichonMichon or Asian Forum ofof EnvironmentalEnvironmental Bogor 16004, IndonesiaIndonesia Dr. HubertHubert dede ForestaForesta Journalists Fax: 62-251-31-42-4062-251-31-42-40 South East AsiaAsia RegionalRegional ResearchResearch Press Foundation of Asia Programme P.O. BoxBox 18431843 Ms.Ms . AnnAnn KoontzKoontz ICRAF Manila, PhilippinesPhilippines Programme Officer, AsiaAsia Jalan Gunung Batu No.No . 55 Appropriate TechnologyTechnology P.O. BoxBox 161161 BogorBogor 1600116001 Mr. MikeMike AnaneAnane International Indonesia President, League of 1828 LL Street, NW,NW, SuiteSuite 10001000 Fax:Fax: 62-251-315-56762-251 -315-567 Environmental JournalistsJournalists Washington, DCDC 2003620036 The TriumphTriumph Fax: 1-202-293-45981-202-293-4598 Dr. C.T.S.C.T.S . NairNair PP.O..O. BoxBox 20622062 Forestry ResearchResearch SupportSupport Accra, GhanaGhana Mr. GillGill ShepherdShepherd Programme forfor Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Fax: 233-21-669187233-21-669187 Coordinator FAO Regional Office for Asia-Asia­ Rural DevelopmentDevelopment ForestryForestry Pacific (RAPA)(RAP A) Asian MassMass CommunicationsCommunications Network Maliwan Mansion Research and Information CentreCentre ODIom Phra AtitAtit RoadRoad 39 Newton Road Regent's College, Regent's ParkPark Bangkok, ThailandThailand 1020010200 Singapore 1130 London NW1 4NS Tel: 66-2-281-784466-2-281-7844 UK FaxFax:66-2-280-4565 :66-2-280-4565 Ms. DianeDiane JukofslcyJukofsky Fax:Fax: 44-71-487-759044-71-487-7590 Tropical ConservationConservation NewsbureauNewsbureau Dr. OusseynouOusseynou NdoyeNdoye Apdo.Apdo. 138-2150l38-2150 MrMr.. PitamberPitamber SharmaSharma Humid Forest StationStation San Moravia, Costa Rica Regional PlarmerPlanner IITA Fax: 506-240-25506-240-25 International Centre forfor IntegratedIntegrated B.P.B.P. 20082008 (Messa)(Messa) Mountain DevelopmentDevelopment (ICIMOD)(ICIMOD) Yaounde, CameroonCameroon Mr.Mr. RezaulRezaul KarimKarim P.O.P.O. BoxBox 32263226 Fax: 237-237-437237-237-437 Chief, EnvironmentEnvironment Section Kathmandu, Nepal Environment and Natural FaxFax:: 977-1-524-509/524-317977-1-524-509/524-317 Mr. F.F. PadovaniPadovani Resources Division, UN ESCAP Forestry Officer,Officer, StatisticsStatistics The United NationsNations BuildingBuilding PROTRADE, Forestry PlanningPlanning andand PolicyPolicy Rajadamnern AvenueAvenue GTZ GmbH,GmbH, Division Bangkok 1020010200 Postfach 5180,5180, FAO, RomeRome Thailand D-6236D-6236 Eschborn, GermanyGermany FaxFax:: 39-6-5225-513739-6-5225-5l37 Fax: 6161 9696797414 797414 Dr.Dr. JatnaJatna SupriatnaSupriatna Dr. ManualManual Ruiz Perez Editor-in-Chief Ms.Ms . JaneJane SiboSibo Centre for InternationalInternational Forestry Indonesian Journal of BiodiversityBiodiversity Rural AssessmentAssessment CoordinatorCoordinator Research (CIFOR)(CIFOR) and Conservation Kibale and SemlikiSem1iki ProjectProject P.O. BoxBox 65966596 JKPWBJKPWB JI.Jl. NusantaraNusantara 174174 Plot 30 MugurusiMugurusi RoadRoad Jakarta 10065,10065, IndonesiaIndonesia Depok 1642116421 P.O.P.O. BoxBox 715715 Fax:Fax: 62-251-326-43362-251-326-433 Jakarta, IndonesiaIndonesia Fort PortalPortal Fax: 62-21-727-001262-21-727-0012 Uganda Birger Solberg Fax: (256)(256) 493-2174493-2174 Director, Policy European Forestry InstituteInstitute Mr. FranciscoFrancisco TolentinoTolentino Torikatu 34, JoensuuJoensuu Ms. LauraLaura L.SL.S. DooleyDooley AATITI Project OfficerOfficer FIN-80100 FinlandFinland Policy AffairsAffairs 7E Vernida II FaxFax:: 358 7373 124393124393 WorldWorId ResourcesResources InstituteInstitute 120 Amorsolo Street 1709 New York AveAve.,., NWNW Makati, Metro ManilaManila Washington, DC 20006, USAUSA Philippines Fax: 1-202-638-00361-202-638-0036 Fax: 632-893-3354632-893-3354

126 Dr. MichaelMichael R. Dove/Dovel Dr. Deanna DonovanDonovan Environment and Policy InstituteInstitute East-West-CentreEast-West-Centre 1777 EastEast-West-West Road Honolulu,Honolulu, Hawaii 96848 USA

Dr. AshokAshok J.J. GadgilGadgil Lawrence Berkeley LaboratoryLaboratory 90-3058,90-3058, 1 Cyclotron Rd. Berkeley, CA 94720, USAUSA FaxFax:: 1-510-486-66581-510-486-6658

Dr.Dr. CalestousCalestous JumaJurna Director of ResearchResearch African Centre forfor TechnologyTechnology Studies P.O. BoxBox 4591745917 Nairobi, KenyaKenya Fax:Fax: 25-42-569-98625-42-569-986

Ms.Ms . Julie LykeLyke InternationalInternational Forestry Policy Analyst US Forest Service International Forestry P.O.P.O. BoxBox 9653896538 Washington, DCDC 20090-653820090-6538 USA Fax: 1-202-273-47951-202-273-4795

William Mankin Coordinator Global Forestry Policy Project, 14001400 16th NW, Suite 502, Washington,Washington, D.C.D. C. Fax:Fax: +1+ 1 202 202 79765627976562

Mr.Mr. DarmoDarmo SuparmoSuparmo Regional TFAPTFAP Adviser forfor Asia-Asia­ Pacific- RAPARAP A Maliwan MansionMansion Phra AtitAtit RoadRoad Bangkok, 1020010200 Thailand Fax: 66-2-280-044566-2-280-0445 E-mail: [email protected]@fao.org

Mr. CliveClive WicksWicks Head of InternationalInternational ProgrammeProgramme WWF-UK Panda House Weyside Park, GodalmingGodalming Surrey GU7 1XR,lXR, UKUK

Appendix 11 127 FAO TECHNICAL PAPERSPAPERS

NON-WOOD FORESTFOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS

1 . Flavours and fragrances of plant originorigin

2. Gum naval stores: turpentine and rosin from pinepine resinresin

3. Report of the InternationalInternational ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation onon Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest Products,Products, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia, January 1995

4. Natural colourants and dyestuffs

5. Edible nuts

6. Gums, resins and latexes of plantplant originorigin

7. Non-wood forest productsproducts forfor ruralrural incomeincome andand sustainablesustainable forestry This publication documentsdocuments the importance of non-wood forest products for ruralrural incomeincome andand sustainable forestry. ItIt suggestssuggests general principles and approaches for development andand sustainablesustainable utilization ofof non-wood non-wood forest forest resources.resources. Topics covered includeinclude resource resource assessment assessment andand development; assessmentassessment ofof the local resourceresource use;use; opportunities forfor improvedimproved management;management; commercial options;options; processing;processing; marketingmarketing andand trade;trade; organization ofof producerproducer groups; groups; researchresearch and extension; and institutionalinstitutional and policy support.support.

ISBN 92-5-92-5-103765 03765-5-5 ISSNISSN 10201020-3370 3370

111111111111111111111111II II III 9 7 7892518 9 2 5 1 0037652 3 7 6 5 2 M-30 V9480E12/4.99/500V9480El2/4.99/500