From New Speaker to Speaker

Funded by the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme of the European Union

Outcomes, reflections and policy recommendations from COST Action IS1306 on New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe:

From New Speaker to Opportunities and Challenges

Outcomes, reflections and policy recommendations from COST Action Edited by IS1306 on New Speakers in a Multilingual Bernadette O’Rourke Europe: Opportunities and Challenges and Joan Pujolar This publication is based upon work from COST Action IS1306 “New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe: Opportunities and Challenges” and is supported by the COST www.cost.eu

COST(European Cooperation in Science and Technology) is a funding agency aimed at facilitating the collaboration and networking of scientists and researchers at European level.

COST funds pan-European, bottom-up networks of scientists and researchers across all science and technology fields. These networks, called ‘COST Actions’, promote international coordination of nationally-funded research. By fostering the networking of researchers at an international level, COST enables breakthrough scientific developments leading to new concepts and products, thereby contributing to strengthening Europe’s research and innovation capacities.

COST’s mission focuses in particular on: • Building capacity by connecting high quality scientific communities throughout Europe and worldwide; • Providing networking opportunities for early career investigators; • Increasing the impact of research on policy makers, regulatory bodies and national decision makers as well as the private sector.

Through its inclusiveness policy, COST supports the integration of research communities in less research-intensive countries across Europe, leverages national research investments and addresses societal issues. From New Speaker to Speaker

Outcomes, reflections and policy recommendations from COST Action IS1306 on New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe: Opportunities and Challenges

Funded by the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme of the European Union

Edited by Bernadette O’Rourke and Joan Pujolar First published 2019 by IAITH: Welsh Centre for Language Planning

Editors: Bernadette O’Rourke and Joan Pujolar

Authors of Chapters Chapter 1: Bernadette O’Rourke, Joan Pujolar and Susan Frekko

Chapter 2: Bernadette O’Rourke, Joan Pujolar and Susan Frekko

Chapter 3: Bernadette O’Rourke, Joan Pujolar and Susan Frekko

Chapter 4: Colin Williams

Executive Summary

Appendix: List of key publications on New Speakers

Graphic Design and Artworks: DylunioGraffEG

This publication should be cited as:

O’Rourke, B and Pujolar, J. (eds.) 2019. From New Speaker to Speaker: Outcomes, reflections and policy recommentations from COST Action IS1306 on New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe: Opportunities and Challenges. IAITH: Welsh Centre for Language Planning.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

ISBN: 9781900563123 COST Action IS1306 New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe: Opportunities and Challenges Prologue

This COST Action focused on the dynamics From the outset in the Action, we have strived to involved in becoming a ‘new speaker’ of a position ourselves at the international forefront language in a multilingual Europe. The Action of language research, generating research on ran for four years between 2013-2017. We are multilingual competence, linguistic practices delighted to present this report, which highlights across the lifespan, and language policies, that some of the major accomplishments of our COST has been published in key international outlets Action on New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe: in the field. Some of our results are summarised Opportunities and Challenges, since its initiation in this report. Our research over the life of the in 2013. Action has demonstrated that multilingualism is a resource that can be utilized much more The work of this network was supported by the by individuals and institutions than is the case European COST Association (Co-operation in today. However, as a resource it also needs to Science and Technology) and funded within the be sustainable and equitable. In our Action we European Commission’s research programme have reflected critically on what multilingualism Horizon 2020. COST Actions are designed to means to different people. Access to different build new knowledge by bringing together languages and ways of speaking are not always researchers to cooperate and coordinate nation- equally distributed or equally accessible to ally-funded research activities, and to build up everyone in the same way. In the four-year new transnational and international research co- period of our Action we have brought together operation. The funding provides an opportunity researchers from a range of disciplines to for researchers to develop their competences, collaborate on issues around new speakerness share experience and expertise with colleagues and what it means to people to become speakers in other countries, and improve their research of new languages in the context of a multilingual career through workshops, training and exchange Europe. programmes. Language as we know is a key component in accessing education, employment, social services and for community participation. In Europe, languages have also been seen historically as defining individual and collective identities. The processes whereby people learn new languages and become legitimate speakers of these languages are complex. Through the Action our aim has been to better understand the potential social tensions that emerge from unequal access to participation of new speakers in Europe’s multilingual project. These inequalities pose a potential challenge to both European integration, social cohesion and economic collaboration, as well as to the full participation of territorial and immigrant minorities. A shared understanding of these complexities across the different multilingual scenarios (including education, healthcare, youth culture, the workplace and NGOs) in which the participants of the network have been working, has helped sharpen our knowledge of how to tackle the challenges that language communities, for example, we have new speakers of different linguistic varieties face increased awareness amongst language activists in the context of a multilingual Europe. and administrators about the opportunities and the challenges which new speakers face in This is particularly important in a world in which their respective communities. Overall, we would diversity and inclusion is being challenged. It is contend that the processes that characterise important so as to better contribute to how society language learning and the use of a particular can deal with the challenges of multilingualism language or variety in social life have important through increased knowledge, promoting agency implications for social and political participation for individuals in society, and a better quality of which, if not addressed, may lead to inequalities life, no matter what their linguistic and social in the context of increasing mobility. background is. Over the life of our Action we hope to have It became clear to us over the course of the created a platform for further research ventures Action that while much research in the field is on what is a highly relevant topic and one which is devoted to language teaching, new speakers critical to our understanding of the contemporary encounter many social and political barriers to globalised society in which we live. language learning. However, these barriers are rarely tackled. Through the work of our Action BERNADETTE O’ROURKE AND JOAN PUJOLAR we have identified the need for specific social ACTION CHAIRS spaces to be created so as to provide access to different types of speakers. In the Action we have also uncovered the important emotional investment involved in learning and using new languages. Research emerging from the Action has amply documented how new speakers can experience anxieties around questions of language ownership and authenticity. Through the work of the Action, we have attempted to increase awareness of these issues amongst policy makers and government. In minoritised

Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1 Researching New Speakers and debating the concept

Chapter 2 Legitimacy, belonging, and capital

Chapter 3 New Speakers – Umbrella term, analytical concept or lens?

Chapter 4 The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers

Executive Summary

Appendix List of key publications linked to research on New Speakers Introduction

Who or what is a The new speaker project was conceived as a way of understanding how globalisation, “new speaker”? increased mobility and transnational networking is transforming the linguistic ecologies of In our Memorandum of Understanding for COST contemporary societies. By focusing on speakers, Action on New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe, the idea was to engage centrally on how these we set out a broad definition of the new speaker processes affect people’s lives. As such this concept applying the term to all multilingual Action brought multilinguals into the focus by citizens who engage in languages other than investigating the opportunities and challenges their ‘native’ or ‘national’ language(s). By doing involved in acquiring, using and being understood so, new speakers find themselves crossing as a ‘new speaker’ of a language in a multilingual existing social boundaries, re-evaluating their Europe. own levels of linguistic competence and having to creatively (re)structure their social practices to Language is a key component in accessing adapt to new and overlapping linguistic spaces. education, employment, and social services Put more simply, a new speaker refers to anyone and in participating in one’s community from who embarks on the journey of acquiring and grassroots level to national or European politics. becoming a speaker of a new language. This Language has also been seen historically in journey can be very awarding but it can also Europe as defining individual and collective involve challenges. In this context, questions such (national) identities; but access to languages as the following can often emerge: has not been evenly distributed, and not all language communities have been able to enjoy l How “good” am I with the language? the same opportunities through their own languages. The processes whereby people learn l How happy are other speakers about the new languages and become legitimate speakers way I speak it? of these languages are complex and have remained virtually unexplored, and different l How happy are they about the very fact kinds of speakers do not have equal opportuni- that I speak it at all? ties to contribute to Europe’s multilingual project. These inequalities pose a challenge to European When speaking a new language people cross integration, social cohesion and economic col- an invisible line into new social relations, a laboration, as well as to the full participation of new territory where social rules, social norms, territorial and immigrant minorities. Through assumptions and values may be different. this network, we sought to build a shared understanding of these complexities across l Where does this leave someone as a speaker? different multilingual scenarios that would help l What are the consequences? policymakers, service providers and educators tackle the challenges that (communities of) new speakers of different linguistic varieties face in the context of a multilingual Europe.

10 Key Phases of the Action

The Action was divided into two key phases.

Phase I In Phase II

Phase I was organised via working groups In Phase II researchers moved on from the researching the new speaker in three contexts: initial working groups organised by sociolinguistic settings and multilingual strands l Indigenous language minorities (language minorities, migrants, and transnation- (Working Group 1) al workplaces) to a new set of working groups arranged according to theoretical focus: l Migrant communities (Working Group 2) l Linguistic competence l New speakers as workers (Working Group 7) (Working Group 3) l Subjectivities, trajectories and There are important differences in how the socialisation different working groups understood the new (Working Group 8) speaker concept and the agendas of the different l Language policy groups were noticeably distinct. Concretely, (Working Group 9) Working Group 1 operated with an eye toward policies of minority language revitalisation. Most l Legitimacy and power regional minority languages have seen their (Working Group 10) numbers of speakers reduced or barely stable in the last decades. This situation prompts questions In Phase II, researchers who worked on the three about what makes it desirable and possible for a multilingual strands explored in Phase I were now person to become a speaker of a given minority mixed and each took up one theme that would be language. Working Group 2 and Working Group explored across the three strands. This reshuffle 3, on the other hand, had little investment in the of working groups brought together people with trajectory of particular languages or language different agendas and perspectives on multilin- varieties; instead, they were more interested in gualism. identifying patterns in the experiences of speakers and the consequences of their linguistic choices. In all three working groups, the legitimacy of varieties and speakers emerged as a key theme, and this theme continued to be central in Phase II of the Action.

11 Key areas of exploration

Our report is divided into four chapters and synthesises some of the key research on new speakers. A full list of publications can be found in the appendix to this report. The following broad areas are explored:

Chapter 1 focuses on how researchers in the Action examined the situation of new speakers in different contexts, an exercise that was accompanied by a debate on how to define the New Speaker concept.

Chapter 2 looks at how research in the Action illuminated key aspects of the condition of being and becoming a New Speaker connected to legitimacy, belonging and access to capital (social and economic).

Chapter 3 explores how the comparison across settings ultimately led researchers to question the usefulness of ‘new speaker’ as a concept, i.e. as an analytical tool, which led many participants to settle with the category of ‘speaker’. This analytic move from New Speaker to just Speaker as is more amply explained below, is not a sim- plification or a backtrack; but represents the gradual emergence of “speakerhood” as an angle that contains a critical engagement with key assumptions of linguistics as a discipline.

Chapter 4 looks at how the new speaker concept has and can be been taken up by the policy community and what recommendations can be made on New Speakers

12 13 Chapter 1 Researching New Speakers and debating the concept Bernadette O’Rourke, Joan Pujolar and Susan Frekko

New Speakers of Researchers in Working Group 1 argued that studies and policy initiatives connected to minority languages projects of minority language revitalisation needed to take account of new speakers, since Research on new speakers of indigenous minority minority languages now tend to have more new languages (initially in Working Group 1) developed speakers than traditional “native” speakers. They typologies that would make it possible to identify advocated for more research on this catetory of the object of study, the ‘new speaker’, with speaker given that the future of many minority precision. If one goal of revitalisation research languages will in part depend on the continued is to uncover patterns when people adopt a production of such speakers. language, in methodological terms one must have a clear sense of what kinds of speakers are The advantage of working with a (relatively) being studied and how these can be distinguished precise definition of the new speaker was that it from one another. allowed Action researchers to identify patterns in circumstances under which speakers acquire Researchers worked toward defining a better and adopt a new language, a question of burning set of analytical tools while remaining cognizant interest in language revitalisation. With this of the limits and positionality of all such tools. definition in hand, researchers of indigenous In doing so, they identified a new speaker of a minority languages were able go about the task of regional minority language as one who generally identifying patterns in when, how and why people learns the language in institutional contexts become new speakers (as opposed to learners or outside the home. S/he often acquires the knowers) and what happens when they do so. language to a high degree of competence and uses it actively outside of classroom contexts. New speakers were seen to include individuals with little or no home or community exposure to a minority language but who instead acquire it through immersion or bilingual educational programmes, revitalisation projects or as adult language learners.

Researchers in the Action focused on a range of minority language contexts including Basque, Breton, Catalan, Corsican, Faroese, Francop- rovençal, Galician, Guernésiais, Irish Gaelic, Kven, Luxembourgish, Manx, Monégasque, Occitan, Scottish Gaelic, Sami, Shetlandic, Welsh and Yiddish as well as signed languages.

14 Chapter 1

Researching New Speakers and debating the concept

The concept of muda (meaning change) was The muda framework also has useful implications particularly useful in helping researchers identify for language revitalisation and language policy. when and why some people ‘take on’ a minority For example, it shows that important changes language they have acquired outside the context can happen in speakers after the so-called ‘critical of intergenerational transmission. This concept is period’ of language development that has been applied to contexts where knowers of a language traditionally located at the end of adolescence. become users at transition points in their Research shows that many mudes happen during life course, marked by entry into new speech adult life. Research on mudes have prompted a networks giving both opportunities for use and rethinking of the assumed purposes of minority freedom from old social labels. It is an approach language sociolinguistics and to formulate that emphasises speaker agency: speakers more general questions of what it means to be already have the knowledge; a muda occurs a legitimate speaker of any language. Speakers when they decide to put the language to practice cannot perform a muda on their own; they need in daily life and they find the conditions that make the cooperation of other speakers to ratify them it possible. The term emerged from research as legitimate speakers. As such, new speakers on Catalan, but has also been applied to other often express frustation when native speakers or minority languages, such as Basque and Irish. The other new speakers are perceived not to engage patterns of mudes vary slightly in each situation. with them, thus delegitimating their way of Importantly, the mudes are not necessarily linked speaking and thwarting any attempt at a muda. to ethnonational ideology. In fact, in the Catalan and Basque cases new speakers’ ethnonational identification is absent in people’s accounts of Moving beyond the original their mudes. In other words, the mudes framework meaning of New Speaker allows researchers to see that minority language resurgence is not necessarily be connected to Moving beyond new speakers themselves, nationalism. If learners of minority languages are researchers in the Acion showed how thinking about not engaging with the language for nationalistic new speakers—a category of speakers that denies motivations, this suggests that the Romantic the presumed link between language, territory and equation between language and nation is not as identity—can help us understand the new commu- mandatory as it is often assumed. nicative order of the modern era which is characterised by new types of speakers, new forms of Research on mudes showed that a muda rarely language and new modes of communication. happens for solely economic reasons or because people support a given language variety for While the focus on regional minority languages political reasons. The muda usually entails an has remained central throughout the Action attempt to belonging to a specific social space or with a focus on how local speakers became network. This approach can remedy the tendency new speakers of regional minority languages, of linguistics and sociolinguistics to treat language in the later years of the Action, this began to as an object, bounded and studyable as a thing be expanded to take account of transnational that has a life of its own. It is more useful to treat migrants who became new speakers of a regional it as an embodied disposition to use a repertoire minority language for example Polish speakers of resources with this disposition being inscribed who become speakers of Welsh along with in specific social activities and relations. English. In this respect we see overlaps between the different working groups bringing together indigenous minority langauges, migration and transnational working.

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New speakers in the Similarly, comparative work on Moroccan women who attend Catalan classes in Barcelona and context of migration and Spanish classes in Madrid implicitly questions the distinction between ‘majority’ and ‘minority’ transnational working linguistic status. While Catalan is a minoritised language and Spanish is not, the two languages For researchers on migration, the term new speaker can be equally inaccessible and alienating for has also been used in order to critique the popular the female students described in the study. In beliefs and institutional practices that tend to blame such cases, it is irrelevant whether a language language (either speaking a different language, is minoritised or not, because the would-be or not speaking the national language properly) speakers are minoritised and delegitimated. for the “ills” caused by or suffered by immigrant communities without attention to how racism or While these comparisons allow us to let go processes of exclusion actually operate against of the modifier ‘minority’ when studying new them. To write in terms of new speakers put the speakers, other comparisons encourage us to native speaker paradigm into question, as well as let go of the category ‘language’. Researchers the meanings and values presupposed to go with it, in the migration strand applied the new speaker both within the language sciences, in politics, and on category to speakers who were making a muda the ground among speakers. into a different regional variety of their habitual language. For example, research has shown Applying the new speaker category in the areas that Spanish speakers migrating to Spain from of migration and transnational work allowed Latin America are treated like new speakers of for useful comparisons and revealed that new Spanish. To gain legitimacy, these speakers must speakers of minority languages had much in make mudes into “peninsular” Castilian Spanish. common with new speakers of codes that were In a similar vein, other work has shown that not ‘minority’ varieties and/or were not considered making use of a geographically marked variety of distinct ‘languages’. For example, the work on Dutch is key to claiming legitimacy as a speaker, transnational workers in Estonia and Norway a finding we also see widely in the minority breaks down the distinction between ‘majority’ language research. In these cases, legitimacy and ‘minority’ languages. Researchers described lies not with use of a named language, but with a the attitudes and practices of the transnational particular version of it (be it a national standard academic community in Estonia towards learning or a local dialect). Estonian. Likewise, research has also identified incentives and hurdles to learning Norwegian in Work on translanguaging similarly reveals that the context of transnational workers in Norway. speakers negotiate legitimacy and belonging Interestingly, while both Estonian and Norwegian through the permeable and flexible use of are national majority languages (although both language varieties, including standard named languages are minoritised globally and Estonian languages, geographical varieties and social is minoritised in some areas of Estonia), these registers. In short, comparisons across the two cases have much in common with the strand different multilingual strands allow researchers on indigenous minority languages. This research to see the value of considering new speakers focused on the conditions, policies and ideologies beyond the case of minoritised, named languages. that made it possible (or impossible) for people to take on a variety acquired formally, in this case in work settings. Here again the category new speaker can give us analytic purchase, much as it can for minority language revitalisation.

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Researching New Speakers and debating the concept

Usefulness of New Speaker has ‘needed’ the notion of the native speaker as someone who produces ideal, legitimate, as an analytical catetory authentic, traditional speech. Without these stra- tegicially essentialist notions, it becomes hard to As we have seen, the analytical category of new justify language revitalisation at all: if all forms speaker, when applied broadly as an umbrella of speech are equally valid, then why bother to concept, allowed researchers to identify the revitalise? object of study (who exactly they were studying), which in turn allowed them to identify patterns The new speaker concept prompts us to query in language use, ideologies and life trajectories. how linguistics as a discipline has participated However, some researchers in the Action worried in the reproduction of linguistic ideologies, that this typological approach was overly essentially through abstract notions of positivistic, ‘clinical’, and potentially exclusionary. nativeness. Such notions have in fact been shown The use of speaker typologies can always to have little or no empirical basis. Instead, the potentially be used to stereotype people or justify ‘ideal native speaker’, who rests at the centre forms of segregation. of language theory from generative grammar through to language revitalisation, is in fact a Parallel to the sharing of research results there product of dominant linguistic ideology at the end th was an ongoing debate on the concept of new of the 19 century, when the language sciences speaker. This has facilitated a range of theoretical began to emerge. This native speaker, rather than reflections on research goals and objects of an analytic category emerging from empirical study. The term new speaker—and the Action evidence, is in fact merely an artefact of the itself—originate in research on the revitalisation Romantic ideology linking language, nation, and of indigenous minority languages in Europe. territory. In this sense, to adopt the concept new Speakers of Basque, Breton and Galician have speaker is to reject the paired and hierarchically folk concepts analogous to new speaker, usually ordered concepts native speaker and non-native describing a person who acquired these languages speaker. as an adult. As explained above, researchers in the Action subsequently applied the concept in Additionally, the new speaker label moves away research on migration and transnational work. from a deficit model (‘non’-native, ‘second’ In the process of conducting data analysis and language, etc.) and from a commitment to sharing results, participants found that the ‘salvaging’ the language and ‘rescuing’ native concept opened up new avenues of critique; but speaker communities toward understanding they also met difficulties and anticipated possible the systems of meaning surrounding language political risks. varieties in different sociolinguistic settings. As such, the Action’s researchers have used the new The folk concept of new speaker raised interesting speaker concept to question the privileging of the possibilities for a new analytical category that native speaker, which has tended to be taken as could solve some of the terminological problems the ultimate ‘owner’ of minority languages and in the field of language revitalisation (and, for the object of revitalisation movements where the that matter, the broader fields of sociolinguistics focus was on ‘salvaging’ the native speaker. and linguistics themselves). Researchers in the Action point out that the revitalisation of minority As highlighted above, the new speaker concept languages has tended to depend on the native also allowed us to identify phenomena that cut speaker model, but that doing so is rife with across minority language and majority language contradictions. In a sense, language revitalisation contexts. However, this also meant that the

17 Chapter 1

Researching New Speakers and debating the concept

potential types of new speakers (as identified By the same token, privileging native speech by Working Group 2 and Working Group 3) threatens to undermine revitalisation efforts, became very numerous, so that the specific considering that so many speakers (and in profiles identified by Working Group 1 became many cases the majority) of Europe’s minority just a few amongst many. The criteria by which languages cannot be considered ‘native’. Given new speakers were identified and characterised these difficulties, the work on typologies in Phase were also much more varied in Working Group 2 II had to be treated as exploratory and heuristic. and Working Group 3 than in Working Group 1. In Participants in the Action preferred to investigate this context, the notion of new speaker appeared the emic typologies existing on the ground in soci- to some researchers as disperse and as not olinguistic settings that feature speakers learning associated with any specific type of experience. and/or using varieties acquired outside intergenerational transmission. Researchers advocated An article by the late Alexandra Jaffe (2015)1 for the use of the concept as a social category reviewed systematically all the possible criteria which would be subject to social negotiation and that were mobilised or could potentially be variation, and delineated largely by new speakers mobilised, as well as combined, to define new themselves. In other words, new speakers should speakers. Thus, it was clear from the outset of be taken seriously as a folk category in speakers’ the Action that the term could not be used in negotiations of language, identity, capital and a strict denotative fashion. In the Action many belonging, but not used as an analytical category researchers argued that the new speaker for delineating the object of study or its features concept should be a lens rather than a category. (since to do so could potentially lead to the misuse Through this lens researchers were encouraged of academic research in the deligitimation and/or to analyse the contemporary dynamics of exclusion of speakers). multilingual communities and their speakers, rather than a precise concept which can be used A number of participants have decided to maintain to typologise highly complex social groups. In new speaker as an analytic category, while ac- this vein, the typologising approach came to be knowledging explicitly that the researcher’s seen as problematic by many scholars, as it was classifications might not always correspond to seen to position researchers in the Action as those of speakers themselves. Because of the linguistic arbiters, a role which Action members purchase it has provided on understanding these had explicitly set out to question in the first issues (and despite the misgivings of some of the place. Action’s researchers), the new speaker concept has continued to be used as an analytical category throughout the Action, including work which has continued beyond the life of the Action. The new speaker category has enabled clear contributions to the study (and potentially the implementation) of language revitalisation and planning. For example, the ethnography of language policy which emerged as a later theme in the Action shows us how policies play out on the ground and how they can backfire. In this later research, new speaker appears as an analytical category (and, where relevant, as a folk category as well).

1 Jaffe, A. (2015) Defining the new speaker: theoretical perspectives and learner trajectories. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Special Issue (231), 21–44 (O’Rourke, B., Pujolar, J. and Ramallo, F. (eds) New Speakers of Minority Languages: the Challenging Opportunity)

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The dual etic-emic approach to the concept has These contributions respond to an interest in been especially fruitful when researchers have understanding the state and fate of linguistic been interested in revitalisation and language varieties. This interest appeared particularly in planning (which applies to Action research not only the minority language and transnational work on minority language speakers but also on trans- strands of the Action, and less so in the migration national workers). When a goal of the research strand. A second area of contribution cross-cut the is to understand what encourages speakers to three strands of the Action; this area concerned use one variety or another, typologising speakers understanding not the planning and prognosis helps researchers uncover relationships between of linguistic varieties, but the experiences of speaker profiles and patterns of language use. In speakers and the consequences of their linguistic these contexts, it is useful to have an analytical choices. Researchers working from this viewpoint category (among other categories) to describe illuminated the dynamics related to speaker’s speakers who are coming to the language via a legitimacy, belonging and access to capital, as path other than intergenerational transmission. described in the next section. Researchers in this line of inquiry need a way of describing the speakers they are studying, and the new speaker label has the advantage of not privileging the native speaker ideal or operating from a deficit perspective or from a commitment to named languages.

19 20 Chapter 2 Legitimacy, belonging, and capital Bernadette O’Rourke, Joan Pujolar and Susan Frekko

When Action researchers asked when, how and equivalent of the English ‘new speaker’ is itself why knowers become users of languages and an emic category used by speakers, in addition to what happens socially and economically when being an analytical category used by the authors. they do so, they invariably came up against issues In these cases, new speaker clearly does fit into a of legitimacy, belonging and capital. In fact, these typology, one that always seems to be hierarchical. categories are perhaps the most crosscutting in The emic new speaker stands in contrast to the the Action, appearing in nearly all of the research ‘traditional’, ‘native’, ‘local’. And here we see the emerging from it. Researchers have asked: influence of the value systems imposed by the field of linguistics (which, as mentioned above, l How do new speakers deal with linguistic has tended to reify ‘native speech’ and used it as legitimacy and authority as members of the an implicit or explicit model). community they live in, both from their point of view and the point of view of the For example, we see a hierarchy in the case of community receiving them? Basque, where we find a continuum of emic categories of Basque speakers, going from least l Do new speakers consider authentic to most authentic, equivalent to ‘new themselves authentic? Basque speaker’, ‘Basque speaker’ and ‘native l Do others consider them authentic speakers Basque speaker’. Key to this on-the-ground clas- of the new language they have acquired? sification are modes of acquisition, degree of use and variety of use. As for acquisition, only those l What implications does this have on access who acquire Basque through intergenerational to symbolic and economic capital linked to transmission can ever count as fully authentic and the new language or variety? therefore fully legitimate Basque speakers. ‘New Basque speaker’ and ‘Basque speaker’ are both In the case of minoritised European languages, on categories of people who learned the language which much of the research focuses, legitimacy outside of this mode of acquisition. What dis- seems to be determined by the authenticity/ tinguishes them is the degree of use (‘Basque anonymity divide proposed by Woolard (2008)2. speakers’ use the language in more settings) Speakers of minoritised languages tend to incur and variety of use (‘New Basque speakers’ speak legitimacy via authenticity, which is linked to in- standard Basque, while ‘Basque speakers’ speak tergenerational transmission (or at least contact a geographically marked dialect). New speakers with those who acquired the language this way), tended to want ‘to speak a Basque that is from speaking an identifiable and consistent dialect somewhere’. This language-from-somewhere ‘from somewhere’, historic territories, and ‘the appears in sharp contrast to the standard, seen local’. In some of the minority languages, the as a language-from-nowhere.

2 Woolard, K. A. (2008) Language and Identity Choice in Catalonia: the Interplay of Contrasting Ideologies of Linguistic Authority. In K. Süselbeck, U. Mühlschlegel and P. Masson (Eds.). Lengua, nación e identidad: la regulación del plurilingüismo en España y América Latina (pp. 303–324) Madrid-Frankfurt am Main, Iberoamericana-Vervuert Verlag.

21 Chapter 2

Legitimacy, belonging, and capital

We see the importance of speaking a geograph- As seen here, hierarchies of speakers can shift ically marked ‘language-from-somewhere’ in with the context. When authenticity is the other contexts studied by Action researchers as source of legitimacy, the ‘native speaker’ is most well, including Galician, Francoprovençal, Irish, legitimate (for example, because she speaks a and Welsh. The dynamics of legitimacy often local dialect). When new speakers are able to play out recursively: an opposition between claim a different route to legitimacy (through non-new and new speakers repeats itself among flexibility, modern-ness, education, upward new speakers, where speakers whose language mobility, usefulness, etc.) they can occupy the top practices and pedigrees are closer to those of of the sociolinguistic hierarchy. The two different non-new speakers are more legitimate (as an poles of legitimacy can result in tensions between expression of authenticity). traditional and new speakers in revitalisation movements, where some speakers value the However, the Action revealed that authenticity factors linked to authenticity (leading them in some is not the only way through which speakers can cases to refuse to speak with new speakers) and pursue legitimacy. As shown by Woolard (2008), other speakers value those linked to anonymity. the other axis by which languages and speakers acquire legitimacy is through anonymity. These tensions can be extreme, as in the cases Speakers of majority languages tend to derive of the revitalisation movements surrounding legitimacy from speaking a ‘language from languages such as Yiddish and Breton, where nowhere’, one that is standardised and neutral. there is little contact between traditional and For minority languages that have undergone new speakers, and speakers use these categories successful revitalisation and (re-)entered the to construct social boundaries. In fact, new public sphere, we often see a competing set of speakers, who hold stock in standardisation and values of legitimacy: one can assign value to institutionalisation, may even view traditional the local varieties that have been indigenously speakers as obstacles to revitalisation. In the reproduced across generations, or one can case of Breton, for example, researchers have assign value to the new codified language linked found that language revitalisers can actively to education, standardisation and economically seek to exclude native speakers from revital- instrumental use. For example, researchers have isation efforts, seeing them as a cumbersome found that ‘authentic’ Galician continues to be burden. When researchers investigate these the locus of legitimacy in Galicia, but in Scotland emic typologies, we can see that the study of some new speakers point to the value of the new new speakers fits squarely within the study of Gaelic forms introduced into professional Gaelic, language ideologies. and some of them deny that one needs a local accent. Similarly researchers have found that Despite cases of contestation of the legitimacy of new speakers of Manx (which now only has new authenticity, the ‘native speaker’ continues to hold speakers, but is preserved in its locally linked sway in many contexts, and being able to ‘pass’ forms via sound recordings) and of Irish Gaelic for ‘native’ is often the ultimate sign of legitimacy question the idea that locally marked ‘authentic’ for a new speaker. For example, researchers language is the truly legitimate language. They have found that younger new speakers of instead point to the need for functionality and Occitan often claim legitimacy for themselves adaptation to the current needs of speakers. (while delegitimating a third new speaker) until They often questioned the goal of speaking a they hear a recording of a ‘native speaker’, to geographically marked dialect. whom they immediately defer. In fact, a common feature of minority language contexts is that new speakers presume an impermeable boundary between themselves and native speakers as

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researchers in the Basque context found. That We see these issues of contested legitimacy is, regardless of other dynamics surrounding and belonging in the case of Latin American the languages, people on the ground tend to students in Madrid, who are subject to ‘linguistic differentiate between those who acquired the surveillance’ as they attempt to gain legitimacy language through intergenerational transmission by adopting the phonology of Iberian standard and those who ‘learned’ it formally. Spanish. We also see it in the ‘unvoicing’ of a Moroccan girl in a Spanish classroom, whose To understand the issues of legitimacy at play, classmates implicitly question her legitimacy as many researchers in the Action explored the a speaker of Spanish and Galician. concept of language as social and economic capital. What kind of language use helps Importantly, speakers are often legitimated or speakers position themselves favourably in their delegitimated on the basis of language ideologies social and economic lives, as legitimate persons originating in the language sciences. This ideological and workers? In this sense, issues of legitimacy baggage can have profound consequences for were key not only in the minority language the social inclusion or exclusion of speakers. For strand of the Action, but also in the strands example, researchers in the Action have shown that related to migration and transnational work. In linguistic knowledge—for example, of phonological the context of migration, a study of refugees and differences between normative peninsular asylum seekers in England were found to create Spanish and other varieties of Spanish— is used belonging through an English conversation club. to delegitimate the speech of Latin American Other research has shown that the pedagogical university students in Madrid. This research found approach in classes for Moroccan women that that this delegimation process rests on studying Spanish and Catalan, for example, shows ‘linguistic knowledge related to the neutrality of a the ways that the classes can in fact de-skill them single linguistic norm, standardised through the hi- rather than prepare them as legitimate speakers erarchisation of languages and dialects, with models who can compete in the Spanish labour market. of speakerhood remaining linked to a particular Within this strand, researchers also showed how territory’. That is, the ideal of the ‘native speaker’, speakers mobilise a range of linguistic codes, still taken for granted in linguistics, filters into the including dialects and accents, to seek legitimacy education system and beyond, creating real-life and/or to deny the legitimacy of others. obstacles for speakers and serving gate-keeping projects. To the extent that the language sciences Here, researchers applied the concept of muda have taken the legitimacy of the ‘native speaker’ beyond minority language contexts. The muda for granted, they have encouraged the exclusion of can refer to taking on a majority language or a other kinds of speakers, a problem which tends to different geographical dialect of one’s ‘native become more acute in an age of increased mobility. language’ and a muda can be shifting and/or incomplete. People choose to make a muda not In focusing on speakers’ experiences and the just to defend a particular language or to advance social and economic consequences of their themselves economically. They usually also make linguistic choices, Action researchers noted the muda as an act of belonging to a given group patterns related to legitimacy, belonging and or network for examine in the case of migrants capital. In doing so, some Action researchers who adopt bilingual Catalan practices to become shifted from ‘new speaker’ to ‘speaker’ as an full members of their Erasmus community. A analytical category, as described in the next muda is only seen to be successful when other section. Ironically, the very comparisons enabled speakers ratify it (that is, display that they regard by the new speaker category pushed inquiry to it as legitimate by using the new language with the point that some researchers questioned or the speaker who has made the muda). even replaced the category altogether.

23 24 Chapter 3 New Speakers – Umbrella term, analytical concept or lens? Bernadette O’Rourke, Joan Pujolar and Susan Frekko

As highlighted above, the Action grew out of an As we have seen, the new speaker as an analytical interest in new speakers of minority languages, category is useful when the focus is on revitalisa- but the proposers of the Action pointed out early tion and planning; that is, when researchers are on that the concept need not apply to minority studying (or designing) efforts to get people to language contexts in particular, and from the speak a certain way. However, revitalisation and beginning of the Action, researchers also applied planning were only one focal point of the Action. this concept in work in the strands of migration Many Action researchers were more interested and transnational work. The term was defined as in understanding speakers’ experiences, with a an ‘umbrella concept’ that could be applied to a particular interest in how speakers (fail to) gain range of speakers across settings or as a way of legitimacy and with what social consequences describing claims made by speakers themselves in today’s mobile, multilingual Europe. In most over their ownership of a language. research settings examined by Action researchers, new speaker is not a folk category. In this sense, Because of their interest in revitalisation and to use it at all is to use it as an analytical category. their commitment to avoiding ideological A fascinating (and ironic) outcome of the Action baggage, the Action’s researchers of indigenous is that when researchers examined new speakers minority languages were invested in developing in the three multilingual contexts (indigenous a definition of new speaker as a specific minority languages, migration and transnational analytical concept with identifiable features. work), the very useful comparisons that emerged Scholars identified the concepts of new speaker began to chafe against the category of new and new speakerness as tools for talking about speaker that was initially proposed to allow these the ways of speaking and the social and linguistic crosscutting comparisons. practices of speakers which exist outside of the traditional native-speaker communities. This An analytical category is of course useful if it deliberate shift in terminology has sought to helps researchers isolate factors that illuminate draw attention to the ways in which minority their research questions across a range settings. It language research, and indeed linguistics in clearly does so in the revitalisation and language general, has participated in the reproduction policy research. However, turning to the research of linguistic ideologies, essentially through focused more on social outcomes, the new abstract notions of ‘nativeness’’. In moving speaker category is less effective in picking out away from deficit-based typologies (‘non-native’, these factors. We can see this problem clearly if ‘L2’) and toward the new speaker concept, the we return to Working Group 1’s definition of new Action took a stance in favour of linguistic speaker, described above. For Working Group 1, a diversity; the underlying assumption was that new speaker is someone who learns a language linguistic diversity should be preserved, but it in institutional contexts outside the home, often did not privilege ‘pure’, ‘local’, or ‘native’ forms of acquiring a high degree of competence and linguistic diversity. using it actively outside the classroom. Moving step-wise through this definition, we can see that these factors may not give researchers much purchase on speakers’ experiences and the

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New Speakers – Umbrella term, analytical concept or lens?

social consequences of their linguistic choices in reflections allow us to see that mode and locus of general, nor on legitimacy, belonging and capital acquisition do not isolate the issues of legitimacy, in particular. The elements of the definition belonging and capital that interest many Action fail to pick out meaningful differences among researchers. Therefore, when these issues are participants that hold across settings: on the table, rather than staking an analytical claim on acquisition, it seems more fruitful to examine what role (if any) that mode and locus Acquired formally in in- of acquisition play for speakers in a given setting. stitutionally contexts outside the home High linguistic competence

This element does not effectively reveal patterns This factor also turned out to be of little use in around social meanings and outcomes for defining an object of study or picking out broad speakers. For example, while Action researchers patterns related to speakers’ experiences and have shown that ‘native speakers’ continue to be the social and economic consequences of their considered the most legitimate in many minority linguistic choices. Action researchers studied language situations, they have also shown speakers of a range of different competences— contexts in which people acquiring such languages from ones with little or none to those who in institutional settings outside the home can have ‘passed’ as ‘native speakers’ locally and/or even more legitimacy. Further, a wide range of degrees engaged in ‘majority language displacement’, of competence can be encompassed within the giving up a majority language altogether, in favour descriptor ‘acquired in institutional contexts of a minority one. The moniker New Speaker outside the home’. For example, researchers in began to lose purchase when defined in part by the Action have applied the term New Speaker competence, because researchers applied it to both to Basque speakers who began immersion speakers of varying degrees of competence in schooling at age two and whose speech is linguis- order to examine similar questions of legitimacy, tically indistinguishable from that of the (emic) belonging and capital. Additionally, degree of ‘native Basque speaker’ and immigrants learning competence did not necessarily correlate with rudimentary Dutch using an online tool. While degree of legitimacy (for example, in the cases of the crosscutting comparisons are in themselves Yiddish and Breton). These cases suggest that the illuminating, they tend to empty the New Speaker factor of competence cannot help researchers category of meaning. Also, comparing research detect patterns in social outcomes. across the strands reveals that speakers’ experiences of legitimation and delegitimation Active language use outside can be similar irrespective of mode of acquisition; some varieties are rarely transmitted formally of classroom contexts in institutions (e.g. youth registers or local accents) yet may be as important for speaker This delimiter also provided little purchase on legitimacy in some contexts as acquisition of a speakers’ experiences and the social consequences standard variety might be in others. Finally, it that follow from their linguistic choices. For one is worth noting that standard varieties are only thing, differing access to social and economic rarely acquired intergenerationally, and are capital determines who has the chance to almost always acquired formally in institutions. acquire a language well enough to use it outside In this sense, mode of acquisition gives us little the classroom. In other words, if researchers purchase on understanding the use of and begin by defining the object of study as highly meanings surrounding standard varieties. These competent speakers, they are setting aside the

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New Speakers – Umbrella term, analytical concept or lens?

key question of why only some speakers have the In an article predating the Action, O’Rourke and opportunity to become highly competent in the Pujolar3 proposed a shift from the theoretical first place. Furthermore, questions of legitimacy lens of the ‘native speaker’ to that of the ‘new condition whether a speaker is accepted as an speaker’ (2013) in the context of language revit- interlocutor outside the classroom, even if she alisation. As described above, Action researchers has enough competence to become one. Finally, have continued to successfully apply the New sometimes the classroom is itself the site of a Speaker category when Speaker won’t do; that linguistic community of practice. We see that this is, when the goal is to uncover sociolinguistic factor also dissolves when researchers make patterns relevant to language revitalisation and comparisons across sociolinguistic settings. language policy. However, much of the Action’s research has inspired questions related to social— as opposed to linguistic—outcomes. In this vein, Why New Speaker when dissolving the analytic category New Speaker and Speaker will do? replacing it with Speaker has allowed researchers to generate crosscutting comparisons focused on how people perform social actions through After seeing that the elements used to define the language varieties in their lives—how they the new speaker offer little theoretical purchase negotiate legitimacy and belonging and acquire on understanding many of the phenomena that social capital. This research was not about interest Action researchers, it could be said that producing a new taxonomy of speakers, but about the analytical category New Speaker may no understanding the political economy of speaker longer seems necessary. We see that speakers categorisation in specific contexts, and hence can face similar challenges or opportunities shedding light on how language participates in regardless of mode or locus of acquisition, struggles over access to resources. This Speaker degree of competence, locus of use, whether the perspective and more specifically a sociolinguis- variety in question is minoritised or whether it is a tics of the speaker can perhaps allow researchers named language, a geographic dialect or a socially to illuminate who has access to which codes, how marked register. This reflection resonates with and where they are able to deploy them, and with warnings from some scholars about academic what social and economic consequences, across slogans and the creation of new terms. Why New a wide range of settings in today’s multilingual, Speaker when Speaker will do? globalised Europe.

3 O’Rourke, B. and Pujolar, J. (2013) From native speakers to “new speakers”- Problematizing nativeness in language revitalization contexts. Histoire Epistemologie Langage, 35(2).

27 28 Chapter 4 The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers Colin H. Williams

The Policy Community creative trajectories were needed to tease out the salient features of any official response to the questions posed. The salience and relevance of the cogent and well-researched evidence undertaken both by the COST New Speaker network and others will be Key Questions enhanced if members of the policy community are made aware of the needs of new speakers l How can the “new speaker” concept inform and can be influenced by the force of key recom- language policy scholarship and practice? mendations. It is contended that without knowing l How do different jurisdictions interpret the the predisposition of significant decision makers role and potential contribution of new to act so as to strengthen the needs of and likely speakers to the vitality of the target requirements of new speakers in context, the well language population (s)? formulated recommendations will not gain much purchase and would be seen as being one step l What policy outcomes can be identified removed from the policy landscape they seek to in terms of inequalities and social influence. stratification affecting “new speakers” more directly? 1. The policy community itself is a diverse array of interests, resource allocation imperatives and l What are the ideas and beliefs of different competing political ideologies. For agencies and sorts of actors about “new speakers” in a departments concerned with language revital- given setting? isation there is a clear understanding that the l What particular aspects does it illuminate contribution of ‘native or indigenous speakers’ is more clearly than other related concepts? vital as a source of legitimacy, authenticity and creativity in reproducing both language and its l How is the governance of any programme associated culture(s). targeted at new speaker promotion and satisfaction to be managed? 2. However, they are less certain as to how to categorise or operationalise programmes which Approaches and also seek to acknowledge the salience and contribution of New Speakers as opposed to L2 Methodologies learners. Given this there is no priori expectation that there will be a comprehensive interpretation The salient feature of new speakers is their of the requirements and roles of new speakers in dynamism for as was set out in the introductory language policy development expressed by those chapter to the report, “new speakers are official representatives interviewed in this pilot multilingual citizens who, by engaging with project. Rather some critical detective work and languages other than their ‘native’ or ‘national’

29 Chapter 4

The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers language(s), cross existing social boundaries, These findings were calibrated by discussions re-evaluate their own levels of linguistic with a range of leading actors in the field from competence and creatively (re)structure their academia, politics and civil society so as to con- social practices to adapt to new and overlapping textualise the interpretation. linguistic spaces” (p.10) The investigation sought to undertake a The New Speaker network to date has produced preliminary analysis in respect of three mutual- a great deal of fascinating data on a number of ly-reinforcing areas of work specifically: - related issues such as the adjustment process undertaken by speakers of additional, non-mother 1. to conduct face-to-face interviews and email tongue languages; the role of immigration and follow up requests for additional material and mobility in inducing and reinforcing some to opinion from within a select group of senior public become a new speaker; the underlying and trigger servants and policy advisers. The interviews were factors which conduce to the transition towards conducted from within the following jurisdic- being competent and confident in an additional tions, viz., the Basque Country, Catalonia, Ireland, language; the emotional and psychological Finland, Scotland and Wales, with supplementary factors involved with the mudes transition;1 the material gathered through interviews in Canada.2 melding of several disciplines so as to produce a syncretic overview of the new speaker process; 2. to explore the potential policy implications the reinforcement of linguistic anthropological of the data and evidence generated from within methodology as a suitable means of garnering the New Speaker Network’s Working Group data and evidence; the introduction of the new 8 and Working Group 9 during their lifespan speaker concept into the public discourse on (2015-17); participation within the Working Group language, education, the health services, mobility 9 and early sight of the final reports of selected and immigration. In welcoming each and every Working Groups has allowed me to harvest good one of these initiatives there is a need also to ideas and experiences at a variety of levels of translate the very many fine descriptive and interaction. ethnographic results into realisable policy recommendations so that the needs and interests of 3. to extend a long-running interpretation of the new speakers may be incorporated into main Official Language Strategies and undertake stream public policy. further work to harness the latest material and insights from within the New Speaker Network This is easier said than done in a crowded policy so as to ascertain how integral (or not) are any environment. One of the key determining factors reference to New Speakers within several of the in navigating into this busy scene is the attitude, revised Language Strategy and Policy reforms predisposition and value judgement of senior currently being undertaken. policy advisers and decision makers regarding the necessity and pragmatism of foregrounding new speakers as a policy item. To that end this part of the COST Action investigation on New Speakers sought to interrogate the opinions of senior public servants in several jurisdictions and to report on their views prior to presenting a series of domain-specific policy recommendations which may be of value in the formulation of future policy objectives and best practice actions.

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While recognising that this analysis is concentrat- leading scholars in the field aver that despite the ing on a small sample of minority language juris- lack of definitional precision the concept itself dictions, it is contended that in principle several has captured a momentum and a trajectory of the recommendations and examples of best which is significant both in terms of the specific practice should be transferable to other contexts, cases analysed and as an added value approach either in terms of raising awareness or in relation to language policy analysis.6 to broad policy developments in education, local administration, community engagement and Recently two of the principal leaders of the civil-government interactions. Of course, the New Speaker Network have traced how their long-term aim is to influence outcome-related theoretical lens has moved from a native behaviour through such policy interventions. speaker/new speaker perspective to one which incorporates all speakers and thus lays a focus One of the features of the New Speaker Network on research which is ‘not about producing a new interaction was the production of a wide array taxonomy of speakers, but about understanding of publications describing the situation in many the political economy of speaker categorisation jurisdictions and the related aspects of the trans- in specific contexts, and hence [throwing] light formative processes by which new speakers were on how language participates in struggles over produced.3 A second was the attempt to engage access to resources’. (Pujolar & O’Rourke K&P and empower local communities in discussing a draft 1bis, p. 1).7 The concern with resources range of issues and aspects of how new speakers gets to the heart of the relevance of the new were welcomed and treated.4 A third was the speaker paradigm for the political economy of production of a set of guidelines to Stakeholders; most states. Indeed, it could be argued that the however, to date there is little evidence on new speaker lens opens up new possibilities whether the guidelines have been adopted or for interpreting long established discussions have had a positive effect.5 It could be argued that on language pedagogy, in group and outgroup this is too early, but even so the interviews that membership, migration and adjustment, open were conducted sought to find material related and closed boundaries and the like. Ultimately to changed attitudes, more inclusive behaviour how new speaker policies are framed are a and plans for the future as will be reported on reflection of underlying political cultures covering below. the entire spectrum of European (and other) jurisdictions from Conservative through Liberal An abiding concern of those who work on and Social Democratic to Socialist/Communist the issue of new speakers is to construct a precepts. Ministerial decisions are crucial, but so satisfactory working definition of the concept is the context of the respective public adminis- and the phenomena it seeks to describe. The trative and governmental departments acting as most comprehensive definition adopted refers to a key influence on the predisposition of public individuals who make regular use of a language servants to consider integrating New Speaker that is not their first language. This is meant to requirements into their programmes. relate to a language they acquired outside of the home, often through the education system or as adult learners. This interpretation may not satisfy all, but it is a good approximation to cover the range of scenarios and situations within which the concepts and paradigms which undergird new speaker discussions may lie. Rather than be preoccupied with precise definitions some of the

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The Response of the By contrast most specialists, academics and commentators, were strongly of the opinion Policy Community that specific, tailor-made policy initiatives were needed to better reflect the contribution of Interviews and document analysis were new speakers whether competent learners or undertaken in the following jurisdictions: The migrants. It was also evident that there was Basque Country, Canada, Catalonia, Finland, some frustration with the paradigm for it failed Ireland, Scotland and Wales. In this briefing report to adequately differentiate between different a very general summary only will be provided. trajectories followed by new speakers, whether Perhaps the most important finding was there as students from non-native language homes was little intuitive agreement as to the salience who learned the target language within statutory of embedding new speaker concerns within education, or as adult learners or as migrants/ language and education policies throughout all refugees predisposed to learning the target jurisdictions. There was no consensus, some language so as to cope and absorb into parts of confusion and only an occasional professional the host community. commitment to the concept and its implementation. In all the interviews with policy Others argued that the new speaker concept formulators, when the issue of policy reform in was a sop, a form of deceit to cover over several favour of considering the needs of new speakers long-standing and well-established weaknesses was introduced, two dominant reactions were in the education system which had failed to registered. Either the policy formulator insisted produce competent L2 speakers and users in that such needs were already catered for in sufficient quantities to justify the time, resources well-established programmes, or that they and efforts in promoting the target language believed there was no great urgency to adapt within certain jurisdictions. They further argued existing priorities to take account of such needs, that the concept and its accompanying rationale, if indeed there was a recognised lacuna in current literature and advocacy was an as yet unproven provision. Few senior policy advisors enthusiasti- case. In consequence they were not minded cally endorsed a fresh approach to new speakers to embrace this new dimension of policy and as if it were a novel, urgent and sustainable curriculum reform until such time as realistic, policy item. Some did argue that in time consid- measurable and significant advantages could eration might be given to enlarging the scope of be demonstrated. This is an important line of current programmes, in relation to education and reasoning and as it is held by selected decision community integration, so as to account for the makers within the policy community across growing presence of new speakers, but this was several jurisdictions is worth giving serious generally couched in terms of a larger integration consideration to by those who advocate a more approach to migrants, whether or not they had holistic approach to the incorporation of new identified as new speakers per se. speaker needs into the system.

In terms of existing practices, awareness and recognition of the need to adopt practical policy measures a short interpretation summarising each jurisdiction in turn will suffice in this context.

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The Basque Country displays an impressive and Interviews were conducted with senior public urgent understanding of the need to incorporate servants and representatives of the principal new speakers into mainstream linguistic, agency for government language policy, the educational and community affairs. A number Kultura eta Hizkuntza Politika Saila,8 together of relatively well-established programmes exist with a selection of interviewees from local by which governments (at all levels) seek to government, councillors, the Euskaraldia incorporate new speakers. The demographic initiative, together with language policy and weight of new speakers, both as competent planning specialists and academic researchers learners and relatively recent migrants, makes it involved in the COST Action on New Speakers. imperative that such programmes work, for there is a fear that if they do not then the vitality of Their view was that whilst in the main the growth the indigenous Basque speaking population will in numbers reflects a remarkable success be reduced. story the radical nature of the revitalisation reforms also reveals a number of underlying The growth of the Basque Education System concerns. The most profound is that the formal demonstrates how the society has embraced assessment of various Basque language skills the integral use of Basque from kindergarten and competencies do not match the expectations to Higher Education. A generation ago some of professionals and parents. There are ear- 20% of children and students were enrolled ly-warning signals that the spectacular growth to in Ikastolas, now there are some 80% plus date may be questioned by both supporters and with only some 5% enrolled in conventional opponents alike. Some teacher trainers argue for Spanish-medium schools. This a result of a better training methods, others for differentiat- massive swing in parental choice requiring ed class-room practices to account for diversity huge investment by successive governments of home language and argue that it is unfair to and educational authorities in teacher training, expect L2 to match L1 competences in a short educational resources, assessment bodies. In space of time. The policy imperative for both de- consequence it is the education system which is cision-makers and senior public servants is how the principal means by which new speakers are to manage the anticipated backlash? produced and sustained. Understandably a great deal of attention is paid in the formulation of In addition, there is a related concern that curriculum development, educational pedagogy, despite the enormous investment in educational adult education classes and university education, provision and the corresponding increase in the as to how to best encourage new speakers to requirement to demonstrate Basque language accelerate their learning and contribute to the skills in sectors of the economy, the actual socio-economic success of the Basque Country. usage of Basque in so many socio-economic By definition, given their preponderance, it is new contexts remains disappointing. It was assumed speakers who constitute the vast majority of that increasing the total number of speakers Basque students, and as a result all mainstream through the education system, the Basque for policies necessarily incorporate their interests as Adults programme, numerous well evidenced a matter of routine deliberation and implemen- government initiatives and the social mobilisation tation. of actors, would automatically transfer into increased social usage outside education, given the sheer weight of numbers and socio-economic transformation of the workforce, requiring increased skills in Basque.

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That this has not happened to the expected Catalonia represents a jurisdiction with a very degree has prompted a fresh round of initiatives mature and well-established approach to incor- by both government and civil society so as to porating the needs of new speakers whether as reinforce patterns of language choice in favour of competent second language learners or migrants. Basque. The most notable of such recent actions is the Udaltop resolution of May 2018 in Lasarte The basis of Catalan language policy has been well which sought to embed the social use of Basque established and is enshrined in Act No. 1, of 7th through a programme known as Euskaraldia run January 1998, on linguistic policy9 together with by 316 local committees and implemented in the Organic Act 6/2006, dated 19 June, reforming November and December 2018. It was assumed the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia.10 that by seeking to actively intervene in the social and economic conversations and interactions so However, this Statute was modified by the ruling as to favour Basque, determined adherence to of the Constitutional Court on the 28 June 2010 the principle of open all interactions with Basque which investigated a challenge of unconstitution- might prompt a shift in favour of the language ality no. 8045-2006 which was brought against in future subsequent patterns of relations. several provisions of the Organic Act 6/2006.11 Government investigations of the outcomes and other social investigation research by The political system’s language strategy seeks to specialist organisations such as Soziolinguistika ensure that all citizens have access to knowledge Klusterra now offer a diagnosis, a methodology of Catalan and the possibility of full language for evaluation and ideas for improvement e.g. integration. Consequently, the language is used in Arrue (analysis), Berbekin (spoken competence), compulsory education and is the official language Aldahitz (promote language switching) which at university and post-secondary education. The feature new speakers as an essential element in education system is designed to reinforce the the interpretations and remedial actions. primacy of Catalan as the language of normal social interaction. The school system adopts a National and local government officials who programme to maintain the family language were interviewed were fully supportive of such aimed at the Catalan-speaking students, and actions and indeed in the case of the national a programme of starting linguistic immersion government they had initiated and funded many aimed at Spanish-speaking children. Time-series of them directly so as to influence the desired evaluations of the programmes demonstrate outcomes. They were well informed about the that students develop a robust competence in contribution new speakers could make to Basque both official languages and clearly for many sociolinguistic vitality in each distinct region and from a Spanish speaking background they may were enthusiastic about developing additional be identified as new speakers of Catalan in programmes to enhance their role in revitalisa- adulthood for they use their Catalan proficiency tion efforts in education, the workplace, leisure in work, leisure and social interaction. and social interaction. In summary it may be said that the Basque jurisdiction is fully aware At the beginning of the century the population of of the significance of encouraging new speakers, Catalonia was 6.261.999 which rose to 7.539.618 devising programmes to meet their needs and by 2011. This included some 1.185.852 (15.7%) keen to adopt other best practice features from recorded as immigrants, a trend which has cognate contexts in Europe, for they recognise accelerated remarkably since 2000 when only that increasing Basque language numbers and some 181.590 people were so recorded. use is a major challenge and the active participation of new speakers is key to success.

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Given this growth in imigration to Catalonia from and the fact that both Castilian and Catalan are many parts of the world a new imperative is potential recruiting grounds for new speakers. how to deal with the children of migrants in the This is quite different in scale from that which schools system and the migrants themselves is happening in, for example, Ireland, Scotland, as they seek to navigate into the mainstream of Wales and Finland. Catalan Society. The ‘new linguistic immersion’ programme aims to reduce the difficulties which Regular sociolinguistic evaluations confirm the students face in meeting Catalan and Spanish strength of Catalan as a socially inclusive language medium instruction and it is evident that among and the 2010 Language Policy Report together the teaching profession there is a strong support with subsequent investigations concerning the for the integrative measures and consideration Catalan language demonstrates the salience of the needs of learners and new speakers of Catalan in reinforcing the intergenerational alike as they progress through the educational language transmission processes. 12 Social and system. Pedagogic practices have been modified economic integration are fostered through the and new methodologies and social awareness numerous Catalan for Adults courses and training programmes have been implemented. That is for specific groups is provided by a large variety not to say that there are not educational and of agencies in most domains. Corpus planning social tensions surrounding this adjustment initiatives have included the full range of standard process and just as with the Basque educators resources required when normalising a language interviewed there are serious discussions while the government has been developing tools regarding the threshold of Catalan and Spanish as Parla.cat, Optimlot, Termcat.13 language learning, the forms of assessment used, the training of teachers to cope with an A distinctive and innovative feature of the Catalan increased multilingual intake of students and the approach to the integration of migrants and new sufficiency of out-of-school integration practices speakers is the partnership between the national, that have been developed. As a consequence regional and local governments and agencies there is a considerable policy-oriented discussion within civil society. The best practice example is on the role of new speakers,whether as learners the ‘Voluntaris per la Llengua’ (the Language of Catalan from non-Catalan speaking homes or Volunteers programme) which not only provides more recent migrants, and this bodes well for the language use practice and linguistic pattern planned response to this growing sector of the reinforcement, but also new opportunities for population. engagement, for friendship, access to local social networks and most critically, supportive However, there is a down side also or at the advice on how to navigate one’s way through very least a series of challenges with which the the bureaucratic and institutional support Catalan authorities and socio-economic agencies agencies when searching for accommodation, are struggling. Clearly the significant change in employment, educational options and basic the composition of the population has thrown social rights. Additional supportive mechanisms up a number of challenges and socio-economic are the local language plans, the work of the tensions and has placed a great strain on the Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística,14 public services beyond education, especially especially its Cursos de català, the latecomer public health, employment and housing. Thus, for reception classrooms for adults and children and Catalan language strategists the manner in which the wealth of online and IT resources such as such immigrants are integrated into mainstream Intercat15 society is an urgent and politically sensitive matter, the more so given the numbers involved

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Interviews were conducted with senior public people from so many different backgrounds and servants and representatives of the principal argued that until relatively recently the trajectory agency for government language policy, the they had followed in celebrating the contribution Direcció General de Política Lingüística de la of new speakers was both hnourable and socially Generalitat de Catalunya,16 together with a binding. However, they also expressed frustration selection of interviewees from the Consorci per a and doubts that this trajectory was being stymied la Normalització Lingüística, language policy and for the great stumbling block at present, of planning specialists and academic researchers course, is the lack of resource expenditure and involved in the COST Action on New Speakers. programme development occasioned by the political and constitutional stand off between the In general representatives of the government Catalan authorities and the Spanish state. were satisfied that the needs of new speakers were already incorporated within their compre- The Catalan academics interviewed were also hensive linguistic, educational and employment strong advocates of further applied work being programmes. They identified long-standing undertaken so as to make policy intiatives innovations which had derived from many social more integral to Catalan Society. A particular campaigns aimed to both promote Catalan and to perspective advocated by Pujolar and Puigdevall secure the role of various types of new speakers draws on earlier work (Pujolar and Puigdevall, within various social and economic sectors. They 2015) whereby there is a need to revisit granted that more could be done, but in the traditional sociolinguistic dichotomies such as unusual fiscal circumstances in which they have power and solidarity, us and them, integrative found themselves as a result of the escalating versus instrumental motivations. It was argued tension between the Catalan authorities and the that the new speakers as social subjects invest in Madrid Government, there was little prospect of specific linguistic capitals that are marked by the new speakers beoming a priority. They were also struggles over access to symbolic and material were concerned that the introduction of a new resources. As a consequence their positions are concept, such as new speaker, would cloud the charged with emotional investments that also discussions without adding anything new. draw upon the discourses and ideologies that partake in these struggles. Thus there is an a In contrast the representatives of the Consorci priori need to understand these discourses and were enthusiastic advocates of much more ideologies if sound policy outcomes are to be work being done at the regional and local level achieved. It was recognised that new paradigms in advancing the socially integrative work that and approaches were needed for changed cir- they undertook. It is anticipated that as concern cumstances and it seems reasonable to conclude regarding the integration of migrants, let alone that given the dynamism expressed by both civil new speakers of Spanish origin will grow, then society and research networks that a form of the various programmes devised by the Consorci new speaker emphasis will characterise policy will be replicated in more and more locations changes in the medium-term. throughout the jurisdiction. 17 The addition of new speakers to the Catalan population was not only welcomed as a sign of increased vitality and numbers, but also as a token of cultural diversity which fitted well with the ideology propogated by the Catalan authorities that the country was an open, welcoming and cosmopolitan society. They recognised the degree of difficulty in integrating

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Finland At its plenary session on 30 December 2015 (VNK/480/49/2015), the Government decided to develop strategies and programmes adopted by In Finland, approximately 4.9 million people speak the previous Governments which are still valid in Finnish as their first language, and more than 0.5 respect of their policy lines during the present million people speak it as a second Language. government term 2015‒2019. The Strategy for While globally, approximately 9 million people the National Languages of Finland contains an speak Swedish as their first language; Finland has Action Plan built around concrete instruments 18 approximately 296,000 Swedish-speakers. for implementing long-term measures covering several administrative branches.19 The two official languages in Finland are Finnish and Swedish. 90% of the population are Finn- A second element of policy formulation is a ish-speaking and 5.4% are Swedish-speaking. reliance on time-series data collection. Every four Finland is divided into 313 municipalities, of which years such data is interpreted and summarised in 33 are bilingual and the rest unilingual with either a Report of the Government on the Application of Finnish or Swedish as the primary language Language Legislation, the latest of which was for (situation in 2017). Most of the bilingual munici- 2017.20 In neither official document was there any palities are located on the west coast. explicit reference to new speakers nor even to the future challenges posed by the phenomenon The basis for the linguistic rights is section 17 of which underpins the concept. the Constitution. The 2003 Language Act further elaborates on the linguistic rights of the two Interviews were conducted with senior civil national languages and in addition, there are servants in the Ministry of Justice, local laws containing provisions on language matters government councillors in the Swedish-speaking in other legislation as well. It is the Ministry of west, party activists from the Svenska folkpartiet Justicewhich is responsible for the implementa- and academics specialising in language policy, tion of the Language Act and the current Minister education and multilingualism from Åbo is AnttiHäkkänen from the National Coalition Akademi and Vaasa University. The civil servants Party. in the Ministry of Justice are responsible for developing language strategies and guaranteeing The first Government Strategy for the National the linguistic rights of Swedish speakers and Languages of Finland was adopted in December Saami speakers in Finland. The twin pillars of 2012. It is a strategy aimed at supporting the such guarantees are the recently revised 2003 co-existence and sustainability of two national Language Act together with the evidence derived languages and seeks to provide a roadmap for from the regular reports on the implementation the medium-term future viability of both. Its of Language Legislation.21 purpose is to help the authorities to implement basic linguistic rights and to better observe the language legislation. It includes both short-term and long-term measures.

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The civil service representatives of the Ministry These voluntary mergers were justified on of Justice argued that new speakers per se was the grounds of equity of treatment, a fairly not an operational concept in their political ad- standardised demographic base and economies ministrative culture. A barometer of linguistic of scale. Following initial mergers at the turn of choice and profiling undertaken every four years the century there were four mergers in 2010, suggested that far from there being an increased six in 2011, ten in 2013, three in 2015, four in abundance of new speakers of Swedish, either 2016 and two in 2017. In the period 2005-2017, from native Finns or from migrants, there was the number of municipalities was voluntarily in fact sufficient evidence to be concerned reduced from 444 to 311. In 2012, Katainen’s about the vitality of Swedish in Finland. Despite government published an extensive plan aiming engaging in Swedish lessons as part of the at merging municipalities to reach a target of national curriculum most mother tongue Finns population 20,000 per municipality. However, found it difficult to communicate, read and write these and other initiatives were modified by the in Swedish and recent concerns to try to improve pragmatism of coalition politics a fact reinforced this situation have faced the almost inexorable in the 2015 elections when on the 29th May 2015, backlash that many parents and students would the President of the Republic appointed Finland’s prefer to improve their proficiency in English 74th Government, that of Prime Minister Juha rather than Swedish. Part of the national debate Sipilä whose government is formed by the Centre surrounding language teaching and the provision Party, the Blue Reform Party and the National of Swedish medium health and public services Coalition Party. has been mired in the long-running regional and local government administrative reforms which Senior civil servants who were interviewed argued have called for the reorganisation of public ad- that under recent governments the position of ministration into less, but larger geographical, Swedish speakers, and by extension activities to units which has implications for the long-stand- promote new speakers of Swedish, have stalled. ing convention of enabling Swedish Finns to Because of the ‘pacificity of politicians’ on this access services if they constitute a minimum of issue there is little real vision or leadership which 8% or at least 3,000 speakers within an officially derives from a lack of political will to define the bilingual municipality. Within this territorial future role of Swedish in the nation’s future. language planning system there are a variety of Indeed, alongside Swedish several other major contexts thus: - European languages are also suffering from ‘benign neglect’ and it is only really English which l 44% live in officially bilingual towns and shows any sign of growth and significance. municipalities where Finnish dominates Local government representatives and party-po- l 41% live in officially bilingual towns and litical councillors and activists from the Svenska municipalities where Swedish dominates folkpartiet i Finland (SFP); Suomen ruotsalainen l 9% live in Åland, of whose population about kansanpuolue (RKP)) argue that what is needed 90% was Swedish-speaking in 2010 is a sustained campaign to raise awareness not only of the plight of Swedish, but also of the l 6% live in officially monolingual possibility of becoming new speakers of the Finnish-speaking towns and municipalities language. They further suggest that migrants who gravitate toward Swedish are far more likely to be welcomed as co-equal members of the community than were they to become members of the host Finnish community, but that the

40 Chapter 4

The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers likelihood of the former happening is becoming Interviews were conducted with senior civil less because of educational changes and in- servants from Government Departments with fra-structural reforms within local government various responsibilities for Irish and the Gaeltacht, and public administration. Language specialists the media and legal affairs. Public servants from and experts in multilingualism suggest that Foras na Gaeilge,23 Gaelscoileanna24 and other the national debate surrounding the needs of agencies were also interviewed as were educa- new speakers is very recent and there are few tionalists, academics and commentators. detailed propsals as to how to encourage the development of programmes which imitate While civil and public servants in government those which have been established in, for and official agencies were fully aware of the new example, the Basque Country and Catalonia. speaker concept and the discussion surrounding the contribution of new speakers to the vitality of Irish there was a muted reception to the idea of Ireland using the concept as an operational measure or as a significant addendum to current policies. 2011 Census figures suggest that there was a 7.1 per cent increase in the number of self-declared Policy recommendations on new speakers made Irish speakers. Some 1.77 million people said they by Walsh, O’Rourke and Rowland (2015) are in the could speak Irish – 41.4 per cent of respondents. public realm, although when asked the senior civil Of the 77,185 people who spoke Irish daily, outside servants did not have comprehensive plans to the classroom, one in three lived in Gaeltacht action them, but were seeking to integrate some areas. The census also recorded a 5.2 per cent elements within their current programmes. They increase in the Gaeltacht population. Some include the creation of more ‘safe spaces’ where 96,628 people were living in Gaeltacht areas of Irish can be spoken socially, thereby strength- whom 68.5 per cent said they could speak Irish ening the existing network of ‘ciorcail chomhrá’ and 24 per cent said they spoke it daily, outside [conversation circles] and creating a variety of the education system. This was an increase of 2.9 new social spaces for Irish in cities and towns as per cent on the number of daily Irish speakers proposed and detailed within the Fiontar draft 20 in 2006. However, the number of Gaeltacht Year Irish Language Strategy (Fiontar, 2009). dwellers who said they spoke Irish less than 22 weekly increased by 6.6 per cent. A second recommendation which has been discussed, but not actioned, is to focus on how The Irish state, despite honouring Irish as the people who are in a transitional phase from first official language, has struggled to maximise being learners to new speakers cope with the the potential of Irish language acquisition in the challenges and difficulties they face. These would school system and as a consequence faces a include social psychological elements, identity number of challenges in securing the vitality issues, acceptance by the host ‘native’ community, of the language. Several robust initiatives and opportunities to use their target language in a varied pattern of government support has real-life as opposed to class room situations and provided grounds for optimism that where increased support from official agencies. Thus a political commitment is accompanied by Walsh, O’Rourke and Rowland (2015) recommend substantial resource expenditure growth in the that policy measures be developed to support learning and use of Irish may be experienced. people who wish to move beyond being learners of Irish to becoming active new speakers.

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This is a laudable aim, but when discussed in A means of reducing such anxieties would be a detail with senior civil and public servants the high-profile campaign to reflect and represent the response to my questions was while nominally diversity of people who are Irish speakers so that sound the real difficulty with such recommenda- conventional stereotypes may be ameliorated tions was in their implementation, the allocation somewhat. If this could be linked to the renewed of support measures to different agencies and promotion of the Gaeltacht and its language plans the evaluation of outcomes as a result of such for revitalisation then Irish language networks interventions. These are all credible reactions by would be doubly strengthened for interaction public servants who have to make difficult policy with the Gaeltacht was a two-way process. and resource decisions and one of the challenges for new speaker advocates is to provide robust Educationalists and academics argued that the arguments and to detail short and long term current teaching of Irish, especially at post-sec- actions by which such measures are to be put in ondary level was witnessing a substantial growth place. in numbers and that recruitment for teacher training was strong. As a consequence, they saw A third recommendation is that potential new great potential in the harnessing of educational speakers need to be informed about how to programmes to strengthen the transitional phase integrate themselves into existing Irish speaking for advanced learners becoming active new networks. This was seen as largely the responsi- speakers. They did not shy away from the fact that bility of civil society and the many Irish support many of the new speakers were limited in their agencies, which although often funded by central capacities, registers and competence compared government are not a direct reflection of official with native speakers. They also expressed some language policy. concern that so many of these new speakers undergoing teacher training, at for example, A fourth recommendation was that as new Dublin City University, would represent their form speakers suffer some social anxiety about of Irish when engaged in the classroom and as a speaking Irish and have low levels of confidence consequence children would pattern themselves in their ability to communicate effectively with on these new speakers rather than on the Gaeltacht speakers then policy initiatives should conventional teacher profile many of whom were emphasise the fact that becoming an Irish speaker native speakers. This fear was countered by others does not necessarily mean adopting a traditional who argued that Ireland had long experienced variety and that other competent speakers could a mixture of teacher repertoires, styles and act as role models for potential new speakers. competences and the current situation was not a cause for alarm or disquiet. Quite the opposite in fact for they recognised that if Irish was to flourish it was only from the pool of advanced learners and new speakers that new growth, dynamism and innovation would come. Chapter 4

The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers

Scotland measure of proficiency levels, that any policy which addressed their needs was operating in a vacuum. Given the relatively precarious position of Gaelic in modern times it has been argued that the Senior civil servants argued that many of phenomenon of new speakers has not only been the structures already in place facilitate the an ever present within the community, but that emergence of new speakers and encourage its growth is a sign of vitality as Gaelic can attract their participation within the various social, more fluent speakers through formal education, educational and media networks. Indeed, it marriage patterns or immersion within pre- is very evident that both in the world of Gael- dominantly Gaelic speaking communities. In ic-oriented public affairs and scholarship that consequence the reality of the new speaker a significant proportion of participants would construct has loomed larger here than in many describe themselves and be identified by others of the other jurisdictions surveyed because the as new speakers, and for the most part, such total number of residents with some Gaelic individuals are heralded as doing sterling work skills, at c.87,000 (1.7% of the population at 2011 in advancing the cause of the language in so census) is relatively small and so new speakers many different domains. When asked about have a disproportionate significance for language the relative absence of direct reference to transmission, attraction and planning. new speakers in the National Gaelic Language Plan, 2018-2023, both senior civil servants and The substantial growth of enrolments in staff of Bòrd na Gàidhlig were of the opinion Gaelic medium primary and to a lesser extent that as the contribution was so obvious one secondary schools has contributed greatly to did not need an additional descriptor to draw the potential of new speakers becoming a major attention to their role and significance. Rather element of language revitalisation. However, a what was emphasised was the inclusive nature concern among several of those interviewed of a relatively fragile set of communities. It was was the quality of spoken Gaelic as a result of conceded that there were many gaps in the this increase in learners and new speakers. Some support and provision for Gaelic Adult Learning, argued that even the ‘native’ speakers were but that improvements in the opportunities to so influenced by the hegemony of English that use Gaelic in the education, the economy, the the residual difference between native and new media and the creative arts would reinforce the speakers was now diminishing. commitment made by new speakers that their skill acquisition would be valued and rewarded. Given the salience of new speakers it is not It was readily accepted that the lack of oppor- surprising that of those interviewed within the tunities to use the language and the progress Scottish civil service, the staff of Bòrd na Gàidhlig, made by some to integrate within communities academics and commentators, the overwhelming was highly variable and dependent on well majority viewed the encouragement and established social networks, but that changes provision for the needs of new speakers to be a in social behaviour and advances in IT and com- priority in policy terms. They suggested that as munication patterns were creating opportunities so little was known about the process by which which government could and should harness in people became new speakers it was difficult to partnership with civil society. base policies on concrete data and good evidence. This view was echoed by academic specialist who suggested that as there was no sociolinguistic profiling of new speakers, no mechanisms as to how they became new speakers, no independent

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The head and staff of Bòrd na Gàidhlig suggested Academics and commentators interviewed that as so many of their own people and those argued that the role of new speakers, while that they were involved with were new speakers, crucial to the revitalisation efforts, were largely it made little sense to add an additional category under-researched and taken for granted. Little in for policy development even though they were detail was known of the precise stages through very interested in the phenomenon. In truth they which advanced learners progressed to become argued that the whole concept of new speaker new speakers. Thus, it is essential that together was so integral to the Gaelic promotion that it had with changes which various transitional stages already been mainstreamed and normalised. The occasioned that the identity, frustrations, National Plan sought to promote simple messages ideological positions and linguistic practices for all, namely that a more positive attitude shift of new speakers be understood. Typically, should be constructed, that greater opportunities judgements were made on the slow rate of to learn Gaelic should be created and that those learner progression, the limitations of formal who already knew Gaelic should use it more. In programmes for learning Gaelic, few oppor- part this was to be achieved through the imple- tunities for conversational practice in real-life mentation of Gaelic Language Plans, even though situations and the tendency by some native it was recognised that they were only partially speakers not to fully recognise the capacity of effective. The most important element in the active learners who wished to participate fully creation of new speakers was family and friends, within Gaelic networks. When asked about the role for the community and network ties were more of government intervention a common response intimate than public service delivery systems. was that so many of the adult new speakers Where the action points of the Language Plans were individual isolates - for their partners and came into their own was in reinforcing the need children rarely spoke Gaelic, so that indeed it was for opportunities to use the language and thereby hard to plan for behavioural change given the strengthen the social interaction between Gaelic low demographic weighting of Gaelic speakers in speakers. The National Plan, it was argued, the nation. One way of overcoming this isolation, referred implicitly to the contribution of new especially in the larger metropolitan cores would speakers in each of the following seven sectors, be to establish Gaelic language social centres, namely Initiatives targeting the use of Gaelic by but it is acknowledged that with low numbers young people; increasing the contribution Gaelic in most urban areas the best option might be to makes to the Scottish economy across different initiate one or two such centres as a trial in the sectors; increasing the demand and provision first instance. for Gaelic education; developing Gaelic medium workforce recruitment, retention, training and supply; Gaelic in the family; Gaelic Language Plans developed and implemented by public bodies; and promotion of the social, economic and cultural value of Gaelic ( Bòrd na Gàidhlig, 2018).

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Other issues raised during interviews were the with Gaelic-speaking contacts. When interviewed lack of real integration of Gaelic educational and separately for this current pilot project both language policy issues within public policy con- authors emphasised the critical nature of under- siderations and debates. It was almost as if Gaelic standing this sub-set, especially in relation to their affairs were treated as an addendum rather than decision to send their children to Gaelic-medium integral and this limited the majoritarian support education where available or to work in a predom- for Gaelic learning and language transmission. inantly Gaelic environment. The insights gained Criticisms were also made of the adequacy into their motivations and language transmission and quality of formal language plans and their practices were invaluable and both authors inconsistent application throughout the nation. advocated that more intensive ethnographic A more clear statement on Gaelic language work be undertaken on this small but significant rights would also assist as would more detailed sub-set of new speakers. However, it is quite long term planning documents and resource difficult to suggest specific recommendations commitments by government. which focus exclusively on the contribution of this group, but may yet bear fruit as the paradigm and A particular sub-set of Gaelic new speakers the practice both develop and embed themselves were those who were from outside the UK. within the policy community. Previous work by McLeod and O’Rourke (2017) had identified a number of structural charac- The sum total of these critical observations teristics of this population sub-set. The key varied from those expressed by government civil findings were that unlike Scottish-born speakers servants and Bòrd na Gàidhlig staff who argued none of the sub-set had any familial or emotive that within current constraints a gradualist nationalist ties to the land, language and culture. approach would bear fruit while civil society As a consequence, none of the interviewees had agencies and academics argued that far from learned Gaelic out of a desire to integrate into the being mainstreamed as integral to language local community, which according the authors revitalisation efforts, much more could be done demonstrates the limited role of Gaelic even in to promote and integrate advanced learners and the strongest Gaelic areas. Having learned Gaelic new speakers. The limited research evidence to in a formal classroom situation they complained date suggested that a significant proportion of that there were so few opportunities available the potential mass of new speakers was being to develop their language and socio-linguistic lost due to the inability of the system to cater for skills, even if they had very positive interactions their needs. Chapter 4

The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers

Wales

Interviews were conducted with policy formulators in the Government of Wales Civil Service, with civil society language agencies, commentators and academics.

The dominant perspective of senior civil servants was that the new speaker concept was not well understood and certainly did not feature as an element in official language strategies to date. Key individual civil servants were very active within European minority language and educational networks and had come across the new speaker paradigm and indeed had contributed to the debate. However, while there was a recognition of the contribution of learners whether through statutory education or Welsh for Adults to the vitality and diversity of a Welsh speaking population, there was little active consideration of any specific targeted programme which had new speakers at its core. Rather the argument was put that current agencies such as Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin (Welsh nursery schools’ The one area where consideration of new movement), Yr Urdd (Welsh League of Youth), speakers could have purchase was in education, Mentrau Iaith (Language Enterprise agencies), not because of the attraction of the concept and its the Eisteddfod and media catered well for a implied value system, but because of the radical variety of speakers with different needs, skills nature of the current reform model as applied to and levels of fluency. Given the longevity and Welsh statutory education. The Government of success of this approach it was not considered Wales had recast its curriculum design following either feasible or necessary to supplement this the recommendations of the Donaldson Report approach with fresh perspectives which may (Government of Wales, 2015) which argued that flatter only to deceive. It was recognised that all children and young people will be: some limited valuable work had been done in the field, as with the programmes developed by l “ambitious, capable learners, ready Cardiff and Swansea Universities to teach Welsh to learn throughout their lives to recent migrants and refugees. However, on a broader canvas concerns were raised at to how l enterprising, creative contributors, ready one would identify the new speakers, how would to play a full part in life and work programmes which sought to satisfy their needs l ethical, informed citizens of be evaluated, measured and funded and most Wales and the world critically whether identifying new speakers as a priority may run counter to current reforms l healthy, confident individuals, ready which sought to avoid distinctions within and to lead fulfilling lives as valued between Welsh speakers. members of society.” (Donaldson, Government of Wales, 2015).

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Two other specific reports focussed on the Welsh as a first language are the elements of review of teacher education (Government of the new approach to promoting Welsh within Wales, 2014a) and on the teaching of Welsh the statutory education system. This reform (Government of Wales. (2014b). The latter drew will spark controversy by both supporters and attention to the weaknesses in the manner which detractors of Welsh. Welsh was taught and advocated the abolition of the curriculum and qualification divide between The implication of abolishing the formal first and second language learners. Drawing on distinction between first and second language these three reports the Government of Wales learners is likely to create a space (read vacuum) announced far reaching changes to the manner for a new descriptor of non-native speakers and in which Welsh and other languages were to it is thus likely that a set of descriptors analogous be taught within the statutory education sector. to the new speaker’s paradigm will be coined for Education Minister Kirsty Williams declared this phenomenon. But in truth how sustainable is the idea of a continuum and with what effect for “We want all our learners to be citizens of both the teaching of Welsh as a first language? The Wales and the world and that means ensuring reforms leave much to be desired and critics such that all young people from all backgrounds have as Brooks (2019) have pointed to the fact that: an opportunity to develop their language skills – whether that’s in Welsh, English or international A ‘language continuum’ will destroy the principle languages.”25 of Welsh-medium education, replacing it with an emphasis on ‘bilingual’ schools. English of course The proposed new national curriculum starting in will remain a proper language, taught not on a 2022 will thus see Welsh remain compulsory for continuum but as a first language. Welsh instead all learners aged three to 16 – alongside English becomes a second language for all. It a nonsense - but no longer separated into first and second that children who cannot hold a conversation in a language programmes of study. All learners will language be on a continuum with those who speak follow the same curriculum and there will be Welsh as a first language all day, every day. This is more of an emphasis on improving their skills a damaging idea which will harm the education of and use of the language. children all over Wales (Brooks, 2019).

“While it would be up to schools to decide how Thus, some questioned in this project argued they approach this, they would need to think that: - about opportunities for learners to listen, read, speak and write in Welsh – this might be through “One of the problems from our perspective is to use in different parts of the curriculum or outside create new opportunities for our new speakers the classroom.”26 (whether adults or young people) to use the language. Another problem is recognising that The four regional school improvement the pupils in a great many of our Welsh-medium consortia across Wales are now planning ways schools are ‘ new speakers ‘ as they come from to ensure teachers can deliver the changes English-speaking homes. But if they are ‘ new through professional learning including the speakers ‘, what would we call those who are augmentation of a sabbatical scheme of currently learning Welsh in the English sector? intensive Welsh language training to teachers Would they remain as L2 speakers (if they are and teaching assistants. So a continuum, a ‘ speakers ‘ at all of course), and where on the sliding scale of performance and assessment “continuum” do they change from being L2 and a recasting of the primacy of teaching speakers to being new speakers?”

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On conclusion, there is no certainty among policy Conversely a large number of Anglophones in makers how this concept will be operationalised Quebec are becoming new speakers of French. at present. There also remains the question as to This is the result of three overlapping trends. what descriptor will be used for those significant The first is the attempt by successive Quebecois many who do not become new speakers of governments to ensure a majoritarian French Welsh despite an increased exposure to formal speaking population through legislation and instruction in and through the language. These immigration policies. The second is the decline of are important questions, not only for teachers the English school system in Quebec. The third and school managers, but also for curriculum is the decision by many Anglophone parents to designers, assessors, the students and their place their children in the French Schools system. families. The net effect is to produce a generation of Anglophones and Allophones who are in effect new speakers of French, especially in the work Canada place and in the social foci of small town and rural Quebec. Academics argue that little is known The New Speakers concept was not generally about the phenomenon of such new speakers used or acknowledged by participants in the and until recently their needs and interest Canadian interviews conducted. This was in part were not incorporated into official government because it was considered to be confusing and programmes. This has changed as a result of the in part because it did not seem to add much to establishment in 2017 of a Quebec Government the established work on immigrant additional Secretariat for English speaking residents under language acquisition. the direction of William Folch to address the needs of the English-speaking population.27 However, a great deal of new speaker experience is evident in Canada, particularly in relation to A further consideration is the element of those who learn the other Official Language, free choice which is exercised by migrants as whether Francophones or Anglophones. For to which of a state’s official languages they Francophones, centuries of integration and would gravitate towards and thus become new labour mobility have produced generations of speakers in a designated community. In officially new speakers of English in Quebec and beyond, unilingual states this is not a major conundrum, particularly so for Acadians in the Maritimes but in Canada where despite the existence of and Franco-Ontarians who have gravitated to two official languages, migration quotas and employment opportunities in the private sector trajectories are largely provincial affairs, the and since the late sixties in the Federal and matter of choice is more complicated. Let us Provincial bureaucracies. illustrate.

49 Chapter 4

The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers

One difficulty for immigrants is the manner in Conclusion which they are ‘routed’ into the English language system. We may illustrate this by reference to recent immigrants from Iran who arrive in Canada Despite the fact that few current official language already speaking French, but who are encouraged strategies were found to have explicit reference to register with the English settlement system or sections devoted to new speakers, the iterative because, so few French language services are on nature of policy based upon changing evidence offer in the Rest of Canada outside Quebec. Given and paradigms suggests that decision-makers in that there are more services on offer in English, the medium term will confront several issues as they face less resistance if they are channelled a matter of routine. This is most pertinent in the into the majoritarian system and thus over time case of minority language educational reform they become new speakers of English rather where an increasing number of students are to than French. In the view of the Assistant Director be found undertaking courses within the target of the Official Languages and Bilingualism language as both a subject and as a medium of Institute28 one way in which the two solitudes instruction. may be overcome is to develop the concept of cultural bilingualism, a form of Canadian identity A second conclusion is that it would be expedient which incorporates both traditions in one, rather to accelerate the coupling and interaction between than reproduce the institutionalised categories of policy formulators and academic research Anglophone and Francophone (Jezak, 2018). specialists in the specific aspects of language learning and socio-economic usage discussed Several senior civil servants interviewed within above, so that more purposeful programmes of key federal government agencies were not aware action can be co-constructed. of the new speaker concept, nor of its related data sets and case studies, but expressed an interest A third conclusion is the need to refine the in learning more and argued that an increased predictions currently being made regarding the comparative European-Canadian perspective on needs-based requirements of the various types such issues would doubtless yield fruitful policy of new speakers identified herein. developments. A final conclusion is to advocate and interrogate the need to identify and influence the range of stakeholders and agencies that would most likely benefit from learning from and adopting some of the various recommendations which derive from the COST Action on New Speakers. I present below some generic recommendations, but there will be several other recommendations that will emerge in practice and be specific to individual jurisdictions and contexts. Chapter 4

The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers

Generic Recommendations Given that most new speakers operate in a triangular socio-linguistic environment, it would be prudent to construct syncretic interpretations It is imperative that recommendations are of their experiences as they navigate simultane- framed in such a way that they are both readily ously both through majoritarian and lesser used understandable and suitable for action by deci- language pathways. sion-makers at several levels within the policy community. A most effective way to harness the potential for new speakers to engage with the host Describe and evidence best practice principles community would be through the development and processes of new speaker engagement of multi-agency resources centres with a social and apply to various jurisdictions when suitable outreach remit. Thus consideration needs to be modified. given how such social spaces can be developed.

Develop standardised statements in support of Inform and empower new speaker representa- new speaker needs in language, educational and tives about their input in influencing the dialogue work domains. and potential policy changes regarding the role of new speakers in public policy determination. Develop specific profiles of the new speaker Hitherto there has been a tendency to speak sub-groups currently amalgamated under the on behalf of new speakers as if they were a new speaker paradigm: - namely non-native dependent category and in consequence there speakers who have learned the target language are too few robust examples of new speakers at school; adult learners who have embraced becoming active voices in the construction of the target language for whatever reason; and their own narratives. Additional opportunities and migrants/refugees who have learned the target pathways need to be constructed so that new language as a result of a set of unforeseen cir- speakers may be the authors and representatives cumstances. of their own destiny as far as that is possible.

Develop accurate assessments of the various Innovative methods need to be developed stages in the transition process of becoming new whereby value may be added to the commitment speakers so that should the authorities wish to and experience of new speakers as they navigate promote this process they would know at which into the mainstream of the target language trigger points to offer support. community so that their initial enthusiasm is not dented by disappointment and frustration and Despite significant exceptions calling for a more they are thereby lost to the vitality of the target plural and diverse language promotion discourse, group. the dominance of the nationalistic monoglossic discourses renders it difficult to navigate a path for new speakers in many contexts. As a consequence, robust narratives pertaining to social inclusivity need to be constructed and diffused within policy making circles.29

51 Chapter 4

The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers

Specific Recommendations To date the concept of transitional new speaker has not been fully realised, thus a more robust debate so as to raise awareness of their needs, For each jurisdiction only a minimum and context particularly those from among the immigrant specific type of recommendation is reported here. community would be advantageous to broaden Naturally many of them may apply elsewhere, the horizons of decision makers. but those that are suggested were grounded from the field work and interview data derived in It is further recommended that stronger each location. statements and programmes be devised by central authorities regarding the future role of In the Basque Country there is a need to further Swedish in the nation’s future, and by extension strengthen the role of new speakers as a genuine the role of new speakers within this renewed element of language revitalisation and to reduce the vision. ideological gap between native and new speakers. (Care has to be taken in determining when a child/ A robust and reconfigured vision for the role and student is considered a native speaker). significance of Swedish (and its new speakers) would aid the preparation of new programmes There is a need to capitalise on the current for the promotion of the language writ large. potential of new speakers for fear of losing the contribution of many to the overall vitality of the In Ireland where a significant amount of research language revitalization efforts. has been undertaken on the phenomenon of new speakers several recommendations are in the It is recommended that integrated programmes public domain. These would include: of increasing the societal use of Basque, such as Euskaraldia, be strengthened so that new and Undertaking research to understand the enduring patterns of language interaction be ideologies and identities of new speakers and secured. their potential role in the future development of Irish. In Catalonia the work of academics has suggested a rethink of the manner in which new speakers Develop policy measures to support people who are conceived within official planning circles. An wish to move beyond being learners of Irish to a priori need is to understand the discourses and becoming active new speakers. ideologies which influence new speaker choices and behaviour if sound policy outcomes are to be The creation of designated language centres achieved. which could serve as ‘safe spaces’ for the native and new speaker to mingle and thus develop the It is recommended that the idea of safe and competence and confidence of the new speakers encouraging linguistic spaces be developed by the in as many communities as it is feasible. authorities and civil society so as to provide a reinforcement for the other programmes designed Inform new speakers about how to integrate to integrate immigrant new speakers into society. themselves better into existing Irish speaking networks. In Finland it is recommended that additional research and evidence be provide so as to feed into policy proposals at national and local government level.

52 Chapter 4

The Policy Community and Recommendations on New Speakers

Implement the educational proposals in the tification of skills acquisition at whatever level, 20-Year Strategy30, such as part-immersion and does not overwhelm or exaggerate the capacity significant reform of teacher training, to boost of new speakers to perform a comprehensive set the potential to produce larger numbers of new of functions. The management of expectations is speakers. (Government of Ireland 2010: 23-36). a critical part of the evaluation of how successful current educational programmes are in producing Mount a highly visible campaign to increase advanced learners and new speakers. awareness of the diverse profile of new speakers so that negative stereotypes and ‘traditional’ in- It is evident that an increased proportion of the terpretations are countered. active Welsh speakers in the future will be new speakers. In consequence it may be advisable for Improve the opportunities provided by Gaeltacht the Government of Wales, having chosen not to communities to engage in language planning use second language speakers as an operational under the Gaeltacht Act 2012 so as to boost the description, to adopt a variant of new speaker social opportunities to learn, practice or improve ideology/descriptor so as to identify a sub-section Irish. of the population who will also need targeted programmes beyond the educational sector to In Scotland it is recommended that in order for reinforce their role within a variety of socio-lin- the potential of new speakers to contribute more guistic and economic networks. effectively to language revitalisation efforts there is a need for the greater specification of the legal It would also be prudent to secure the rights and rights of speakers, a greater satisfaction of their stability of educational policies which guarantee expectations when faced with the frustration of the permanence of Welsh as a first language, not receiving the services which are advertised a lengua propia, so that a co-equality of Welsh as theirs by statutory obligation and delivered and English is maintained rather than fudged in through Language Plans and a deeper sense that compromise reforms. Gaelic policy is an integral part of public policy writ large. In Canada it is recommended that the needs of new speakers be fully integrated into the mission It is also recommended that additional opportu- and implementation of programmes which stem nities be provided for social interaction through from the innovative work of the Secretariat for the establishment of trial Gaelic language social relations with English-speaking Quebecers. centres in promising locations. A further recommendation is that immigrants In Wales it is recommended that a thorough who are already new speakers of either official review be undertaken of the manner in which language be allowed to register and receive new speakers will contribute to the strategic services in their designated language choice at aim of producing a target of one million Welsh both provincial as well as Federal levels where speakers by 2050. feasible. Clearly this telling phrase ‘where feasible’ masks a great deal of ambiguity, but in It is further recommended that current an increasingly multicultural polity the concept educational reforms which seek to erode the of fusing both identities into one of cultural long-established division between first and second bilingualism is an appealing prospect for some language learners, together with any official cer- and especially recently arrived migrants.

53 Chapter 4

Selected References

Bòrd na Gàidhlig, National Gaelic Language Government of Wales (2015) Successful Plan, 2018-2023. Inverness: Bòrd na Gàidhlig. Futures. The Donaldson Report. Cardiff: Government of Wales. Brooks, S. (2019) Twitter feed accessed on 4/2/2109, please see@Seimonbrooks. Jezak, M. (2018) Interview and subsequent correspondence, Ottawa University 5/11/2018. Fiontar Ó Flatharta, P., Nic Phaidin, C., Lo Bianco, J., Grin, F. and Williams, C.H. McLeod, W. and O’Rourke, B. (2017) New (2009) A Twenty-Year Irish Language Speakers’ of Gaelic from outside the Strategy. Dublin: FIONTAR, DCU, UK. Skye: Soillse Sabhal Mòr Ostaig. commissioned by the Irish Government. Pujolar. J. and Puigdevall. M. (2015) Linguistic Government of Ireland (2010) Twenty mudes: how to become a new speaker Year Strategy for the Irish Language, in Catalonia. International Journal of the 2010-2030. Dublin: Government of Ireland. Sociology of Language. 231: 167 – 187.

Government of Wales, (2014a) Teaching Pujolar. J. and Puigdevall. M. (2018) Tomorrow’s Teachers: final report prepared by Interview at UOC Barcelona 20/3/2018. Prof. J. Furlong. Cardiff: Government of Wales. Walsh, J. O’Rourke, B. and Rowland, H. Government of Wales, (2014b) Review of (2015) Research Report on New Speakers Welsh second language at Key Stages 3 and of Irish. Dublin: Foras na Gaeilge. 4: final report of task group chaired by Prof. S. Davies. Cardiff: Government of Wales.

54 Chapter 4

Endnotes

1 The muda framework ‘invites us to rethink the assumed purposes of minority language sociolinguistics and to formulate more general questions of what it means to be a legitimate speaker’ (Pujolar and Puigdevall (2015) p. 170).

2 Supplementary advice from local members of the COST New Speaker network was sought to identify key interviewees in Catalonia, Finland and Ireland.

3 However, there is one ironic feature of an Action designed to analyse New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe, namely the hegemonic position of written English as nearly all the Network outputs are in English. This may be the nature of the academic publishing industry, but to mitigate this somewhat it would be good to anticipate a range of future publications in Polish, Catalan, Irish, Galician (even if some of these are national reports to ‘local’ readership).

4 It should be acknowledged so many of the meetings held under the auspices of this Action, were in fact at least bilingual if not more generally multilingual, so that the contributors practice what they preach about the value of linguistic diversity.

5 As a general comment many of the Action activities took place in a wide variety of contexts, academic, stakeholder, lobby group meetings resulting in a very good geographical spread, both large and small polities and jurisdictions and with the co-operation of many institutions.

6 At interview in UOC, Barcelona, 20th March 2018, both Joan Pujolar and Maite Puigdevall i Serralvo, emphasised that the current emphasis on new speakers had opened up new avenues of enquiry and enriched the methodological and epistemological approaches used in their field work and analysis.

7 The authors argue that “this ‘speaker’ perspective will allow researchers to further illuminate who has access to which codes, how and where they are able to deploy them, and with what social and economic consequences, across a wide range of settings in today’s multilingual, globalised Europe.”

8 http://www.euskadi.eus/eusko-jaurlaritza/kultura-hizkuntza-politika-saila/

9 http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.df5fba67cac781e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=d287f9465ff61 110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=d287f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default>

10 http://www.gencat.cat/generalitat/eng/estatut/index_2006.htm

11 In terms of language, it should be noted that the ruling declares the phrase “and preferred” in section 1 of article 6 of the Act to be unconstitutional. Furthermore, the court ruling submits article 5 (language in relation to historic rights), article 6.2 (official languages), article 33.5 (relations between citizens and national constitutional and legal bodies), article 34 (language rights of consumers and users), article 35.1 and 2 (education) and article 50.5 (language of internal procedures, communications and notifications) all subject to interpretation. On a positive note such pronouncements recognised the citizen’s right to have Catalan available as per the Organic Act, on a negative note the ruling did declare the phrase “and preferred” in section 1 of article 6 of the Act to be unconstitutional. A separate advance was the recognition of Catalan sign language as a legitimate means of communication.

12 http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f946 5ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt= default&newLang=en_GB>

13 http://www.termcat.cat/

14 https://www.cpnl.cat/

15 http://www.intercat.cat/en/eines-aprendre-catala.jsp?nivell=initial

16 I am grateful for the advice and unstinting support I have received for many years from senior civil servants of the Direcció General de Política Lingüística de la Generalitat de Catalunya, Barcelona.

17 https://www.cpnl.cat/

18 https://www.kotus.fi/en/on_language/languages_of_finland

55 Chapter 4

19 https://oikeusministerio.fi/documents/1410853/4734397/ActionPlan_StrategyfortheNationalLanguages.pdf/5513fe14- d092-4404-9ec1-d3a6e6a354af

20 https://oikeusministerio.fi/documents/1410853/4734397/VNK_H1017_Report+of+the+Government+on+the+ Application+of+Language+Legislation+2017_net_3+%28002%29.pdf/c33a5105-74ff-466d-88d3-798f54d819bc/VNK_ H1017_Report+of+the+Government+on+the+Application+of+Language+Legislation+2017_net_3+%28002%29.pdf.pdf

21 https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/2003/en20030423.pdf

22 https://www.irishtimes.com/news/number-of-irish-speakers-up-by-7-1-1.491468

23 https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/?lang=en

24 http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie/en/

25 https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/education/subject-second-language-welsh-being-15693728

26 https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/education/subject-second-language-welsh-being-15693728

27 http://www.fil-information.gouv.qc.ca/Pages/Article.aspx?lang=en&idArticle=2511247102

28 https://olbi.uottawa.ca/about/academic-staff/jezak-monika

29 This point is well made by Puigdevall et al (2018, p. 455) when they argue that “Attention to new speakers also provides a necessary balance to dominant ideologies based on nativeness, authenticity and monolingualism that often obscures the social conditions that enable or hamper people’s participation in specific language communities. Thus, it is paramount in order to change the framing of language policies and to move away from traditional nationalist monoglossic discourses towards a less prescriptive promotion of the language that allows new speakers to gain access more easily to boost their integration into their respective communities.” 30 https://www.chg.gov.ie/app/uploads/2015/07/20-Year-Strategy-English-version.pdf

56 Executive Summary

57 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Key Publications Milestones New speakers of minority languages: the challenging Working Group Meetings opportunity. International Journal of the Sociology of Edinburgh, March 2014 Galway, September 2015 Language. Special Issue. 231 (2015) Barcelona, December 2014 Hamburg, May 2016 Vigo, March 2015 Cyprus, January 2017 New Speakers and processes of new speakerness across time and space. Applied Linguistics Review. Whole Action Conferences Special Issue. 6(2) (2015) 1st Whole Action Conference Standardizing minority languages: Competing ideologies Keynote: Jacqueline Urla (University of Massachusetts) of authority and authenticity in the global periphery. Barcelona, December 2014 Routledge. (2017) 2nd Whole Action Conference Keynote: Aneta Pavlenko (Temple University) New spaces of new speaker profiles: Exploring language Hamburg, May 2016 ideologies in transnational multilingual families, Language in Society 46(4), 547-566 (2017) Final Whole Action Conference Keynote: Colin Williams (University of Cambridge) New speakers of minority languages. Palgrave Cécile Vigouroux (Simon Fraser University) MacMillan (2018) Coimbra, September 2017

Migrants’ minority-language newspeakerism: The Training pervasiveness of nation-state monolingual regimes in Training course for early-career and doctoral transnational contexts. Journal of Sociolinguistics.22 (1), researchers 5–28 (2018) Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, July 2017. Guests: Comparing “new speakers” across language contexts: Monica Heller, Joan Pujolar, Xavier Vila and Robert mobility and motivations. Journal of Multilingual and Lawson Multicultural Development. Special Issue. (2018) Events in 18 countries “So, why do you sign?” Deaf and hearing new signers, Spain France Cyprus their motivation, and revitalisation policies for sign Germany Sweden Latvia languages. Applied Linguistics Review (2018) Portugal Ireland Hungary Scotland Poland Norway Language policy issues in ‘new speaker’ contexts: Wales Belgium Finland ethnographic and critical perspectives. Language Policy. England Netherlands Faroe Islands Special Issue (2019) 6 working group meetings Languagised lives: Fixity and fluidity in sociolinguistic 3 whole action conferences theory and practice. Routledge. (2019) 6 training events 2 public events Linguistics of participation and exclusion. New speakers’ 22 research workshops struggles for mobility in Europe. International. Journal and seminars of the Sociology of Language. Special issue. (in press)

(see appendix for full list of publications) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Steering Committee

James Costa (WG10) Lecturer in Sociolinguistics at the Institut de Linguistique et phonétique génerales et appliquees, Université Sorbonne Nouvelle – Paris 3.

Jeroen Darquennes (WG9) Professor in the German Department at Université de Namur, Belgium.

Alfonso Del Percio (WG10) Lecturer in Applied Linguistics and TESOL, Department of Culture, Communication & Media, Institute of Education, University College London, England. Agnieszka Otwinowska-Kasztelanic (WG7) Associate Alexandre Duchêne (WG3) Professor of Sociology of Professor at the Department of Applied Linguistics, Language and Head of Department of Multilingualism Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw, Studies at the University of Fribourg. Poland.

Michael Hornsby (WG6) Professor at the Centre for Sari Pietikäinen (WG3) is Celtic Studies, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Professor of Discourse Studies Poland. at the Department of Languages at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Kathryn Jones (WG5) Managing Director at IAITH: The Welsh Centre for Language Planning, Sir Gaerfyrddin, Maite Puigdevall Serralvo (WG8) is Wales. Lecturer in Arts and Humanities Department at Sviatlana Karpava (WG6) Lecturer in Linguistics at the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain. University of Central Lancashire, Cyprus, Larnaka Joan Pujolar (Co-Chair and WG4) is Professor of Pia Lane (WG1) Professor of Multilingualism at the Sociolinguistics at Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Center for Multilingualism in Society across the Barcelona, Spain. Lifespan, University of Oslo, Norway. Rosina Márquez-Reiter (WG2) is Reader in Luisa Martín Rojo (WG2) Full Professor of Linguistics at Communication at the University of Surrey, England. the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain. Josep Soler (WG9) is Assistant Professor at the Noel Ó Murchadha (WG7) Assistant Professor of Department of English, Stockholm University, Sweden. Education at Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. Tom Van Hout (WG4) is Lecturer at the Leiden Bernadette O’Rourke (Chair) Professor in University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden, Netherlands. Sociolinguistics at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland. University of Glasgow (from April 2019) John Walsh (WG1 and WG8) is Senior Lecturer in Irish at the School of Languages, Literatures and Culture, Ane Ortega (WG7) Professor at the National University of Ireland, Galway. Begoñako Andra Mari Teacher Education College and the Department of Language and Literature Education, Anastassia Zabrodskaja (WG6) is Professor of Estonian Universidad del País Vasco, Bilbao, Spain. as a Second Language at Tallinn University.

A full list of management committee of the Action is available here: https://www.cost.eu/actions/IS1306/#tabs|Name:management-committee EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

COST Action on New Speakers: Context and objectives

This COST Action focused on the dynamics involved in becoming a ‘new speaker’ of a language in a multilingual Europe.

Our COST Action (2013-2017) was part of an intergovernmental framework for European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST). This framework makes it possible to coordinate nationally-funded research on a European level.

Globalization, increased mobility and transnational networking transform the linguistic ecologies of contemporary societies.

Our Action brought multilinguals into the focus by investigating the challenges and opportunities involved in acquiring, using and being understood as a ‘new speaker’ of a language in a multilingual Europe. From this perspective, new speakers are multilingual citizens who, by engaging with languages other than their ‘native’ or ‘national’ language(s), cross existing The New Speakers Network facilitates structured social boundaries, re-evaluate their own levels of dialogue and collaboration amongst researchers linguistic competence and creatively (re)structure who focus on three types of new speakers: regional their social practices to adapt to new and overlapping minorities, immigrants, and transnational workers. linguistic spaces. Language is a key component in accessing education, employment, social services and in participating in one’s community. It has also been seen historically in Europe as defining individual and collective identities. The processes whereby people learn new languages and become legitimate speakers of these languages are complex, and different kinds of new speakers don’t have equal opportunities to contribute to Europe’s multilingual project. These inequalities pose a challenge to European integration, social cohesion and economic collaboration, as well as to the full participation of territorial and immigrant minorities.

A shared understanding of these complexities across the different multilingual scenarios (including education, healthcare, youth culture, the workplace and NGOs) can help policy makers, service providers and educators tackle the challenges that new speakers of different linguistic varieties face in the context of a multilingual Europe. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Phase 1: Meta cross-case analysis of new speakers in a multilingual Europe

The aim of this phase of the Action was to conduct a cross-case analysis within and across the three strands of new speakers: indigenous minorities, immigrants, and transnational workers. This analysis allowed us to typologise new speaker profiles and, in preparation for Phase Two, to identify recurring themes across the three strands. We looked in particular for patterns that offered explanatory power and policy relevance.

In line with these objectives, the Action’s participants selected the strand (and hence working group) in which they wished to participate, corresponding to their multilingual area of expertise. Working Group 1 (New speakers and indigenous minorities), Working Group 2 (New speakers and migration) and Working Group 3 (New speakers as workers), explored new speaker profiles within their respective strands and identified relevant themes relating to the new speaker concept.

In addition to Working Group 1, 2 and 3, another three working groups were set up. These include Working Group 4 (Methods and Concepts), Working Group 5 (Dissemination and Impact) and Working Group 6 (Training Schools and STSMs). Each of the six groups met twice during Phase 1 to coordinate their efforts. Working groups had the opportunity to initiate Short-Term Scientific Missions (STSMs) to assist in their research objectives in preparation for the Whole Action Conference. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

New speakers and indigenous minority languages (WG1)

Coordinators: John Walsh and Pia Lane

John Walsh is currently focusing on the ideologies and motivations of ‘new speakers’ of minority languages, people who were not raised speaking those languages but who speak them fluently and regularly.

Pia Lane has investigated multilingualism from a range of theoretical perspectives, primarily drawing on data from Kven-speaking communities in Northern Norway, but also amongst Finnish-speakers in Canada.

Overview In contexts where indigenous minority languages are spoken, there are growing numbers of ‘new speakers’— that is, individuals who learn a heritage language through schooling, adult classes or other formal means and adopt it as part of their linguistic repertoire. We extended the number of cases studied and adopted a cross-case approach to identify similarities, Final report differences and generalizable trends. As part of this work, we examined uses of the concept of the ‘new ‘Position paper on research themes and profiles related speaker’ in order to settle on a working definition. Our to new speakers of indigenous minority languages’ investigations revealed that prototypically the term is used to refer to a speaker who has acquired a minority In this paper, we outline or indigenous language in an institutional setting 1) research themes identified by members of WG1 in the rather than in the home or community. However, we first phase of the Action and use this definition flexibly, so that speakers who were once passive bilinguals can also be included. Name all 2) labels, categories or profiles of new speakers the context studied: Euskadi, Galicia, Catalonia, Ireland, of minority languages from both community and Scotland, Wales, the Meankieli, Breton, Occitan, Sámi, academic perspectives. Franco-Provençal, Limburguese, Kven, Jersey Island, Isle of Man, Monaco, Shetland Island. The research themes we identified in the study of the acquisition of indigenous minority languages are: the ideoligisation of target varieties of new speakers; register and linguistic proficiency; linguistic mudes; the home-community-school nexus; the performance of new speakerness; group integration and identity; and new speakers and language policy. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

New Speakers and migration (WG2) Coordinators: Luisa Martín Rojo and Rosina Márquez-Reiter

Luisa Martín Rojo is a specialist in sociolinguistics focusing on multilingualism in education. Also, she has used discourse analysis to study the social representations of immigrants in the press, the parliament and everyday contexts and their social repercussions.

Rosina Márquez-Reiter is currently researching intercultural communication in communicative environments resulting from globalisation, with particular attention to the contact between native speakers of Spanish who come from different backgrounds, have had limited contact with each other’s © Istockphoto lingua-culture and speak different standard varieties of environments. Most of the members of the group the same basic language. have conducted research on newly arrived or on second-generation migrants, with a bilingual or Overview multilingual profile, using different methods from Large numbers of immigrants in Europe are adopting ethnography to quantitative research focused on the language of the community in which they have grammatical and discursive competence development. chosen to live. The acquisition of a new language is Our aim was to find common issues and grounds to often essential to their prospects of integrating into establish and develop cross-linguistic and cross-cultural the host society and playing their part in its economic, knowledge as to how newspeakerness should be social, political and artistic life. However, their linguistic approached with a view to achieving the larger societal abilities in an adoptive language are often challenged ‘integration’ of migrants. Thus, one of the first issues we by first language speakers and can serve as a source addressed was to what extent linguistic trajectories are of discrimination and exclusion. We examined what it intertwined with the life course, specifically trajectories means for migrants to be ‘new speakers’ of a language, of migration. In particular, we used the framework through the lenses of linguistic mudes and legitimacy. of the linguistic muda (Pujolar and Fonzález, 2013; We also produced guidelines to assist stakeholders in Pujolar and Puigdevall, 2015), that is, particular shift managing and developing linguistic diversity. points in the life course at which migrants become ‘new speakers’ of the language varieties of the of the Final report receiving society. However, even speakers making such a muda are not necessarily seen and accepted ‘Position paper: New speakers in a multilingual Europe: as legitimate speakers. We showed that ‘becoming’ a Opportunities and challenges’ new speaker, not only entails linguistic skills but also WG2 constitutes a large and a highly diverse recognition as a competent and legitimate speaker, who group, albeit with a common interest in language can even pass as ‘native’ (Piller, 2002) among members and migration across different communicative of the receiving society. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

in different contexts so that new forms of disadvantage New speakers are being constituted around language. This includes as workers (WG3) issues around: a) desirability and expectations in language learning on the part of both (potential) Coordinators: Alexandre Duchêne employees and (potential) employers; b) variable ways of becoming a new speaker (i.e. formalized and less and Sari Pietikäinen formalized); and c) the making of new speakers who align with and satisfy workplace.

Alexandre Duchêne conducts research on language and social inequality, language politics, linguistic minorities Final report and multilingualism in relation to the school, the ‘Workers as new speakers: Collaborative report’ workplace, human migration and globalisation. This working group addressed both the historical, economic and political conditions that bring new Sari Pietikäinen focuses on discourse, identity and speakers to the workplace and the specific terrains in social inequalities, multilingualism in transforming which we have studied this category of new speakers peripheries, and language in expanding Arctic (education, health, extraction and construction, minority economies of tourism, nature resource extraction, and entrepreneurship, community service, and the service sports. She is also interested in developing research industry). We also examined the processes that methodologies including rhizomatics, critical discourse articulate new speakerness with particular moments in studies, critical sociolinguistics, and ethnography. the life trajectories of workers: becoming a new speaker Overview for and at work; entering work as a new speaker; being a new speaker at work; and leaving work and new Globalization and European integration encourage speakerness. Finally, we suggested that the WGs for workers to move across borders, thus potentially Phase 2 could examine new speakerness in relation becoming ‘new speakers’. Europe’s transnational to the following social processes: regimentation and workers invest to varying degrees in multilingualism at governmentality, axes of differentiation, identification, work, at home, and in their cultural consumption. We recognition and ownership; normativity and variability; asked how multilingualism features in work processes and evaluation and (de)valorization. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Methods and concepts (WG4) Coordinator: Joan Pujolar

Joan Pujolar is Professor of Sociolinguistics. His research focuses on how language use is mobilized in the construction of identities and its implications for access to symbolic and economic resources. He has conducted research on the use of Catalan amongst young people, immigrants and in the economic sector, as well as on multilingualism and gender.

Overview

An umbrella group for the ‘core’ WGs (1, 2 and 3, 7,8,9,10), this working group took stock of the theoretical perspectives and conceptual frameworks that have been used to examine ‘new speakers’ across bounded category, and on querying the status of different multilingual situations. We also explored the language as community marker and community range of methodological approaches used by network builder, as this assumption is what constitutes the members and investigated new conceptual frameworks field. In contrast, for WG2 and WG3, changing language and methodologies relevant to the ‘new speaker’ epistemologies may help researchers understand concept. how linguistic knowledge and knowledge about language is produced and reproduced within specific Final report power-knowledge regimes. Thus, the critique of language as an object becomes a central concern. ‘Position paper of WG4: Concepts and methods’ We performed a meta-analysis of the approaches of WG1 directed its gaze to an object called language, WG1 (New speakers and indigenous minority languages which may undergo variation and hybridisation; (WG1), WG2 (New Speakers and migration), and WG3 but WG2/3 focused their gaze on the practices that (New speakers as workers). We identified a contrast transcend linguistic boundaries. The category of ‘new between the approaches of WG1 on one hand, and WG2 speaker’ sat well with WG1, however the concept of and WG3, on the other. WG1’s orientation to indigenous language as an object now needs to be interrogated, minority languages led the group to refer frequently to because it may not be realistic to expect both the a revitalisation agenda, which in turn seems to have expansion of an indigenous language and a stability structured the research approach. Results and in its form. Additionally, revitalisation ‘participants’ phenomena were judged as meaningful in need to clarify what is the status of the speakers that terms of their implications in the processes of the politics of revitalization produce. In contrast, for expansion (or stopping the contraction) of the language WG2 and WG3 the concept of ‘new speaker’ joins a community. In this context, the research community field where speaker categorization was already richly has no specific interest in deconstructing language as a problematized. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Phase 2: Developing a Research and Dissemination Framework

In this phase of the Action we explored the themes identified in Phase 1 as having the strongest explanatory potential across our three research strands: indigenous minorities, immigrants, and transnational workers. In analysing across our cases, we moved away from the specifics of language types and contexts. In line with this objective, we reorganised the working groups according to theme instead of strand. The new working groups became Working Group 7 (Competence and new speaker varieties), Working Group 8 (Speakerness: Subjectivities, trajectories and socialisation), Working Group 9 (Language policy regimes, new speakers and sociolinguistic ethnography) and Working Group 10 (Legitimisation and power).

Whole Action Conference Hamburg, May 2016

The working groups worked on their assigned theme and explored the theme according to its explanatory power, its relevance to policy makers and practitioners and its fit with the different new speaker profiles. Apart from the structural change in these three working groups, the Action operated in a similar fashion to Phase 1.

Working Group Meeting Vigo, March 2015

Experts in minority languages, immigrant communities and transnational workers were now mixed in the new groups, thus allowing for intergroup dialogue and collaboration. The participation of different stakeholders, including policy makers and practitioners, also facilitated the co-production of theoretically and policy relevant knowledge. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Competence and new Final report speaker varieties (WG7) ‘Multilingual competence and new speaker varieties’ Our research goals made it necessary for us to (re) Coordinators:, Ane Ortega, Agnieszka define the notion of ‘competence’ in relation to new Otwinowska-Kasztelanic and speakers, with some points emerging from the work Noel Ó Murchadha of the researchers. First, we adopted a multilingual perspective on new speakers to highlight the fact that the new language becomes part of the multilingual Ane Ortega’s research has focused on the planning of competence of the new speaker. Second, we noted that language integration programmes and on linguistic languages of the (new) speaker are subject to power attitudes and identities of new speakers of Euskera. relations that have to be taken into account in order to understand the attitudes, language dynamics and Agnieszka Otwinowska-Kasztelanic’s research language development and use of the new speakers. interests include first/bilingual language acquisition, Third, we defined competence in the new language not multilingualism and bilingualism, psycholinguistics, only in terms of ‘level’ but also in terms of ‘situation’, and individual differences in language learning and that is, competence for the pragmatic needs of acquisition. speakers in the different situations in which they need to function. In this respect, researchers have often Noel Ó Murchadha focuses on attitudes and ideologies used the term ‘the way I speak’ to describe the type around linguistic variation, on folk linguistics and of competence they have and in this description they on perceptual dialectology. Her research focuses have highlighted and uncovered the features of their on teenagers’ perceptions of linguistic variation in competence that make them adequate or inadequate contemporary spoken Irish and on the standardisation for their successful functioning as legitimate speakers. of Modern Irish. Therefore, multilingual competence, situated competence and the-way-I-speak competence emerged Overview as key categories for describing, evaluating and discussing new speaker competence. We brought together WG1 and WG2 from Phase 1 of the Action to examine ‘multilingual competence’ from a range of perspectives: linguistic, psycholinguistic, educational, sociolinguistic, economic and political. To achieve this aim, the workgroup combined quantitative and qualitative methodologies: psycholinguistic experimental studies on L2-Ln languages; classroom-oriented experiments; narrative assessment of speakers’ competence in L2-Ln languages; questionnaire research; focus groups; structured and unstructured interviews; linguistic biographies; and corpus studies. We collected research tools developed and used by network members and shared made them available on a shared Internet-based drive. This interdisciplinary research with the use of complementary methods provided us with valuable insights into the concept of multilingual competence at the individual and societal level. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Speakerness: Subjectivities, Final report Trajectories and Socialisation ‘Speakerness: Subjectivities, trajectories, spaces’ A key aim of this group was to explore how we are (WG8) shaped by multilingualism and how people conceptualise themselves as multilinguals. Recently there has been an Coordinators: John Walsh increased interest in the lived experiences of multilingual and Maite Puigdevall Serralvo individuals as subjective, emotional and embodied dimensions of language learning have been brought to the forefront (Kramsch, 2009 and 2012, Dewaele, 2010, John Walsh is currently researching the ideologies and Pavlenko, 2005 and 2014, Busch, 2013 and 2015). While motivations of ‘new speakers’ of minority languages, drawing on recent research on subjective aspects of people who were not raised speaking those languages language acquisition, WG8 also offered new perspectives but who speak them fluently and regularly. by focusing on the experiences, social practices and performance of new speakers. Furthermore, we Maite Puigdevall Serralvo works in the areas of include explored theoretical underpinnings of the new speaker sociolinguistics and language planning and policy. More concept and identified suitable methodologies, such specifically, her research focuses on new speakers of as life stories, longitudinal studies, self-ethnography, minority languages; language policy in comparative and Sprachbiographie (language biographies). Through perspective; and language as it relates to identity, our work, we noticed considerable overlap in the tourism and immigration. concepts subjectivities and trajectories. However, we maintained them as distinct categories because of their Overview distinguishing characteristics: trajectories refer more to the process of language learning and the special In this working group, we defined new speakers as junctures where significant changes occur. Subjectivities, individuals with little or no home or community on the other hand are ‘our conscious or unconscious exposure to a language but who instead acquire it sense of self as mediated through symbolic forms’ through formal or informal educational settings, as (Kramsch, 2009: 19). This is mediated through language adult language learners, in the workplace, through and therefore they can refer to the emotional response revitalization projects, or as a consequence of of subjects to their trajectories and mudes. migration. This group, initiated in Phase 2, moved beyond the more demographic approach adopted in Phase 1 and instead identified cross-cutting themes for different profiles of new speakers. Key themes were the journeys undertaken by new speakers, their emerging understanding of themselves, their experiences of key moments of transition and the manner in which they socialise themselves into new networks in the target language(s).

Working Group Meeting National University of Ireland, Galway, September 2015 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Language policy regimes, new speakers and sociolinguistic ethnography (WG9) Coordinators: Josep Soler and Jeroen Darquennes

Josep Soler pursues research within the broadly- defined areas of sociolinguistics, language ideologies, language policy and language planning, and intercultural communication from a discourse approach.

Jeroen Darquennes conducts research in the areas of contact linguistics, the sociology of language, language ecology, social multilingualism, linguistic minorities in Language policy issues in ‘new speakers’ contexts: Europe, linguistic management, linguistic conflict, Critical ethnographic perspectives (workshop) multilingual education and historical sociolinguistics. Université de Namur, March 2017

Overview Work in Phase 1 made it clear that language policy Final report regimes have the potential to influence how different linguistic resources are organised, managed, and ‘Language policy regimes, new speakers and distributed across different societies. WG9 brought sociolinguistic ethnography’ together a heterogeneous group of scholars working We took a Foucauldian angle, with the aim of identifying on a range of topics, including historical and immigrant the ‘challenges and opportunities of newspeakerness language minorities, migrant groups in diverse societies, for authorities in the management of public policies and language in the workplace, sign language users, and any institution operating regimes of power: families, virtual language. This working group, begun in Phase companies, universities’. Some of the main themes were 2, placed itself within recent language policy literature legal and citizenship regimes; policies and services that stresses the multi-sited nature of language policy. for new speakers; multilingualism as a resource in We examined existing research on the roles of different institutions; governmentality; and policy outcomes, sorts of actors in language policy activities that involve inequalities and stratification. Along those lines, the new speakers in a range of geographical, social and central question to guide discussions within the group political spaces. was: ‘How do recognized authorities (from governments to individual parents) provide tools to enable the languages of new speakers to flourish?’ We reflected on methodological and theoretical concepts that may help to illuminate the role and the interaction of actors in the cyclical processes of language policy in specific language policy regimes involving new speakers. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

WG10: Legitimisation and Power (WG10) Coordinators: Alfonso Del Percio and James Costa

Alfonso Del Percio’s discourse analytic research deals with the intersection of language and political economy and focuses on language; migration and governmentality; and the links between language, work, and social inequality. Language & governmentality (workshop) Université Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris, March 2016 James Costa works within critical sociolinguistics, he researches minority languages in Scotland and France; norms and standardisation; and language and power.

Overview Final report

This group examined the everyday practices and ‘Legimisation and power’ processes through which people become legitimate We focused specifically on issues of social inequality new speakers, with a particular focus on social linked with practices of newspeakerness, as well as inequality and power dynamics. We compared new on the challenges associated with investigating those speakerness across different linguistic varieties, issues. We were interested, in other words, in how and in particular used the theoretical lenses of 1) power issues are at play in the legitimization processes governmentality and 2) access to resources and that are crucial to social issues of newspeakerness. markets. Our work revealed newspeakerness as a We analysed different linguistic varieties, boundaries contingent, historically situated set of processes, and dynamics (e.g. languagisation) across new speaker rather than as the mere outcome of language learning. contexts. We argued that thinking about new speakers Moreover, our comparative approach showed that through the lenses of governmentality means that to legitimacy plays out differently in different contexts. understand how speakers’ linguistic socialisation is These observations suggest that the trope of ‘new not simply a practice of language learning promoted speakerness’ should be analysed as a language by governments and educational actors, but rather a ideology rather than as a thing in the world. way to foster a specific type of desirable and compliant citizen. Our research also problematized the articulation between new speakers of autochthonous minority languages and questions of legitimacy and capital, both social and linguistic. In particular, we studied the conditions under which new speakers can become legitimate members of a given minoritised linguistic community and contribute to the reconstruction and revitalization of autochthonous minority languages. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Dissemination and impact (WG5) Coordinator: Kathryn Jones

Kathryn Jones has directed and carried out a wide range of academic and government- or agency-funded research projects in the fields of multilingualism, bilingual education and language policy and planning in Wales.

Overview processes (both synchronic and diachronic) viewed from a pan-European perspective; and the language This group provided an overview of the current support needs of immigrant children. research activities of the members of the COST Action New Speakers Network through an online survey. Key The New Speaker Studio: This constitutes a series themes to emerge were the challenges of integration, of cultural ‘tools’ conceived and made by Deirdre diversity and complexity, language ideologies and MacKenna for the COST Action which aims to engage language teaching, and characteristics of new speakers. with people to explore the dynamics involved in We issued a series of recommendations for EU becoming a new speaker of a language in the context of policy makers, state-level policy makers, educators, a multilingual Europe. http://www.nspk.org.uk/the-new- and parents. For example, we recommend the speaker-studio.html implementation of minority language-based immersion program in schools. We also urge policymakers to New speakers in a multilingual Europe information adopt a more complex view of plurilingualism that leaflets. We produced bilingual leaflets for the public both celebrates linguistic diversity and recognises describing our Action. the potential for exclusion. We also outlined community-based projects carried out by members and Public round table on new speakers of Irish areas for future research. National University of Ireland, Galway, September 2015

Final report Three new speakers of Irish from various parts of Ireland and one speaker from the Gaeltacht discussed ‘Emerging findings and recommendations for their language background, their experience of learning non-academic audiences’ Irish or English, their relationship with other Irish This report provides an overview of the current speakers and their thoughts on identity and belonging. research activities of the members of the COST Action New Speakers in a Multilingual Europe: Opportunities Supporting ‘new speakers’: Building Irish language and Challenges and presents the findings and networks and communities outside the Gaeltacht recommendations for non-academic audiences emerging from the research completed to date by Trinity College, Dublin October 2016 network members. The data upon which this report is This meeting aimed to provide an opportunity for based was gathered via the distribution of an on-line discussion to groups that are promoting Irish outside questionnaire to the COST network database of 213 the Gaeltacht and that work for the most part with ‘new network members, Barcelona conference participants speakers’ of Irish, people who speak Irish regularly but and interested parties. The main issues provided by the were not raised with Irish in the Gaeltacht. To that end non-academic respondents were: we invited representatives of Irish Language Networks the use and ‘usability’ of the new language; numbers and groups interested in applying for status as Gaeltacht of speakers and density of speakers’ networks; the role Service Towns to meet and identify and discuss the of new speakers in language transmission; migratory challenges and opportunities associated with this initiative. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Researcher training (WG6) Short Term Scientific Missions (STMSs) Coordinators: Michael Hornsby, Nicola Bermingham (UK) Alicia Barrera (Spain) Sviatlana Karpava and Anastasia Sara Brennan (UK) Igor Rodríguez Iglesias Zabrodskaja Michael Hornsby (Poland) (Spain) Joana Kolak (Poland) Elisa A. Hidalgo McCabe Michael Hornsby studies the reaction of speech Karolina Mieszkowska (Spain) communities to the pressures of globalisation and (Poland) Facundo Reyna Muniain modernisation; preservation, revitalisation and Karolina Rosiak (Poland) (Germany) transformation of minority languages; language Anna Styrcharz-Banás Sviatlana Karpava (Cyprus) ‘authenticity’; and the relationship between language (Poland) Dolores Ruiz-Lozano and national/regional identity. Mina Sunni (Finland) (Spain) Carla Jonsson (Sweden) Lian Malai Madsen Sviatlana Karpava performs research in applied James Costa (France) (Denmark) and theoretical linguistics; syntax and semantics; Larissa Semiramis Schedel Rosina Marquez Reiter (UK) first and second language acquisition; bilingualism, (Switzerland) Montserrat Casacuberta multilingualism and dialect acquisition; specific Malgorzata (France) language impairment; teaching, education and literacy. Machowska-Kosciak Sibo Kanobana (Belgium) (Ireland) Anik Nandi (UK) Anastasia Zabrodskaja researches foreign language Marouan Soufian (Spain) Sara Nyssen (Belgium) teaching, intercultural communication, identity, ethnolinguistic vitality, linguistic landscapes, language Training activities contact and code-switching. Critical sociolinguistic analysis: Research methods and Overview data analysis (workshop) Stockholm University April 2016 We designed Short Term Scientific Missions (STSMs) and training programmes for early-career researchers. Write yourself into science (workshop) STSMs both advanced the research goals of the working Tilburg University, April 2016 groups and provided early-career researchers with vital experience. Through this programme, Action members New speaker workshop at the Sociolinguistics visited the institutions of other Action participants to Summer School access particular case-study data or to acquire new Université de Lyon, June 2016. Presenters: knowledge of theories, concepts and methods. Bernadette O’Rourke (Heriot-Watt University)

We also held training activities, including a training course for early-career and doctoral researchers in July 2017, which drew participants from around Europe. In addition to providing these new researchers with theoretical and methodological tools, the school also aimed to foster the development of a Europe-wide group of researchers from different multilingual contexts. The advance of this group will strengthen the European Research Area and provide world leadership in research and policies linked to the management of linguistic diversity. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Summer school: Narrative, discourse and interaction The Center for Multilingualism in Society across the Lifespan (MultiLing)

University of Oslo, September 2016

Training School Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, July 2017

This four-day training course was hosted in collaboration with the Sociolinguistics Summer School. Language and globalisation, management of multilingualism, newspeakerness, and variation and social identity were the core themes. Presenters Enterprising culture (workshop) included Monica Heller (University of Toronto), Robert Lawson (Birmingham City University), Joan Pujolar Scottish Marine Institute (An t-Oban) / The Atlantic (Universitat Oberta de Catalunya), and Francesc Xavier Islands Centre (Luing), February 2017 Vila (Universitat de Barcelona.

Organisers: Marina Massaguer, Avel·lí Flors, Andrea Sunyol, Júlia Llompart & Tülay Caglitutuncigil EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Whole Action Conferences

Global social forces are transforming the linguistic ecologies of contemporary societies. They change our linguistic landscapes, our linguistic repertoires and the ways we use languages in everyday life. In fact, what we used to understand by “languages” is also changing, along with the concepts and theories traditionally 2nd Whole Action Conference: employed to analyse language use. Through our three Whole Action Conferences (WACs), we invited linguists, Hamburg, May 2016 social scientists, language activists and language Organisers: Jannis Androutsopoulos & Margarita planners to analyse and debate these sociolinguistic Giannoutsou transformations. The conference featured a training and support forum, a local multilingualism research community panel (‘New The WACs were open to network participants, Speakers at the Multilingual University’), working group practitioners (from education, health care, social panels and two round tables (‘Migration and Asylum’ services, etc.) and policy makers. They offered us and ‘New Speakers at the Multingual University’). a space for meta cross-case analysis and helped Keynote speaker: Aneta Pavlenko (Temple University) us identify overlapping themes across the three multilingual strands and their connection with policy and practice.

Final Whole Action Conference: Policies and Practices

Coimbra, September 2017 Organisers: Clara Keating, Vera Ferreira, Olga Solovova & Raquel Matias.

Focusing on Policies and Practices, the New Speakers’ Network Final Whole Action Conference brought together the work that emerged from dialogue and 1st Whole Action Conference: collaboration among researchers, policy makers and stakeholders working together over the past four years. Barcelona, December 2014 We focused on the dynamics involved in becoming a ‘new Organisers: Joan Pujolar & Maite Puigdevall Serralvo speaker’ of a language in the context of a multilingual Europe. We showcased our research findings and policy This event had 166 participants, 86 presentations, recommendations, highlighting the relationship between 2 round tables, 2 plenary conferences and 1 new speakers and competence; subjectivities; language workshop for doctoral students. One of the plenaries policies; and legitimacy and governmentality. featured a panel co-organized with the Catalan Society of Sociolinguistics (SOCS) entitled ‘From Along with these working group sessions, the event conflict sociolinguistics to the sociolinguistics of included plenary conferences, local stakeholder panels multilingualism: past, present and future paradigms’ on new speakers and linguistic diversity in Portuguese- and sessions by the working groups. Keynote speaker: speaking contexts and public cultural events on Jacqueline Urla (University of Massachusetts) territorial and immigrant sociolinguistic minorities. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Español para inmigrantes: Desde la teoría hacia la Workshops, roundtables práctica and other events Asociación de Murialdo (Getafe), June 2016 Second Celtic sociolinguistic symposium “New speakers”: Definitions, agendas and Trinity College Dublin, October 2016 consequences. Jyväskylä Discourse Studies Forum. (Re) considering the Concept of New Speakers. Bilingual child migrants in a multilingual Europe Tuesday, 5th November 2013 University of Warsaw, November 2016 New speaker: challenges and opportunities. Invisible European language diversity forum multilingualisms: an open seminar on changing faces San Sebastian, December 2016 of multilingualism in the 21st century, Jyväskylä About 50 million people in the European Union speak October 31, 2013 regional or minority languages. At present, these people’s language rights are not guaranteed. In the Spanish in contact: New times, new spaces and new European Language Diversity Forum, we reflected on speakers (conference) the central aspects of minority language development Heriot-Watt University, May 2015 in Europe and tackled the most urgent challenges. New speakers in a multilingual Europe: Opportunities New speakers in a multilingual Europe: and challenges (seminar) A transdisciplinary view from Cyprus Université Haute Bretagne – Rennes 2, May 2015 University of Lancaster, Cyprus, January 2017 Globalization, mobility and citizenship: Researching Neohablantes en contexts de diáspora ‘new speakers’ of Welsh (workshop) Universität Bremen, January 2017 Cardiff University, June 2015 Refugees, new speakers & global law (workshop) New speakerness: epistemics, positioning and Tilburg University, March 2017 struggles for legitimacy in interaction (seminar) University of Surrey, September 2015 Language policy issues in ‘new speakers’ contexts: Critical ethnographic perspectives (workshop) Linguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives on new Université de Namur, March 2017 speakers in a multilingual Europe University of Central Lancashire, October 2015 New speakers in Latvia: Educational language policy for integration and peace (symposium and round table) New plurilingual pathways for integration University of Latvia, April 2017 Heriot-Watt University, May 2016 (New) speakers in multilingual contexts (roundtable) Language & governmentality (workshop) University College London, April 2017 Université Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris, March 2016 Writing retreat and workshop ‘New speakers’ of Russian: Evidence from Budapest Metropolitan University, April 2017 Russian-speaking mothers from Sweden, Estonia and Cyprus How do you talk about language? (workshop) Stockholm University, March 2016 Glasgow, June 2017 What does it mean to speak a minority language?: Language, inclusion and labour markets (seminar) Dispelling myths and raising awareness through Faroe Islands, August 2017 theatre (workshop in collaboration with actor and theatre maker Brian Thunder) Heriot-Watt University, April 2016

Interaction and Society (with EDiSo) Universitat de València, June 2016

Phonetics and phonology of new speakers (workshop) University College London, July 2016 Appendix

Full list of COST New Speakers publications Brennan, S. & Costa, J. (2016). The Indexical Reordering of Language in Times of Crisis: Nation, Region, and the Absillis K. & Jaspers, J. (2016). Beware of the weeds. Rebranding of Place in Shetland and Western Ireland. Signs & Reconsidering Flemish purism as a utopian discourse. Society, 4(S1), 106–137. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 242, 1-24. Brennan, S., Danson, M. & O’Rourke, B. (2016). Selling a Amorrortu, E., Ortega, A. & Goirigolzarri, J. (2017). “Euskararen Language to Save it? The Business- Oriented Promotion of hiztun aktibo bihurtzeko gakoak” [Factors that result in muda Gaelic and Irish. In McLeod, W., Gunderloch, A. & Dunbar, R. in the Basque case]. BAT Soziolinguistika aldizkaria, 104(3), (Eds.), Cànan & Cultar (Language and Culture): Rannsachadh 11-49. na Gàidhlig 8. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press, 205-221. Amorrortu, E., Ortega, A. & Goirigolzarri, J. (2017). “Hiztun Brennan, S. & O’Rourke, B. (2019) Commercialising the cúpla berriak eta hizkuntza-ohitura aldatzea?” [Changing linguistic focal: New speakers, language ownership, and the promotion habits in new speakers]. UDALTOP Conference Preceedings of Irish as a business resource. Language in Society. 48 (1), on: Aterako gara euskal herritarrok hizkuntzearen armairutik? 125-145 Zelan buztartu gizartearen aktibazinoa eta hizkuntza ohituren aldaketea [Will Basque speakers free ourselves from our Caglitutuncigil, T. (2018). Between myth and reality: Language language constraints? How to foster social activation and classrooms in Spanish and Catalan social integration language habits]. programs. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. Walsh, J. & O’Rourke, B. (Eds.) (guest editors). Androutsopoulos, J. (2017). Gesellschaftliche Mehrsprachigkeit. In Neuland, E. & Schlobinski, P. (Eds.) Chopin, C. (2018). Stadegoù an Diplom Barregezh war ar Handbuch Sprache in sozialen Gruppen, 193-217. Berlin/ Yezh; ur benveg evit ober gwelloc’h anaoudegezh gant an Boston: De Gruyter. nevez brezhonegerien, Al Lanv, 3. 36-40 Androutsopoulos, J. (2017). Soziolinguistische Cioè-Peña, M., Moore, E. & Martín Rojo, L. (2016). The Burden Mehrsprachigkeit, Ressourcen, Praktiken, Räume of ‘Nativeness’: Four Plurilingual Student-Teachers’ Stories. und Ideologien mehrsprachiger Kommunikation. Der Bellaterra journal of teaching and learning language and Deutschunterricht, (Themenheft Soziolinguistik), 53-63. literatura. 32-52. Bagna, C. & Machetti, S (2015). International mobility and the Codó E. & Relaño Pastor A. M. (forthcoming). Researching Impact on LT: the case of Chinese students. In Mader, J. and Multilingual Education: Ethnographic Perspectives. In Siry, Urkun, Z. (Eds.) Diversity, plurilingualism and their impact on C. & Fernández, R. (Eds.) Methodologies for Research on language testing and assessment, IATEFL. 9-12. Teaching and Learning. Luxembourg: Sense Publishers (Bold Visions in Education Research Series). Barni, M. and Bagna, C. (2015). The critical turn in LL: New methodologies and new items in LL. Linguistic Landscape. 1-2: Codó E. & Relaño Pastor A. M. Researching Multilingual 6-18. Education: Ethnographic Perspectives. In Siry, C. & Fernández, R. (Eds.) Methodologies for Research on Teaching and Barni, M. & Bagna, C. (2016). 1 March – A day without Learning. Luxembourg: Sense Publishers (Bold Visions in immigrants: the urban linguistic landscape and the Education Research Series). immigrants’ protest. In Blackwood, R., Lanza, E. and Woldemariam, H. (Eds.). Negotiating and Contesting Identities Codó, E. (2018). Lifestyle migrants in Barcelona: A narrative in the Linguistic Landscape. London-New York, Bloomsbury. perspective on language, transnational mobility and 55-70. identity. In Patiño-Santos, A. and A.M. Relaño-Pastor (eds.) “Storytelling in globalized spaces: A linguistic ethnographic Bermingham, N. (2017). ‘Double new speakers? Language perspective”. Special issue of International Journal of the ideologies of immigrant students in Galicia’, In Smith- Sociology of Language, 250, 11-34. Christmas, C., Hornsby, M., Moriarty, M., & Ó Murchadha, N. (Eds.). New Speakers of Minority Languages: Linguistic Costa, B. (2017). Team Effort – training therapists to work Practices and Ideologies, Palgrave. with interpreters as a collaborative team. International Journal for Counselling Development. 39(1),56-70. Bermingham, N. & Higham, G. (2018). Immigrants as new speakers: issues of integration, belonging and legitimacy, Costa, B. (2017). The strength and the stress of triangles: Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. Walsh, support and supervision for interpreters and therapists. J. & O’Rourke, B. (Eds.) (guest editors). In Boyles, J. (Ed.) Psychological therapy with torture survivors in exile; a human rights approach PCCS Books. Bermingham, N. & O’Rourke, B. (2018). Language awareness amongst “new speakers” in a multilingual classroom. In Frijn, Costa, B. (2018). Why do their languages matter? BACP C. et al. (Eds.) Language Awareness. De Gruyter Mouton. Children, Young People & Families, June 2018. Lutterworth: Blog published on the EU Parliament Terminology BACP coordination website, July 2017 about mental health interpreting and supervision. http://termcoord.eu/2017/07/ Costa, B. & Dewaele, J-M. (2018). The talking cure – building the-challenges-of-interpreting-in-mental-health-settings/ the core skills and the confidence of counsellors and psychotherapists to work effectively with multilingual patients through training and supervision. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research. Appendix

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