Yashuhay Are Organized in a Noun Class System Comprised of Nine Classes

Home , Dative construction, Noun class, Reflexive pronoun

A Comprehensive Grammar of Yashuhay

v0.5.1 27.08.2021 -loglorn 2 CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Status and Preservation ...... 1 1.2 Genetic Affiliation ...... 1 1.3 History of Yashuhay ...... 2 1.4 Typological Overview ...... 3

2 PHONOLOGY 4 2.1 Vowels ...... 4 2.2 Consonants ...... 5 2.3 Stress ...... 6 2.4 Phoneme Frequencies ...... 6

3 NOUNS 7 3.1 Noun Classes and Number ...... 7 3.1.1 Number Patterns ...... 7 3.1.2 Singular Classes ...... 9 3.1.3 Plural Classes ...... 10 3.2 Case ...... 11 3.2.1 Core Cases ...... 11 3.2.2 Oblique Uses ...... 14 3.3 Attributive Possession ...... 20 3.4 Predicative Noun Operations ...... 23 3.4.1 Copula Constructions ...... 24 3.4.2 Existence and Possession ...... 26 3.4.3 Location, Goal and Source ...... 27

4 PRONOUNS 29 4.1 Personal pronouns ...... 29 4.1.1 Subject pronouns ...... 32 4.2 Focus pronouns ...... 33 4.2.1 Answers ...... 33 4.2.2 Contrastive focus ...... 36 4.2.3 Reference tracking ...... 38

i 4.2.4 Aggressive vocative ...... 40 4.3 Demonstratives ...... 41 4.4 Interrogative pronouns ...... 42 4.5 Indefinite pronouns ...... 42 4.6 Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns ...... 42

5 VERBS 43 5.1 Verb Classes and Voice Marking ...... 43 5.2 Subject Marking ...... 46

6 ADJECTIVES 47

7 ADPOSITIONS 48

8 APPENDICES 49 8.1 Lexicon ...... 49 8.2 Minimal Pairs ...... 49 8.3 Sample Texts ...... 49 8.3.1 Dark Tea Story ...... 49 8.4 Comparison with Related Languages ...... 56

List of Tables

2.1 Vowel Inventory ...... 4 2.2 Vowel Length Production Values ...... 4 2.3 Consonant Inventory ...... 5

3.1 Number inflection examples ...... 8 3.2 Class Three Allomorphy ...... 9 3.3 Class Seven Allomorphy ...... 10 3.4 Class Two Allomorphy ...... 10 3.5 Class Six Allomorphy ...... 11 3.6 Class Ten Allomorphy ...... 11 3.7 Case Affixes ...... 20 3.8 Possessive Suffixes ...... 23

4.1 Personal Pronouns ...... 29 4.2 Demonstratives ...... 42

ii 5.1 Verb Classes ...... 43 5.2 Normal Subject Marking ...... 46

List of Figures

1.1 Simplified Ngerupic family tree ...... 1

3.1 Sankey diagram of singular/plural class correspondences ...... 8 3.2 Yashuhay Core Cases ...... 12

List of Examples

1. Morphosyntactic alignment ...... 12 2. Differential object marking ...... 13 3. Absolutive ...... 14 4. Adnominal absolutive ...... 14 5. Ergative ...... 15 7. Adnominal ergative ...... 16 8. Comitative ...... 16 9. Dative ...... 17 10. Maleficiaries and Judicantis ...... 18 11. Adnominal dative ...... 18 12. Locative ...... 19 13. Ablative ...... 19 14. Inalienable noun ...... 20 15. Alienable noun ...... 20 16. Possession ...... 21 17. Nested possession ...... 22 18. Alienability in nested possession ...... 22 19. Identity copula constructions ...... 24 20. Inclusion copula ...... 24

iii 20. Transience in the inclusion copula ...... 25 22. Impermanence and TAM ...... 25 23. Complex verbalized NP ...... 26 24. Existential clause ...... 26 25. Inalienable predicative possession ...... 26 26. Alienable predicative possession ...... 26 27. Impermanent existential ...... 26 28. Predicative location clauses ...... 27 29. Predicative source clause ...... 27 30. Predicative goal clause ...... 27 31. Change-of-State clause ...... 27 32. Transience in change-of-state constructions ...... 28 33. Case in pronouns ...... 30 34. Oblique cases in pronouns ...... 31 35. Subject pronouns and volition ...... 32 36. Volition in passives ...... 33 37. Focus in content answers ...... 33 38. Focus in polar answers ...... 34 39. Minimal answers ...... 34 40. Focus in answers to complex questions ...... 35 41. Negative answers ...... 35 42. Contrastive focus ...... 36 43. Ambiguity in focus marking ...... 37 44. Same-subject verb marker ...... 38 45. Reference tracking in possession ...... 39 46. Focused inalienable possession ...... 39 47. Reference tracking in obliques ...... 40 48. Vocative focus pronouns ...... 40 49. Demonstrative pronouns ...... 41 50. Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns ...... 42 51. Instransitive verbs ...... 44 52. Transitive verbs ...... 45 53. Ergative verbs ...... 45 8.3.1. Text: Dark Tea ...... 49

iv INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Status and Preservation

Yashuhay is, alongside Yako’e, one of the two national languages of Shohai, being the main language of news, economy and science in the country. Being taught in schools in most national districts, Yashuhay is a very healthy language, sporting over two million native speakers and about four million non-native speakers. While those are low figures if compared to Kwang or Terminian, they are still fairly above average when it comes to Ngerupic Languages as a whole. It is the most widely spoken language of both Shohai and the Yakelukway branch of Ngerupic languages. As for WWM languages, it is second only Yatååkåå, the biggest language of Magali. Internationally, Yashuhay is not a particularly relevant language, figuring primarily as a second or third language in eastern Magali, and in the Shohuese diaspora in Lhavres. 1.2 Genetic Afﬁliation

Yashuhay is part of the Ngerupic family, a large language family originating in Akula- nen and spanning from northwestern Ekuosia, in Utol and its surroundings, to Soltenna, in Qonk, Qua Xin Xun and parts of Xynderland. The maximum diversity of the family

Proto-Ngerupic (Wa Ñi) (3000 BCE)

Wanyima-Wanyoa (WWM)

Classical Shohue

Yatååkåå Yashuhay Other Shohue Other branches

Figure 1.1: Simplified Ngerupic family tree

1 occurs however in the Magalese Higlands of northwestern Akulanen and the surrounding areas. At a closer time depth, Yashuhay is a WWM language, descended from Wanyima- Wanyoa, reconstructed to have been spoken in the early first millenium BCE in the magalese highlands and ancestor to Yatååkåå and most Shohai languages. Classical Shohue, endonym yakelukwáy, the oldest decidedly attested ancestor of Yashuhay, was spoken around the same area as Yashuhay, the current Shohai capital; Awkahinnge. It is attested in several Mañi Abugida inscriptions around the first two centuries CE at the earliest, having fairly solid historical attestation until modern Yashuhay. 1.3 History of Yashuhay

The history of the Yashuhay language is closely tied with the history of Shohai, being one of, if not the main, language of the area since the settling of the area by wanyima- wanyoa/yakelukwáy speakers. Indeed, “yashuháy” is a direct reflex of Classical Shohue “yakelukwáy”. The name means, in both the ancient and the modern forms, gen-desert ’of the desert’, historically referring to Shohai as a whole, from its defining feature; it’s arid interior (although, ironically, modern Yashuhay is spoken in the wet, coastal, areas of the country). Archaeological evidence of occupation of the delta and the coast is very ancient, but as the region was a migration path for Homo sapiens out of Ekuosia, most archae- ologically attested peoples of the area are most likely not genetically and, especially, not linguistically related to the current inhabitants of the area. Remains believed to correspond to Ngerupic populations are found from 1500bce forward, but it is pretty well established that at that point coastal Shohai populations had not yet drifted linguistically or socially from what is reconstructed to be the “Proto- WWM” society. Linguistic and social drift between Shohuese populations, Yakelukway in that period, and magalese, especially highland, WWM peoples become clear in the last centuries bce and are obvious when written attestation starts in the first couple centuries ce. In the Classical Shohue period (0-400ce), the language was affected primarily by Classical Letsatian and Mañi, having been occupied intermittently by both. From Mañi, Classical Shohue borrowed a large array of terms related to seafaring, sea life, geogra- phy and Soltennan peoples, fauna, and flora. With the Letsatian influence in the period came even more loans than Mañi, primarily in the fields of religion, Iovism being closely associated with Classical Letsatian in Shohai, several technological and philosophical terms, and terminology for Ekuosian peoples, fauna and flora. The next couple centuries were a period of relative isolation where the language did not have much contact with outside sources. During this period Yakelukway diverged primarily internally and not much evidence of linguistic contact with external sources can reconstructed to this period.

2 After that comes the Golden Age period (600-900ce). During that period, Awkahin- nge, capital of the Shohai polity for most of the period, becomes a major trade hub, and Shohuese merchants greatly expand their maritime trade routes, establishing direct contact with Vaniu, the Hemesh Coast and the Parshita Sea coast for the first time. During that period a large amount of geographic, ethnographic, botanical, zoologi- cal, and also technological terms referring to Vaniu, East Ekuosia, and to lesser extents, Puzimm, Parshita and South-West Baredina were borrowed. Often, especially with Va- niuan, Soltennan and Letsic sources, borrowed directly from their sources. After failed expansionist enterprises in the ninth and tenth centuries ce the rel- evance of Shohai in global trade greatly dwindles, and most loans from that period onward are either Terminian or filtered through Terminian or Soltennan sources. Modern technology, especially twentieth century onward, shifts away from Ter- minian loans; Terminian decreases in prestige after the War of Supremacy (late 1890’s), while nationalism prompts the coinage of words from native roots and new geopolitical alliances favour loans from Lestzi, Shohuanese and Kwang. 1.4 Typological Overview

Phonologically, Yashuhay has a very standard vowel inventory. The consonants are notable only for the small amount of fricatives, three, and the absence of liquids, both areal features of the languages of Shohai. Grammatically, the language displays some interesting typological features. The nominal case system is ergative; nominal transitive objects pattern along with intransitive subjects. Verbal marking, however, is nominative-accusative. Yashuhay verbs are complex, as are the verbs of most WWM languages, potentially displaying more than one prefix and several suffixes in the same form and morethan four morphemes per phonological word is a common occurrence in predicates. The morphemes themselves tend to be mono-exponential and display a large degree of allomorphy, to the point where it is very hard to assign “base” or underlying forms to some of them, notably the volitional marker. The most notable feature of the Yashuhay language however is Omnipredication, that is: All main semantic parts of speech (Verbs, Adjectives and Nouns) can be used predicatively and host “verbal” morphology to varying extents. More tangentially, Con- junctions are also verb-like in form and behaviour. It should be noted that, despite the omnipredicative nature and some other shared features, verbs can receive case marking under some circumstances for example, it is still possible to distinguish, functionally and structurally, separate parts of speech for Nouns, Verbs and Adjectives, a discussion that will be characterized later in this work.

3 PHONOLOGY 2 2.1 Vowels

Yashuhay displays the basic five vowel inventory, while also displaying a length distinction and lexical stress. Table 2.1: Vowel Inventory

Front Back High i iː u uː Mid e eː o oː Low a aː

Binary minimal pairs between most vowels combinations have been found, but no comprehensive minimal sets have been found. This is somewhat expected given the relative rarity of /i iː/. Comprehensive tables with examples of the attested binary minimal pairs can be found in Appendix 2. Stress and length interact, and long vowels in unstressed, especially pre-tonic, syl- lables are realized as shorter than their stressed counterparts. This does not, however, usually affect vowel quality, and vowel reduction isun- common among native speakers.

Table 2.2: Vowel Length Production Values

Environments Stressed Pre-Tonic Unstress. Sec/y stressed Short 1 0.45 0.6 0.8 Relative Length Long 1.8 1 1.3 1.55 The base value of ’1’ is taken to be the average realization length of short, stressed, vowels. The actual lengths vary slightly between speakers but the proportions remain mostly constant.

There do not seem to be restrictions on surrounding consonants; neither surrounding consonants determine the values of the vowel nor do vowels influence the values of neighboring consonants. There is no evidence of such processes diachronically ei-

4 ther, from comparison or internal reconstruction. This is hard to accurately determine, however, given that the rarity of /i/ renders assumptions about it unreliable. Vowel hiatus only occurs in limited combinations; the only licit hiatus between two short vowels is /aˈa/. Between a short and a long vowel only /a.Vː/ and /Vː.a/ are licit, but are still only found root internally, for across morpheme boundaries they simplify. Hiatus between two long vowels is universally licit and even somewhat common, especially as it often arises from morphological operations. The illicit hiatuses are resolved with the following rules, in this order (the order is reconstructible from the results of morphophonological processes).

1. V.a > Vː

2. [u,o] [i,e] > w y / _V

3. [u,o] [i,e] > w y / V_ 2.2 Consonants

Yashuhay displays a relatively small consonant inventory, with only 14 consonant phonemes distributed across six points and four modes of articulation. Notable is the total absence of liquids, be them rhotics or laterals, an areal feature of the Shohai area.

Table 2.3: Consonant Inventory

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal m (n̪) n ŋ Plosive p t̪ t k ʔ Fricative f¹ ʃ h Approximant j w 1. In free variation with /θ/ for some speakers, does not pattern morphophonologically with labials

The dental nasal is only contrastive for some speakers, mostly close to the magalese border and in Awkahinnge suburbs, while for the other speakers the dental and alveolar nasals are merged. Therefore, there are words that vary in pronunciation accross those lines, one such word is shónaha “be heavy”, which alternates depending on the speaker: /ˈʃonaha ~ˈʃon̪aha/. Additionally there are two roots that are split only for some speakers; hana “approach”, /ˈhan̪a ~ˈhana/ and hana “ordinary” /ˈhana/. Due to morphological matters those only actually merge in a handful of forms, such as hanghánooh “i am approaching / i am ordinary”. There is a tendency for the speakers that distinguish /n̪ n/ to realize /f/ as [θ], but the correlation is by no means absolute. Coda consonants and clusters are rather limited. Word internally, only nasals and approximants are allowed in coda, while word finally buccal plosives and /h/ are allowed. /f/, /ʃ/, /ʔ/ are never allowed in coda position, not even underlyingly. Disal- lowed clusters are solved by a set of morphophonological rules. Heterorganic nasal stop

5 clusters are allowed but uncommon, and always root internal, as nasals assimilate to following nasals and plosives in point of articulation across morpheme boundaries. As far as onset clusters are concerned, only NA and PA(minus ʔ) are allowed, hA clusters resolving into the other fricatives, /f/ and /ʃ/. Morphophonological processes that resolve illicit clusters:

1. hŋ > ʔ

2. [P,h] > ː / _N

3. [t̪,h] > N / _C (agrees in PoA)

4. P > ː / _C

5. [P,N]h > ʔ

6. hy hw > ʃ f

The processes outlined here and in the vowel section apply to all morpheme boundaries unless the morphemes in question explicitly contradict them. They will not be repeated in morpheme descriptions in the following chapters, thus only the ways in which morphemes contradict or otherwise deviate from these regular processes will be noted at their descriptions. 2.3 Stress 2.4 Phoneme Frequencies

6 NOUNS 3 Yashuhay nouns are organized in a big noun class system, composed of nine classes, which are intimately tied to number. There is also a developed case system, distinguishing seven cases, six marked, and a system of pronominal possessive affixes. In the following chapter we will describe the form and function of each of these categories. 3.1 Noun Classes and Number

As previously mentioned, nouns in Yashuhay are organized in a noun class system comprised of nine classes. Five of those classes, g1, g3, g5, g7, g9, are singular, while three, g2, g6, g10, are plural and one, g12, is dual. The connection between noun class and number will be properly explained in the Number Patterns section, while Sin- gular Classes and Plural Classes will go over the semantic ties and affix shapes of each class. The class labels do not follow straight 1-9 numerical sequence for etymological reasons (g8 existed at earlier forms of the language but merged into etymological g10) and ngerupicist tradition (g4 never existed, but the gap was left because it was conventionalized to use odd numbers for singular classes and even numbers for plural classes). Using the same root in different noun classes or class-number patterns is not acom- mon means of derivation, most classes do not have enough semantic cohesiveness for the change of class in itself to be meaningful. Rather, the opposite occurs, and the class can be changed with no change in meaning; some speakers use class seven instead of nine or class six instead of ten in nouns that merge the markings of class nine and ten. Diachronically and to some extent sinchronically, many nouns have changed class, usually in analogy to other nouns, oriented mainly by phonological form, rather than semantic domain. 3.1.1 Number Patterns

As mentioned above, some noun classes are singular, some are plural. Number marking occurs by changing the class marker in the noun from a singular class to a plural class. In this regard, class eleven, the dual class, patterns along the plural classes. Some nouns do not have number alternations, only appearing marked a single class.

7 Table 3.1: Number inflection examples

Meaning Singular Plural Pattern “butterfly” napaha napahap 1/2 “spine” paynge paytho 3/6 “comb” kathuung akáthu 7/10 “toy” hafe hafe¹ 9/10 “metal” anó anó 10/10 “toy” hafe hafetho 9/6² 1. This is the expected class ten form, and the change in class is thoroughly reflected in verbal agreement. 2. Among younger speakers, 9/10 nouns starting in h, sh or f (that is, the ones where the g10 affix would surface as zero) are commonly realized as 9/6 instead.

The assignment of both singular and plural classes is lexically determined. Some singular classes are more strongly associated with one plural class; all class one nouns for instance are pluralized in class two. The number of nouns in each class and each singular/plural combination can be visualized clearly in a sankey diagram.

68 116 43 102 249 G1 G3 G5 G7 G9

3/3 9/9 21 3/10 9/6 80 9/10 4 7 7/11 162 1/2 3/6 5/10 3/11 4 68 79 16 12 5/6 7/10 10/10 2/2 27 98 63 11/11 1 7 G2 G6 G10 G11 69 113 343 23

Figure 3.1: Sankey diagram of singular/plural class correspondences

8 3.1.2 Singular Classes

Of the five singular classes only one has strict semantic ties; Class one is comprised almost exclusively of nouns referring to humans, such as ee “baby”, hathú “person”, ah “sibling”, and ’a “friend”. An interesting possible exception is kapá “village, family”, but this is also evidence that villages are, before geographical locations, conceptualized as groups of people. New words referring to humans, such as ye “boyfriend” and yo “girlfriend”, loanwords from Standard Kwang, are usually placed in class one. As far as morphology is concerned, class one is unmarked, one of the reasons it is so open to loanwords and other innovations. Class three comprises the vast majority of bodypart terminology, with words such as ta’e “liver”, hakunge “torso”, and pyungu “vagina”. It does, however, also include words from a variety of other fields, such as animalshamange ( “tapir”, mathwónge “cat”), natural phenomena (paynge “mountain range”, kwenge “ocean”, etóthothonge “ice”), time pe- riods (ngehange “this year”, peekamme “day before yesterday”, heténge “season”), objects (a’ongge “chair”, hatante “rattle”), and even some abstract concepts, such as pwopange “genealogy” and hotange “story”. The time period and the natural phenomena words all do not have plural variation, being most of the 3/3 pattern words. Morphologically, class three is marked with a suffix -nge, transparent in most previous examples, that nevertheless undergoes some allomorphy.

Table 3.2: Class Three Allomorphy

Allomorphy Examples -nge hathuta-g3 > hathutange “glove” N + nge > Nːe kaam-g3 > kaamme “hearthstone” P + nge > NPe heeyap-g3 > heeyampe “next year” h + nge > ’e hah-g3 > ha’e “lunch”

Pyungu “vagina” displays potentially irregular marking, its root can be recovered to be pyuth, but its debated what would the “regular” form be. Such irregularity is etymological and was likely maintained since this is the only instance of [...]th-g3 and the analogical bases for regularizing this lexeme were weak. It employs class three verbal agreement normally Class five is a small class but it is equally varied semantically, withtasháya animals( “elephant”, ashá “insect”), objects (kotyáya “furniture”, kakopya “adze”), nature words (kosha “mountain”, hemopya “steppe”), a couple abstractions (thosha “colour”, koya “side”), and even a body part, otáya “finger”. It is marked, very transparently, bythe suffix -ya. Class seven is comprised primarily of fauna and flora terminology, and contains most animal terms, like hikúung “rabbit”, ngimáang “baird’s tapir”, woong “fly”. It does also include some other elements, like kamkethúngkaang “ceiling”, taang “tooth”, and awhang “meteor”. It is marked by -hang, with some morphophonological and allomor- phic variation.

9 Table 3.3: Class Seven Allomorphy

Allomorphy Examples -hang hothutay-g7 > hothutayhang “lip” -ːng / V_ ta-g7 > taang “snake” -tang / n_ won-g7 > wontang “vine” [h,’,N,P] + hang > ’ang uth-g7 > u’ang “date palm”

The lexeme akwáa “cashew tree” is irregular, it’s root, akyá, and the class seven production rules do not justify the final form. However, cashew trees have high cultural significance in, especially coastal, Shohai culture and have maintained some etymological irregularity. The vast majority of abstractions, nominalizations and such words, like akáapo “party”, tathonge “prize”, uumáw “sadness”, and shee “year” are class nine, however, class nine is a very large class and also displays many concrete nouns of varied semantics, like onó “ring”, omáaka “basin”, heema “ladder”, and hehooka “rat”. It is also unmarked and perceived as the most “general use” noun class, receiving most loans since Classical Shohue times, like shongyáw “shellfish”, from Mañi xokonay “shrimp”, and hapée “book” from Classical Letsatian kalbẽ. 3.1.3 Plural Classes

As shown in the sankey diagram, almost all nouns in class one have plurals in class two, hence class two having the exact same semantic space; comprising most human words (family terms, professions, occupations, etc) and being made almost exclusively of human terms. It is marked by the suffix -p(a).

Table 3.4: Class Two Allomorphy

Allomorphy Examples -p / [V,y,w]_ hakó-g2 > hakóp “neighbors” -pa / C(else)_ hangek-g2 > hangeepa¹ “men” 1. As can be seen here, the phonological rules outlined in the phonology section also apply with noun class markings, and apply after the allomorphy.

Class six has most of the words in classes three and five, being almost as varied as those semantically, with the exception that natural phenomena and time period words are 3/3 and do not take plural marking. Else, there is no noticeable semantic component in the choice of whether a class three or a class five noun use class six or ten as their plural. Class six is marked by -tho or -ka, in differing environments. Class ten is also semantically varied, including most inanimate nouns of various natures, like classes seven and nine which are the singular classes of most nouns in class ten. There is a good number of nouns, 63 in the record lexicon thus far, that

10 Table 3.5: Class Six Allomorphy

Allomorphy Examples -tho / [V,y,w]_ hii + g6 > hiitho “hoes” th + g6 > tho ukongkath + g6 > ukongkatho “cloaks” -ka / [P,h]_ pak + g6 > paaká¹ “walls” 1. Stress sometimes unpredictably moves away from the root in some class marked forms. only appear marked class ten. Those nouns are primarily raw material mass nouns like hatoma “wax”, aatá “tea”, aa “fat” and anó “metal”, with some other outliers, like apáa “rain” and apyawngé “skin”. Class ten is marked by the prefix a-, with some variation.

Table 3.6: Class Ten Allomorphy

Allomorphy Examples h- / _a g10-aah > haah “gingers” Ø- / _[h,∫,f] g10-hawó > hawó “acorns” a- / else g10-mata > amáta “bees”

Class eleven is small. It patterns as a plural class but it is dual in the sense that it is used for things that occur naturally in pairs and/or are strongly associated with ’pairness’ or duality. Many of those are body parts, and over half of the class eleven nouns have their singular form in class three, like taméta “kidneys”, and etóta “eyes”. Some nouns, with an even stronger association with duality or symmetry, only occur in class eleven, like yahóta “shoulder blades”, kopata “testicles” and tatá “pair”. Class eleven in marked by the suffix -ta. 3.2 Case

Case marks nouns for the presence and nature of dependency relationships, prototypi- cally in relation to verbs/predicates but also potentially towards other parts of speech, adjectives or even other nouns. It should be noted that case names, such as Genitive, Absolutive, etc., represent mnemonic labels and the structures they refer to should not be taken to mean the same they mean in other languages that employ the same labels. Yashuhay nouns may be inflected for seven different cases. Apart from the Genitive, they are all primarily adverbal, but they also have adnominal uses. They are all prefixal and exhibit some degree of allomorphy. 3.2.1 Core Cases

We will begin the case discussion by the core cases, and the indissociable discussion about Yashuhay’s morphosyntactic alignment; In nouns, the markings are ergative-

11 absolutive. Intransitive subjects and transitive objects are marked with the Absolutive case, while transitive subjects are marked with the Ergative case.

A Ergative

P Absolutive

Figure 3.2: Yashuhay Core Cases

To demonstrate the case assignment summarized in the figure above, I will provide a couple examples. Case assignment in ditransitive sentences will be addressed in the following section, about the semantics of the other cases.

(1) Morphosyntactic alignment

a. SH"Gék a"wLóMó:pY Kó":g shahángek awthomoopya koong sha-hangek a-otho-ma-ºa-°pya koong erg-man:g1 g1-chase-tr-pfv (abs.)dog.g7 “The manA chased the dogP ” b. Kó":g aQé"Ké:lYú:pY koong a’ékeethyuupya koong ang-hekeethyo-ºa-°pya (abs.)dog.g7 g7-run.away-vol-pfv “The dogS ran away”

The case assignment described here is the default situation, several verbs however assign different cases to their objects. All cases show up as specially assigned toob- jects; ampepa “feel” and paaha “speak fluently” assign the Ergative to their objects, aka “know” takes Genitive objects, while panya “fuck”, pona “mention”, ham “approach”, hah “propose”, and hah “name” take Dative objects. Additionally, aa “climb”, a’eho “suck, inhale”, yaathu “be at”, henge “rub”, neno “cross”, and pyangek “celebrate” take Locative objects, angke “marry”, hamya “lack”, ame “greet”, and ngye “fake” take Comi- tative objects, and several verbs, among them ngi’oh “squeeze” and pya “pass” take Ablative objects. It should be noted that all verbs that display differential object markings are Ergative verbs. The difference between Ergative and other classes of verbs will be discussed at a later section. It can be seen there is, to some extent, a semantic connection between the verb root and its choice in differential object marking.

12 (2) Differential object marking

a. HP":Hó:kY SY"SúHy hapáahookya shayáshuhay h(a)-paaha-ºa-°kya sha-yashuhay 1s.erg-speak-vol-pot erg-yashuhay “I speak Yashuhayobj” b. LúK"Kó:o:h YLó": thukákooooh yathóo thu-ke-aka-°a-ºa-°ːh yathóo 2s.obj-neg-know-1s.subj-vol-ipfv gen.2s “I don’t know youobj” c. SSú"SgSú HH"MópY KókW"YówSú shashúshangshu hahámopya kokwáyowshu sha-shushangshu h(a)-ham-ºa-°pya ko-kwayowshu erg-motorcycle g9.erg-approach-vol-pfv dat-van “The motorcycle approached the vanobj” d. Y"g NMé"nT H":wíN:m eKó"S yang naménta haawniim ekósha yang na-meng-ta h(a)-aa-ºa-°niim e-koh-ya erg.1s com-mother-1s.poss 1e.erg-climb-vol-exp loc-mountain-g5 Sé H"lWó she hathwo she hathwo g5.dist yesterday “Yesterday me and my mother climbed that mountainobj” e. SLú" agYú":pY Nu:M"w shathú angyúupya nauumáw sha-thu (a)-ngye-ºa-°pya na-uumáw erg-woman:g1 g1.erg-fake-vol-pfv com-sadness “The woman faked sadnessobj” f. HFé"Gó:h PHúQ" YY"PgKóTé haféngooh pahu’á yayápangkote h(a)-feng-ºa-°ːh pah-u’á-a ya-yapangkote 1s.erg-refuse-vol-ipfv abl-existence-3s.poss gen-Gushli “I refuse the existenceobj of Gushli”

13 3.2.2 Oblique Uses

This section will deal with the oblique uses of Yashuhay cases, also including the usage of the Absolutive and Ergative in marking non-core participants. Starting with the Absolutive that, additionally to the core syntactic functionality shown in (1), it also marks the theme in ditransitive sentences (3a), the causee of causative constructions (3b), and as an oblique of material (3c).

(3) a. HgKó"Mó:h u":Sé Kó"Ló hangkómooh uushe kotho hang-ko-ma-ºa-°ːh Ø-uushe kotho 1s-give-tr-vol-ipfv abs-book.g9 dat.2s “I give the book to you” b. LúkWúH":Mó:pY a" kWé"gY thukwuháamoopya a kwengya thu-ko-uh-áa-ma-ºa-°pya a Ø-kweng-ya 2s-dat-n-clean-tr-vol-pfv abs.g1 abs-floor-g5 “You had him clean the floor” c. PSé"Mó:pY HóHKó"Ló Sú"íQ pashémoopya hohakó(tho) shu’i pa-she-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-hohakó(-tho) Ø-shu’i 3p-fill-tr-vol-pfv abs-gourd(-g6) abs-water.g9 “They filled gourds with water”

Should be noted that verbal agreement only considers the Absolutive argument a core participant when it marks the theme of ditransitives (3a), in the other two usages it is considered an oblique. When occurring adnominally, it is generally marking a material (4a), and such use has been metaphorically extended to measurements, through analogy with measurements that are also recipients,

(4) a. P"Mó:pY P"LúY Hó":kY:g pamoopya pathuya hookyaang p-a-ma-ºa-°pya pathu-ya Ø-hookya-ːng g2-take-tr-vol-pfv basket-g5 abs-cashew-g7 “They took the basket with the cashews” b. H"mMó:pY oM"Ló Kó" u" hammoopya omátho ko u (a)-hám-ma-ºa-pya omá-tho Ø-ko-Ø u g1-eat-tr-vol-pfv bowl-g6 abs-curry-g9 three

14 “He ate three bowls of curry” c. HgFó"mMó:y HóHKó"Ló H"Y u" M": hangfómmooy hohakó(tho) haya u maa hang-fong-ma-ºa-y(o) hohakó(-tho) haya u maa 1s-sell-tr-vol-fut gourd(-g6) abs-g10.oil three thirsty.adv “I need to sell three gourds1 of oil” The Ergative also has other uses apart from its core syntactical role; It is used for instruments (5a), causes in intransitive sentences (5b), the causer in causative constructions (5c), and the reintroduced agent in passivized sentences (5d). It cannot, however, mark abstract concepts as instruments; doing so requires a more complex structure using a verbal predicate (6).

(5) a. PY"THMó:pY Kó" S:Tó": payátahamoopya ko shaatóo pa-yataha-ma-ºa-°pya ko sha-atóo g2-burn-tr-vol-pfv abs.g9 erg-fire “They burned it with fire” b. aY"Y a"wgKHó:pY S:P": ayáya awngkahoopya shaapáa ayá-ya a-ongkaha-ºa-°pya sha-a-páa abs-village-g5 g5-flood-vol-pfv erg-g10-rain “The village flooded from the rain” c. SHóLú"Qé GékWúS"Mó:pY H" aPó"Mó shahothú’e ngekwushámoopya há apómo sha-hothúh-nge nge-ko-uh-ya-ma-ºa-°pya ha Ø-a-pomo erg-shaman-g3 g3-dat-n-drink-tr-vol-pfv abs.1s abs-g10-juice “The shaman made me drink the juice” d. aT"PwpY SíS":íSQg atápawpya shashíishi’ang a-tapa-o-ºpya sha-shiishih-hang g1.e-kill-pass-pfv erg-shark-g7 “He was killed by a shark” (6) KéT"PHwPóíN:m HémmY":Mó:h awY"k NwmPó"NY ketápahawponiim hemmyáamooh awyák nawmpónaya ke-tapaha-o-p-°niim heng-myaa-ma-°ːh a-uyák na-umpónaya neg-destroy-pass-g2.subj-exp ss-use-tr-ipfv g10-fact com-logic

1Traditional unit of measurement, corresponds to roughly 1.2 liters

15 “They were not destroyed by facts and logic”

Adnominal Ergatives convey a relationship of instrumentality. In some instances those N erg-N complexes become lexicalized to an extent. The derivational morpheme for professions, ya-, is etymologically related to the Ergative marker.

(7) a. HGék SH"Y HéKé:lYú:pY PQg hangek shaháya hekeethyuupya pa’ang hangek sha-ha-ya (a)-hekeethyo-ºa-°pya pa’ang man:g1 erg-gun-g5 g1-run.away-vol-pfv abl.1s “The man with a gun ran past me” b. SHLú"p SíN"Sú PM"NMó:pY Kó shahathúp shaníshu pamánamoopya ko sha-hathú-p sha-nishu p(a)-mana-ma-ºa-°pya ko" erg-person-g2 erg-computer g2-fix-tr-vol-pfv abs.g9 “The IT crew fixed it” c. iíSmYó": P:M"MíPp KóSYHa":pY T":TLó ishimyóo paamámpip koshayahaáapya taatatho ishimyóo pah-mampi-p ko-sha-yahaáa-p-ºpya taatatho ship.g9 abl-Mañi.people-g2 g9-erg-rower-g2-pfv twenty “Mañi ships had twenty rowers”

The Genitive is used only for possession, and possession in Yashuhay is complicated enough to warrant its own section. Should be noted that the semantic range of adnominal genitives is much smaller than those of some languages, only denoting strict possession relationships. Relationships with are commonly encompassed by genitive constructions but are not in Yashuhay can be seen in (4) and (7a). It is noteworthy that the Genitive has no adverbal usage. The Comitative also displays restricted semantics, being used to mark companion- ship relationships between two animate, usually human, referents both adverbially and adnominally. Additionally, it marks nominal coordination. Comitative usage is often syntactically and semantically ambiguous, but it is solved by context and, given its limited semantics, often not necessary to solve in order to convey the right meaning.

(8) a. H"Gék NLú" PLúKé"Hó:pY KóPQH" YóMó" hangek nathú pathukéhoopya kopa’ahá yomó hangek na-thu p(a)-thukéha-ºa-°pya ko-pa’ahá e-omó man:g1 com-woman:g1 g2-go-vol-pfv dat-room loc-inside “A man and a woman entered the room”

16 b. HQ"KélYú:pY NGé": YY"wKé ha’ákethyuupya nangée yayáwke hang-hakethyo-ºa-°pya na-ngee ya-yawke 1s-go.away-vol-pfv com-foc.g1 gen-cute “I left with the cute one” c. íS:k NNwMó" Y: aKéWó":o:h shiik nanawmó yaa akewóoooh shiik na-nawmó yaa a-ke-wó-a-ºa-°ːh king com-court.g9 gen.g1 g1.obj-neg-exceed-g1.subj-vol-ipfv HLú" YY"gkY YGé"Kó H"Qg hathú yayángkya yangéko ha’ang hathú ya-yangkya ya-ngeko hang~hang person:g1 gen-mortal gen-other any “The king with his court is no more than any other mortal man”

The Dative is perhaps the most semantically flexible case in Yashuhay. Prototyp- ically it marks the recipient in ditransitive clauses (9a), but also extends to marking directions and targets of motion (9c), purposes (9e) and beneficiaries (9b). Judicantis (the referential of judgments) and maleficiaries are marked with a different construction involving the verb hu “feel” (10).

(9) a. HgKó"Mó:pY íH":Gé KóGé" Y:pYó"Hó:h hangkómoopya hiinge kongé yaapyóhooh hang-ko-ma-ºa-°pya hii-nge ko-nge ya-a-pyoha-ºa-°ːh 1s-give-tr-vol-pfv candy-g3 dat-child gen-g1-cry-vol-ipfv “I gave the crying child a candy” b. HG":KópY KóMé"G YN"Yéh hangáakopya koménga yanáyeh hang-aap-ºa-°pya ko-meng-a ya-nayeh 1s-do-vol-pfv dat-mother-3s.poss gen-tired “I did it for her tired mother” c. Hé"QélYú:y KóM":KyG he’ethyuuy komáakaynga (a)-he’ethyo-ºa-°y(o) ko-maakaynga g1-move-vol-fut dat-M. “He’s moving to Mavåttain”

17 d. aT"TMó:pY Fé" Sé":g kWúM"YK atátamoopya fe sheeng kwumáyaka (a)-tata-ma-ºa-°pya fe she-ːng ko-omáyaka g1-throw.away-tr-vol-pfv ball paper-g7 dat-trash.can “He threw the paper ball at the can” e. HLé":Sú:pY H": YúSyH": YKóWó" hathéeshuupya haa yushayháa yakowó h(a)-theeshuk-°pya (a)-haa e-ushayháa ya-ko-wo 1s.erg-write-pfv g10-step loc-recipe.g9 gen-g9-exceed KóKóK":KkYó kokokáakakyo ko-ko-kaakak-°y(o) dat-g9-complete-fut “I wrote out more steps in the recipe, for completeness” (10) a. Kó YKlWó": KóLú":h M":KyG Hú HLú" ko yakathwóo kothúuh maakaynga hu hathú ko ya-kathwóo ko-thu-ºa-°ːh maakaynga (a)-hu hathú curry.g9 gen-bad g9-sit-vol-ipfv M. g1.erg-feel person SíN"Sú shaníshu sha-nishu erg-computer “Mavåttain has bad curry for the IT guy” b. kWé"Gé GéPHó"HGúpY Hú am":íG kwenge ngepahóhangupya hu amáangi kwe-nge nge-pah-ohange-ºpya (a)-hu a-maangi sea-g3 g3-abl-warm-pfv g10.erg-feel g10-reef “The sea went hotter on the reefs”

Those meanings may also be employed adnominally:

(11) a. Mó"K KóPé"nT KéKó":wpY H":k moka kopénta kekóowpya haak moka ko-peng-ta ke-ko-a-ºa-°pya haak gift.g9 dat-father-1s.poss neg-arrive-g9.subj-vol-pfv yet “Dad’s gift hasn’t arrived yet”

18 b. iíSmYó": KóKéH"wYé kWú":pY H":k ishimyóo kokeháwye kwuupya haak ishimyóo ko-keháwye ko-u-ºa-°pya haak ship dat-T. g9-leave-vol-pfv already “The ship to Tekaunye already left” c. aGé"Géh KóH"MGé Ló" angéngeh kohámange tho [...] angéngeh ko-hamange tho arrow dat-tapir two “two arrows for tapirs [...]”

The Locative on the other hand is very limited semantically and only denotes locations and, when extended past spacial reference, to time and duration. Nouns referring to places, especially specific placenames, often have locative meaning without aloca- tive marker, as can be seen in (10a).

(12) a. HQ"mMó:pY H":Gé eGé"k eKé":M u" ha’ámmoopya haange engék ekéema u hang-ham-ma-ºa-°pya haange e-ngek e-keema u 1s-eat-tr-vol-pfv food loc-festival loc-hour three “I ate for three hours at the festival” b. MH":Gé:oy Yó"Q maháangeeoy yo’a m(a)-haangee-ºa-°y(o) e-o’a 1i.erg-meet-vol-fut loc-summer “We’ll meet at summer”

The Ablative is also inflexible, being used only for sources and paths of motion.

(13) a. PH":wpY PmP"yGé paháawpya pampáynge p(a)-haa-ºa-°pya pah-paynge g2-come-vol-pfv abl-mountain.range “They came from the mountains” b. PHa":Hó:h PH"yKóyHg pahaáahooh paháykoyhang p(a)-haáaha-ºa-°ːh pah-aykoyhang g2-row-vol-ipfv abl-coast “They are rowing along the coast”

19 This section will be finished with a table summarizing case inflection in Yashuhay, with the allomorphy of the affixes and examples of their application.

Table 3.7: Case Affixes

Case Allomorphy Examples Absolutive Ø- abs-théepa > théepa “child-abs” Ergative sha- erg-pangóong > shapangóong “erg-group” Genitive ya- gen-paóono > yapaóono “gen-sweat” ko- / _C dat-hoonge > kohóonge “dat-pot” Dative dat+a>kwo dat-ahange > kwohange “dat-coal” dat+V>kwu dat-ee > kwuu “dat-baby” Locative e- loc-umme > yumme “loc-moon” Comitative na- com-feeng > naféeng “com-ball” Ablative pah- abl-hohakó > pa’ohakó “abl-gourd”

3.3 Attributive Possession

Yashuhay nouns are all either Alienable or Inalienable, alienability is an inherent prop- erty of the nouns and is thus lexically determined. Alienability pertains to the possibility of ending the possession relationship, that is, alienating the posessum from the possessor. Physical possession can be easily inter- rupted, and is typically alienable, while deeper relationships also covered by possession, such as kinship, are inalienable. In Yashuhay this distinction is expressed by the obliga- toriness of possession marking affixes in inalienable nouns, and some other differences in the marking of possessive relationships. Nouns pertaining to kinship, such as meng “mother”, ma “son” and ngyóme “cousin”, and nouns representing bodyparts, such as etónge “eye”, me’e “face”, and unge “mouth” are typically Inalienable, while most other nouns are Alienable, like umpe “bridge”, paténge “hat”, and okunge “bed”. Some nouns, such as ampe “heart”, thosha “color”, and akúung “floodplain” can be used alienably or inalienably in different contexts. Inalienable nouns are always possessed, being ungrammatical without possessive suffixes: (14) a. Mé"nT menta “my mother” b. Mé"Gúl menguth “your mother” c. * Mé"g meng “mother”

Alienable nouns on the other hand may occur with or without possessive suffixes: (15) a. a"QógGéT a’onggeta “my chair”

20 b. a"QógG a’ongga “his/her chair” c. a"QógGé a’ongge “chair”

Attributive possession also employs different constructions for possessing alienable and inalienable nouns; When the possessed is inalienable and the possessor is pronominal, only the respective possessive suffix is used. If the possessor is nominal, an agreeing possessive suffix is used alongside with the possessor in the absolutive case. Foralien- able nouns with pronominal possessors, the possessed remains without a possessive suffix while the possessor is an explicit genitive pronoun. Alienable nouns withnomi- nal possessors on the other hand display possessive suffixes agreeing with the possessor, while the possessor also displays the genitive case.

(16) a. HG"gKMó:pY aY"w Ló P:Mé"G YwnTó"MH hangángkamoopya ayáw tho paaménga yawntómaha hang-angka-ma-ºa-°pya a-yaw tho pah-meng-a ya-untómaha 1s-buy-tr-vol-pfv g10-goat two abl-mother-3s.poss gen-kind “I bought two goats from his kind mother” b. ST"T HGék TY":Lú:h shatáta hangek tayáathuuh sha-ta-ta-a hangek t(a)-yaathu-ºa-°ːh erg-arm-g11-3s.poss abs-man g11.erg-be.at-vol-ipfv eLúK" YP"Nk Yh":k NS"h ethuká yapának yaháak nasháh e-thuké-a ya-panak ya-haak na-shah loc-below-3s.poss gen-cloth gen-green com-beautiful “The man’s arms were under a beautiful green cloth” c. HKúM:M KéKú"Pó:k aKó" Ya" hakumaama kekúpook akó yaá haku-ma-ama Ø-ke-kupa-°ː-°k(o) a-ko yaá ensure-tr-2p.prox abs-neg-angry-g10.subj-inch g10-dog gen.g1 “Make sure his dogs don’t get angry” d. o:TMLúT GúGú:G YPé"G ootamathuta ngunguunga yapénga oota-ma-thuta ngungu-ːng-a ya-peng-a return-tr-2s.dist house-g7-3s.poss gen-father-1p.poss “Come back to Father’s house”

Additionally, possession can be nested indefinitely, regardless of alienability. Given the right contexts all combinations of nested inalienable and alienable possession can

21 be found.

(17) KégK eLúKé"G Q YPé"G HG" kengka ethukénga ’a yapénga hangá keh-ka e-thukénge-a Ø-’a-a ya-peng-a hangá tattoo-g6 loc-leg-3s.poss abs-friend-3s.poss gen-father-3s.poss very íWSHó:h wishahooh u-ishaha-°ːh g6-detailed-ipfv “The leg tattoos of his father’s friend are very detailed” (18) a. GúGú:G YQ" Yg aGú":h SWó":h ngunguunga ya’á yang angúuh shawóoh ngungu-ːng-a ya-’a yang ang-u-°ːh sha-wo-°ːh house-g7-3s.poss gen-friend gen.1s g7-hot-ipfv erg-exceed-ipfv YóQ yo’a e-o’a loc-summer “my friend’s house is too hot in the summer” b. HQ"mMó:pY amP a:íH Yg ha’ámmoopya ampa aahi yang hang-ham-ma-ºa-°pya ap-nge-a Ø-aahi yang 1s-eat-tr-vol-pfv heart-g3-3s.poss abs-chicken gen.1s “I ate my chicken heart” c. uQG YPé"nT aGóLó"gKSó u’anga yapénta hawthóngkasho uth-hang-a ya-peng-ta h(a)-othóm-kay-°y(o) date.palm-g7-3s.poss gen-father-1s.poss g7-fall-nvol-fut “My father’s date palm may fall” d. aKéH":Gé:wpY PéG MénT akeháangeewpya penga menta a-ke-haangee-ºa-°pya peng-a meng-ta g1.obj-neg-meet-1s.subj-pfv father-3s.poss mother-1s.poss “I have never met my mother’s father” As has been noted in the paragraph about the genitive, and showcased in examples across this work, notably in (4b), (4c), (9d), (11a) and (17), the strictly possessive

22 constructions in Yashuhay are semantically much more limited than in some other languages, not displaying much metaphorical extension. Relations that can be described as target, origin, location, material, etc., can and will be conveyed using other structures, typically involving adnominal uses of other, non genitive, cases. Possessive proper structures are only used for physical possession and temporary/interruptible social relationships, in the case of alienable possession, or with kinship terms and body parts, in the case of inalienable possession.

Table 3.8: Possessive Suffixes

Person Affix Examples -ta ayánggi + 1s > ayánggita “my dirt” 1s P + ta > ta awyák + 1s > awyáta “my facts” 1p -a pamayo + 1p > pamayoo¹ “our music” -uth pange + 2s > pangyuth¹ “your(sg.) plant” 2s [o, u] + uth > uth pamayo + 2s > pamayuth “your(sg.) music” -uth awyák + 2p > awyákuth “your facts” o + uth > ayoth pamayo + 2p > pamayayoth “your(pl.) music” 2p u + uth > oyuth ku + 2p > koyuth “your(pl.) poison” e + uth > oth pange + 2p > pangoth “your(pl.) plant” -a peng + 3s > penga “his/her/its father” h + a > ː hamah + 3s > hamaa “its mucus” 3s [a, e, o] + a > a pamayo + 3s > pamaya “his music” i + a > e ayánggi + 3s > ayángge “his dirt” u + a > o ku + 3s > ko “his poison” 3p -p awyák + 3p > awyáap¹ “their facts” 1. Note that the regular phonological processes still occur normally unless the suffixes explicitly deny them. Variation due to regular phonological processes is not described on this table.

To end this section with some much needed data, a table containing the full paradigm of possessive suffixes, their allomorphy and examples of their usage, with example words chosen to highlight the unexpectedly minute differences between some pairs of forms, follows. The possessive suffixes do not display the full range of noun class distinctions present in other facets of the language, or the clusivity distinction present in pronouns and verbal marking, instead displaying a simplified paradigm with just the three persons and a simple number distinction. Predicative possession, which has not been discussed yet, will be discussed in the next section, together with the larger class of phenomena it patterns closely with. 3.4 Predicative Noun Operations

Nouns in Yashuhay can express a variety of predicative relations by receiving verbal subject and TAM marking upon case marked forms. They may not receive voice or

23 volition affixes and the resulting denominal verb forms are always intransitive. Person agreement with those forms is always realized by the normal subject affixes, not the ergative ones (details of the form and uses of the two subject agreement sets will be given in the chapter discussing verbs) 3.4.1 Copula Constructions

One of the most common of those is the denominalization of the plain absolutive form, a construction used for inherent Identity (sometimes called Equation) relationships, in this construction the entity is asserted to be identical to the entity that is the predicate nominal. (19b) is not a prototypical example. Temporary or otherwise predictably finite states use a denominalization of the ergative form.

(19) a. aPmPé"Gó:h Yg apampéngooh yang a-pah-peng-°ːh yang g1-abs-father-ipfv gen.1s “He is my father” b. HqYSé":h HTH ha’yashéeh hataha hang-sha-shee-°ːh hataha 1s-erg-year-ipfv twenty “I am twenty years old”

The denominalized absolutive is used in (19a) because being one’s dad cannot be expected, much less predicted, to change. On the other hand “being twenty years old” is a state that is scheduled to end at one’s twenty-first birthday, therefore it uses the denominalized ergative to characterize this transience. The same transience distinction occurs in the Inclusion (sometimes called Set Membership) constructions, that assert that an entity is part of a group. Non-transient inclusion constructions are built from a denominalized ablative, while transient inclusion is also marked through a denominalized ergative. In some cases both may be grammatically interchangeable but used with different implications.

(20) a. aPqWé"KkYóKó:h apa’wékakyokooh a-pah-ngwékakyok-°ːh g1-abl-lestzi-ipfv “He is lestzi”

24 b. PSYT"Hó:h pashayatáhooh p(a)-sha-yatáh-°ːh g2-erg-student-ipfv “They are students” (and will soon graduate?) (21) a. HmPSwSó"Lú:h hampashawshóthuuh hang-pah-yawshóthu-°ːh 1s-abl-lumberjack-ipfv “I am a lumberjack” b. HqYYwSó"Lú:h ha’yayawshóthuuh hang-sha-yawshóthu-°ːh 1s-erg-lumberjack-ipfv “I am a lumberjack” The contrast between implications is exemplified by the two sentences in(21), in (21a) the subject does not intend to or can be expected to stop being a lumberjack in the foreseeable future, while in (21b) this situation is characterized as temporary, maybe it is a temporary job, maybe the speaker is implying they intend to retire soon. The exact implication of this distinction is highly sensitive on TAM marking and the nature of the other elements of the sentence. The different implications if the sentence is transposed to a different TAM can be seen comparing (21) to the following examples.

(22) a. HmPSwSó"LúpY hampashawshóthupya hang-pah-yawshóthu-°pya 1s-abl-lumberjack-pfv “I was a lumberjack” (and i still am) b. HqYYwSó"LúpY ha’yayawshóthupya hang-sha-yawshóthu-°pya 1s-erg-lumberjack-pfv “I was a lumberjack” (but i am no longer) Incidentally, (19a) demonstrates another feature of these denominalized predicate nouns; They may not take any morphology other than the case marking, be it possessive suffixes or even noun class marking and additional elements of original the nounphrase are realized as adverbial complements. Number of the predicate noun is assumed from context and from the subject suffixes it is receiving.

25 (23) PHLú:h SíN"Sú pahathúuh shaníshu p(a)-Ø-hathú-°ːh sha-nishu g2-abs-person-ipfv erg-computer “They are the IT crew” 3.4.2 Existence and Possession

Existence clauses (e.g. “There’s a snake in my boot”) and predicative possession (“Mary has a little lamb”) are also expressed in Yashuhay through verbalized case forms. Pred- icative possession also exhibits an alienability contrast on the same lines as attributive possession, distinguishing whether the possession relationship can be easily terminated or not. Existence and inalienable possession are conflated, both being expressed by ade- nominalized genitive, while alienable possession is conveyed with verbalized comitatives. Existential clauses do not take a subject, and the verbal agreement agrees with the verbalized noun itself.

(24) KóYwQó":h KóHKó" KóWé"P koyaw’óoh kohakó kowépa ko-ya-u’áa-°ːh ko-hakó ko-wepa g9i-gen-pathi-ipfv dat-outside dat-here “There is a way out of here”

(25) HénYH"Ló:h kWóTó" eWé"P henyaháthooh kwotóo ewépa hang-ya-hatho-°ːh ko-atóo e-wepa 1si-gen-woodj-ipfv dat-fire loc-here “I’ve got wood here for a fire.”

(26) aK: aYLúKé"y mY Sm HwGéKó akaa ayathukéy mya sham hawngeko akah-a (a)-ya-thuké-°y(o) mya sham hawngeko granddad:g1-3s.poss g1-gen-leg-fut one only since “His granddad has had only one leg since”

Much less commonly, verbalized comitatives may be encountered in existence clauses. This usage places heavy emphasis on the impermanence of the described state, (27) strongly implies the clothes will soon no longer be on the floor. The suffixes agree with the verbalized noun itself, exactly as in the genitive derived existential construction.

26 (27) KóNP"N:Kó:h ekWé"gY konapánaakooh ekwéngya ko-na-panaaka-°ːh e-kwengya g9-com-clothes-ipfv loc-floor “There’s clothes on the floor” 3.4.3 Location, Goal and Source

Predicate location and related notions are also expressed by the denominalization of case marked nouns. They are subject to all the previously explained morphological restrictions.

(28) a. MlWó"Gé gYéH"GéHó:h mathwónge ngyehángehooh mathwó-nge nge-e-hangeh-°ːh cat-g3 g3-loc-box-ipfv “The cat is in the box” b. a: kWéLú"Mó:h aa kwethúmooh aa ko-e-thum-°ːh bird.g9 g9-loc-roof-ipfv “A bird is on the roof” (29) Sé:g aGé amP:Mé"Gó:h Yg sheeng ange ampaaméngooh yang she-ːng ange ang-pah-meng-°ːh yang letter-g7 prox.g7 g7-abl-mother-ipfv gen.1s “This letter is from my mother”

(30) KóKóP"LSNó:h kokopáthashanooh ko-ko-pathashan-°ːh g1-dat-B.-ipfv “He is (going) to Balakia”

The denominal dative, used for goals, is metaphorically extended to change-of-state constructions. As it may be noted from the following example, adjectives share some of the characteristics of nouns, some of the same processes of predication being applicable. The change-of-state dative is one of them. More in-depth information about adjectives will be given in their own future chapter.

27 (31) SY"gM KókY":kYó:pY aWGíGKó:h shaYángma kokyáakyoopya awnggikooh sha-yangma Ø-ko-ke-aakya-a-°pya Ø-(a)-Ø-onggik-°ːh erg-Y. abs-g9.obj-neg-know-g1.subj-pfv abs-g1-abs-Bear-ipfv KóKóT"NópY WW" kokotánopya wawá ko-ko-tana-°pya wa~wá g9-dat-clear-pfv increasing “It became increasingly clear Yangma did not know she was a Bear2”

Unlike identity and inclusion copula predicates, change-of-state constructions do not distinguish transience, or whether the state being entered is expected or predicted to be temporary or not, both situations employing identical constructions.

(32) a. aKóíS:qYKPó"pY akoshii’yakapópya (a)-ko-shii’yakapá-°pya g1-dat-president-pfv “He became president” b. HéQélYú:pY kWówKíHgGé N:KóYPé":pY he’ethyuupya kwowkahingge naakoyapéepya (a)-he’ethyo-ºa-°pya ko-awkahingge na-(a)-ko-yapée-°pya g1-move-vol-pfv dat-A. com-g1-dat-journalist-pfv “He moved to Awkahingge and became a journalist”

If describing a plain state, the two sentences in (32) would use different case forms, namely the ergative for (32a) and ablative for (32b). But as they describe changes into those states they both utilize the same verbalized dative construction.

2Not an actual bear, but a large furry mythological creature said to inhabit the mountain peaks. Has often been misidentified as an actual bear but there are no bears in Akulanen.

28 PRONOUNS 4 Pronouns in Yashuhay are a closed, if somewhat extensive, class, divided primarily in four paradigms; Personal pronouns which exhibit the full range of case variation, Demonstrative pronouns that agree with nouns in class, Interrogative and Indefinite pronouns with more restricted distributions. Worth additional note, are the focus pronouns, which mostly belong to the personal pronoun paradigm but exhibit interesting syntactic and pragmatic features that set them apart. There are also reflexive and reciprocal pronouns that while paradigmatically limited, serve very important functions. 4.1 Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns distinguish all the cases distinguished in nouns (Absolutive, Erga- tive, Genitive, Dative, Locative, Comitative, Ablative) and additionally, display Focus forms, which pattern paradigmatically along the case forms but have other syntactic and pragmatic nuances.

Table 4.1: Personal Pronouns

abs erg gen dat loc abl com foc 1s ha yang hang pa’ang ngang ngeng kong 1i ma yama yamá oma pa’a ngama ngema 1e ngi yaha yangí kongí oha pa’o ngangi ngengi 2s thoo yathu yathóo kotho othu paaka ngatho ngetho 2p aa yaye yaáa ngayá kwo ee paa ngaa g1 a yaya yaá ngee g2 pa yaypa yapá kopa epa paapa ngapa ngepa g3 nge yaynge yangé konge enge ngange ngenge pa’e g5/g10 he yay yahé kwe we ngay ngye g6 u yayu yathú kothu ethu paku ngathu ngethu g7 ang yayang yaáng kwong eeng paang ngaang g9 ko yayko yako koko eko paako ngako ngeko g11 ta yayta yatá kota eta paata ngata ngeta

As for person and number distinctions, Yashuhay distinguishes three persons and

29 two numbers, with two important caveats; The first person plural is split, along a clusivity contrast, into inclusive and exclusive forms, while the third person is split into eight class marked forms (only eight because g5 and g10 forms are merged throughout). As can be seen in the table, case inflection in pronouns mostly follows the regular case affixes, but with some differences. Firstly, the stress does not remaininthe pronominal roots as it does in nominal roots, mostly falling on the case prefixes. Sec- ondly, there are several cases of suppletion, mostly in the stems (erg.1s, erg/loc.1e, abl.1e, and arguably most of the g6 forms) but also in the form as a whole, such as in the loc.1s form. And lastly the pronominal system preserves some case prefix shapes and morphophonological alternations from Wanyima-Wanyoa and Classi- cal Shohue that have since been lost in the nominal system at large, namely the yay- ergative and the e- vs. o- alternations in the locative. Along with some smaller-scale unpredictabilities like the stress change in the genitive. Usage wise, the cases display the same semantic range as they do in the nominal system, taking into account the typically very high animacy of first and second person referents.

(3b) LúkWúH":Mó:pY a kWégY thukwuháamoopya a kwengya thu-ko-uh-áa-ma-ºa-°pya a Ø-kweng-ya 2s-dat-n-clean-tr-vol-pfv abs.g1 abs-floor-g5 “You had him clean the floor” (33) a. H"KYópY a:K"w aKó"mpY Hé hakayopya aakáw , akómpya he (a)-ha-kay-°pya Ø-a-akáw | (a)-koh-°pya he g1.erg-see-nvol-pfv abs-g10-gold | g5-mountain-pfv abs.g10 “They saw gold, a mountain of it” b. HgKúgK"Mó:pY u:Ló Wé MlYú"Mó:y hangkungkámoopya uutho we , mathyúmooy hang-kungká-ma-ºa-°pya uu-tho we | m(a)-thyu-ma-ºa-°y(o) g1-cut.down-tr-vol-pfv tree-g6 dist.g6 | 1i-build-tr-vol-fut a:Gé YYú aange yayu aa-nge yayu boat-g3 erg.g6 “They felled those trees, we’ll make a boat with them”

30 c. HéT"nKó:h LúH":oy GíG KóYéN":yg hetánkooh thuháaoy ngangi koyenáayng he-tah-°t-ºa-°ːh thu-haa-ºa-°y(o) ngangi ko-yenáayng q-want-2s.subj-vol-ipfv 2s-come-vol-fut com.1e dat-supermarket “Do you want to come with us to the supermarket?”

This still holds even with cases as semantically varied as the dative, as demonstrated in (34a) and (34b), and with the locative cases, which logically are less likely to occur with high animacy pronominal referents but nevertheless are still common due to the wide array of pronouns referring to lower-animacy noun classes.

(34) a. HK"My kWó KóíG":TMó:y HPé": hakámay kwo kongíitamooy hapée h(a)-kam-ºa-°y(o) kwo ko-ngi-oota-ma-ºa-°y(o) hapéei 1e.erg-visit-vol-fut dat.g1 dat-1e-return-tr-vol-fut book:g9 “We’re visiting her to return the book” b. HénlYú"Mó:pY PkY KóP SHY":Lú:h YóQ henthyúmoopya pakya kopa shahayáathuuh yo’a hang-thyu-ma-ºa-°pya pak-ya kopa sha-h(a)-yaathu-°ːh e-o’a 1s-build-tr-vol-pfv wall-g5 dat.g2 erg-g1-be.at-ipfv loc-summer YwgYó yawngyo ya-ungyo gen-all “I spent all summer building the wall for them” c. H:LóM Hg NM"LóM Kó haathoma hang namáthoma ko haa-thoma hang na-ma-thoma ko come-2s.prox.imp loc.1s com-see-tr-2s.prox.imp abs.g9 “Come over (to me) and look at this” d. MlWó"Gé GéH":Gé:wpY PQé mathwónge ngeháangeewpya pa’e mathwó-nge nge-haangee-ºa-°pya pa’e cat-g3 g3-come.down-vol-pfv abl.g5 “The cat came down from there1” 1It had been previously established in discourse that the cat had climbed a cashew tree, which belongs to class five.

31 Additionally, personal pronouns can also be verbalized into predicates, much like nouns, but only some of the case forms; It is possible to use them only in copula (ergative and absolutive forms) and existence (genitive forms) constructions. Such a usage can be seen (inside an admittedly syntactically convoluted sentence) in (41a). 4.1.1 Subject pronouns

More so than their oblique uses, or object in the case of the absolutive, its worth not- ing the semantics and pragmatics of the absolutive and ergative pronouns in subject position. The decision to employ independent subject pronouns, be them absolutive or ergative, is mostly oriented by concerns of volition. Volitional (as opposed to non-voliional) marking on verbs is default and has become somewhat bleached, as opposed to the non- volition which is a highly marked category. When volition and agency are to be empha- sized, independent subject pronouns are employed. (11a) is an example of semantically unmarked volitional marking on the verb, while (35) exemplifies the emphasis the explicit subject pronouns place on volition and intensity.

(11a) MóK KóPé"nT KéKó":wpY H:k moka kopénta kekóowpya haak moka ko-peng-ta ke-ko-a-ºa-°pya haak gift:g9 dat-father-1s.poss neg-arrive-g9.subj-vol-pfv yet “Dad’s gift hasn’t arrived yet”

(35) a. HHó":h unT"h hahóoh untáh h(a)-ha-ºa-°ːh untáh g1.erg-see-vol-ipfv class:g9 “He was watching the class” b. YY HHó":h unT"h kWóGé yaya hahóoh untáh kwonge yaya h(a)-ha-ºa-°:h untáh kwonge erg.g1 g1.erg-see-vol-ipfv class:g9 so KóKéSé":pY aY"Nó:pY kokeshéepya ayánoopya ko-ke-she-a-°pya (a)-yana-ºa-°pya g9.obj-neg-notice-g1.subj-pfv g1-undress-vol-pfv “He was paying attention to class so he didn’t notice her undress”

Additionally, independent subject pronouns are used to mark volition in passive sentences, whose morphology is otherwise incompatible with volition marking. As

32 (36b) demonstrates, these pronouns can and are used even in addition to an already present subject noun phrase.

(36) a. gYóMéT aLúKé"LúwpY Su":wGé ngyometa athukéthuwpya shaúuwnge ngyome-ta (a)-thukéthu-o-°pya sha-uuw-nge cousin-1s.poss g1.e-kick-pass-pfv erg-horse-g3 “Yesterday my cousin was kicked by a horse” b. a gYóMéT aLúKé"LúwpY Su":wGé a ngyometa athukéthuwpya shaúuwnge a ngyome-ta (a)-thukéthu-o-°pya sha-uuw-nge abs.g1 cousin-1s.poss g1.e-kick-pass-pfv erg-horse “Yesterday my cousin got himself kicked by a horse”

Explicit subject pronouns, both absolutive and ergative, are also obligatory in Yes- No questions, as demonstrated below by (38a), (39a), (40a) and (41a). 4.2 Focus pronouns

Underlyingly, focus pronouns are used for introducing and emphasizing new information. This principle surfaces in several different constructions, the most straightforward of which is answers, most usually direct answers to WH-questions. 4.2.1 Answers

The element that corresponds to the WH-word in the answer sentence, that is, actually answers the content question, is either a focus pronoun or reinforced with one. The focus pronoun takes case markings even when a noun is otherwise present.

(37) a. Ló: HéLúKé"HóKópY HlWó oLéHé KóK"g thoo hethukéhokopya hathwo othehe kokáng thoo he-thukéha-°t(o)-ºa-°pya hathwo Ø-othehe ko-kang abs.2s q-go-2s.s-vol-pfv yesterday abs-night dat-where “Where did you go last night?”

33 b. KógYé" HéY YmY"íGh HénLúKé"Hó:pY oYóYó kongyé heya yamyángih henthukéhooh oyoyo ko-ngye he-ya ya-myangih hang-thukéha-ºa-°ːh oyoyo dat-foc.g5 place-g5 gen-same 1s-go-vol-ipfv always K:T kaata kaa-ta younger.sibling-1s.p “Same place i always go, sister”

Yes-no questions are also answered using focus pronouns. The standard answer for a yes-no question is repeated material from the question, usually the verb or a noun phrase, plus a focus pronoun (38b). In fact, since there are no words for ’yes’ or ’no’, the most concise possible answer is a focus pronoun repeating the relevant element (39). This pattern of repeating is particularly useful in disambiguating the scope of the answer in cases where the question is a complex sentence (40).

(38) a. YLú aHéHó":KYópY HGék Y:a"gKMó:pY yathu ahehóokayopya hangek yaaángkamoopya yathu a-he-ha-°t(o)-kay-°pya hangek ya-a-angka-ma-ºa-°pya erg.2s g1.o-q-see-2s.s-nvol-pfv man gen-g1-buy-tr-vol-pfv HLúLúT Tw hathuthuta taw hathuthu-ta taw shoe-g11 prox.g11 “Did you see the guy who bought these shoes?” b. Gé: amPú:pY HlWó ngee ampuupya hathwo ngee (a)-ampe-ºa-°pya hathwo foc.g1 g1-come.in-vol-pfv yesterday “Yeah, he came in yesterday.”

(39) a. YLú KóSú"NnTú:pY Kó yathu koshúnantuupya ko yathu ko-he-unam-°t(o)-ºa-°pya ko erg.2s g9.o-q-try-2s.s-vol-pfv curry:g9 “Did you try the curry?”

34 b. GéKó ngeko foc.g9 “Yes” (40) a. YY KóH"M:wpY uQ":Y YT" kohámaawpya u’áaya yatá yaya ko-he-a-ma-a-ºa-°pya u’áaya-a ya-ta erg.g1 g9.o-q-take-tr-g1.s-vol-pfv map.g9-3s.p gen-sibling “Did he take my brother’s map?” b. aMó:pY GéKó amoopya ngeko (a)-a-ma-ºa-°pya ngeko g1-take-tr-vol-pfv foc.g9 “Yes (he took it)” c. GéK YT" ngeka yatá ngeko-a ya-ta foc.g9-3s.p gen-sibling “Yes (your brother’s map)” d. Gé: ngee foc.g1 “Yes (it was himF )” e. GéKó ngeko foc.g9 “Yes (it was the mapF )”

Negative answers demand that the verb is repeated and negated, as the focus pronoun itself can’t be negated.

(41) a. Y"Lú KóH"tYóKó:h PPó":h Gé":m yathu kohátyokooh papóoh ngéem yáthu ko-he-atya-°t(o)-ºa-°ːh Ø-p(a)-Ø-pa-°ːh ngéem erg.2s g9.o-q-believe-2p.s-vol-ipfv abs-g2-abs.g2-ipfv person.sk

35 Y:Pó":pY PPó":h yapapóopya papóoh ya-p(a)-pa-ºa-°pya Ø-p(a)-pa-°ːh gen-g2-say-vol-pfv abs-g2-abs.g2-ipfv “Do you believe they’re who they say they are?” b. Gég KóK"tYó:o:h ngeng kokátyooooh ngeng ko-ke-atya-°a-ºa-°ːh foc.1s g9.o-neg-believe-1s.s-vol-ipfv “No (i don’t)” 4.2.2 Contrastive focus

Focus pronouns are also used in contrastive focus situations, typically in corrective statements that contrast with hearer presuppositions and previous statements, but also in other, less clearly solicited situations where the speaker presupposes the focused element is outside the range of possibilities on the hearer’s mind.

(42) a. GéKéíH":M:wpY GéGé imPGé" YLó": HKúl ngekehíimaawpya ngenge impangé yathóo , hakuth nge-ke-hii-ma-°a-ºa-°pya ngenge impa-nge yathóo | hako-uth g3.o-neg-steal-tr-1s.s-vol-pfv foc.g3 rug-g3 gen.2s , husband-2s.p aPó":pY HmMó":Ké:Gé:kY apóopya hammóokeengeemookya (a)-pa-ºa-°pya Ø-hang-mookeengee-ma-ºa-°kya g1.e-say-vol-pfv abs-1s-take.home-tr-vol-pot “No, I didn’t stealF your rug, your husband said I could have it!” b. KóH"mMó:y aíG"w Y:Wó":h gYé TNé kohámmooy angíw yaawóoh ngye tane ko-ham-ma-ºa-°y(o) a-ngiw ya-(a)-wo-°ːh ngye tane g9-eat-tr-vol-fut g10-day gen-g10.e-exceed-ipfv foc.g10 five kWéK"Mó:y ayKóyHng kwekámooy aykoyhang ko-e-ka-ma-ºa-°y(o) aykoy-hang dat-2p-reach-tr-vol-fut coast-g7 “No, you’ll need at least fiveF days to reach the coast.”

36 c. e:K:Q"Gé: YHúmP"íS NwnLú":h gYé Ló aL:íK"k eekaa’áangee yahumpáshi nawnthúuh ngye tho athaakík eekaa’áangee ya-humpáshi na-unthú-°ːh ngye tho athaakík parliament:g9 gen-T. com-seat-ipfv foc.g10 two thousand NT"Né Hn": NG"w T:T NLó" natáne hanáa nangáw taata nathó na-tane hanáa na-ngaw taata na-tho com-five hundred com-eight ten com-two “The Terminian Parliament has 2582F seats”

With both contrastive and informational focus there are some situation where the scope of the focus is ambiguous. Given the (pro)nominal nature of the focus marking in Yashuhay, verbs cannot be focused directly, hence sentences which focus objects and intransitive subjects are ambiguous as to whether it is the noun or the verb that is focused. This can be seen in (41b), (40b) and (42a). In (42a) it is disambiguated by the following sentence, making it clear it focuses on the verb, but other instances can disambiguated solely by contextual clues. Complex noun phrases, apart from relative clauses, are also ambiguous as to the scope of the focus, as they are focused as a unit. This covers adnominal adjectives, where it’s structurally ambiguous whether it is the adjective or the noun it modifies that is being focused. Adnominal numerals, caseforms, and possessive structures are also subject to those constraints. For instance, (43a) is a fitting answer to either of the following questions, even though they focus ondifferent elements.

(43) a. Gé: MéGúl ngee menguth ngee meng-uth foc.g1 mother-2s.p “Your mother” b. H:kYó:h GpY"GéKópY a:Kó":K:K Gw haakyooh ngapyángekopya aakóokaaka ngaw (a)-haakya-ºa-°ːh Ø-ng(a)-pyangek-ºa-°pya a-akóokaaka ngaw g1.e-be.able-vol-ipfv abs-ss.e-celebrate-vol-pfv g10-feast eight eíG"w mY Hg engíw mya hang e-ngiw mya hang loc-day:g9 one who:g1 “Who could possibly attend eight feasts in a single day?”

37 c. KóHéHó":KYópY HógGéMó:pY kohehóokayopya honggemoopya ko-he-ha-°t(o)-kay-°pya Ø-(a)-hongge-ma-ºa-°pya g9-q-see-2s-nvol-pfv abs-g1-carry-tr-vol-pfv SG":o:h PLúLó YYó" PHyKé": MéG shangáaooh pathutho yayó pahaykée menga sha-ng(a)-aa-ºa-°ːh Ø-pathu-tho ya-yo pah-aykée meng-a erg-ss.e-climb-vol-pfv abs-basket-g6 gen-all abl-lake:g9 mother-3s.p Hg hang hang who:g1 “Whose mother did you see carry all the baskets up from the lake?” 4.2.3 Reference tracking

The last major use of focus pronouns pertains to reference tracking. While a lot of the reference tracking is done through verbal agreement and it is a rather powerful system (as seen in (44)), under most circumstances the verb may only agree with one participant and is thus limited. When it becomes necessary to perform more complex reference tracking on other syntactical elements the focus pronouns are used. Continu- ing from its usage as a contrastive element, focus pronouns used for reference tracking always denote that their instance is a different one to the immediate reference.

(44) a. aLúKéHó":pY NKó":g NíHnLúKéHó":pY athukehóopya nakóong nahinthukehóopya (a)-thukehá-ºa-°pya na-ko-:ng na=heng-thukehá-ºa-°pya g1-walk-vol-pfv com-dog-g7 com=ss-go-vol-pfv KóYéN":yg koyenáayng ko-yenáayng dat-market-g9 “Shei walked the dog and shei went to the supermarket” b. aLúKéHó":pY NKó":g N:LúKéHó":pY KóYéN":yg athukehóopya nakóong naathukehóopya koyenáayng (a)-thukehá-ºa-°pya na-ko-:ng na=(a)-thukehá-ºa-°pya ko-yenáayng g1-walk-vol-pfv com-dog-g7 com=g1-go-vol-pfv dat-market “Shei walked the dog and shej went to the market”

38 There will be more information on the affixes involved in this in the Verbal agreement section

(45) a. SH"Gék aGé"NMó:pY Pé"G NKó":G shahángek angénamoopya penga nakóonga hángek-Ø (a)-ngépa-ma-ºa-°pya péng-Ø-a na-kó-:ng-a erg-man-g1 g1-bring-tr-vol-pfv father-g1-3s.poss com-dog-g7-3s.p Ya" PHúSó": yaá pahushóo yaá pah-ushóo-Ø gen.g1 abl-station-g9 “The mani brought his fatherj and hisj dog from the station” b. aLúKé"Hó:pY NY" Ya" KóGú"Gú:G athukéhoopya nayá yaá kongúnguunga (a)-thukéha-ºa-°pya na-yo-a yaá ko-ngúngu-:ng-a g1-go-vol-pfv com-girlfriend-3s.p gen.g1 dat-house-g7-3s.p YGé": yangée ya-ngee gen-g1.foc “Hei and his girlfriend went to hisi2 place”

Yashuhay possession tracks the most recent noun of a fitting noun class. Since most if not all words referring to humans are Class 1, and human referents are overwhelm- ingly more likely to possess things this serves as disambiguation fairly often, as seen in (45a). In that example the dog is understood to be the father’s because ’father’ is the nearest G1 noun. In order to signal that the possession is referencing a noun further back a genitive-marked focus pronoun is used,. It may be either instead of a normal genitive pronoun as was the case in (45b), or, in the case of inalienable possession, where there wouldn’t ordinarily be a pronoun, as seen ahead.

(46) H"Mó:pY eSH"Gék Sú":Mó:h hamoopya eshahángek shuumooh (a)-há-ma-ºa-°pya e=sha-hángek-Ø (a)-shuk-ma-ºa-°:h g1-watch-tr-vol-pfv loc=erg-man-g1 g1-draw-tr-vol-ipfv

2Female, male, or otherwise, humans are all G1, so this displays the same potential ambiguity as (45a) before it.

39 PnT"G YGé": pantánga yangée pah-tá-nge-a ya-ngée abl-arm-g3-3s.p gen-foc.g1 “Hei watched as the man drew on hisi arm”

Disambiguation in objects is realized through the reflexive pronoun háthu (9/10 I), which will be further explained in its own section, but focus pronouns are still necessary to disambiguate are when the relevant references being tracked are more oblique participants in other roles.

(47) SPógKé"Gé a":PMó:h Q" Ya" shapongkénge aapamooh ’a yaá sha-pongkénge (a)-áapa-ma-ºa-°:h Ø-’a-a yaá erg-cook-g1 g1-talk.to-tr-vol-ipfv abs-friend-3s.p gen.g1 eMlWó"Gé GéHéPú":pY KóGé": Kú"lYóQólYó emathwónge ngehepúupya kongée kuthyo’othyo e=Ø-mathwó-nge nge-hepé-ºa-°pya ko-ngée kúthyo’othyo loc=abs-cat-g3 g3-jump-vol-pfv dat-foc.g1 sudden “The cooki was talking to his friend when suddenly a cat jumped on himi”

If a normal dative pronoun was used instead of the focus pronoun, the person the cat jumped on would have been taken to be the friend rather than the cook as in the above sentence. 4.2.4 Aggressive vocative

Another use of the focus pronouns, albeit less common, is using it as an impolite, sometimes described as ’aggressive’, vocative. It can be made particularly insulting by using a focus pronoun of a noun class not 1 or 2, that is, the ones not commonly used to refer to humans.

(48) Gé": aKéGé"MKYókY T": NKéYé"gG ngée | akengémakayokya taa nakeyéngga ngée | a-ke-ngé-ma-a-kay-°kya Ø-táa na-keyéngga foc.g1 , g10.obj-neg-wear-tr-g1.subj-nvol-pot abs-red com-blue YY"Y S yayáya sha e-ayá-ya sha loc-neighborhood-g5 prox.g5 “Mate, you don’t wear red and blue in this neighborhood”

40 4.3 Demonstratives

Yashuhay also displays a series of demonstratives. These demonstratives vary in noun class and in a two-way proximal vs. distal contrast. The adnominal series occurs after nouns, with which the demonstratives agree, as seen in (48), (33b), and in a few other examples throughout this document. The pronominal series is used when the demonstrative is the sole referent. These forms take case marking in the environments nouns and other pronouns do, with the caveat that they take a special ergative marker yay-. A table with all the forms follows below.

(49) a. HQ"mMó:kY G"G Gú": kYó"Gé ha’ámmookya nganga nguu | kyonge hang-hám-ma-ºa-°kya Ø-nganga nguu | kyonge 1s-eat-tr-vol-pot pro.ndef.fc almost , but KóKéH"mMó:Kóy u"gKúy kokehámmookoy ungkuy ko-ke-hám-ma-°h(e)k-ºa-°y(o) Ø-ungkuy g9.obj-neg-eat-tr-ss.subj-vol-fut pro.dist.g9 “I’ll eat almost anything, but I won’t eat that.” b. Fé"mMLóM Gé"Y kWóKó"Qé Yu" HG" femmathoma ngeya kwokó’e yaú hangá féng-ma-thoma Ø-ngeya ko-akóng-nge ya-ú hangá throw-tr-2s.prox abs-pro.prox.g3 dat-river-g3 gen-near very “Throw these into the nearest river.” c. YY":w aKéHé"PMó:h H"mP yayáaw akehépamooh hampa yay-áaw a-ke-hépa-ma-ʷa-°:h hang-p(a) erg.pro-pro.prox.g1 g1.obj-neg-happy-tr-g1.subj-fut who-g2 Y":Gé oYóGú": yaange oyongúu yaange oyongúu ndef.in probably “This will probably make nobody happy”

41 Table 4.2: Demonstratives

g1 g2 g3 g5 g6 g7 g9 g10 g11 prox aw paw ya sha wa anga kaw sha taw adn dist uy puy ye she we ange kuy she tuy prox aaw papaw ngeya hesha uwa anganga ungkaw awsha tataw pro dist aúy papuy ngeye heshe uwe angange ungkuy awshe tatuy

4.4 Interrogative pronouns 4.5 Indeﬁnite pronouns 4.6 Reﬂexive and reciprocal pronouns

(50) a. aKó":Mó:pY a" akóomoopya á a-kóp-ma-ºa-°pya á g1-wash-tr-vol-pfv abs.g1 “(s)hei washed him/herj” b. aKó":Mó:pY H"Lú akóomoopya hathu a-kóp-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-hathu g1-wash-tr-vol-pfv abs-refl “theyi washed themselfi” c. PKó":Mó:pY H"Lú pakóomoopya hathu p(a)-kóp-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-(a)-hathu g2-wash-tr-vol-pfv abs-pl-refl “they washed themselves” d. PKó":Mó:pY mY"mY pakóomoopya myamya pa-kóp-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-myamya g2-wash-tr-vol-pfv abs-recp “they washed each other”

42 VERBS

Verbs in Yashuhay are moderately complex; displaying noun5 class agreement, valency, volition, TAM marking, polarity and fused deictic imperatives. The basic affirma- tive template is subj-root-voice-volition-tam and most verbs, especially transitive ones, display affixes in all of these slots. This and the different templates exhibitedby imperative and negative/interrogative verbs will be explained in further depth in further sections, but first it is important to consider the lexical classes of verbs in Yashuhay. It is also important to note that all interactions between morphemes are ruled by the rules outlined in the phonology section, as pertaining to solving disallowed combinations of vowels and consonants unless otherwise specified by the description of the morpheme in question; several morphemes have combinatory behaviours that cannot be fully explained by those and sometimes even contradict them. 5.1 Verb Classes and Voice Marking

There are three broad lexical classes of verbs in Yashuhay, which pertain primarily to the presence of the transitive marker -ma and which of the two sets of subject agreement is used. Table 5.1: Verb Classes

Agreement -ma Object Intransitive Set 1 Never None Transitive Set 1 Present Absolutive Ergative Set 2 Never present Potentially any case

Intransitive verbs don’t have an object, never display transitive marking and cannot be passivized. They describe a range of events without objects, such as náana “smile”, verbs of motion, such as móoke “move”, hékeethyo “run away” or nánah “march”, stance; yák “stand” and héng “lie down”, and verbs that describe states and fulfill the role of adjectives in Yashuhay, such as héeha “be poor”, táa “red” or kúm “sweet”. These always employ the first set of subject agreement prefixes. Encountering intransitive verbs without volition marking is decently common, particularly among stative verbs.

43 There are arguably two subclasses of intransitive verbs, the intransitive verbs proper and the stative/adjective verbs; stative verbs can have their bare root function as an adverb, while other verbs cannot. Additionally stative verbs are also much more likely to appear unmarked for TAM, especially in relative clauses.

(51) a. Gú"Gú:g eTú"Gé enY"THópY ngunguung etúnge enyátahopya ngúngu-:ng e-túnge ang-yátaha-°pya house-g7 loc-hill g7-burn-pst “The house on the hill burned” b. H"mP Yó" PHé"Yó:h YyKé": HGé" hampa yo pahéyooh yaykée hangé hampa yo p(a)-héya-ºa-°:h e-aykée hangé who-g2 all g2-swim-vol-ipfv loc-lake today “Everyone is swimming in the lake today” c. Gé"p PíHTé":h ngep pahitéeh ngé-p(a) p(a)-hité-°:h child-g2 g2-strange-ipfv “Children are strange” d. HQé"Ké:lYú:pY íW"íSh ha’ékeethyuupya wishih hang-hékeethyo-ºa-°pya wíshih 1s-run.away-vol-pfv quick “I ran away quickly” e. HQé"Ké:lYú:pY sHY"THó:h ha’ékeethyuupya shayátahooh hang-hékeethyo-ºa-°pya sha-yátaha-°:h 1s-run.away-vol-pfv ins-burn-ipfv “I ran away on fire”

The “Transitive” class includes most verbs that are straightforwardly transitive, such as ham “eat”, feng “throw”, a “take” and ya’a “kill”. They use the first agreement set, always display the transitive market -ma unless made passive and their objects are always presented in the absolutive case. Additionally, it is extremely rare to encounter them without explicitly marked volition. These verbs can be made passive. When made passive, the passive marker -o occurs instead of the transitive -ma and the verb functions as an intransitive verb with its object turned into its subject.

44 (52) a. a"wNMó:pY Gé"Kó e" KóH:T":g awnamoopya ngeko hó ehaatáang a-úna-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-ngeko hó e-haatáang g1-leave-tr-vol-pfv abs-foc.g9 fruit loc-table “She left the fruit on the (work)table!” b. Hó" S" amYó"nNKú:pY H"lWó hó sha amyónnakuupya hathwo (a)-hó sha (a)-myónnak-o-ºa-°pya hathwo g10-flower prox.g10 g10-gather-pass-vol-pfv yesterday “These flowers were gathered yesterday” The so called “Ergative” verbs are transitive (in that they have an object), but use the second set of person marking prefixes, and never display the transitive marker - ma. They are comprised of verbs that either typically have low agency or low volition subjects, such as shé “notice”, kathá “botch, make a mistake”, low affectedness objects, kám “visit” or kwápaha “worry about”; verbs of motion with a distinct target, such as kkyá “go somewhere”, and verbs of perception like há “see” and ámpepa “smell, taste, feel”. They can be made passive, which partially neuters the morphological distinction with Transitive verbs, but they still use the second agreement set in such cases.

(53) a. HkW"PHó:pY M"KéíS hakwápahoopya makeshi h(a)-kwápaha-ºa-°pya makeshi 1e.e-worry.about-vol-pfv abs-sea “We worried about the sea” b. SYéTé"ynTp awMó"Lú:pY iníL"gíK shayetéyntap awmóthuupya inthíngki sha-yetéynta-p(a) (a)-omóthu-ºa-°pya inthíngki erg-policeman-g2 g2.e-surround-vol-pfv building “The police surrounded the building” c. íG"w HSé"wpY eM"gYó:h ngíw hashéwpya emángyooh ngíw h(a)-shé-o-°pya e-mángya-°:h sunrise g9.e-notice-pass-pfv loc-enter-ipfv “Sunrise was noticed entering” d. Lú:"PS KóSé"wpY thuupasha koshéwpya thuupasha ko-shé-o-°pya car g9-load-pass-pfv

45 “The car was loaded”

Additionally, changing the class of a verb is a common, if not overwhelming, method of derivation, with several roots being attested with different but related meanings in different classes, such as áka erg “enjoy” vs. áka tr “prefer”, hó itr “trip, stumble” vs. hó erg “stumble upon sth.” vs. hótha tr “cause to fall, trip” or akák itr “hide oneself, be hidden” vs. akák tr “hide sth.”. Some pairs have been further distanced by semantic drift, such as kúpa itr “be angry” vs. kúpa erg “reduce (e.g. a sauce)”; both originally from “simmer”. Some other pairs are fully coincidental, as seen in the shé pair in (53c), (53d) above. As for the shapes of the affixes, both the transitive and the passive markers have straightforward morphophonology; the transitive suffix -ma and the passive passive -o are only affected by the normal processes as stated in the phonology section. 5.2 Subject Marking

Table 5.2: Normal Subject Marking

46 ADJECTIVES 6

47 ADPOSITIONS 7

48 APPENDICES 8 8.1 Lexicon 8.2 Minimal Pairs 8.3 Sample Texts

While there is a wealth of glossed examples throughout this document, this section will compile larger text samples, thoroughly glossed, that were too cumbersome to fit in the main body of grammatical explanation. Some example sentences may have been lifted from these texts. 8.3.1 Dark Tea Story

SNY"yHY"u:yY"g,GéYHMó"pYi"íS.PYNFó"mpYkWó:T"LóeHM"Gé.YYFó"mMó:pYa:T":M, SGé":Fó"mMó:pYa:T":KY.aYNH"FóGépYkWó:T"emY",Hú":pYPú"Kóa:T",íHnY"Mó:pYa:T" YmY"íGhLó",HénTG"TGók. eíG"wmY",NH"oGékWó:T"emY"HénLúKé"Hó:heKT":eGH"KYópYHé:HKó"Y:H"HMó:h Sú"íQeHó":GéPó"meKú":Y:Tó":Y"yíS.SKé:HKó"aYKé"Mó:pYa:T"KóGé":,SNH"FóGékWó:T"Hé"PKYópY a"YHHéGó"GéíHnYKé"Mó:pYkWó"GTó"MNó:pYFó"gLúpYeHM"Géo"gGéY"Y:íG":a:T"YLó" HG" PqYNH"FóGékWó:T"aPó":haTó":hY:Wó"TY"HYó",SH"QgYó"P"gKMó:hHé".NFó"gkWó:T":M NNFó"gkWó:T":KYPKú"Pó:hPgKóKéTó"GéHMó:KYókYuqWó"g.PFé"mMó:pYugKé"mPKóHP"o:hSNFó"g kWó:T"YLó"aPú":PHú:pYkW":p.PgkW"wHó":pYPQM",HénNHé"Hó:h,GékYó":TMó:KpY NH"FóGékWó:T"aN:Tó":hYgYú"NwpYYLó"YyKé":Ké.GH"MópYKóYéo"PQé"LóYGé"KóHéGó"Gé

49 PHó":wYóKóHéGú"NQMó:ya:T"KóG":KégWóyGéGé":h.SYéo"aPó":pY KóH":KéíGKópYkW":Nó:hmY"íGh? SNH"FóGékWó:T"aPó":pY gYé"aTó":hHó"N SGé":Yéo"aPó":pY KT":h,KóH"Pó:hPS"wY SHQ"gYóPY"Mó:pYa:T"HpPS"wY.KóHóLú":Wó:h

SNY"y HY"u:y Y"g shanayáy hayáuuy yáng sha-nayáy h(a)-yáy-º-°y(o) yáng erg-creator g9.erg-tell.story-vol-fut erg.1s Once upon a time (lit. the Creator tells a story through me) GéYHMó"pY i"íS ngeyahamópya ishi nge-ya-hamá-°pya ishi g3-gen-town-pfv small there was a small town PYNFó"mpY kWó:T" Ló" eHM"Gé payanafómpya kwootá tho ehamánge p(a)-ya-nafóng-°pya ko-a-atá tho e-hamá-nge g2-gen-seller-pfv dat-g10-tea two loc-town-g3 in the town were two tea sellers. Y"Y Fó"mMó:pY a:T":M yaya fommoopya aatáama yaya (a)-fong-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-aatáama erg.g1 g1-sell-tr-vol-pfv abs-green.tea One sold green tea SGé": Fó"mMó:pY a:T":KY shangée fommoopya aatáakaya sha-ngée (a)-fong-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-aatáakaya erg-foc.g1 g1-sell-tr-vol-pfv abs-fermented.tea the other sold black tea.

50 aYNH"FóGépY kWó:T" emY" ayanaháfongepya kwootá emyá (a)-ya-naháfonge-°pya ko-a-atá emyá g1-gen-taster-pfv dat-g10-tea first There was a chief tea taster Hú":pY Pú"Kó a:T" huupya puko aatá (a)-hu-ºa-°pya Ø-puko-Ø Ø-a-atá g1.erg-judge-vol-pfv abs-quality-g9 abs-g10-tea he1 judged the quality of the tea. íHnY"Mó:pY a:T" YmY"íGh Ló" , HénTG"TGók hinyámoopya aatá yamyángih tho , hentangátangok heng-yá-ma-ºa-°pya a-atá ya-myangih tho | Ø=heng-tangátanga-°k(o) ss-drink-tr-vol-pfv g10-tea gen-same two | abs=ss-bored-inch drinking the same two teas, he got bored. eíG"w mY" engiw mya e-ngíw-Ø mya loc-day-g9 one One day, NH"oGé kWó:T" emY" HénLúKé"Hó:h eKT": naháfonge kwootá emyá henthukéhooh ekatáa naháfonge-Ø ko-a-atá emyá hang-thukéha-ºa-°:h e-katáa taster-g1 dat-g10-tea first g1-walk-vol-ipfv loc-field the chief tea taster was walking in a field eGH"KYópY Hé:HKó" Y:H"HMó:h engahákayopya keehakó yaaháhamooh e-ng(a)-ha-kay-°pya Ø-keehakó-Ø ya-(a)-háha-ma-ºa-°:h loc-ss.erg-see-nvol-pfv abs-stranger-g1 gen-g1-boil-tr-vol-ipfv Sú"íQ eHó":Gé Pó"m eKú": Y:Tó": shu’i ehóonge póm ekúu yaatóo Ø-shu’i-Ø e-hóo-nge Ø-póm-Ø e-kuu-a ya-a-tóo abs-water-g9 loc-pot-g3 abs-clay-g9 loc-above-3s.poss gen-g10-fire

1The Yashuhay does not actually mark the sentence for gender but for convenience I’m using the masc.

51 Y"yíS yayshi ya-ishi gen-small when he saw a stranger boiling water in a clay pot over a small fire. SKé:HKó" aYKé"Mó:pY a:T" KóGé": shakeehakó ayakémoopya aatá kongée sha-keehakó-Ø (a)-yaké-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-a-atá ko-ngée erg-stranger-g1 g1-offer-tr-vol-pfv abs-g10-tea dat-foc.g1 The stranger offered him tea, SNH"FóGé kWó:T" Hé"PKYópY a"YH shanaháfonge kwootá hepakayopya ayaha sha-naháfonge-Ø ko-a-atá (a)-hépa-kay-°pya áyaha erg-taster-g1 dat-g10-tea g1.erg-enjoy-nvol-pfv a.lot The tea taster enjoyed it a lot HéGó"Gé íHnYKé"Mó:pYkWó" GTó"MNó:pY Fó"gLúpY hengónge hinyakémoopya kwó ngatómanoopya hengónge heng-yaké-ma-ºa-°pya kwó Ø–ng(a)-tómana-ºa-°pya and(then) ss-offer-tr-vol-pfv dat.g1 abs-ss.erg-help-vol-pfv eHM"Gé o"gGé Y" Y:íG": fongthuupya ehamánge ongge yá Ø-(a)-fóngthu-ºa-°pya e-hamá-nge na-heng-fóng-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-óng-nge abs-g1-sell-sit-vol-pfv loc-town-g3 abs-type-g3 prox.g3 a:T" YLó" HG" yaangíi aatá yathó hangá ya ya-angíi Ø-a-atá ya-thó abs-g10-tea gen-new gen-dark very so he offered to help him set up shop in the town and sell this new kind ofvery dark tea. PqYNH"FóGé kWó:T" aPó":h pa’yanaháfonge kwootá apóoh pah=sha-naháfonge-Ø ko-a-atá (a)-pá-ºa-°:h abl=erg-taster-g1 dat-g10-tea g1.erg-say-vol-ipfv

52 aTó":h Y:Wó" TY"H Yó" atóoh yaawó tayáha yo Ø-(a)-Ø-atá-°:h ya-(a)-wo tayáha yo abs=g10-abs-tea-ipfv gen-g10-exceed good all Since the tea taster was saying it was the best tea SH"Qg Yó" P"gKMó:h Hé" shahá’ang yo pangkamooh hé sha-ha’ang yo p(a)-ángka-ma-ºa-°:h hé erg-anyone all g2-buy-tr-vol-ipfv abs.g10 everyone was buying it. NFó"g kWó:T":M NNFó"g kWó:T":KY PKú"Pó:h nafóng kwootáama nanafóng kwootáakaya pakúpooh nafóng-Ø ko-a-atáama na-nafóng ko-a-atáakaya p(a)-kúpa-°:h seller-g1 dat-g10-green.tea com-seller-g1 dat-g10-black.tea g2-angry-ipfv PgKóKéTó"GéHMó:KYókY uqWó"g pangkoketóngehamookayokya u’wóng pah=ko-ke-tóngeha-ma-°h(e)k-kay-°kya Ø-u’wóng-Ø abl=g9.obj-neg-bear-tr-ss-nvol-pot abs-sale-g9 The green tea seller and the black tea seller were angry from losing sales PFé"mMó:pY ugKé"mP KóHP"o:h pafémmoopya ungkémpa kohapáooh p(a)-féng-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-ungkémpa ko=h(a)-pá-o-°:h g2-throw-tr-vol-pfv abs-rumour dat=g9.erg-say-pass-ipfv SNFó"g kWó:T" YLó" aPú":PHú:pY shanafóng kwootá yathó apúupahuupya Ø=sha-nafóng-Ø ko-a-atá ya-thó (a)-puupash-ºa-°pya abs=erg-seller-g1 dat-g10-tea gen-dark g1-hit.on-vol-pfv kW":p kwaap ko-áa-p dat-daughter-g1-3p.poss [so] they started a rumor saying the dark tea seller had hit on their daughters. PgkW"w Hó":pY PQM" pangkwáw hoopya pa’amá pah-ko-á-o (a)-há-ºa-°pya pah-hamá abl=g9-do-pass g1-walk.out-vol-pfv abl-town

53 So he left town, HénNHé"Hó:h hennahéhooh heng-na-heh-°:h ss-com-money-ipfv he had his money, GékYó":TMó:KpY ngekyóotamookapya nge-ke-óota-ma-°hek-ºa-°pya g3-neg-return-tr-ss-vol-pfv he did not return [there]. NH"FóGé kWó:T" aN:Tó":h YgYú"NwpY naháfonge kwootá anaatóoh yangyúnawpya Ø–naháfonge-Ø ko-a-atá (a)-na-atá-°:h ya-nge-úna-o-°pya abs-taster-g1 dat-g10-tea g1-com-tea-ipfv gen-g3-leave-pass-pfv YLó" YyKé":Ké yathó yaykéeke ya-thó ya-ekéeke gen-dark gen-few The tea taster did not have much dark tea left. GH"MópY KóYéo" PQé"Ló YGé"Kó ngahámopya koyeó pa’étho yangéko ng(a)-hám-ºa-°pya ko-ye-ó pah-hé-tho ya-ngéko ss.erg-ask-vol-pfv dat-specialist-medicine abl-place-g6 gen-other HéGó"Gé PHó":wYó KóHéGú"NQMó:y a:T" hengónge pahóowyo kohengúna’amooy aatá hengónge p(a)-háa-ºa-°y(o) ko=heng-úna’a-ma-ºa-°y(o) Ø-a-atá so/then g2-come-vol-fut dat=ss-test-tr-vol-fut abs-g10-tea KóG":KégWóy GéGé":h kongáakengwoy ngengéeh ko=ng(a)-áakengi-ºa-°y(o) Ø-nge-Ø-nge-°:h dat=ss.erg-be.certain-vol-fut abs=g3-abs-g3-ipfv He asked medicine specialists from other places to come test the tea and figure out what it was.

54 SYéo" aPó":pY shayeó apóopya sha-yeó (a)-pá-ºa-°pya erg-med.spec g1.erg-said-vol-pfv One medicine specialist said: KóH":KéíGKópY kW":Nó:h mY"íGh? koháakengikopya kwaanooh myangih? ko-he-áakengi-°t(o)-ºa-°pya Ø=ko-Ø-aan-°:h myangih g9.obj-q-be.sure-2s-vol-pfv abs=g9-abs-substance-ipfv same “Are you sure this is the same substance?” SNH"FóGé kWó:T" aPó":pY shanaháfonge kwootá apóopya sha-naháfonge-Ø ko-a-atá (a)-pá-ºa-°pya erg-taster-g1 dat-g10-tea g1.erg-said-vol-pfv The tea taster said: gYé" aTó":h Hó"N ngyé atóoh hona ngyé (a)-atá-°:h hóna foc.g10 g10-abs-tea-ipfv special “Yes, this is special tea…” SGé": Yéo" aPó":pY shangée yeó apóopya sha-ngée yeó (a)-pá-ºa-°pya erg-foc.g1 med.spec g1.erg-said-vol-pfv The other medicine specialist said: KT":h katáah Ø-ke-Ø-atá-a-°:h ø-neg-abs-tea-g9.subj-ipfv “This is not tea,” KóH"Pó:h PS"wY kohápooh pasháwya ko-Ø-háp-°:h pah-yáw-ya g9-abs-poop-ipfv abl-goat-g5 “this is goat poop.”

55 SHQ"g Yó PY"Mó:pY a:T" Hp PS"wY shaha’áng yo payámoopya aatá hap pasháwya sha-ha’áng yo p(a)-yá-ma-ºa-°pya Ø-a-atá Ø-háp pah-yáw-ya erg-anyone all g2-drink-tr-vol-pfv abs-g10-tea abs-poop abl-goat They all were drinking goat poop tea. KóHóLú":Wó:h kohothúuwooh ko-Ø-hothúuw-°:h g9-abs-end-ipfv The end. 8.4 Comparison with Related Languages