DOCSLIB.ORG

The Function of Pronominal Expressions

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Function of Pronominal Expressions View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Lancaster E-Prints The Function of Pronominal Expressions in Puxian Jianming Wu A thesis submitted to Lancaster University for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2010 Department of Linguistics and English Language Lancaster University, United Kingdom Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and effort and that it has not been submitted anywhere for any award. Where other sources of information have been used, they have been acknowledged. Jianming Wu May 2010 Lancaster University Abstract Puxian, a Min dialect of China, has many significant linguistic features. Based on a corpus of spoken data, this thesis sets out to examine aspects of the grammar of pronominal expressions in Puxian, focusing especially on three prominent issues in the linguistic literature, viz. impersonality, reflexive markings and Person effects on linearization. The investigation of impersonality has been built on the latest typological framework (see e.g. Siewierska 2008) and deals with a group of constructions in Puxian that have pronominalized subjects but crucially with impersonal reference. These subjects can be projected onto five semantic domains, i.e. vague, generic, non-referential indefinite, referential indefinite and referential definite, with regard to referentiality and (in)definiteness (cf. Givón 1984: 397). A correlation between these domains and morphophonological realizations of impersonal forms is studied as well. The discussion of reflexive markings focuses on grammaticalization, as different reflexive forms in Puxian assumed interrelated functions along the pathway of grammaticalization. Significantly, some highly grammaticalized functions, e.g. impersonals or anticausatives, are not necessarily associated with more simplified reflexive forms. The attention to linearization is centered on the give morpheme kɛ21, which acts like a case marker in a number of constructions, ranging from the monotransitive, ditransitive, causative, passive and even to the intransitive. Yet the main concern is how the grammatical category of Person as a whole plays a crucial role in the placement of syntactic constituents as well as encodings of argument roles, as against the unmarked AVP word order. 1 Since Puxian dialect has been relatively unknown in linguistics, a sketch of Puxian grammar and language situation will be offered in the beginning. 2 Acknowledgement First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my principal supervisor, Prof. Anna Siewierska. Without her help, support and patience, this thesis would not have been possible. I feel great admiration for her unsurpassed knowledge and foresights in the field of linguistics, which have benefited me tremendously. I would also thank my second supervisor, Dr. Willem Hollmann for his help and good advice, especially his kind comments on my first assignment at Lancaster University, which have been invaluable to me. I also wish to thank many of the nice people around me. They are so wonderful and helpful during my stay at Lancaster. At a more personal level, I would like to thank my parents and my wife for their supports throughout, as always. I would also like to thank my lovely young son, now two-year-old, who often sings the sweetest song in the world for his absent daddy. For any errors or inadequacies that may remain in this work, of course, the responsibility is entirely my own. 3 Abbreviations ABS absolutive case ACC accusative case ADP adposition ADJ adjective ADV adverb AF agent focus AGR agreement APPL applicative ART article ASP aspect AUX auxiliary CAUS causative CL classifier CLT clitic CNJ conjunction COMP complementizer COP copula CP complementizer phrase DAT dative DEF definite DEM demonstrative DET determiner DO direct object 4 EMPH emphatic ERG ergative EXCL exclusive (of the addressee) FOC focus FF fusion form GEN genitive case, possessed IMP imperative IMPF imperfective INCL inclusive (of the addressee) INDEF indefinite INF infinite INST instrumental INTF intensifier INTR intransitive IO indirect object IP inflection phrase IPFV imperfective IRLS irrealis LOC locative LOG logophoric MID middle N noun or nominal NEG negative element NOM nominative NP noun phrase 5 NR nominalizer O object P patient PASS passive PAST past PAT patient PAU paucal PERF perfective PL plural POSS possessive PP prepositional phrase PREP preposition PRES present PRON pronoun PROG progressive PROX proximate PRT particle R recipient REFL reflexive REL relative RLS realis S single argument of intransitive verb SBJ subject SFP sentence-final particle SG singular 6 SPEC specifier STAT stative SUBJ subjunctive T theme of ditransitive clause TOP topic TR transitive UGR undergoer V verb VP verb phrase 1 1st person 2 2nd person 3 3rd person 7 Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................. 1 Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................ 3 Abbreviations.................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1 - Introduction .............................................................................................. 12 1.1. Introduction....................................................................................................... 12 1.2. Language situation............................................................................................ 13 1.2.1. The Min dialects ..................................................................................... 13 1.3. Data collection, transcription and corpus ......................................................... 15 1.3.1. Data collection ........................................................................................ 15 1.3.2. Transcription ........................................................................................... 17 1.4. Major linguistic features in Puxian................................................................... 19 1.4.1. Phonology ........................................................................................ 20 1.4.2. The pronominal paradigm under investigation................................ 23 1.4.3. Main grammatical features of Puxian.............................................. 26 1.5. Research backgrounds, motivation and orientations ........................................ 32 1.6. Outline of the thesis .......................................................................................... 44 Chapter 2 - Pronominal impersonals in Puxian......................................................... 46 2.1. Introduction....................................................................................................... 46 2.2. The notion of impersonal constructions............................................................ 47 2.3. Impersonal constructions in Puxian.................................................................. 55 2.4. The distribution of pronominal impersonals in Puxian..................................... 71 2.4.1. Identifying pronominal impersonals....................................................... 71 2.4.2. The distribution....................................................................................... 74 2.5. Linking pronominal impersonals to the definiteness hierarchy........................ 79 2.5.1. Semantic characterization of pronominal impersonals........................... 80 2.5.2. The referentiality and definiteness hierarchy.......................................... 84 2.6. Grading pronominal impersonals in Puxian ..................................................... 89 2.6.1. Pronominal impersonals with generic reference .................................... 89 2.6.2. Pronominal impersonals with non-referential indefinite reference ........ 91 2.6.3. Pronominal impersonals with referential indefinite reference................ 96 2.6.4. Pronominal impersonals with referential definite reference................... 98 2.6.5. Pronominal impersonals with vague reference....................................... 99 2.7. Further thoughts on pronominal impersonals in Puxian................................. 105 2.7.1. The semantic range of zero forms......................................................... 105 2.7.2. Impersonal uses of naŋ24 as an indefinite pronoun............................... 108 2.7.3. The typology of 3rd IMPs...................................................................... 116 2.8. Concluding remarks........................................................................................ 120 Chapter 3 - Reflexives in Puxian ............................................................................... 122 3.1. Introduction..................................................................................................... 122 3.2. C.-T. J. Huang’s syntactic approach to Mandarin ziji..................................... 123 3.3. kai42 as an anaphor.......................................................................................... 128 3.3.1. Definitions of anaphor .......................................................................... 128 3.3.2. Anaphors in Puxian............................................................................... 135 3.3.2.1. kai42-kai11 as the primary reflexive marker ................................. 136 3.3.2.2. Syntactic anaphor.......................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Recognition and Tagging of Compound Verb Groups in Czech
    In: Proceedings of CoNLL-2000 and LLL-2000, pages 219-225, Lisbon, Portugal, 2000. Recognition and Tagging of Compound Verb Groups in Czech Eva Zgt~kov~ and Lubo~ Popelinsk:~ and Milo~ Nepil NLP Laboratory, Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University Botanick£ 68, CZ-602 00 Brno, Czech Republic {glum, popel, nepil}@fi.muni.cz Verb groups are often split into more parts with so called gap words. In the second verb group Abstract the gap words are o td konferenci (about the In Czech corpora compound verb groups are conference). In annotated Czech corpora, in- usually tagged in word-by-word manner. As a cluding DESAM (Pala et al., 1997), compound consequence, some of the morphological tags of verb groups are usually tagged in word-by-word particular components of the verb group lose manner. As a consequence, some of the morpho- their original meaning. We present a method for logical tags of particular components of the verb automatic recognition of compound verb groups group loose their original meaning. It means in Czech. From an annotated corpus 126 def- that the tags are correct for a single word but inite clause grammar rules were constructed. they do not reflect the meaning of the words in These rules describe all compound verb groups context. In the above sentence the word jsem that are frequent in Czech. Using those rules is tagged as a verb in present tense, but the we can find compound verb groups in unanno- whole verb group to which it belongs - jsem tated texts with the accuracy 93%. Tagging nev~d~la - is in past tense.
    [Show full text]
  • Sign Language Typology Series
    SIGN LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY SERIES The Sign Language Typology Series is dedicated to the comparative study of sign languages around the world. Individual or collective works that systematically explore typological variation across sign languages are the focus of this series, with particular emphasis on undocumented, underdescribed and endangered sign languages. The scope of the series primarily includes cross-linguistic studies of grammatical domains across a larger or smaller sample of sign languages, but also encompasses the study of individual sign languages from a typological perspective and comparison between signed and spoken languages in terms of language modality, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to sign language typology. Interrogative and Negative Constructions in Sign Languages Edited by Ulrike Zeshan Sign Language Typology Series No. 1 / Interrogative and negative constructions in sign languages / Ulrike Zeshan (ed.) / Nijmegen: Ishara Press 2006. ISBN-10: 90-8656-001-6 ISBN-13: 978-90-8656-001-1 © Ishara Press Stichting DEF Wundtlaan 1 6525XD Nijmegen The Netherlands Fax: +31-24-3521213 email: [email protected] http://ishara.def-intl.org Cover design: Sibaji Panda Printed in the Netherlands First published 2006 Catalogue copy of this book available at Depot van Nederlandse Publicaties, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag (www.kb.nl/depot) To the deaf pioneers in developing countries who have inspired all my work Contents Preface........................................................................................................10
    [Show full text]
  • Ditransitive Verbs in Language Use
    Chapter 3 Aspects of description: ditransitive verbs in language use This chapter provides a corpus-based description of individual ditransitive verbs in actual language use. First, the two verbs that are typical of ditransitivity in ICE-GB will be analysed: give and tell (see section 3.1). Second, the four habitual ditransitive verbs in ICE-GB (i.e. ask, show, send and offer) will be scrutinised (see section 3.2). Particular emphasis in all the analyses will be placed on the different kinds of routines that are involved in the use of ditransitive verbs. The description of peripheral ditransitive verbs, on the other hand, will centre on the concepts of grammatical institutionalisation and conventionalisation (see section 3.3). At the end of this chapter, the two aspects will be discussed in a wider setting in the assessment of the role of linguistic routine and creativity in the use of ditransitive verbs (see section 3.4). 3.1 Typical ditransitive verbs in ICE-GB In the present study, typical ditransitive verbs are verbs which are frequently attested in ICE-GB in general (i.e. > 700 occurrences) and which are associated with an explicit ditransitive syntax in some 50% of all occurrences or more (cf. Figure 2.4, p. 84). These standards are met by give (see section 3.1.1) and tell (see section 3.1.2). 3.1.1 GIVE In light of recent psycholinguistic and cognitive-linguistic evidence, it is not sur- prising that the most frequent ditransitive verb in ICE-GB is GIVE.1 Experiment- al data have led Ninio (1999), for example, to put forward the hypothesis that children initially acquire constructions through one (or very few) ‘pathbreaking verbs(s)’.
    [Show full text]
  • Typological Differences Between English and Chinese Multi-Verb Constructions
    Linguistics and Literature Studies 7(3): 110-115, 2019 http://www.hrpub.org DOI: 10.13189/lls.2019.070303 Typological Differences between English and Chinese Multi-verb Constructions Mengmeng Tang School of Foreign Studies, China University of Petroleum, China Copyright©2019 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License Abstract English and Chinese are different in the verbs in one temporal category, with fixed order and no composition of Multi-verb Constructions (MVCs), which conjunctions [25], a language phenomenon without a refer to a series of verbs appearing in a mono-clause, counterpart in English. without pauses or conjunctions. English MVCs contain a There has been a long-running discussion on Chinese finite verb which inflects with tense, combined with finite and non-finite verb distinctions (e.g., [5-8, 16-18, non-finite forms (e.g., The boss encouraged Jerry to attend 21-24, 27-30]). Although there has been a considerable the meeting). Chinese MVCs are in the form of bare verbs theoretical discussion of Chinese finiteness, no research or verbs with aspectual morphemes. From the perspective has been undertaken to date from the perspective of the of finiteness, this article analyzes the typological typological differences of semantic finiteness in Chinese differences of morphological finiteness in English and and morphological finiteness in English in MVCs. semantic finiteness in Chinese. Keywords Multi-verb Constructions, Finiteness 2. Multi-verb Constructions Verbs are the core of a sentence. Descriptive linguists and comparative syntacticians have examined the 1.
    [Show full text]
  • The Function of Phrasal Verbs and Their Lexical Counterparts in Technical Manuals
    Portland State University PDXScholar Dissertations and Theses Dissertations and Theses 1991 The function of phrasal verbs and their lexical counterparts in technical manuals Brock Brady Portland State University Follow this and additional works at: https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds Part of the Applied Linguistics Commons Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Brady, Brock, "The function of phrasal verbs and their lexical counterparts in technical manuals" (1991). Dissertations and Theses. Paper 4181. https://doi.org/10.15760/etd.6065 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of PDXScholar. Please contact us if we can make this document more accessible: [email protected]. AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Brock Brady for the Master of Arts in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (lESOL) presented March 29th, 1991. Title: The Function of Phrasal Verbs and their Lexical Counterparts in Technical Manuals APPROVED BY THE MEMBERS OF THE THESIS COMMITTEE: { e.!I :flette S. DeCarrico, Chair Marjorie Terdal Thomas Dieterich Sister Rita Rose Vistica This study investigates the use of phrasal verbs and their lexical counterparts (i.e. nouns with a lexical structure and meaning similar to corresponding phrasal verbs) in technical manuals from three perspectives: (1) that such two-word items might be more frequent in technical writing than in general texts; (2) that these two-word items might have particular functions in technical writing; and that (3) 2 frequencies of these items might vary according to the presumed expertise of the text's audience.
    [Show full text]
  • Instrumentality: the Core Meaning of the Coverb Yi 以 in Classical Chinese
    Proceedings of the 20th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-20). 2008. Volume 1. Edited by Marjorie K.M. Chan and Hana Kang. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University. Pages 489-498. Instrumentality: The Core Meaning of the Coverb Yi 以 in Classical Chinese Sue-mei Wu 吳素美 Carnegie Mellon University Yi 以 is one of the most important and commonly used function words in Classical Chinese, and many researchers (e.g. Hsueh 1997, Pulleyblank 1995, Sun 1991, Wu 1994 and Wu 1997) have contributed to the discussion on yi's meanings and functions. The main issues in the current understanding of yi include its verb and coverb usages. Both usages have been thought to exhibit a range of meanings, and yi has been thought to be able to occur flexibly either before or after a verb phrase. In addition, yi is also thought to be a conjunction indicating the reason, purpose or result of an action. This study proposes that the verb yi fundamentally indicates instrumentality, and that the coverb yi, which is derived from the verb yi, still retains that fundamental notion of instrumentality. The notion of instrumentality has been extended in yi's coverb usage to indicate the means or reason by which an action occurs, or the time which an action occurs. Moreover, I will also argue that the yi phrase, when it occurs before a verb phrase, functions syntactically as a modifier to the verb phrase. When the yi phrase occurs after another verb phrase, however, the semantic emphasis has been deliberately put on the yi phrase, which then serves as the nucleus of the predicate.
    [Show full text]
  • Minimal Pronouns, Logophoricity and Long-Distance Reflexivisation in Avar
    Minimal pronouns, logophoricity and long-distance reflexivisation in Avar* Pavel Rudnev Revised version; 28th January 2015 Abstract This paper discusses two morphologically related anaphoric pronouns inAvar (Avar-Andic, Nakh-Daghestanian) and proposes that one of them should be treated as a minimal pronoun that receives its interpretation from a λ-operator situated on a phasal head whereas the other is a logophoric pro- noun denoting the author of the reported event. Keywords: reflexivity, logophoricity, binding, syntax, semantics, Avar 1 Introduction This paper has two aims. One is to make a descriptive contribution to the crosslin- guistic study of long-distance anaphoric dependencies by presenting an overview of the properties of two kinds of reflexive pronoun in Avar, a Nakh-Daghestanian language spoken natively by about 700,000 people mostly living in the North East Caucasian republic of Daghestan in the Russian Federation. The other goal is to highlight the relevance of the newly introduced data from an understudied lan- guage to the theoretical debate on the nature of reflexivity, long-distance anaphora and logophoricity. The issue at the heart of this paper is the unusual character of theanaphoric system in Avar, which is tripartite. (1) is intended as just a preview with more *The present material was presented at the Utrecht workshop The World of Reflexives in August 2011. I am grateful to the workshop’s audience and participants for their questions and comments. I am indebted to Eric Reuland and an anonymous reviewer for providing valuable feedback on the first draft, as well as to Yakov Testelets for numerous discussions of anaphora-related issues inAvar spanning several years.
    [Show full text]
  • Perfect-Traj.Pdf
    Aspect shifts in Indo-Aryan and trajectories of semantic change1 Cleo Condoravdi and Ashwini Deo Abstract: The grammaticalization literature notes the cross-linguistic robustness of a diachronic pat- tern involving the aspectual categories resultative, perfect, and perfective. Resultative aspect markers often develop into perfect markers, which then end up as perfect plus perfective markers. We intro- duce supporting data from the history of Old and Middle Indo-Aryan languages, whose instantiation of this pattern has not been previously noted. We provide a semantic analysis of the resultative, the perfect, and the aspectual category that combines perfect and perfective. Our analysis reveals the change to be a two-step generalization (semantic weakening) from the original resultative meaning. 1 Introduction The emergence of new functional expressions and the changes in their distribution and interpretation over time have been shown to be systematic across languages, as well as across a variety of semantic domains. These observations have led scholars to construe such changes in terms of “clines”, or predetermined trajectories, along which expressions move in time. Specifically, the typological literature, based on large-scale grammaticaliza- tion studies, has discovered several such trajectorial shifts in the domain of tense, aspect, and modality. Three properties characterize such shifts: (a) the categories involved are sta- ble across cross-linguistic instantiations; (b) the paths of change are unidirectional; (c) the shifts are uniformly generalizing (Heine, Claudi, and H¨unnemeyer 1991; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994; Haspelmath 1999; Dahl 2000; Traugott and Dasher 2002; Hopper and Traugott 2003; Kiparsky 2012). A well-known trajectory is the one in (1).
    [Show full text]
  • Dissertations, Department of Linguistics
    UC Berkeley Dissertations, Department of Linguistics Title Reflexivization: A Study in Universal Syntax Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3sv079tk Author Faltz, Leonard M Publication Date 1977 eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph end reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will finda good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap.
    [Show full text]
  • Flexible Valency in Chintang.∗
    Flexible valency in Chintang.∗ Robert Schikowskia , Netra Paudyalb , and Balthasar Bickela a University of Zürich b University of Leipzig 1 e Chintang language Chintang [ˈts̻ ʰiɳʈaŋ]̻ (ISO639.3: ctn) is a Sino-Tibetan language of Nepal. It is named aer the village where it is mainly spoken. e village lies in the hills of Eastern Nepal, bigger cities within day’s reach being Dhankuṭā and Dharān. ere are no official data on the number of speakers, but we estimate there to be around 4,000 - 5,000 speakers. Most speakers are bi- or trilingual, with Nepali (the Indo-Aryan lingua franca of Nepal) as one and Bantawa (a related Sino-Tibetan language) as the other additional language. Monolingual speakers are still to be found mainly among elderly women, whereas a considerable portion of the younger generation is rapidly shiing to Nepali. Genealogically, Chintang belongs to the Kiranti group. e Kiranti languages are generally accepted to belong to the large Sino-Tibetan (or Tibeto-Burman) family, although their position within this family is controversial (cf. e.g. urgood 2003, Ebert 2003). Based on phonological evidence, Chintang belongs to the Eastern subgroup of Kiranti (Bickel et al. 2010). ere are two major dialects (Mulgaũ and Sambugaũ ) named aer the areas where they are spoken. e differences between them concern morphology and the lexicon but, as far as we know, not syntax, and so we will not distinguish between dialects in this chapter. For all examples the source has been marked behind the translation. Wherever possible, we take data from the Chintang Language Corpus (Bickel et al.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 the Influence of Cognitive Factors on Category-Specific Phonology
    The Influence of Cognitive Factors on Category-Specific Phonology Jonathan Manker University of California, Berkeley A growing body of literature has documented an array of phonological patterns--- either static inventories or active rules--- which are sensitive to the grammatical category of the words they govern. Here I consider grammatical categories as including both syntactic classes such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and broad classes such as functional and content morphemes. A parallel body of literature has shown psycholinguistic and neurological differences in how different grammatical categories are treated. These independent observations in both the phonological and cognitive literature suggest a currently unexplored question: Are the observed category-specific phonological asymmetries the reflection of asymmetries in the mental organization or processing of these categories? A review of the literature reveals little solid evidence that there are either innate biases in category-specific phonology or that categories form neighborhoods that facilitate the spread of phonological patterns in the lexicon, when other possible factors, such as syntax and semantics, are considered. However, observations from the dual-stream model of speech perception suggest there may be emergent differences in how more predictable, functional categories are processed as opposed to less predictable, content categories. 1. Introduction In recent decades, linguists have begun to explore how many aspects of grammar interact with phonological patterns in language. In particular, studies coming from a wide range of approaches have documented and analyzed the effect of grammatical categories on sound patterns. Here I will use the term grammatical categories liberally to include classes based on syntactic function (nouns, verbs, adpositions, determiners, etc.), and the broader classes including content (nouns, verbs, adjectives) and functional morphemes (determiners, prepositions, inflectional affixes, etc.).
    [Show full text]
  • A Grammar of Mantauran (Rukai)
    Was I that lucky? Elizabeth Zeitoun（齊莉莎） Academia Sinica 2017/06/03 1 Fieldwork A schematic overview 2 1991‐1992 1991‐ 2005‐ 1992‐ 2013‐ Languages studied for the past 26 years 3 1991‐1992 1991‐ 2005‐ 1992‐ 2013‐ Languages studied for the past 26 years 4 1991‐1992 1991‐ 2005‐ 1992‐ 2013‐ Languages studied for the past 26 years 5 1991‐1992 1991‐ 2005‐ 1992‐ 2013‐ Languages studied for the past 26 years 6 Why not start with the Wu Dah‐you award? 2004 The dynamic/stative dichotomy in Formosan languages (Zeitoun & Huang 2000) 7 The dynamic/stative distinction •My first major paper was Zeitoun & Huang (2000) where we showed that the Formosan languages exhibit a pervasive distinction between dynamic and stative verbs. • Stative verbs are marked by Ø or ma‐ and in other contexts, these same verbs are marked by ka‐ (e.g. when marked as negative, imperative, causative, irrealis, and/or nominalized). •Conversely, dynamic verbs are marked by M‐ or Ø and in other contexts, these same verbs are unmarked (e.g. when marked as negative, imperative, causative, irrealis, and/or nominalized). Verb type Indicative AV form Alternant form –Basic Stem (negated or affixed) Dynamic /M/ Ø Ø Stative Ø ka‐ ma‐ 8 Twice awarded the MOST Outstanding Research Award: Ups and downs 2010 9 Rukai The Wanshan village （萬山村）in 1992, at the time when I carried my first fieldwork there • Rukai includes six main dialects: Tanan, Labuan, Budai, Maga, Tona and Mantauran. 10 Rukai http://www.wretch.cc/blog/maler3733 •In August 1992, as I was just starting working as a research assistant at Academia Sinica, I was asked by Prof.
    [Show full text]