THE COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION AND THE BENEFIT OF CODE SWITCHING WITHIN BILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAM OR MULTILINGUAL CHILDREN IN LEARNING ENGLISH
JUNAIDI, ABDUL MAJID
FKIP-Universitas Gunung Rinjani Selong-Lombok Timur
ABSTRACT Though code switching research may vary from context to context and situation to situation, the common factors for code switching will be threefold. That is, code switching deals with languages in contact. In interactive social situations code switching will be the use of more than one language. For example the interaction during various social events involving interlocutors who know more than one language. Gumperz (1982) while discussing the communicative function of code switching, claims that the speaker plays upon the connection of the we-code to create conversational effect. Thus code switching is seen as fulfilling the relational and referential functions of language that amounts to effective communication and interlingua unity. As an increasing number of children enter the school, districts are faced with meeting their academic needs. These children enter into the classroom with varying language (mother tongue). Some schools have adopted bilingual education programs, teaching subject matter in Indonesian and English. Others believe in immersion, or placing the students in mainstream classrooms in which they are expected to learn the English language and subject matter taught in English simultaneously. Still other schools hover somewhere in between, striving to find the best way to reach these children/students. What factors can affect/force students to use code switching in their discourse? What are the benefits of code switching for L2 children/student? What are the communicative functions of codes switching? These questions are the debate of bilingual education throughout the country. In this study, explore the effects of difference types of education such as bilingual education. Specifically, this paper discuss of the role of code switching (the use of both Indonesia/Sasak and English within the same discourse) in bilingual settings.
Key words: Communicative function, Code switching, bilingual and multilingual.
Journal Ilmiah Rinjani_Universitas Gunung Rinjani Vol. 7 No.2 Tahun 2019
INTRODUCTION complex communicative demands,” speakers People who have learned two who live in a community and household languages demonstrate an interesting where two or more languages coexist phenomenon known as “code switching” by frequently switch from one language to mixing words or phrases from the two another, either between or within utterances. tongues together during the course of speech In his general characterization of CS, Crystal or writing. A „code‟ is defined as a language (1987) presents a number of possible or a dialect. Code switching (CS) is an reasons for switching from one language to alternation of words and phrases between another. One reason presented by Crystal for two languages or dialects. This usually the switching behavior is the notion that when occurs between people who share those speakers may not be able to express particular languages. Code switching is themselves in one language, they switch to determined by a number of social and the other to compensate for the deficiency. linguistic factors. It is a widely used in Adendorff‟s (1966) view is contrary to the multilingual and multicultural communities. notion that CS is a compensation for a Code switching is an everyday reality in linguistic deficit in bilingual speakers; he sees every place where more than one language CS as “functionally motivated” (p. 389) is spoken in everyday communications. Many behavior. The analysis also posited that CS scholars have studied extensively about the functions as a communicative strategy for patterns of code switching and the reasons facilitating family or class room for code switching. communication by lowering language barriers As schools have been faced with as well as by consolidating cultural identity. teaching these growing number students, 1. Code Switching different educational programs have Code-switching is distinct from other emerged. In this paper discuss the effective language contact phenomena, such as and non-effective code switching that takes borrowing, pidgins and creoles, loan place by the students in a bilingual translation (calques), and language classroom. Colin Baker writes that the transfer (language interference). intended outcomes of placing students in Borrowing affects the lexicon, the words such a classroom "often include that make up a language, while code- monolingualism in the majority language of switching takes place in individual the country (or limited bilingualism) and utterances. Speakers form and establish assimilation into the mainstream culture, a pidgin language when two or more values and attitudes.” Students within a speakers who do not speak a common bilingual classroom are not only expected to language form an intermediate, third learn the English language, but also to language. On the other hand, speakers simultaneously learn subject matter in the practice code-switching when they are foreign language (English). each fluent in both languages. Code Language behaviors are influenced by mixing is a thematically related term, but cultural aspects; thus, the function of code the usage of the terms code-switching choices and CS varies in different cultures or and code-mixing varies. Some scholars language communities, and by different use either term to denote the same social situations. With linguistic globalization practice, while others apply code-mixing as a growing trend in the modern world, most to denote the formal linguistic properties of the world‟s speech communities are of said language-contact phenomena, multilingual, which makes contact between and code-switching to denote the actual, languages an important force in the every spoken usages by multilingual persons. In day lives of most people. In a multilingual the 1940s and 1950s, many scholars society, each language uniquely fulfills considered code-switching to be a sub- certain roles and represents distinct standard use of language. Since the identities, and all of them complement one 1980s, however, most scholars have another to serve “the complex communicative recognised it is a normal, natural product demands of a pluralistic society” (Sridhar, of bilingual and multilingual language use. 1996, p. 53). Moreover, in order to meet “the
Junaidi, Abdul Majid | 60 Journal Ilmiah Rinjani_Universitas Gunung Rinjani Vol. 7 No.2 Tahun 2019
2. The Function of Code Switching h) To add emphasis Communicative functions and Reasons i) Other reasons for Codes witching / Code-switching 4. Types of Switching perform several functions (Zentella, Scholars use different names for various 1985). types of code-switching. First, people may use code-switching Inter sentential switching occurs to hide fluency or memory problems outside the sentence or the clause in the second language (but this level (i.e. at sentence or clause accounts for about only 10 percent of boundaries). It is sometimes called code switches). "extra sentential" switching. Second, code-switching is used to Intra-sentential switching occurs mark switching from informal within a sentence or a clause. situations (using native languages) to Tag-switching is the switching of formal situations (using second either a tag phrase or a word, or both, language). from language-B to language-A, Third, code-switching is used to exert (common intra-sentential switches). control, especially between parents Intra-word switching occurs within a and children. word, itself, such as at a morpheme Fourth, code-switching is used to boundary. align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as a member of an ethnic group). Code- RESEARCH METHOD switching also 'functions to announce The method applied in this study was specific identities, create certain qualitative descriptive which aim to meanings, and facilitate particular describing the function of code switching interpersonal relationships' (Johnson, amoung students in learning english 2000, p.184)." (William B. Gudykunst, language. The main data obtained were in Bridging Differences: Effective the form of utterances, sentences, words and Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. pharses. The data were colected from the Sage, 2004) coversation between teacher and students in 3. Factors of Code Switching among teaching and learning process. Bilingual or multilingual Students There are three ways in collecting data: As revealed that the primary 1. Recording factor of code switching is incompetence The data were collected through recording in the second language. Other noted to the broadcasters that program. The factors were: to maintain privacy; to broadcasters‟ speech was recorded used make it easier to speak in their own an application phone recorder. language than to speak in English; to 2. Note Taking avoid misunderstanding; being unfamiliar The writer tries to write some of linguistic with similar words in English. However, phenomena in daily comunication of the code switching can be a useful strategy students. in classroom interaction if the aim is to 3. Interview make meaning clear and to transfer the The writer interview teacher and some of knowledge to students in an efficient the students why they use code switching way. in learning English language. Factors that Influence Code Switching: a) No similar words in English DISCUSSION b) Did not know the English word Skiba (1997) suggests that code c) To fill the gap in speaking switching is used in language classrooms d) Easier to speak in own language because of an inability of expression and it e) To avoid misunderstanding provides continuity in speech rather than f) To convey intimacy interference in the flow of linguistic g) So others would not understand expression. In this respect code switching (Privacy) can be seen as a supporting element in
Junaidi, Abdul Majid | 61 Journal Ilmiah Rinjani_Universitas Gunung Rinjani Vol. 7 No.2 Tahun 2019 communication of information and in social of the phenomenon. All these in general lead interaction. Thus it enhances communication to the idea that the use of code switching and is used as a tool for transference of somehow builds a bridge from known to meaning. Many teachers, who are in favors unknown and may be considered as an of the applications of communicative important element in language teaching when techniques in the language teaching used efficiently. environment, oppose any form of native 1. Why do we Use Code-Switching? language use during classroom instruction. People who bilinguals have so many Contrary to this, supporters of the use of linguistic resources to choose from and native language in the form of code yet, they are ashamed when they find that switching, suggest that it may be an effective they need to resort to code-switching to strategy in various aspects. Following the keep the communication process ideas of these two parties, some weak and uninterrupted. They are persuaded by strong sides of the use of code switching in traditional upbringing, education, and foreign language classroom settings will be common beliefs that code-switching is a mentioned with a critical perspective. sign of defective language skills. But trying Cook (2002:333) handles the subject to avoid it at any cost can create even matter considering multilingual classrooms in worse perception of our abilities. Code- saying that the application of code switching switching is meaningful in the same way in classes which do not share the same that choice of style in a short story is native language may create problems, as meaningful, and it is quite natural in many some of the students (though few in number) multicultural communities, where it will somehow be neglected. So, at this point it becomes a register in its own right, a may be suggested that the students should mode of expression in many informal share the same native language, if code situations, applied to avoid defining the switching will be applied in instruction. social situation in terms of either language Another point to consider in this respect is and culture. Some reasons for code- that the competence of the teacher in mother switching listed by Francois Grosjean (Life tongue of students also plays a vital role, if with two languages: an introduction to positive contributions of code switching are bilingualism, 1982). expected. A further discussion is put forward a. Fill a linguistic need for lexical item, set by Eldridge, as he suggests “the learners phrase, discourse marker, or sentence have no guarantee that their audience will filler share knowledge of their mother tongue” Exactly the situation described above. (1996:309). This perspective concerns the have not mastered Italian at a level that interaction of students with native speakers would allow me to comfortably discuss of the target language, as mutual intelligibility in this language Mao‟s Cultural may not be possible if the learner switches Revolution. Switching may also occur his language during communication. as a result of a linguistic habit - we all In supporting the existence of code have our favorite fixed phrases and switching in language classrooms, Skiba discourse markers, e.g. you know, (1997) suggests that in the circumstances whatever, dai! (come on!), absolutnie! where code switching is used due to an (definitely!). inability of expression, it serves for continuity b. Continue the last language used in speech instead of presenting interference in language. In this respect, code switching (triggering) stands to be a supporting element in The conversational topic and setting communication of information and in social may increase the level of activation of interaction; therefore serves for particular lexical items to such an communicative purposes in the way that it is extent that they become more available used as a tool for transference of meaning. in one language than in the other. I Additionally, the functions of the teacher‟s have studied linguistics in English, I code switching as mentioned in III stand as have read scientific literature in English, supportive explanations for the strong sides I have written about it in English, so do
Junaidi, Abdul Majid | 62 Journal Ilmiah Rinjani_Universitas Gunung Rinjani Vol. 7 No.2 Tahun 2019
not ask me to discuss linguistics in For instance, someone in his/her work Polish, I would be at a loss! he/she often talk to Italian travel c. Quote someone arrangers who know very well that they About translations? They are rarely could easily place their orders with faithful, so why translate if we can him/her in Italian. Instead they choose quote the original? to speak with he/she in English, d. Specify addressee because their job description states that Most useful in multilingual groups. You they should be performing their duties can regulate turn-taking and avoid the in English, and their resumes assert infamous question: Are you talking to that they are qualified to do so. me? 2. Analysis the Benefit of Code Switching e. Qualify message: amplify or emphasize Code switching was a common occurrence within the bilingual classroom. (‘topper’ in argument) Children/students often switched freely Have you noticed how your message between English, Indonesian or sasak gets better heard when you strengthen language during class and play in order to its effect by stating it in two languages? communicate with teachers, peers or An angry bilingual mother may say to family. Code switching, in the bilingual her crying child: Enough already! classroom, can motivate students Smettila! You may also use switches to accurately conveyed meaning and were draw attention to a particular part of the able to be understood by the listener. message, to mark „asides‟ from Students who were able to code switch ongoing discourse, to terminate an freely within the classroom were faced argument. with fewer language barriers when f. Specify speaker involvement discussing subject matter. Thus, they were (personalize message) better able to relay the information that Some notions may be simply better they had learned to teachers or peers expressed in one language than because of the language freedom code another. Is it easier for you to talk about switching provides. Conversations of your emotions and feelings in students who were not allowed to code Language A or Language B? switch or code switched non-effectively g. Mark and emphasize group identity were often choppy and came to an end (solidarity) prematurely. These students were not Most common in immigrant and ethnic able to accurately convey their knowledge minority groups. of subject matter to teachers or peers due h. Convey confidentiality, anger, to Language barriers. annoyance Listeners interpret code- 3. The Functions of Teachers‟ Code Switching switching as indicator of the speaker‟s The teachers‟ use of code switching attitudes, communicative intentions, is not always performed consciously; and emotions at a given moment, which which means that the teacher is not is conveyed by monolinguals by way of always aware of the functions and using different levels of formality in outcomes of the code switching process. language. Therefore, in some cases it may be i. Exclude someone from conversation regarded as an automatic and unconscious behavior. Nevertheless, This is what monolinguals hate and the either conscious or not, it necessarily main reason why they are so against serves some basic functions which may code-switching. The scene can be beneficial in language learning describing the use of accommodation environments. These functions are listed and divergence strategy. as topic switch, affective functions, and j. Change role of a speaker: raise status, repetitive functions by Mattson and add authority, show expertise Burenhult (1999:61). In order to have a general idea about these, it will be
Junaidi, Abdul Majid | 63 Journal Ilmiah Rinjani_Universitas Gunung Rinjani Vol. 7 No.2 Tahun 2019 appropriate to give a brief explanation some undesired student behaviors. A about each function. In topic switch cases, learner who is sure that the instruction in the teacher alters his/her language foreign language will be followed by a according to the topic that is under native language translation may lose discussion. This is mostly observed in interest in listening to the former grammar instruction, that the teacher instruction which will have negative shifts his language to the mother tongue of academic consequences; as the student is his students in dealing with particular exposed to foreign language discourse grammar points, which are taught at that limitedly. moment. In these cases, the students‟ 4. The Functions of Students‟ Code attention is directed to the new knowledge Switching by making use of code switching and As it is the case for teachers‟ code accordingly making use of native tongue. switching, the students also are not At this point it may be suggested that a always aware of the reasons for code bridge from known (native language) to switching as well as its functions and unknown (new foreign language content) outcomes. Although they may is constructed in order to transfer the new unconsciously perform code switching, it content and meaning is made clear in this clearly serves some functions either way as it is also suggested by Cole beneficial or not. Eldridge names these (1998): “a teacher can exploit students‟ functions as: equivalence, floor-holding, previous L1 learning experience to reiteration, and conflict control (1996:305- increase their understanding of L2”. 307). The first function of student code In addition to the function of code switch is equivalence. In this case, the switching named as topic switch, the student makes use of the native phenomenon also carries affective equivalent of a certain lexical item in target functions that serve for expression of language and therefore code switches to emotions. In this respect, code switching his/her native tongue. This process may is used by the teacher in order to build be correlated with the deficiency in solidarity and intimate relations with the linguistic competence of target language, students. In this sense, one may speak off which makes the student use the native the contribution of code switching for lexical item when he/she has not the creating a supportive language competence for using the target language environment in the classroom. As explanation for a particular lexical item. So mentioned before, this is not always a “equivalence” functions as a defensive conscious process on the part of the mechanism for students as it gives the teacher. However, one may also infer the student the opportunity to continue same thing for the natural occurrence of communication by bridging the gaps code switching as one cannot take into resulting from foreign language guarantee its conscious application if the incompetence. Maori example given in section II is The next function to be introduced is considered. Another explanation for the floor-holding. During a conversation in the functionality of code switching in target language, the students fill the classroom settings is its repetitive stopgap with native language use. It may function. In this case, the teacher uses be suggested that this is a mechanism code switching in order to transfer the used by the students in order to avoid necessary knowledge for the students for gaps in communication, which may result clarity. Following the instruction in target from the lack of fluency in target language. language, the teacher code switches to The learners performing code switching native language in order to clarify for floor holding generally have the same meaning, and in this way stresses problem: they cannot recall the importance on the foreign language appropriate target language structure or content for efficient comprehension. lexicon. It may be claimed that this type of However, the tendency to repeat the language alternation may have negative instruction in native language may lead to effects on learning a foreign language;
Junaidi, Abdul Majid | 64 Journal Ilmiah Rinjani_Universitas Gunung Rinjani Vol. 7 No.2 Tahun 2019
since it may result in loss of fluency in long language, but that their acquisition of subject term. matter would also suffer because of language The third consideration in students‟ barriers code switching is reiteration, which is Code switching is a widely observed pointed by Eldridge as: “messages are phenomenon especially seen in multilingual reinforced, emphasized, or clarified where and multicultural communities. The primary the message has already been transmitted factor of code switching is incompetence in in one code, but not understood” the second language. Other noted factors (1996:306). In this case, the message in were: to maintain privacy so that others target language is repeated by the student would not understand; to easiness of in native tongue through which the learner communication; to avoid misunderstanding; tries to give the meaning by making use of to share informational; being unfamiliar with a repetition technique. The reason for this similar words in English; to put emphasis specific language alternation case may be being stylist or to be thought clever. two-folds: first, he/she may not have In their teaching philosophy, language transferred the meaning exactly in target instructors should be aware that codes language. Second, the student may think emerge from bilingual interaction and they that it is more appropriate to code switch are very useful for conveying the message of in order to indicate the teacher that the the lesson if correctly used in the discourse. content is clearly understood by him/her. In many circumstances, a teacher may The last function of students‟ code encourage students to exchange codes switching to be introduced here is conflict seeing it as an advantage for learning the control. For the potentially conflictive target language. Its appearance and the form language use of a student (meaning that depend on the demographics, the age and the student tends to avoid a background of learners and psychodynamic misunderstanding or tends to utter words modality of the class itself. In some cases, indirectly for specific purposes), the code code exchange may bring a unharmonious switching is a strategy to transfer the relationship between speakers and language intended meaning. The underlying community, because in their respective reasons for the tendency to use this type cultures the words may not carry same value, of code switching may vary according to status and functions. students‟ needs, intentions or purposes. Another implication of code switching Additionally, the lack of some culturally is to serve better in English immersion setting equivalent lexis among the native where they provide clarification when a word language and target language--which may or phrase is not known. The code exchange lead to violation of the transference of occurrences are welcomed in the class and intended meaning--may result in code may increase English competency if the switching for conflict control; therefore frequency is not excessive. In addition, if the possible misunderstandings are avoided. language teacher has some knowledge of students‟ first language, the lessons can be CONCLUSSION better dealt with. In short, code switching can Students who are allowed to code be a useful strategy in classroom interaction switch in the classroom are better able to if the aim is to make meaning clear and to convey their knowledge of subject matter to transfer the knowledge to students in an their classmates and teachers. In the efficient way. immersion classroom where code switching was not allowed or understood, children often REFERENCES stopped themselves mid-sentence or Ayeomoni, M. (2006). Code-switching and declared that they did not know the answer to code-mixing: Style of language a question (when perhaps they did know the use in childhood in Yoruba answer but lacked the vocabulary in English). speech community. Nordic Journal of African For these children, enrolling in English- Studies, 15 (1), 90-99. speaking schools did not only mean that they would have to learn an entirely new
Junaidi, Abdul Majid | 65 Journal Ilmiah Rinjani_Universitas Gunung Rinjani Vol. 7 No.2 Tahun 2019
Auer, Peter (1998). Code-Switching in Gumperz, John Joseph; Dell H. Hymes Conversation. London: (1986), Directions in Routledge. Sociolinguistics: The ………………. 1999. From code-switching via Ethnography of Communication, language mixing to fused lects: Oxford: Basil Blackwell toward a dynamic typology of Muysken, Pieter (1995). "Code-switching and bilingual speech. International grammatical theory". In L. Milroy Journal of Bilingualism 3(4):309- & P. Muysken. One Speaker, Two 332. Languages: Cross-disciplinary Brice, A. & Brice, R. (2009). (Ed.s). Perspectives on Code-switching. Language development: Cambridge: Cambridge University Monolingual and bilingual Press. pp. 177–98. acquisition. Old Tappan, NJ: Poplack Shana (1980). "Sometimes I'll start a Merrill/Prentice Hall. sentence in Spanish y termino en Belazi, Heidi; Edward Rubin; Almeida español": toward a typology of Jacqueline Toribio (1994). "Code code-switching". Linguistics 18 switching and X-Bar theory: The (7/8): 581–618. functional head constraint". Holmes, J. 1992. An Introduction to Linguistic Inquiry 25 (2): 221–37. Sociolinguistics. Bhatt, Rakesh M. (1995). "Code-switching London:Longman and the functional head Numan, D. and Carter, D. 2001. Teaching constraint". In Janet Fuller et al.. English to Speakers of Other Proceedings of the Eleventh Languages. Cambridge: Eastern States Conference on Cambridge University Press Linguistics. Ithaca, NY: Trudgill, P. 2000. Sociolinguistics. London: Department of Modern Penguin Languages and Linguistics. Muysken, Pieter. 2000. Bilingual Speech: A pp. 1–12. Typology of Code-mixing. Clyne, Michael (2000). "Constraints on code- Cambridge University Press. switching: how universal are King, Kendall A. 2006. "Child language they?". In Li Wei. The acquisition." In R. Fasold and J. Bilingualism Reader. Routledge. Connor-Linton (eds.) An Cole, S .1998. The Use of L1 in Introduction to Language and Communicative English Linguistics. Cambridge University Classrooms. The Language Press. pp. 205-224. Teacher, 22:11-13 Sridhar, S.N. and Kamal K. Sridhar. 1980. Cook, V. 2002. Portraits of the L2 User. The syntax and psycholinguistics Clevedon: Multilingual Matters of bilingual code-mixing. Gumperz, J. (Ed.) (1982). Language and Canadian Journal of Psychology social identity. Cambridge: CUP. 34(4):407-416. Heller, Monica (1992). "The Politics of Myers-Scotton, Carol. 1993. Social Codeswitching and Language Motivations of Codeswitching. Choice". In C. Eastman. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Codeswitching. Clevedon: Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2002. "Pidgins and Multilingual Matters. Creoles." In An Introduction to Li Wei (1998). "The 'Why' and 'How' Sociolinguistics (fourth ed.). Questions in the Analysis of Blackwell. pp. 57–86 Conversational Codeswitching". Romaine, Suzanne and Braj Kachru. 1992. In "Code-mixing and code- P. Auer. Code-Switching in Conversation: switching." In T. McArthur (ed.) Language, Interaction, and The Oxford Companion to the Identity. London: Routledge. English Language. Oxford pp. 156–76. University Press. pp. 228-229
Junaidi, Abdul Majid | 66