Vol. 77 Tuesday, No. 142 July 24, 2012

Part II

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing Foreign Bird Species in Peru and Bolivia as Endangered Throughout Their Range; Final Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Junı´n rail, Peruvian plantcutter, royal 14496), we published a 12-month cinclodes, and white-browed tit- finding on the 1991 petition, along with Fish and Wildlife Service spinetail. These species are all native to a proposed rule to list 30 African birds Peru. The ash-breasted tit-tyrant and under the Act (which included 15 50 CFR Part 17 royal cinclodes are also native to species from the 1991 petition). In that [Docket No. FWS–R9–IA–2009–0059; Bolivia. Each of these six species is document, we announced our finding 4500030115] affected by the loss and degradation of that listing the remaining 38 species habitat. In addition to severely from the 1991 petition, including the six RIN 1018–AV77 contracted ranges and distributions of Peruvian bird species that are the these species, their small, declining subject of this proposed rule, was Endangered and Threatened Wildlife populations are an additional threat to warranted but precluded by higher and Plants; Listing Foreign Bird their survival. priority listing actions. We made a Species in Peru and Bolivia as This action is authorized by the subsequent warranted-but-precluded Endangered Throughout Their Range Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Act) finding for all outstanding foreign AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), as amended. It species from the 1991 petition, Interior. affects part 17, subchapter B of chapter including the six Peruvian bird species ACTION: Final rule. I, title 50 of the Code of Federal that are the subject of this proposed Regulations. rule, as published in our annual notice SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and These six foreign bird species will be of review (ANOR) of foreign species on Wildlife Service (We or Service), listed as endangered under the Act. May 21, 2004 (69 FR 29354). Per the Service’s listing priority determine endangered status for the Background following six South American bird guidelines (September 21, 1983; 48 FR species (collectively referred to as On January 5, 2010, we published a 43098), our 2007 ANOR (77 FR 20184, species for purposes of this final rule) proposed rule (75 FR 606) to list these April 23, 2007) identified the listing under the Endangered Species Act of six species as endangered: Ash-breasted priority numbers (LPNs) (ranging from 1 1973, as amended (Act): Ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Anairetes alpinus), Junı´n to 12) for all outstanding foreign tit-tyrant (Anairetes alpinus), Junı´n grebe (Podiceps taczanowskii), Junı´n species. The six Peruvian bird species grebe (Podiceps taczanowskii), Junı´n rail (Laterallus tuerosi), Peruvian that are the subject of this proposed rule rail (Laterallus tuerosi), Peruvian plantcutter (Phytotoma raimondii), were designated with an LPN of 2, and plantcutter (Phytotoma raimondii), royal cinclodes (Cinclodes aricomae), we determined that their listing royal cinclodes (Cinclodes aricomae), and white-browed tit-spinetail continued to be warranted but and white-browed tit-spinetail (Leptasthenura xenothorax). These precluded because of other listing (Leptasthenura xenothorax). These species are all native to Peru. The ash- actions. A listing priority of 2 indicates species are in danger of extinction breasted tit-tyrant and royal cinclodes that the species faces imminent threats throughout all of their ranges. All six are also native to Bolivia. of high magnitude. With the exception species are native to Peru. The ash- We opened the public comment of the listing priority ranking of 1, breasted tit-tyrant and royal cinclodes period on the proposed rule for 60 days, which addresses monotypic genera that are also native to Bolivia. which ended March 8, 2010, to allow all face imminent threats of high interested parties an opportunity to DATES: This rule becomes effective magnitude, LPN categories 2 and 3 are comment on the proposed rule. August 23, 2012. among the Service’s highest priorities We are addressing these six species for listing. ADDRESSES: This final rule is available under a single rule for efficiency. Each On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we on the Internet at http:// of these species is affected by similar published in the Federal Register a www.regulations.gov. Comments and threats. The major threat to these notice announcing our annual petition materials received, as well as supporting species is the loss and degradation of findings for foreign species. In that documentation used in the preparation habitat. In addition to severely notice, we announced listing to be of this rule, are available for public contracted ranges and distributions of warranted for 30 foreign bird species, inspection at http:// these species, their small, declining including the six Peruvian bird species www.regulations.gov or by appointment, populations are an additional threat. In that are the subject of this proposed during normal business hours at: U.S. this rule, we combined the evaluation of rule, and stated that we would promptly Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered species that face similar threats within publish proposals to list these 30 taxa. Species Program, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, the same general habitat type and In selecting these six species from the Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22203. geographic area into one section to list of warranted-but-precluded species, FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: maximize our limited staff resources. we took into consideration the Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of magnitude and immediacy of the threats Foreign Species, Endangered Species Previous Federal Actions to the species, consistent with the Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, On May 6, 1991, we received a Service’s listing priority guidelines. 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420, petition (the 1991 petition) from the On September 8, 2008, the Service Arlington, VA 22203. If you use a International Council for Bird received a 60-day notice of intent to sue telecommunications device for the deaf Preservation (ICBP) to add 53 foreign from the Center for Biological Diversity (TDD), call the Federal Information bird species to the List of Endangered (CBD) and Peter Galvin over violations Relay Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. and Threatened Wildlife, including the of section 4 of the Act for the Service’s SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: six Peruvian bird species that are the failure to promptly publish listing subject of this proposed rule. In proposals for the 30 warranted species Executive Summary response to the 1991 petition, we identified in our 2008 ANOR. Under a On January 5, 2010, we published a published a substantial 90-day finding settlement agreement approved by the proposed rule (75 FR 606) to list these on December 16, 1991 (56 FR 65207), for U.S. District Court for the Northern six foreign bird species as endangered: all 53 species and initiated a status District of California on June 15, 2009, Ash-breasted tit-tyrant, Junı´n grebe, review. On March 28, 1994 (59 FR (CBD et al. v. Salazar, 09–CV–02578–

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CRB), we were required to submit to the Summary of Comments and history, population estimates, threat Federal Register proposed listing rules Recommendations factors, and current conservation efforts for the ash-breasted tit-tyrant, Junı´n In the proposed rule that published were provided and also incorporated grebe, Junı´n rail, Peruvian plantcutter, on January 5, 2010 (75 FR 606), we into this rule. In response to a comment royal cinclodes, and white-browed tit- requested that all interested parties from a peer reviewer who thought that spinetail by December 29, 2009. That submit information that might the proposed rule was difficult to read, proposed rule published on January 5, contribute to the development of a final we have tried to reorganize our 2010 (75 FR 606). rule. We also contacted appropriate evaluation and finding in a clearer Summary of Changes From the scientific experts and organizations and manner in this final rule. Proposed Rule invited them to comment on the Species Information proposed listings. This final rule incorporates changes to Below is a description of each species. our proposed listing based on new We received three comments on the proposed rule from the public. One The species are described in information located on these species alphabetical order, beginning with the since the proposed rule was published, comment from the public expressed support for the proposed listings but ash-breasted tit-tyrant, followed by the including comments and information Junı´n grebe, Junı´n rail, Peruvian received from peer reviewers. In order provided no substantive information. One commenter requested that we take plantcutter, royal cinclodes, and the to be concise and efficient, we are white-browed tit-spinetail. incorporating by reference background climate change into account when information that was published on these evaluating threats to these species. I. Ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Anairetes six species in the proposed rule, 75 FR Although the science of climate change alpinus) is still uncertain with respect to how it 606, published January 5, 2010. Species Species Description descriptions, taxonomy, and habitat and will affect the long-term viability of life history may be found in the species and the ecosystems upon which The ash-breasted tit-tyrant, locally proposed rule, unless we are making they depend, the Service did consider known as ‘‘torito pechicenizo,’’ is a technical corrections or incorporating effects of climate change to these small New World tyrant flycatcher in new information. In this final rule, we species in this final rule. the Tyrannidae family that is native to included new information on recent The other comment received from the high-altitude woodlands of the Bolivian location data for the royal cinclodes. We public was also non-substantive—the and Peruvian Andes (BirdLife also updated the population estimates, commenter asked why these species International (BLI) 2000, p. 392; Collar range, and conservation status on the should be listed under the Act if they et al. 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et al. 2004, other species. are not native to the United States. The pp. 170, 281; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, We also changed the format of this Act provides for the listing of any pp. 468–469; InfoNatura 2007, p. 1; final rule to make it more readable, species that qualifies as an endangered Supreme Decree No. 034–2004–AG particularly in light of the Plain Writing or threatened species, regardless of its 2004, p. 276854). The sexes are similar, Act of 2010 (Executive Order 13563). native range. Protections under the Act with adults approximately 13 We organized it first by species apply to species not native to the United centimeters (cm) (5 inches (in)) in descriptions for all six species, and then States and include restrictions on length, with dark gray, inconspicuously by the evaluation of factors affecting the importation into the United States; sale black-streaked upperparts (BLI 2009o, species. We organized the threats or offer for sale in foreign commerce; p. 1; del Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281). The evaluation for these six species (also and delivery, receipt, carrying, two subspecies (see Taxonomy) are known as the five-factor analysis, see transport, or shipment in foreign distinguished by their underbelly color, Section 4(a)(1) of the Act), primarily by commerce and in the course of a which is yellowish-white in the three habitat types and locations for commercial activity. Listing also serves nominate subspecies and white in the efficiency. Three species occur in to heighten awareness of the importance other (BLI 2009o, p. 1). Juvenile Polylepis forest, two species occur at of conserving these species among plumage is duller in appearance, but is Lake Junı´n, and the Peruvian plantcutter foreign governments, conservation otherwise similar to the adult coloration is evaluated on its own due to its unique organizations, and the public. (del Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281). habitat requirements and distribution. Peer Review Taxonomy Because each habitat experiences similar threats, for each threat factor, we In accordance with our policy When the species was first identified and evaluated those factors published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR taxonomically described by Carriker that affect these species within the 34270), we solicited expert opinions (1933, pp. 27–29), it was placed in its particular habitat and that are common from six knowledgeable individuals own genus, Yanacea. It was not until to all of the species within that habitat. with scientific expertise that included the 1960s that Yanacea was merged into For example, the degradation of habitat familiarity with one or more of these six Anairetes (a genus long-known as and habitat loss are threats to all six species, the geographic region in which Spizitornis) by Meyer de Schauensee species. We also identified and the species occur, and conservation (1966, p. 376). Some contemporary evaluated threats that may be unique to biology principles. We received researchers have suggested retaining the certain species, but that may not apply responses from four peer reviewers. The species within Yanacea (Fjeldsa˚ and to all of the species addressed in this peer reviewers generally agreed that the Krabbe 1990, p. 468). Smith (1971, final rule. For example, the Peruvian description of the biology and habitat pp. 269, 275) and Roy et al. (1999, p. 74) plantcutter is the only species addressed for each species was accurate and was confirmed that the ash-breasted tit in this rule that is found in the based on the best available information. tyrant is a valid species based on its northwestern coast of Peru, and we have New location data were provided for the phylogenetic placement and degree of addressed threats that are unique to that royal cinclodes, and we incorporated genetic divergence from other species of species specifically. Lastly, we included the information into the rule. Anairetes, and recent texts continue to range maps for each species to better Supporting data and information such place it in Anairetes (e.g., del Hoyo et identify their ranges to the public. as the species’ biology, ecology, life al. 2004, p. 281). Therefore, we accept

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the species as Anairetes alpinus, which species of evergreen bushes and trees Engblom et al. 2002, p. 58; Fjeldsa˚ and follows the Integrated Taxonomic (Kessler and Schmidt-Lebuhn 2006, pp. Krabbe 1990, p. 468). In winter, when Information System (ITIS 2009, p. 1). 1–2; De la Via 2004, p. 10; Kessler 1998, invertebrate populations diminish, tit- Two subspecies are recognized, p. 1), 19 of which occur in Peru (Chutas tyrants may also forage on seeds (Fjeldsa˚ including, A. alpinus alpinus (the et al. 2008, p. 3). In Bolivia, the ash- and Krabbe 1990, p. 468). nominate subspecies) and A. alpinus breasted tit-tyrant is associated only Historical Range and Distribution bolivianus. These subspecies occur in with P. pepei forests, but the bird is two widely separated areas (see Current found among a greater variety of The ash-breasted tit-tyrant may once Range) (ITIS 2009, p. 1; del Hoyo et al. Polylepis species in Peru (Chutas et al. have been well-distributed throughout 2004, p. 281) and are distinguished by 2008, p. 16; I. Go´mez, in litt. 2007, previously dense and contiguous the color of their underbellies (see p. 1). The average Polylepis species are Polylepis high-Andes woodlands of Peru Taxonomy) (BLI 2009o, p. 1). 3–10 m (10–33 ft) tall, but may grow to and Bolivia. Researchers believe that a height of 36 m (118 ft) (Purcell et al. these woodlands were historically Habitat and Life History 2004, p. 455). P. pepei is considered contiguous with lower-elevation cloud Density of foliage rather than size of vulnerable by IUCN and is described as forests and widespread above 3,000 m tree seems to be an important factor for rare. The genus Gynoxys includes (9,843 ft) (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111–112, this species (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.). several species of flowering shrubs. The 115; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Kessler This species forages in the terminal ash-breasted tit-tyrant is known to exist 2002, pp. 97–101; Collar et al. 1992, branches and outer foliage, usually in in disjunct areas: West-central Peru and p. 753). Researchers consider the the treetops but also at ground level at in suitable habitat stretching from reduction in Polylepis forest habitat to the edges of dense forest patches. In southern Peru into northern Bolivia be the result of historical human areas where all trees have been cut, it (Benham et al. 2011, pp. 145–157; del activities, including burning and forages in the dense regrowth near Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281). grazing, which have prevented ground level. In general, these patches Polylepis woodlands occur as dense regeneration of the woodlands and are found in a zone of persistent forests, as open-canopied stands with resulted in the fragmented habitat cloudiness, in places with difficult more arid understories, or as shrubland distribution seen today (Herzog et al. accessibility and few people (Fjeldsa˚ with scattered trees (De la Via 2004, pp. 2002, p. 94; Kessler 2002, pp. 97–101; 2010 pers. comm.). 10–11; Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, Kessler 1995a, In west-central Peru, the species cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113; Lloyd and Kessler 1995b, and L#gaard 1992, as occurs in the Cordilleras (mountains in Marsden in press, as cited in Lloyd cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112; Kessler Spanish) Central and Occidental (in the 2008, p. 532). Ash-breasted tit-tyrants and Herzog 1998, pp. 50–51). Modeling Peruvian Administrative Regions of prefer dense Polylepis forests (Fjeldsa˚ studies by Fjeldsa˚ (2002a, p. 116) Ancash, Hua´nuco, La Libertad, and 2002a, p. 114; Smith 1971, p. 269), indicate that this habitat reduction was Lima) (BLI 2009, p. 1; del Hoyo et al. which often include a mixture of accompanied by a loss in species 2004, p. 281). Until 1992, the taxon in Gynoxys trees (no common name), in richness. It is estimated that only 2–3 this locality was highly localized and the Asteraceae family (International and 10 percent of the original forest known only in Ancash Region (Collar et Plant Names Index (IPNI) 2009, p. 1; De cover still remain in Peru and Bolivia, al. 1992, p. 753). The species was la Via 2004, pp. 10). Dense Polylepis respectively (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, subsequently reported in other regions woodlands are characterized by moss- as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). Of this between 2003 and 2007, such as Lima, or vine-laden vegetation, with a shaded amount, only 1 percent of the remaining Hua´nuco, and Libertad (BLI 2009i, p. 1; understory and a rich diversity of Polylepis woodlands are found in BLI 2007, pp. 1, 5; del Hoyo et al. 2004, insects, making good feeding grounds humid areas, where denser stands occur p. 281). There is little remaining for insectivorous birds (De la Via 2004, (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as cited in Polylepis habitat in its elevational zone p. 10), such as the ash-breasted tit-tyrant Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113) and which are in the humid east Andean slope of (BLI 2009o, p. 1; Lloyd 2008, p. 535). preferred by the ash-breasted tit-tyrant Puno, so there may be a large There is little information about the (BLI 2009o, p. 1; Lloyd 2008, p. 535; distribution gap there today (Purcell and ecology and breeding behavior of the Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 114; Smith 1971, p. Brelsford 2004, p. 155). ash-breasted tit-tyrant. The species’ 269) (see Factor A). The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is territory ranges from 1–2 hectares (ha) Current Range and Distribution restricted to remnant patches of (2.5–5 acres (ac)) (BLI 2009o, p. 1). The semihumid Polylepis or Polylepis– breeding season appears to occur during The current range of the ash-breasted Gynoxys woodlands of Peru and Bolivia late dry season (Collar et al. 1992, tit-tyrant is estimated to be 11,900 (See http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/ p. 754)—November and December (BLI square kilometers (km2)) (4,595 square speciesfactsheet.php?id=4173 for a 2009o, p. 1). Juveniles have been miles (mi2) (BirdLife International [BLI] range map of the species), where the observed in March and July (del Hoyo 2011a, p. 1; see http://www.birdlife.org/ species is found at elevations between et al. 2004, p. 281; Collar et al. 1992, datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=4173 3,700 and 4,600 meters (m) (12,139 and p. 754). Although species-specific for a range map). However, BLI (2000, 15,092 feet (ft)) above sea level. It is information is not available, tit-tyrant pp. 22, 27) defines a species’ range as found in severely fragmented and local nests are generally finely woven, open the extent of occurrence or the area populations in remote valleys in the cups, built in a bush (Fjeldsa˚ and contained within the shortest Andes (Benham et al. 2011, p. 145; Krabbe 1990, p. 468). continuous imaginary boundary that can Association Armonia 2011, p. 1; The ash-breasted tit-tyrant forages be drawn to encompass all the known, InfoNatura 2007, p. 1; del Hoyo et al. alone, in family groups, and sometimes inferred, or projected sites of present 2004, pp. 170, 281; Collar et al. 1992, in mixed-species flocks. The bird takes occurrence of a species, excluding cases p. 753; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, pp. short flights, either hovering or perching of vagrancy. Given that the species is 468–469). The genus Polylepis (locally to consume invertebrates near the tops known to occur in disjunct locations, referred to as ‘‘queun˜ a’’) (Aucca and and outer edges of Polylepis shrubs and this range estimate includes a large area Ramsay 2005, p. 1), in the Rosaceae trees (BLI 2009o, p. 1; Lloyd 2008, of habitat in which the species is not family, comprises approximately 20 p. 535; del Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281; known to occur, and its actual occupied

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habitat is much smaller than its range (Go´mez in litt., 2003 and 2007, as cited all subspecies, if they are later identified (Jetz et al. 2008, p. 2). in BLI 2009o, p. 1), recent surveys as such. indicate that the population is smaller. Population Estimates Over a 6-year period, Go´mez (in litt. Conservation Status The species has experienced a 2007, p. 1) conducted intensive searches The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is population decline of between 10 and throughout 80 percent of the suitable considered endangered by the Peruvian 19 percent in the past 10 years, and this habitat in Bolivia in the Cordillera Real Government under Supreme Decree No. rate of decline is predicted to continue and the Cordillera Apolobamba (La Paz 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276,855). This (BLI 2009o, pp. 1, 4). The population is Department), to detect the presence of considered to be declining in close Decree prohibits hunting, take, the ash-breasted tit-tyrant. From this transport, and trade of protected association with continued habitat loss work, researchers inferred or observed and degradation (see Factor A) (BLI species, except as permitted by the presence of 2–10 individuals in each regulation. Peru follows the IUCN 2009o, p. 5; BLI 2007, pp. 1, 4). of four forest patches, and estimated Population information is presented RedList classification for its species. that approximately 180 ash-breasted tit- The IUCN considers the ash-breasted tit- first on a global population estimate, tyrants occur in Bolivia. and then at the range country level. The tyrant to be endangered because it has Within La Paz, there may be two a very small population that is range country estimates will begin with separate populations separated by the Peru, where the majority of the undergoing continued decline in the Mapiri canyon (see http:// number of mature individuals, is population resides. www.birdlife.org/datazone/ Global population estimate. BLI, a confined to a habitat that is severely speciesfactsheet.php?id=4173). The global organization that consults with fragmented, and is also undergoing a population in the Runtacocha highland and assimilates information from bird continuing decline in extent, area, and ´ species experts, categorizes the ash- in Apurımac, Peru, is morphologically quality of habitat (BLI 2009o, p. 4; IUCN breasted tit-tyrant as having a distinct from that in Cusco, although a 2001, pp. 8–12). The ash-breasted tit- population size between 250 and 999 formal subspecies description has not tyrant occurs within the following ˚ individuals, with an estimated actual been published (Fjeldsa 2010 pers. Peruvian protected areas: Parque population size to be in the mid- to comm.). Research on Bolivian localities Nacional Huascara´n, in Ancash, and upper-hundreds (BLI 2009o, p. 1; BLI indicates that gene flow has occurred Santuario Histo´rico Machu Picchu, in 2007, p. 1). Combining the estimated between some subpopulations, but not Cusco, and Zona Reservada de la number of ash-breasted tit-tyrants in all (Go´mez 2005, p. 86). In Bolivia, the Cordillera Huayhuash, spanning Peru and Bolivia, the total population birds are distributed in 2 Ancash, Hua´nuco, and Lima (BLI 2009i, consists of possibly 780 individuals metapopulations, with at least 5 p. 1; BLI 2009l, p. 1; BLI 2009n, p. 1; (Benham et al. 2011, p. 155; Aucca- subpopulations in one location and 14 Aucca-Chutas et al. 2008, p. 16). In La Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8; Go´mez in litt. subpopulations in the other (Go´mez Paz Department, Bolivia, the species is 2007, p. 1), consistent with the BLI 2005, p. 86). Research in 2011 found in Parque Nacional y A´ rea category of between 250–999 documented this species traveling Natural de Manejo Integrado Madidi, individuals. distances greater than 30 m (98 ft) Parque Nacional y A´ rea Natural de Peru. Peruvian population estimates between patches (Benham et al. 2011, Manejo Integrado Cotapata, and the are incomplete, with no estimates for p. 153). A ‘‘patch’’ is considered to be colocated protected areas of Reserva the ash-breasted tit-tyrants in Arequipa, any contiguous area of forest separated Nacional de Fauna de Apolobamba, Hua´nuco, La Libertad, or Lima (BLI from other fragments by 30 m (98 ft) or A´ rea Natural de Manejo Integrado de 2009g, p. 1; del Hoyo et al. 2004, more (Lloyd 2008, p. 166); and patch Apolobamba, and Reserva de la Biosfera p. 281). Aucca-Chutas (2007, p. 8) sizes are categorized generally as de Apolobamba (BLI 2009i, p. 1; Aucca- surveyed five disjunct Polylepis forest follows: small is less than 4 hectares Chutas et al. 2008, p. 16; Auza and patches in Peru and estimated that a (ha) (9.9 acres [ac]), medium is between Hennessey 2005, p. 81). total of 461 ash-breasted tit-tyrants were 4 and 12 ha (29.6 ac), and large is greater located in these areas. This included 30 than 12 ha (Benham et al. 2011, p. 148; II. Junı´n Grebe (Podiceps taczanowskii) birds in Corredor Conchucos (Ancash Lloyd 2008, p. 166). Ash-breasted tit- Species Description Region); 181 and 33 birds in Cordilleras tyrants occupy territories of 1–2 ha (2.5– Vilcanota and Vilcabamba, respectively 5 ac) (BLI 2009o, p. 1). The Junı´n grebe is a highly social, (Cusco Region); 22 birds in Cordillera de Because the ash-breasted tit-tyrant flight-impaired water bird in the Carabaya (Puno Region); and 195 birds may exist as two subspecies (BLI 2009o, Podicipedidae family that is endemic to in a study site called Cordillera del p. 5; ITIS 2009, p. 1), it is reasonable to a single location (Lake Junı´n) in Peru. It Apurı´mac (Apurı´mac Region) (Aucca- conclude that there may be little or no was observed being in the air 5–10 Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8), referring to an gene flow between the population that meters (16–33 ft) during the crossing of area within the Runtacocha highlands. is in Bolivia and the population that is a mud bank (Fjeldsa˚ 2010, pers. comm.). Other research in the Runtacocha in Peru. However, there is insufficient Its underparts are white with a strong highlands has indicated that the ash- information at this time to determine silky gloss rather than mottled (Fjeldsa˚ breasted tit-tyrant is relatively common the extent of gene flow. All populations 2010, pers. comm.). Common names for there (BLI 2009o, p. 1), with an of this species essentially face the same the species in English are: Junı´n estimated 100 pairs of birds found in threats, are all generally in the same flightless grebe, puna grebe, and approximately 40 forest patches (Fjeldsa˚ region and habitat type, and all have Taczanowski’s grebe. This species is in litt. 1990, as cited in Collar et al. quite small populations. Absent peer- also known by two Spanish names: 1992, p. 753). Small numbers of birds reviewed information to the contrary ‘‘zampullı´n del Junı´n’’ or ‘‘zambullidor are reported in La Libertad Region (del and based on the best available de Junı´n’’ (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 195; Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281). information, we recognize all Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 199; Instituto Nacional Bolivia. Although BLI reports an populations of ash-breasted tit-tyrants as de Recursos Naturales (INRENA) 1996, estimated population size of 150–300 a single species. For the purpose of this p. 3; Ramsen et al. 2007, p. 18; Supreme ash-breasted tit-tyrants in Bolivia rule, the ash-breasted tit-tyrant includes Decree 034–2004–AG 2004, p. 276854).

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A slim, long-necked bird, the Junı´n habitat, the climate is seasonal and can natural conditions, winter rains increase grebe is about 35 cm (13.78 in) in be ‘‘bitterly cold’’ in the dry season the lake water level during the breeding length, and its weight ranges from 0.30 (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 240). Local vegetation season, allowing the grebes to venture to 0.47 kilograms (0.66 to 1.04 pounds) is characterized by tall dense grasslands into local bays and canals, although (BLI 2009b, p. 1; UNEP–WCMC 2009, and scrubland with open, rocky areas, they are never found nesting on the p. 1). The Junı´n grebe has a pointed all interspersed with wetlands and lake’s shore (Tello 2007, p. 3). The head, with dark feathers on its back, a woodlands (BLI 2003, p. 1; ParksWatch species nests in the giant bulrush white throat, and mottled, dusky- 2009, pp. 1, 4). The dominant terrestrial marshlands (ParksWatch 2009, p. 4). colored underparts. This grebe is plant species surrounding the lake Well-hidden floating nests can contain distinguished by its slender gray bill, includes 43 species of grass (Poaceae up to three eggs, with an average of two red iris, and dull yellow-orange colored family), 15 species of asters (Asteraceae eggs, laid during November and feet. Immature birds are darker gray on family), and 10 species of legumes December (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 245). The the flanks than mature birds (BLI 2009b, (Fabaceae family) (ParksWatch 2009, species is believed to have a deferred p. 1). p. 1). Aquatic vegetation includes sexual maturation (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 201) Andean water milfoil (Myriophyllum and exhibits low breeding potential, Taxonomy quitense), several species of pondweed perhaps as a reflection to adaptation to The Junı´n grebe was taxonomically (including Elodea potamogeton, a ‘‘highly predictable, stable described by Berlepsch and Stolzmann Potamogeton ferrugineus, and P. environment’’ (del Hoyo et al. 1992, in 1894 (ITIS 2009, p. 1). It is one of filliformis), and bladderwort (Utricularia p. 195), laying one clutch during the nine species of grebes in the genus spp.). Floating plants, such as duckweed breeding season (ParksWatch Podiceps worldwide (Dickinson 2003, (Lemna species (spp.)), large duckweed 2009, p. 4). Junı´n grebes occasionally p. 80). The species’ taxonomic status as (Spiodela spp.), and water fern (Azolla produce a replacement clutch if their Podiceps taczanowskii is valid (ITIS filiculoides), also occur on the lake original nest is disturbed (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, 2009, p. 1). (ParksWatch 2009, p. 2). The Lake is pp. 199, 201). After the eggs hatch, the Habitat and Life History surrounded by extensive marshland male grebe cares for the chicks, and along the lake shore (BLI 2009a, p. 1; does not leave the nest to feed. The The typical feeding habitat of this BLI 2009b, p. 1) that extends into the female grebe is responsible for feeding species consists of shallow water in lake up to 1–3 mi (2–5 km) from shore the male and chicks until the chicks can Lake Junı´n with calcareous sediments (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). The leave the nest (Tello 2007, p. 3). The and extensive carpets of chalk-encrusted marshes are dominated by two robust Junı´n grebe is likely a long-lived species algae known as Chara (brittlewort or species of cattails, giant bulrush (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 201), and its breeding stonewort), which is its principal (Schoenoplectus californicus var. success and population size are highly feeding substrate (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ Totara) and totorilla (Juncus articus var. influenced by the climate (BLI 2009b, 1997, p. 30). Lake Junı´n Chara, is an Andicola) (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 244, 246). p. 2; BLI 2008, pp. 1, 3–4; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, aquatic plant genus (Denike and Geiger Both cattail species can reach nearly p. 200; Hirshfeld 2007, p. 107; Elton undated, p. 18). Over the last 20 years, 2 m (6.6 ft) in height. These plant 2000, p. 3) (see Factor A). the extent of Chara vegetation has communities, or ‘‘tortoras,’’ grow so The Junı´n grebe feeds in the open decreased in Lake Junı´n (Tueros in litt; densely that stands are often waters of the lake and around the marsh in Fjeldsa˚ pers. comm. 2010, pp. 2–3.) impenetrable (ParksWatch 2009, p. 1). edges, moving into the open waters of As a result, the feeding habitat for the In shallow water, during low lake levels, the lake to feed where it is easier to dive grebe has also changed dramatically. tortora communities can become for food during the winter (Tello 2007, The disappearance of Chara partially or completely dry (ParksWatch p. 3; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 247–248). Fish (specifically Chara fragilis; ParksWatch 2009, p. 2). (primarily pupfish (Orestias spp.)) 2006, p. 8) may be linked with zinc Lake Junı´n supports one of the richest account for over 90 percent of the pollution. Higher zinc concentration and most diverse arrays of bird species grebe’s diet (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 251–252). levels are detrimental to green algae of all Peruvian high Andean wetlands Pupfish become scarce when the (Fjeldsa˚ pers. comm. 2010, pp. 2–3). The (ParksWatch 2009, p. 3). These bird marshlands dry during periods of concentrations of heavy metals are species include migratory birds, birds reduced water levels, and the Junı´n reported to be within legal limits for that nest at high altitudes, aquatic birds, grebe is then known to vary its diet with humans; however, copper and zinc and local endemic species such as the midges (Order Diptera), corixid bugs concentrations may be limiting factors Junı´n grebe, the Junı´n rail (Laterallus (Trichocorixa reticulata), amphipods for the Chara vegetation. Local reports tuerosi; also the subject of this final (Hyalella simplex), and shore fly indicate that vegetation, particularly rule), the giant coot (Fulica ardesiaca), maggots and pupa (Ephydriid spp.). sedges within the Schoenoplectus genus and the Chilean flamingo Historical Range and Distribution family (this species’ nesting habitat), has (Phoenicopterus chilensis) (BLI 2009a, disappeared completely in recent years, pp. 2–3; ParksWatch 2009, p. 3; Tello The Junı´n grebe was historically likely due to low water levels and 2007, p. 2). Mammals are relatively known to be endemic to Lake Junı´n, in grazing cattle in the marshes and scarce in the area, although there are the Peruvian Administrative Region of wetlands (Fjeldsa˚ pers. comm. 2010). some predators (ParksWatch 2009, p. 4) Junı´n (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; Fjeldsa˚ and The Junı´n grebe is endemic to the (see Factor C). Krabbe 1990, p. 70; INRENA 1996, p. 1; open waters and marshlands of Lake Breeding season for this species Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 238). Experts believe Junı´n, located at 4,080 m (13,390 ft) occurs annually from November to that the species was previously above sea level in the Peruvian March (O’Donnell and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, distributed throughout the entire 57-mi2 Administrative Region of Junı´n (BLI p. 29; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 44, 246). The (147-km2) lake (BLI 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1). The 147-km2 (57-mi2) lake, Junı´n grebe nests in the protective cover 2003, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254; Gill and also known as ‘‘Chinchaycocha’’ or of the marshlands during the breeding Storer in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200). In 1938, ‘‘Lago de Junı´n,’’ is large but fairly season (Tello 2007, p. 3; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, the Junı´n grebe was encountered shallow (ParksWatch 2009, p. 1; Tello p. 247), particularly in stands of giant throughout the entire lake (Morrison 2007, p. 1). Situated within ‘‘puna’’ bulrush (ParksWatch 2009, p. 4). Under 1939, p. 645). The Junı´n grebe is now

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absent from the northwestern portion of (1.5-mi2) area in the southern portion of Taxonomy Lake Junı´n due to mine waste Lake Junı´n, suggesting a total This species was discovered by contamination (Gill and Storer, pers. population of 350 to 400 birds (Valqui Fjeldsa˚ in 1977 and described in 1983 comm. As cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; in litt., as cited in BLI 2009b, p. 2). In (BLI 2011; Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.). Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254). 2001, field surveys indicated that there BirdLife International considers this rail Current Range and Distribution may have been a total population of 300 a full species based on morphological birds, but that estimate has been The Junı´n grebe is endemic to Lake features (BLI 2009b; p. 1). The closely considered optimistic (Fjeldsa˚ in litt. Junı´n, located at 4,080 m (13,390 ft) related black rail, Laterallus jamaicensis 2003, as cited in BLI 2009b, p. 2). above sea level in the Peruvian high occurs at much lower elevations (i.e., 0 ˚ Andes (see http://www.birdlife.org/ Fjeldsa (in litt. 2003, as cited in BLI to 1,350 m (0 to 4,429 ft) above sea datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3644 2009b, p. 2) postulated that perhaps level) (BLI 2007, p. 1; BLI 2000, p. 170; for a range map of the species; BLI only half that number would have been Collar et al. 1992, p. 190). Based on the 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1). Although mature individuals. morphological differences and the BLI (2009b, p. 1) reports the current The species has experienced a species’ distinct and disjunct ranges, we estimated range of the species as 143 population decline of 14 percent in the consider the Junı´n rail to be a discrete km2 (55 mi2), BLI’s definition of a past 10 years, and the population is species and recognize it as L. tuerosi. It should be noted that it appears that species’ range is the total area within its expected to continue to decline (BLI only 2 specimens of the Junı´n rail have extent of occurrence, noting that Lake 2009b, pp. 1, 6–7). The species’ decline ever been collected (near Ondores) Junı´n is only a 147-km2 (57-mi2) lake is associated with continued habitat loss (BLI 2009a, p. 1) and that the Junı´n (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, pp. 278–279) and that all and degradation (Gill and Storer, pers. expert accounts of this species rely grebe is restricted to the southern comm. as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; portion of the lake (Gill and Storer, pers. solely on that collection and a Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254). These population subsequent observation of the species in comm. As cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; fluctuations are strongly linked to ˚ Pari (Fjeldsa˚ in litt., 1992, as cited in Fjeldsa 1981a, p. 254), its current range precipitation (see Factor A). is actually smaller than the figure Collar et al. 1992, p. 190). reported by BLI. The entire population Conservation Status Habitat and Life History of this species is located only within a protected area, the Junı´n National The Junı´n grebe is considered The Junı´n rail occurs in the dense, Reserve (BLI 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. critically endangered by the Peruvian interior marshlands of Lake Junı´n where 1; ParksWatch 2009, Government under Supreme Decree No. rushes (Juncus spp.) predominate or in p. 4). 034–2004–AG (2004, pp. 276, 853). The more open mosaics of rushes, mosses IUCN categorizes the Junı´n grebe as (division Bryophyta), and low herbs Population Estimate critically endangered because it is (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). Lake Junı´n is The current population of the Junı´n endemic to one location and has located in the seasonally climatic grebe is estimated to be 100–300 undergone significant population ‘‘puna’’ habitat, with a variety of species individuals (BLI 2009b, p. 3), having declines, such that an extremely small of grasses, asters, and trees of the bean undergone a severe population decline number of adults remain (BLI 2009b, pp. family forming tall, dense grasslands in the latter half of the 20th century, 1, 3). The single known population of and open scrubland, interspersed with with extreme population fluctuations the Junı´n grebe occurs wholly within wetlands and woodlands (ParksWatch 2009, pp. 1, 4; ParksWatch 2006, p. 2). during this time (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254). one protected area in Peru, the Junı´n Giant bulrushes and totorilla dominate Field studies in 1938 indicated that the National Reserve (BLI 2009b, pp. 1–2). Junı´n grebe was extremely abundant the extensive marshlands surrounding throughout Lake Junı´n (Morrison 1939, III. Junı´n rail (Laterallus tuerosi) the lake (BLI 2009b, p. 1; ParksWatch p. 645). Between 1961 and 1979, the 2009, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). In population fell from more than 1,000 Species Description shallow water, during low lake levels, individuals to an estimated 250–300 The Junı´n rail is a secretive bird of the ‘‘tortora’’ communities can become birds (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, Rallidae family that is endemic to a partially or completely dry (ParksWatch p. 43; Harris 1981, as cited in O’Donnell single lake (Lake Junı´n) in Peru. The 2009, p. 2). The lake supports a wide ˚ ˚ variety of bird species and aquatic and Fjeldsa 1997, p. 30; Fjeldsa 1981, species is also referred to as the Junı´n p. 254). Surveys during the mid-1980s vegetation (BLI 2009a, pp. 2–3; black rail (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281) and is estimated a total of 250 individuals ParksWatch 2009, p. 3; Tello 2007, p. 2; locally known as ‘‘gallinetita de Junı´n’’ inhabiting the southern portion of Lake BLI 2003, p. 1). (Supreme Decree 034–2004–AG 2004, p. Junı´n (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, There is little information regarding p. 43). In 1992, only 100 birds were 27684). This rail measures 12–13 cm the ecology of the Junı´n rail. The species observed, and by 1993, the population (4.7–5.1 in) in length, and has a dark appears to be completely dependent on had declined to 50 birds, of which fewer slate-colored head, throat, and the wide marshlands located around the than half were breeding adults (BLI underparts. Its belly and vent (anal southeastern shoreline of the lake for 2008, p. 3; BLI 2009b, p. 2). In 1995, an aperture) are black. The characteristic nesting, foraging, and year-round estimated 205 Junı´n grebes were present feature of this rail is the heavily barred residence (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. on Lake Junı´n (O’Donnell and Fjeldsa˚ (black and white) entire upperparts of 1992, p. 190; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, 1997, p. 30). Breeding and fledging were the body, including its wings and flanks p. 281) (see also Current Range and apparently unsuccessful from 1995 to (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers comm.). The under- Distribution). Information received 1997. However, there were two tail coverts (feathers on the underside of during the comment period on the successful broods fledged during the the base of the tail) are buff in color, proposed rule indicates that the species 1997 and 1998 breeding seasons (BLI with a dull rufous-brown back. The inhabits mosaic vegetation with dense 2008, p. 3; Valqui in litt., as cited in BLI remaining underparts are dark brown Juncus (rush) beds (often areas where 2009b, p. 2). In 1998, more than 250 and boldly barred in white, and the legs the vegetation is broken down) and Junı´n grebes were counted in a 4-km2 are greenish-yellow (BLI 2009b, p. 1). open waterlogged areas with short but

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densely matted vegetation of mosses p. 281). However, based on habitat on the assumption that the species may and Lilaeopsis (grassworts) rather than needs, it may occur in other portions of be fairly common in the entire circa 150 the drier bunchgrass hills (puna the approximately 150 km2 (57.9 mi2) of km2 (58 mi2) of available marshland habitat). The habitat provides a complex marshland surrounding the lake, around Lake Junı´n (BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI mosaic of niches that leads to the patchy discussed in more detail below. 2007, p. 1). The species has never been distribution of many bird species The range of the species is estimated confirmed outside its two known throughout the region, indicating that to be 160 km2 (62 mi2) (BLI 2011b, localities and, therefore, it is possible this species has specialized habitat p. 1). However, this is likely an that the species is locally common, but requirements that are only satisfied overestimate of the species’ actual range not widely distributed. If the Junı´n rail locally (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 32). for several reasons. First, BLI’s is not common throughout Lake Junı´n’s The species’ distribution is highly definition of a species’ range results in marshland, the actual population size localized around the lake. The Junı´n rail an overestimate of the actual range. may be much lower. apparently prefers the dense, interior Second, the species’ range was marshlands comprised primarily of calculated based on the availability of Conservation Status rushes and mosaics of rushes, mosses presumed suitable habitat for the Junı´n The Junı´n rail is considered (division Bryophyta), and low herbs in rail. It has long been assumed that the endangered by the Peruvian more open marsh areas (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. rail potentially occupies the entire Government under Supreme Decree No. 281). High habitat specificity is marshland area surrounding Lake Junı´n 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276855). The consistent with related rail species. The (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). The two localities IUCN categorizes the Junı´n rail as water depth, emergent vegetation used mentioned, Ondores and Pari, are endangered because it is known only for cover, and access to upland villages at the lake shore. Information from a small area of marshland around vegetation are all important factors in received during the comment period on a single lake, where the habitat quality the rail’s habitat use (Flores and the proposed rule indicates that there is is declining (BLI 2008, p. 3). The single Eddleman 1995, p. 362). Similar to all continuous rail habitat in the outer part known population of the Junı´n rail rails, the Junı´n rail is furtive and of the marshes outside these villages, 1– occurs wholly within one protected area remains well-hidden in the marshes 2 km (0.6–1.2 mi) outside the firm in Peru, the Junı´n National Reserve (BLI surrounding the lake (BLI 2009b, p. 2). ground (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.). The 2009b, pp. 1–2; BLI 2008, p. 1). The Junı´n rail reportedly nests at the rail has been documented along this 6– end of the dry season, in September and 7 km (3.7–4.3 mi) section; the area of IV. Peruvian Plantcutter (Phytotoma October. Nests are built on the ground suitable habitat here is about 10 km2 raimondii) within dense vegetative cover, and the (3.9 mi2). East and north of the lake, Species Description species’ clutch size is two eggs (BLI there is similar habitat, approximately The Peruvian plantcutter, locally 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, p. 190). 25 km2 (9.6 mi2) combined (Fjeldsa˚ The diet of the Junı´n rail has not been 2010 pers. comm.). However, the Junı´n known as ‘‘cortarrama Peruana,’’ is a studied specifically, but other black rail rail’s actual range is very likely smaller small finch-like bird endemic to the dry species feed primarily on small aquatic than the approximated range reported forests of coastal northwest Peru and terrestrial invertebrates and seeds by BLI since 2000 (BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI (Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488; (Eddleman et al. 1994, p. 1). 2008, p. 3; BLI 2007, p. 1; BLI 2000, Walther 2004, p. 73; Ridgely and Tudor p. 170). 1994, p. 733; Collar et al. 1992, p. 805; Historical Range and Distribution Goodall 1965, p. 636; Sibley and The Junı´n rail is endemic to Lake Population Estimates Monroe 1990, p. 371). The Peruvian Junı´n (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, The species has experienced a plantcutter is an herbivore with a p. 278). The species may have been population decline of between 10 and predominantly leaf-eating diet historically common in the rush- 19 percent in the past 10 years (BLI (Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488; dominated marshlands surrounding the 2009b, p. 2). However, rigorous Walther 2004, p. 73; Bucher et al. 2003, entire lake (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). In population estimates have not been p. 211). addition to the species’ specific habitat conducted (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281), and Plantcutters have bright yellow eyes, preferences (see Current Range and the species’ elusiveness makes it short wings and rather long tails, and Distribution), it is believed that the difficult to locate (BLI 2009b, p. 2). The their crown feathers form a slight crest Junı´n rail is now restricted to the population is considered to be declining (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 732; marshes at the southwestern corner of in close association with continued Goodall 1965, p. 635). Adult birds are the lake due to the high level of water habitat loss and degradation (see Factor 18.5 to 9 cm (7.28 to 7.48 in) in length contamination that flows into the A) (BLI 2008, p. 1). Local fishermen and weigh approximately 36 to 44 grams northwestern margins of the lake via the have reported serious declines in some (g) (1.26 to 1.55 ounces (oz)) San Juan River (Martin and McNee years, and several individual birds have (Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488; 1999, p. 662). been found dead (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. Walther 2004, p. 73). Males are pale comm.). In 1983, the Junı´n rail was ashy gray, except a broad cinnamon- Current Range and Distribution characterized as possibly common, rufous color band on the belly and The Junı´n rail is restricted to the based on local fishermens’ sightings of above the bill, and white colored bands southwestern shore of Lake Junı´n (Lago groups of up to a dozen birds at a time on their wings (BLI 2009a, p. 1; Goodall de Junı´n), in the Andean highlands of (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). The species 1965, p. 636; Ridgely and Tudor 1994, central Peru (see http:// continues to be reported as fairly p. 733). Females are buff-brown with www.birdlife.org/datazone/ common (BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2007, broad, dark brown stripes above, and speciesfactsheet.php?id=2842 for a p. 1). BLI estimates that this species’ white with heavy black-striped range map of the species). It is currently population size falls within the underparts (BLI 2009a, p. 1; Collar et al. known from only two localities (near population range category of 1,000– 1992, p. 805). Juvenile birds have not the towns of Ondores and Pari) (Fjeldsa˚ 2,499 (BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2007, p. 1; been described (Walther 2004, p. 73). 2010 pers. comm.; BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2000, p. 170). This estimate is an The Peruvian plantcutter’s bill is stout, Collar et al. 1992, p. 190; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, extrapolation that continues to be based short, conical, and finely serrated with

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sharp tooth-like projections that run the shrub communities (BLI 2009a. p. 2; ‘‘suelda con suelda’’) in the length of the beak on both sides, and Schulenberg et al. 2007, pp. 21, 488; Loranthaceae (mistletoe) family, which are well suited for plucking buds, Walther 2004, p. 73; Stotz et al. 1996, scattered herbaceous species (e.g., leaves, shoots, and fruits (Schulenberg p. 19; Collar et al. 1992, p. 805). The Asteraceae (sunflower), et al. 2007, p. 488; Ridgely and Tudor Peruvian plantcutter is a key indicator Scrophulariaceae (figwort), and 1994, p. 732; Goodall 1965, p. 635) (see species for Equatorial Pacific Coast arid Solanaceae (nightshade) families), and Habitat and Life History). lowland scrub (Stotz et al. (1996, pp. 19, grasses (e.g., Poaceae (grass) family) 428). The lowland dry tropical forest (Elton 2004, p. 2; Walther 2004, p. 73; Taxonomy and scrub are characterized as small and More 2002, pp. 14–17; Ferreyera 1983, The Peruvian plantcutter was first heavily fragmented patches of plant pp. 248–250). Riparian vegetation taxonomically described as Phytotoma species adapted to the arid conditions of includes dense shrub and small trees of raimondii by Taczanowski in 1883 (ITIS the prolonged dry season of P. pallida, A. macracantha, Capparis 2009, p. 1; Sibley and Monroe 1990, northwestern Peru (Bridgewater et al. spp., and Salix spp. (willow spp.) p. 371). The type-specimen of the 2003, pp. 132, 140; Best and Kessler (Lanyon 1975, p. 443). Peruvian plantcutter (the specimen that 1995, p. 40; Ridgely and Tudor 1994, The arid climate of northwestern Peru was described by Taczanowski) was p. 734). is due to the influence of the cold collected by the ornithologist Konstanty The lowland dry forest in Humboldt Current that flows north, Jelski, who recorded the specimen as northwestern Peru is open-canopied, parallel to the Peruvian Coast (UNEP being collected in the Tumbes with trees occurring in scattered clumps 2006, p. 16; Linares-Palomino 2006, Department of Peru (Flanagan et al. in or individually (Flanagan and More p. 260; Rodriguez et al. 2005, p. 2). The litt. 2009, p. 2). However, the reported 2003, p. 4). The dominant tree species Humboldt Current has a cooling collection location may have been of the lowland dry forest is Prosopis influence on the climate of coastal Peru, inaccurate (see Historical range and pallida (common name ‘‘kiawe;’’ also as the marine air is cooled by the cold Distribution, below). locally referred to as ‘‘algarrobo’’) in the current and, thus, is not conducive to The genus Phytotoma contains three Fabaceae family (legume family) (Lopez generating rain. To the east, the Andean species of plantcutters, all endemic to et al. 2005, p. 542; More 2002, p. 39). Mountains prevent humid air from the South America (Walther 2004, p. 73; Prosopis pallida is a wide-spreading Amazon from reaching the western Dickinson 2003, p. 346; Sibley and tree or large shrub, 8–20 m (26–65 ft) lowlands (Linares-Palomino 2006, Monroe 1990, p. 371; Goodall 1965, tall, with dense branches; spines can be p. 260; Lanyon 1975, p. 443). p. 635). Ornithologists have long present or absent (Pasiecznik et al. 2001, Coastal northwestern Peru debated to which family this genus p. 36). This deep-rooted drought- experiences a short rainy season during belongs. Some ornithologists have tolerant species, related to mesquite the summer months (January–April) recommended that the genus be placed species of the southwestern United (Linares-Palomino 2006, p. 260), which in its own family, Phytotomidae States and Mexico, provides an can also include precipitation in the (Lanyon and Lanyon 1989, p. 422), important ecological function by form of mist or fine drizzle along the while others placed the genus within improving and stabilizing soil coast (Lanyon 1975, p. 443). The mean the Tyrannidae family (Sibley and conditions (Pasiecznik et al. 2001, pp. annual precipitation across the range of Monroe 1990, p. 371). Molecular 101–102; Brewbaker 1987, p. 1). Typical the Peruvian plantcutter is 5.0 to 99 mm research using DNA sequencing of legumes, P. pallida is able to ‘‘fix’’ (0.196 to 3.80 in) (hyper-arid to arid) supports the inclusion of Phytotoma in atmospheric nitrogen for plant (Galan de Mera et al. 1997, p. 351). The the Cotingidae family (Ohlson et al. utilization and growth (Pasiecznik et al. climate is warm and dry with the 2006, p. 10; et al. 2002, p. 993; Irestedt 2001, p. 3; Brewbaker 1987, p. 1). annual temperature range of 23 to 25 °C et al. 2001, p. 23; Johansson). Therefore, Three of the most common tree (74 to 77 °F) at elevations below 600 m based on the information currently species associated with P. pallida dry (1,968 ft) (Linares-Palomino 2006, available to us, we accept that the forest habitat used by the Peruvian p. 260). Northwestern Peru is strongly Peruvian plantcutter belongs to the plantcutter are Capparis scabrida influenced by the El Nin˜ o Southern Cotingidae family, which follows the (locally known as ‘‘sapote’’), in the Oscillation (ENSO) cycle (Rodriguez et Integrated Taxonomic Information Capparaceae (caper) family, and Acacia al. 2005, p. 1), which can have System (ITIS 2009, p. 1). macracantha (long-spine acacia, locally particularly profound and long-lasting known as ‘‘faique’’) and Parkinsonia effects on arid terrestrial ecosystems Habitat and Life History aculeata (Jerusalem thorn, locally (Mooers et al. 2007, p. 2; Holmgren et The Peruvian plantcutter is reportedly known as ‘‘palo verde’’), both in the al. 2006a, p. 87) (see Factor A). selective in its habitat preference and Fabaceae family (More 2002, pp. 17–23). Knowledge of the breeding of most requires a variety of arid tree and shrub Associated flowering shrubs in dry species within the Cotingidae family, species with dense low-hanging forest habitat include Capparis including the Peruvian plantcutter, is branches close to the ground (Flanagan avicennifolia (locally known as not well known (Walther 2004, p. 73). et al. in litt. 2009, p. 7; Williams 2005, ‘‘bichayo’’) and C. crotonoides (locally The Peruvian plantcutter is considered p. 2; Flanagan and More 2003, p. 5; known as ‘‘guayabito de gentil’’), both in a resident species in Peru, which Collar et al. 1992, p. 805). The primary the Capparaceae (caper) family; Cordia indicates that it breeds there (Snow habitat for the Peruvian plantcutter is lutea (locally known as ‘‘overall’’) in the 2004, p. 61; Walther 2004, p. 73). seasonally dry tropical forest, which is Boraginaceae (borage) family; and Nesting activity of plantcutters appears also referred to as equatorial dry tropical Maytenus octogona (locally known as to occur from March to April (Walther forest, and occurs in the semiarid ‘‘realengo’’) in the Celastraceae 2004, p. 73; Collar et al. 1992, p. 805). lowlands of northwestern Peru (bittersweet) family. Other commonly Plantcutters build shallow, cup-shaped (Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 21; Linares- occurring dry forest vegetation includes nests that are made of thin dry twigs Palomino 2006, pp. 260, 263–266; vines (e.g., Convolvulaceae (morning- and lined with root fibers and other Walther 2004, p. 73). The Peruvian glory) and Cucurbitaceae (gourd) softer material (Snow 2004, p. 55). Nests plantcutter also uses arid lowland scrub families), Psittacanthus chanduyensis can be built 1 to 3 m (3.3 to 9.8 ft) above (dense and open) and dense riparian (tropical mistletoe; locally known as the ground inside a thick thorny shrub

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or higher in the fork of a tree (Elton was lost or destroyed, or if it was ever Therefore, the species’ actual range is 2004, p. 2; Snow 2004, p. 55; Flanagan returned to Peru (Flanagan et al. in litt. likely smaller than this figure. and More 2003, p. 3). Females lay two 2009, p. 2). Today, there is good The Peruvian plantcutter is extirpated to four eggs, and the incubation period indication that the type-specimen was from 11 of its 14 historical sites due to lasts about 2 weeks (Snow 2004, p. 56; mislabeled as being collected in Tumbes loss of habitat or degradation of habitat Walther 2004, p. 73; Goodall 1965, (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 2). (Elton 2004, p. 1; Hinze 2004, p. 1; p. 636). Males assist in rearing the Although the Tumbes Region has been Flanagan and More 2003, p. 5). chicks, which fledge after 17 days or so extensively surveyed for the Peruvian Depending on habitat quality, it is (Snow 2004, p. 56). plantcutter, including the North-West estimated that the Peruvian plantcutter Plantcutters are herbivores with a Biosphere Reserve, there have never requires approximately 1 ha (2.5 ac) of predominantly leaf-eating diet (Snow been other collections in or near the habitat for suitable food and nesting 2004, p. 46; Bucher et al. 2003, p. 211). vicinity of Tumbes or other evidence to sites (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 7; As an herbivore, the Peruvian suggest that the Peruvian plantcutter Flanagan and More 2003, p. 3). plantcutter is dependent on year-round ever occurred in the area (Flanagan et al. Although the Peruvian plantcutter has availability of high-quality food, in litt. 2009, p. 2). Thus, it appears that been found in patches of P. pallida dry particularly during the dry season when the Peruvian plantcutter never occurred forest habitat that are near agricultural plant growth is very limited (Bucher et in the Tumbes Region. lands, tracks or roads, and human al. 2003, p. 216). Peruvian plantcutters Researchers consider the reduction in settlement (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, eat buds, leaves, and shoots of P. pallida dry forest habitat to be the result of pp. 2–7), much of the available P. and various other trees and shrubs, as historical human activities, including pallida dry forest habitat is not well as some fruits (e.g., mistletoe) extensive land clearing for agriculture, occupied by the Peruvian plantcutter (Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488; timber and firewood extraction, (Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488; Snow Walther 2004, p. 73; Goodall 1965, charcoal production, and overgrazing. 2004, p. 69; Walther 2004, p. 73; BLI p. 635). The seeds, green seed pods, These activities have led to the 2000, p. 401). leaves, and flowers of P. pallida provide reduction and severe fragmentation of Flanagan et al. (in litt. 2009, pp. 1–15) a protein-rich food source for animals dry forest habitat today (Flanagan et al. recently completed a comprehensive (Lewis et al. 2006, p. 282). The Peruvian in litt. 2009, pp. 1–9; Schulenberg et al. review of 53 locations where there have plantcutter appears to prefer to feed 2007, p. 488; Lopez et al. 2006, p. 898; been documented sightings of the while perched in shrubs and trees, Bridgewater et al. 2003, p. 132; Peruvian plantcutter. Of these, the although individuals also have been Pasiecznik et al. 2001, pp. 10, 75, 78, 95; species was determined to be extant observed foraging on the ground (Snow Stotz et al. 1998, p. 52; Lanyon 1975, (still living) in 29 sites. In the Piura 2004, p. 50). Birds have been observed p. 443; Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 734) Region, 17 of the 22 documented sites in pairs and small groups (Schulenberg (see Factor A). of the Peruvian plantcutter were extant et al. 2007, p. 488; Walther 2004, p. 73; Current Range and Distribution as of a 2009 report (Flanagan et al. in Flanagan and More 2003, p. 3; Collar et litt. 2009, pp. 2–4, 14). In this particular al. 1992, p. 804). The current range of the Peruvian plantcutter is approximately 4,900 km2 region, the Talara Province contained Historical Range and Distribution (1,892 mi2) (BLI 2009a, p. 1), at an the largest concentration of intact P. The Peruvian plantcutter is a elevation of between 10 and 550 m (33 pallida dry forest habitat in restricted-range species that is confined and 1,804 ft) above sea level. It occurs northwestern Peru and the largest to the mostly flat, narrow desert zone, within the Peruvian regions of Piura, subpopulation of the Peruvian which is less than 50 km (31 mi) in Lambayeque, Cajamarca, La Libertad, plantcutter (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, width (Lanyon 1975, p. 443) and runs and Ancash (from north to south) p. 3; BLI 2009a, p. 2; Walther 2004, along the coast of northwestern Peru (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 14–15). p. 73; Flanagan and More 2003, p. 5). (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 734; This species occurs within two Additionally, there are several other Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 213; Walther protected areas in Peru (see http:// documented sites of the Peruvian 2004, p. 73). The historical range of the www.birdlife.org/datazone/ plantcutter in the Piura Region (e.g., Peruvian plantcutter reportedly speciesfactsheet.php?id=4474 for a Manglares de San Pedro, Illescas extended from the town of Tumbes, range map of the species). It has been Peninsula, and Cerro Illescas) (Flanagan located in the extreme northwestern documented in the Prosopis pallida (a et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 4, 14; BLI 2009c, corner of Peru and approximately south legume known as huarango, bayahonda, p. 1). to north of Lima within the Regions of or carob) dry forest within the protected In the Lambayeque Region, Flanagan Tumbes, Piura, Lambayeque, La archeological sites of the Po´mac Forest et al. (in litt. 2009, pp. 4–5, 14) reported Libertad, Ancash, and Lima (Collar et al. Historical Sanctuary (BLI 2009e, p. 1) a total of 13 locations of the Peruvian 1992, pp. 804–805). and Murales Forest (Walther 2004, p. plantcutter, of which 5 are considered The historical distribution of the 73). The species’ reported range is likely extant. Within the Region, there are four Peruvian plantcutter was most likely an overestimate (Jetz et al. 2008, p. 2). important areas for the Peruvian throughout the contiguous lowland P. BLI defines a species’ range as the total plantcutter: pallida dry forest and riparian area within its extent of occurrence; (1) The Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary vegetation, below 550 m (1,804 ft) however, the Peruvian plantcutter’s (Santuario Histo´rico de Bosque de Po´mac), (Williams 2005, p. 1; Collar et al. 1992). current distribution is severely designated as a protected archeological site According to Collar et al. (1992, pp. fragmented and distributed among in 2001, comprises 5,887 ha (14,547 ac) of P. 804–805), the Peruvian plantcutter is small, widely separated remnant pallida dry forest (Flanagan et al. in litt. patches of P. pallida dominated dry 2009, p. 4; BLI 2009e, p. 1). The Sanctuary known from 14 historical sites. includes the archeological site Batan Grande, The type-specimen of the Peruvian forest (Flanagan et al. 2009, pp. 1–9; BLI an area comprised of 500 ha (1,235 ac) of P. plantcutter was most likely collected 2009a, pp. 2–3; Ridgely and Tudor 1994, pallida dry forest (Flanagan et al. in litt. south of the town of Tumbes (Flanagan p. 18), which are usually heavily 2009, p. 4; BLI 2009e, p. 1). et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 2, 15). It is disturbed fragments of forest (2) Near the small town of Rafan are unknown whether the type specimen (Bridgewater et al. 2003, p. 132). remnant patches of P. pallida dry forest,

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encompassing approximately 1,500 ha (3,706 Williams 2005, p. 1; Snow 2004, p. 69; V. Royal cinclodes (Cinclodes aricomae) ac) (BLI 2009f, p. 1). The Rafan area has Walther 2004, p. 73). The second Species Description become a popular birding site for the subpopulation, located at Po´mac Forest Peruvian plantcutter (BLI 2009f, p. 1; Historical Sanctuary (Lambayeque The royal cinclodes, also known as Engblom 1998, p. 1). ‘‘churrete real’’ and ‘‘remolinera real,’’ is (3) Murales Forest (Bosque de Murales), Region), reportedly has 20 to 60 comprised of P. pallida dry forest, is a individuals (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009e, a large-billed ovenbird in the Furnaridae family that is native to high-altitude designated archeological reserved zone (BLI p. 1; Walther 2004, p. 73). The smaller woodlands of the Bolivian and Peruvian 2009a, p. 3; Stattersfield et al. 2000, p. 402). sites are estimated to consist of a few (4) Chaparri Ecological Reserve, comprised Andes (BLI 2009i, pp. 1–2; InfoNatura individuals up to 40 individuals of 34,412 ha (85,033 ac) with P. pallida dry 2007, p. 1; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; forest, is a community-owned and managed (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 2–7; Supreme Decree No. 034–2004–AG protected area (Walther 2004, p. 73). Walther 2004, p. 73; Williams 2005, 2004, p. 27685; Valqui 2000, p. 104). The remaining sites in the Lambayeque p. 1; Flanagan and More 2003, pp. 5–9). The adult is nearly 20 cm (8 in) in Region are small remnant patches of P. The population estimate for the length, with a darker crown and a buff- pallida dry forest and comprise a few Peruvian plantcutter—that is, the total colored area above the eyes. Its acres (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. number of mature individuals—is not underparts are mostly gray-brown; it has 4–5; Walther 2004, p. 73). The protected the same as the effective population size only limited whitish mottling (this and areas are further discussed under (i.e., the number of individuals that the more distinctive rufous-brown Factors A and D. actually contribute to the next wingbar are the main differences from In the Cajamarca Region, Flanagan et generation). The subpopulation the closely related species, the stout- al. (in litt. 2009, pp. 5, 14) reported one structure and the extent of interbreeding billed Cinclodes (C. excelsior); Fjeldsa˚ occupied site of the Peruvian among the occurrences of the Peruvian 2010 pers. comm.). The throat is buff- plantcutter, consisting of approximately colored, and the remaining underparts plantcutter are unknown. Although the 6 ha (14.8 ac) of remnant P. pallida dry are gray-brown to buff-white. The wings two large subpopulations and many of forest in the Rı´o Chicama Valley. Six of are dark with prominent edging that the 12 known sites of the Peruvian the smaller occurrences of the Peruvian forms a distinctive wing-bar in flight. plantcutter in the La Libertad Region are plantcutter are widely separated (BLI The large, dark bill is slightly curved at considered extant (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009a, pp. 2–3; Flanagan et al. in litt. the tip (BLI 2009i, p. 1). 2009, pp. 5–6, 14). Each of these sites 2009, pp. 1–9; Ridgely and Tudor 1994. Taxonomy consists of small patches of remnant P. p. 18), there is insufficient information pallida dry forest habitat (Flanagan et to determine whether these occurrences When the species was first al. in litt. 2009, pp. 5–6; Walther 2004, function as genetically isolated taxonomically described, the royal p. 73). Of the three known sites of the subpopulations. cinclodes was placed in the genus Peruvian plantcutter in the Ancash The Peruvian plantcutter has Upucerthia (Carriker 1932, pp. 1–2) and Region, only one was reported to be experienced a population decline of was then transferred to Geositta as a subspecies (Geositta excelsior aricomae) extant as of 2009 (Flanagan et al. in litt. between 1 and 9 percent in the past 10 (Vaurie 1980, p. 14). Later, it was 2009, pp. 6, 14). Additionally, in the years, and this rate of decline is Lima Region, the authors reported that transferred to the genus Cinclodes, predicted to continue (BLI 2009g, p. 1). where it was considered a race or the two historical sites were also The population is considered to be unoccupied in the most recent survey subspecies of the stout-billed Cinclodes declining in close association with (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 7, 15). (Cinclodes excelsior) until recently (BLI This species was found recently in continued habitat loss and degradation 2009i, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, central coastal Peru, in the area of of habitat (see Factor A) (BLI 2009a, pp. pp. 337–338; Vaurie 1980, p. 15). The Huarmey, A´ ncash (Rosina y Mo´nica 1–3; BLI 2009g, pp. 1–3; Snow 2004, royal cinclodes is now considered a 2010, p. 257). Additional surveys are p. 69; Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 18). distinct species (C. aricomae) based on needed to determine if other available P. Conservation Status differences in its habitat, morphology, pallida dry forest habitat is occupied by and genetic distance (Chesser 2004, the Peruvian plantcutter (Flanagan et al. The Peruvian plantcutter is p. 763; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253). in litt. 2009, p. 7). considered endangered by the Peruvian Therefore, we accept the species as Cinclodes aricomae, which also follows Population Estimates Government under Supreme Decree No. 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276855). The ITIS (2009, p. 1). There have been no rigorous IUCN considers the Peruvian plantcutter Habitat and Life History quantitative assessments of the Peruvian to be endangered because of ongoing plantcutter’s population size (Williams In the Cordillera Vilcanota, southern habitat destruction and degradation of 2005, p. 1). The estimated extant Peru, the royal cinclodes shows its small and severely fragmented range population size is between 500 and distinctive preferences for areas with 1,000 individuals and comprises 2 (BLI 2009a, pp. 2–3; BLI 2009g, pp. 1– primary (lesser disturbed) woodland disjunct subpopulations (BLI 2009g, pp. 2). From 1996 to 2000, the IUCN habitat quality in larger remnant 1–2; Walther 2004, p. 73) and several considered the Peruvian plantcutter to woodland patches: Specifically tall, smaller sites (Flanagan et al. in litt. be critically endangered (BLI 2009g, dense Polylepis vegetation cover, high 2009, pp. 2–7; Williams 2005, p. 1; p. 1), following changes to the IUCN density of large Polylepis trees, and Walther 2004, p. 73; Flanagan and More listing criteria in 2001. Experts have areas with dense and extensive moss 2003, pp. 5–9). suggested returning the species to its ground cover (Lloyd 2008b. pp. 735– The northern subpopulation, located previous classification of critically 745). Near Lampa, Junı´n Department, in the Talara Province in Piura Region, endangered, due to the numerous and the royal cinclodes has recently been reportedly has between 400 and 600 immediate threats to the species observed in Gynoxys dominated individuals, or approximately 60 to 80 (Flanagan, in litt. 2009 p. 1; Snow 2004, woodlands where no Polylepis species percent of the total population of the p. 69; Walther 2004, p. 74). occur (Lloyd 2010, pers. comm.). These Peruvian plantcutter (BLI 2009a, p. 2; findings suggest that in some areas, the

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royal cinclodes may not be dependent The royal cinclodes appears to mainly cover still remains in Peru and Bolivia, on Polylepis species, but can occur in feed on beetle larvae, grubs, and respectively (BLI 2009i, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ other high-elevational woodland earthworms, which they find by turning and Kessler 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ habitats with similar habitat structure and tossing away moss and debris on 2002a, p. 113) (see Factor A). Of this and habitat quality to Polylepis (Lloyd the forest floor with their powerful bills amount, less than 1 percent of the 2010, pers. comm.; Witt and Lane 2009, (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.). It has also remaining woodlands occur in humid pp. 90–94). been observed to consume invertebrates, areas, where Polylepis denser stands In the Cordillera Vilcanota, the royal seeds, and occasionally small occur (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as cited cinclodes has a very narrow estimated vertebrates (frogs) (del Hoyo et al. 2003, in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113) and which are niche breadth, and it is largely p. 253). The royal cinclodes forages, preferred by the royal cinclodes (del intolerant of the surrounding disturbed solitary or in pairs, by probing through Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. non-woodland puna matrix habitat moss and debris on the forest floor (del 2002, p. 57). The royal cinclodes was (Lloyd and Marsden 2008, pp. 2645– Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, initially discovered in Bolivia in 1876, 2660). Individuals here have been p. 9; BLI 2000, p. 345; Collar et al. 1992, but was not observed there again until observed foraging on the ground or on p. 589). Their feeding is done so recently (BLI 2009i, p. 2; Hirshfeld boulders, concentrating foraging efforts violently that the forest floor looks as if 2007, p. 198) (see Current Range and on moss or bark litter substrates (Lloyd pigs have been feeding there. Due to its Distribution). feeding behavior, the moss cover rapidly 2008). The royal cinclodes is restricted Current Range and Distribution to elevations between 3,500 and 4,600 m dries up and dies unless the humidity (11,483 and 12,092 ft) (BLI 2009i, p. 2; is very high. This characteristic limits The royal cinclodes is generally del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; BLI 2000, the species to areas where the landscape restricted to moist and mossy habitat on p. 345; Collar et al. 1992, p. 588). The is persistently covered by clouds and steep rocky slopes of semihumid characteristics of Polylepis habitat were mists, or where the canopy is dense Polylepis or Polylepis-Gynoxys described above as part of the Habitat enough to provide permanent shade woodlands, where the species is found and Life History of the ash-breasted tit- (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.). Because this at elevations between 3,500 and 4,600 m tyrant. The royal cinclodes prefers species can heavily disturb its habitat, it (11,483 and 12,092 ft) (Benham et al. dense woodlands (BLI 2009i, p. 2; del requires large feeding territories (thus, 2011, p. 151; BLI 2009i, p. 2; del Hoyo Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; BLI 2000, p. only large forest patches can sustain et al. 2003, p. 253; Collar et al. 1992, 345; Collar et al. 1992, p. 588), with more than one pair). This ground- p. 588). The current potential range of more closed canopies that provide feeding strategy may facilitate the species is approximately 2,700 km2 habitat for more lush moss growth interbreeding amongst groups located (1,042 mi2) (BLI 2009i, p. 1), which is (Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57). The moss- on adjoining mountain peaks when the an overestimate of the actual range, laden vegetation and shaded understory species likely descends the mountains given the fragmented nature of the harbor a rich diversity of insects, during periods of snow cover (Engblom species’ remaining habitat (BLI 20091, making good feeding grounds for et al. 2002, p. 57). p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as cited insectivorous birds (De la Via 2004, Historical Range and Distribution in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). The royal p. 10) such as the royal cinclodes (del The royal cinclodes may once have cinclodes was rediscovered in Bolivia Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. been locally common and distributed within the last decade, after more than 2002, p. 57). In Bolivia, the royal across most of central to southern Peru 100 years of not being observed there cinclodes has been observed only in P. and into the Bolivian highlands, in (Mobley 2010 in litt.; Hirshfeld 2007, pepei forests, but it is found amongst a once-contiguous expanses of Polylepis p. 198). It occurs in the Andes of greater variety of Polylepis species in forests above 3,000 m (9,843 ft) (BLI southeastern Peru (Cusco, Apurı´mac, Peru (Chutas et al. 2008, p. 16; I. Go´mez, 2009i, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111–112, Puno and Junı´n) and adjacent Bolivia in litt. 2007, p. 1). 115; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Kessler (La Paz) (Gomez 2010, p. 1; see http:// Information on the ecology and 2002, pp. 97–101; BLI 2000, p. 345). www.birdlife.org/datazone/ breeding behavior of royal cinclodes is Polylepis woodlands are now restricted speciesfactsheet.php?id=9773 for a limited. The species’ feeding territory to elevations of 3,500 to 5,000 m (11,483 range map of the species). ranges from 3 to 4 ha (7 to 10 ac) (del to 16,404 ft) (Fjeldsa˚ 1992, p. 10). As Within the last 15 years, royal Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. discussed above for the Historical Range cinclodes has been observed in Peru’s 2002, p. 57). Breeding pairs may occupy and Distribution of the ash-breasted tit- Runtacocha highlands and in the smaller, 2-ha (2.5-ac) territories (Chutas tyrant, researchers consider human Laguna Anantay Valley (both in 2007, p. 7). The royal cinclodes is activity to be the primary cause for Apurı´mac), Pariahuanca Valley (Junı´n), described as ‘‘nervous’’ and is easily historical habitat decline and resultant and Cordillera Vilcanota (Cusco), and in disturbed by humans (Engblom et al. decrease in species richness (Fjeldsa˚ Bolivia, Department of La Paz: 2002, p. 57). The breeding season 2002a, p. 116; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Cordillera Apolobamba and the probably begins in December, but Kessler 2002, pp. 97–101; Fjeldsa˚ and Cordillera Real (including Ilampu territorialism among pairs can be seen Kessler 1996, Kessler 1995a, b, and Valley, Sanja Pampa, and Cordillera de in austral winter (June–August) (del L#gaard 1992, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, La Paz) (Benham et al. 2011, p. 151; Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; BLI 2000, p. 112; Kessler and Herzog 1998, pp. Hirshfeld 2007, p. 198; del Hoyo et al. p. 345). Cinclodes species construct 50–51). The royal cinclodes may have 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57; burrows or use natural cavities, been extirpated from its type locality Valqui 2000, p. 104). It was also recently crevices, or rodent burrows for nesting (Aricoma Pass, Puno), and possibly discovered in central Peru, (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 337; Vaurie throughout the entire Puno Region, approximately 5 km (3.1 mi) from 1980, pp. 30, 34). The royal cinclodes’ where Polylepis forest no longer exists Lampa, Junı´n Department, at 3700 m clutch size may be similar to that of the (Collar et al. 1992, p. 589; Engblom et (12,139 ft). This represents a 300 km closely related stout-billed Cinclodes (C. al. 2002, p. 57) (see Population (186 mi) northward range extension for excelsior), which is two eggs per clutch Estimates). It is estimated that between the species (Witt and Lane 2009, pp. 90– (Graves and Arango (1988, p. 252). 2–3 and 10 percent of the original forest 94).

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Population Estimate birds and 30 birds in Cordilleras continued habitat loss and degradation Population information is presented Vilcanota and Vilcabamba, respectively (BLI 2009i, p. 6). (Cusco); 2 birds in Cordillera de first by range country and then in terms Conservation Status of a global population estimate. The Carabaya (Puno); and 41 birds in ´ range country estimates begin with Cordillera del Apurımac (Runtacocha The royal cinclodes is considered ´ Peru, where the majority of the highlands in Apurımac) (Aucca-Chutas critically endangered by the Peruvian 2007, pp. 4, 8). Subpopulations at the population resides. The royal cinclodes Government under Supreme Decree No. four locations in the Cordillera is believed to be a naturally low-density 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276854). The Vilcanota may contain as few as 1–4 species (Lloyd 2008, pp. 164–180). individuals (BLI 2008, p. 2). IUCN considers the royal cinclodes to Peru. In the Puno Region of Peru, it In 2002, Engblom et al. (p. 57) be critically endangered due to its is unclear whether a viable population estimated a total population size of up extremely small population, which of royal cinclodes remains. The royal to 250 pairs of birds. In 2003, the global consists of small subpopulations that cinclodes was first observed in Puno in population was once again reported to are severely fragmented and dependent ˚ 1930 (Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 338) include only a few hundred individuals upon a rapidly deteriorating habitat (BLI and has continued to be reported there (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253). Based on 2009i, p. 1; BLI 2007, p. 1). The royal (BLI 2009i, pp. 1–2; BLI 2007, pp. 1–2; recent observations in both countries, cinclodes occurs within the Peruvian del Hoyo 2003, p. 253; Collar et al. 1992, there are likely approximately 270 birds protected area of Santuario Histo´rico p. 588). However, based on habitat in Peru and 50–70 in Bolivia, totaling Machu Picchu, in Cusco (BLI 2009h, p. availability, InfoNatura (2007, p. 1) 239–340 individuals (this includes the 1; BLI 2009i, p. 6; Aucca-Chutas et al. predicted that the royal cinclodes does 2011 observations in Laguna Anantay, 2008, p. 16). In La Paz Department, not occur in Puno because suitable Apurı´mac Department (Benham et al. habitat no longer exists there. Only two Bolivia, the species is found in Parque 2011). While the BLI estimate of the Nacional y A´ rea Natural de Manejo royal cinclodes individuals have been population is between 50 and 249 reported in the Puno Region (Cordillera Integrado Madidi, Parque Nacional y individuals (BLI 2011d), recent research A´ rea Natural de Manejo Integrado de Carabaya) in recent decades (Aucca- has found new habitat and birds in Cotapata, and the colocated protected Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8). newly identified locations (Benham et Bolivia. The species’ current range is areas of Reserva Nacional de Fauna de al. 2011, pp. 145–157). ´ more widespread in Bolivia than Population estimates are incomplete, Apolobamba, Area Natural de Manejo previously understood. The royal and the population structure and the Integrado de Apolobamba, and Reserva cinclodes had not been observed in extent of interbreeding among the de la Biosfera de Apolobamba (BLI Bolivia for more than a century, when various localities are unknown. The 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1; Aucca- it was rediscovered there in 1997 (BLI species’ territory ranges from 3 to 4 ha Chutas et al. 2008, p. 16). At Abra 2009i, p. 2; Hirshfeld 2007, p. 198). (7 to 10 ac), and its habitat is Ma´laga Thastayoc, Cordillera Vilcanota, Recent surveys in La Paz Department fragmented, dispersed, and sparse (del Peru, a new visitor’s center was found it in at least 13 localities (8 in Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. completed in the Royal Cinclodes Cordillera Apolobamba and 5 in 2002, p. 57). Fjeldsa˚ (2010, pers. comm.) Private Conservation Area in February Cordillera La Paz) (BLI 2009i, p. 1). indicated that because of the range 2011 (ECOAN 2012). BLI reports an estimated population disjunction, the species may not be size of 50–70 royal cinclodes in Bolivia breeding as a single population. In the VI. White-browed tit-spinetail (Go´mez in litt. 2003, 2008, as cited in proposed rule, we indicated that there (Leptasthenura xenothorax) BLI 2009i, p. 2). Studies in Bolivia was no information to indicate the Species Description reported in 2007 found a density of 1– distance that this species is capable of 8 royal cinclodes in each of 30 forest or likely to travel between localities. The white-browed tit-spinetail, or patches (Go´mez in litt. 2007, p. 1). Thus, However, research in 2011 found that ‘‘tijeral cejiblanco,’’ is a small dark they estimated that the royal cinclodes this species was making flights greater ovenbird in the Furnaridaii family that population in Bolivia is approximately than 100 m (328 ft) between Polylepis is native to high-altitude woodlands of 30 birds. Researchers added that, patches in Apurı´mac, and was also the Peruvian Andes (del Hoyo et al. because the royal cinclodes does not observed at forest edges (Benham et al. 2003, pp. 266–267; BLI 2000, p. 347; always respond to tape-playbacks, these 2011, pp. 152). Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 348; Parker numbers may underestimate the actual Engblom et al. (2002, p. 57) noted that and O’Neill 1980, p. 169; Chapman ´ population size (Gomez in litt. 2007, p. gene flow between localities likely 1921, pp. 8–9). The sexes are similar in occurs when the species descends the 1). size (approximately 18 cm (7 in) in mountains to forage in the valleys length). The most distinct feature of this Global Population Estimate during periods of snow cover at the In 1990, the global population of the higher altitudes such that interbreeding species is its checkered (black-and- royal cinclodes was estimated to be may occur at least among localities with white) throat and dark grey body 100–150 individuals (Fjeldsa˚ and shared valleys. Although the underparts, which distinguishes it from Krabbe 1990, p. 338). This number information available suggests that the the rusty-crowned tit-spinetail represented only the estimated Peruvian species does not breed as a single (Leptasthenura pileata) (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 population because the royal cinclodes population, we have insufficient pers. comm., p. 4). The species is was thought to exist only in Peru at the information to determine if they are characterized by its bright rufous crown time of this estimate (BLI 2009i, p. 2; genetically isolated. The species has and prominent white supercilium Hirshfeld 2007, p. 198). In 2007, Aucca- experienced a population decline of (eyebrow) (Lloyd 2009, p. 2; del Hoyo et Chutas (2007, p. 8) reported an approximately 30 and 49 percent in the al. 2003, p. 267), which gives the estimated 189 birds located within four past 10 years, and this rate of decline is species its name. The species is highly separate Polylepis forest patches in predicted to continue (BLI 2009i, pp. 1, vocal, ‘‘often singing while acrobatically Peru, with a combined area of 629 ha 5). The population is considered to be foraging from the outermost branches of (1,554 ac). This estimate included 116 declining in close association with Polylepis trees’’ (Lloyd 2009, p. 2).

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Taxonomy Vilcabamba (Lloyd 2008, p. 531; from the outer branches of Polylepis Engblom et al. (2002, pp. 57–58). trees while hanging upside-down (Lloyd The white-browed tit-spinetail was It is classified as an ‘‘infrequent flyer’’ 2008b, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 7; del first described by Chapman in 1921 (del across gaps between woodland patches. Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267). Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267). The species At one site in the Cordillera Vilcanota, was synonymized with the nominate the species was observed avoiding Historical Range and Distribution subspecies of the rusty-crowned tit- flying across gaps to the most distant In our 2008 Annual Notice of spinetail (Leptasthenura pileata pileata) small woodland patches if these patches Findings on Resubmitted Petitions for by Vaurie (1980, p. 66), but examination were separated by more than 73 m (239 Foreign Species (73 FR 44062; July 29, of additional specimens in combination ft) from larger woodland patches 2008), we stated that, historically, the with field observations strongly suggests (Benham et al. 2011, p. 153; Lloyd and white-browed tit-spinetail may have that L. xenothorax is a valid species Marsden 2010, in press). Based on these occupied the Polylepis forests of the (Collar et al. 1992, p. 596; Fjeldsa˚ and observations, Engblom et al. (2002, p. high-Andes of Peru and Bolivia. We Krabbe 1990, p. 348; Parker and O’Neill 58) suggest that the species is able to included both countries in the historical 1980, p. 169). Therefore, we accept the persist in very small forest fragments, range of the species because the species’ species as Leptasthenura xenothorax, especially if a number of these patches primary habitat, the Polylepis forest, which follows the Integrated Taxonomic are in close proximity. The lower was historically large and contiguous Information System (ITIS 2009, p. 1). elevation of this species’ range changes throughout the high-Andes of both Peru to a mixed Polylepis-Escallonia (no and Bolivia (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 115). Habitat and Life History common name) woodland, and the However, based on further research, we The white-browed tit-spinetail is white-browed tit-spinetail has been have determined that historically, the restricted to high-elevation, semihumid observed there on occasion, such as species was known from only two Polylepis and Polylepis-Gynoxys during a snowstorm (del Hoyo et al. Regions in south-central Peru, Cusco woodlands, where the species is found 2003, p. 267; Collar et al. 1992, p. 595; and Apurı´mac (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. between 3,700 and 4,550 m (12,139 and Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 348). It may 267; Collar et al. 1992, p. 594), and not 14,928 ft) above sea level (Lloyd 2009, not be entirely as dependent on in Bolivia. pp. 5–6; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267; Polylepis forests; rather this species may The white-browed tit-spinetail may BLI 2000, p. 347; Collar et al. 1992, p. be more dependent on the density of the once have been distributed throughout 595; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 348). forest which creates the moss-lichen- south-central Peru, in previously Dense stands of Polylepis woodlands are insect environment (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. contiguous Polylepis forests above 3,000 ˚ characterized by moss-laden vegetation comm.) m (9,843 ft) (BLI 2009d, pp. 1–2; Fjeldsa 2002a, pp. 111–112, 115; Herzog et al. and a shaded understory, and provide There is limited information on the 2002, p. 94; Kessler 2002, pp. 97–101; for a rich diversity of insects, making ecology and breeding behavior of the BLI 2000, p. 347). However, Polylepis these areas good feeding grounds for white-browed tit-spinetail. Lloyd (2006, woodlands are now restricted to insectivorous birds (De la Via 2004, p. as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 8) reports that elevations of 3,500 to 5,000 m (11,483 10), such as the white-browed tit- the species breeds in October in to 16,404 ft) (Fjeldsa˚ 1992, p. 10). As spinetail (BLI 2009d, p. 2). The Cordillera Vilcanota in southern Peru. discussed above for the Historical Range characteristics of Polylepis habitat are In the same area, one adult was seen and Distribution of the ash-breasted tit- described above in more detail as part attending a nesting hole in a Polylepis tyrant, researchers consider human of the Habitat and Life History of the tree in November 1997 (del Hoyo et al. activity to be the primary cause for ash-breasted tit-tyrant. 2003, p. 267; Bushell in litt. (1999), as cited in BLI 2009d, p. 2). Only one nest historical habitat decline and resultant This species appears to prefer primary of the white-browed tit-spinetail has decrease in species richness (Fjeldsa˚ (lesser disturbed) woodland habitat in ever been described. According to Lloyd 2002a, p. 116; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; larger remnant patches at the lower to (2006, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 8), the Kessler 2002, pp. 97–101; Fjeldsa˚ and mid-elevation range of its known nest was located within a natural cavity Kessler 1996, Kessler 1995a, b, and elevational range distribution (Lloyd of a Polylepis racemosa tree’s main L#gaard 1992, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, 2008b, pp. 735–745). It prefers areas of trunk, approximately 2 m (7 ft) above p. 112; Kessler and Herzog 1998, pp. high density of tall, large Polylepis trees. the ground. To construct their nest, the 50–51). It is estimated that only 2–3 These usually correspond with areas white-browed tit-spinetail pair uses percent of the original forest cover still containing dense and extensive moss moss, lichen, and bark fibers they remains in Peru (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111, ground cover (Lloyd 2008b, pp. 735– stripped from Polylepis tree trunks, 113). Less than 1 percent of the 745). This species generally forages on large branches, and large boulders while remaining woodlands occur in humid vertical trunks and on thicker, epiphyte- foraging. The nest was cup-shaped and areas, where denser stands are found clad branches of Polylepis trees covered contained two pale-colored eggs (Lloyd (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as cited in with moss and lichens, unlike other 2006, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 8). Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113), and which are Leptasthenura species, which generally The white-browed tit-spinetail is preferred by the white-browed tit- forage on the thin terminal branches of insectivorous, with a diet consisting spinetail (BLI 2009d, p. 2; Lloyd 2008a, the outer canopy (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. primarily of arthropods (Lloyd 2009, p. as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 6). comm., p. 4). The species is different 7; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267). The from other Polylepis-dependent species forages in pairs or small family Current Range and Distribution insectivorous bird species, in particular groups of three to five, and often in The white-browed tit-spinetail occurs L. yanacensis, in that it uses different mixed-species flocks, gleaning insects in high-elevation, semihumid patches of foraging perch types, substrates, and a from bark crevices, moss, and lichens on Polylepis and Polylepis-Gynoxys different niche position (Lloyd 2010 twigs, branches, and trunks (BLI 2009d, woodlands in the Andes Mountains of pers. comm.). The white-browed tit- pp. 2–3; Engblom et al. 2002, pp. 57–58; south-central Peru (see http:// spinetail has been observed to regularly Parker and O’Neill 1980, p. 169). The www.birdlife.org/datazone/ use woodland patches smaller than 0.1 white-browed tit-spinetail is highly speciesfactsheet.php?id=4824 for a ha (0.25 ac) for foraging in Cordillera arboreal, typically foraging acrobatically range map of the species). The species

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has a highly restricted and severely as being common in a rare and patchy exposure of the species to determine fragmented range, and is currently (fragmented) habitat (Lloyd 2008). Some whether the species responds to the known from only a small number of species have always been rare (Donald factor in a way that causes actual sites in the Apurı´mac Department in et al. 2010, p. 10); particularly those impacts to the species, and we look at these areas: The Runtacocha highlands; associated with habitat such as the magnitude of the effect. If there is Nevado Sacsarayoc massif (mountain Polylepis-dominated forest. However, as exposure to a factor, but no response, or range); Cordillera Vilcanota and in the of 2009, the species was described as only a beneficial response, that factor is Laguna Anantay Valley in Apurı´mac. It experiencing a population decline not a threat. If there is exposure and the is also known to occur in Vilcabamba in between 10 and 19 percent in the past species responds negatively, the factor Cusco Department (within the Peruvian 10 years, and this rate of decline was may be a threat and we then attempt to protected area of Santuario Histo´rico predicted to continue (BLI 2009d, p. 5). determine how significant the factor is. Machu Picchu) (Benham et al. 2011, p. The species’ population decline is If the factor is significant and, therefore, 153; Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm., p. 4; correlated with the rate of habitat loss a threat, it may drive or contribute to the Lloyd 2010; BLI 2009c, pp. 1, 3; BLI and degradation (see Factor A) (BLI risk of extinction of the species such 2009d, p. 6; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 2009d, p. 6). Based on the best available that the species warrants listing as 267). The species occurs at an altitude information, we consider the population threatened or endangered as those terms of 3,700–4,550 m (12,139–14,928 ft) estimate to be between 500 and 1,500 are defined by the Act. In making this (Lloyd 2009, pp. 1, 5–6; del Hoyo et al. mature individuals. final listing determination, we evaluated 2003, p. 267; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, threats to each of these six species. Our Conservation Status p. 348). It is more commonly evaluation of this information is encountered in the lower elevations The white-browed tit-spinetail is discussed below. within this range. Subpopulations of considered endangered by the Peruvian There are three habitat types in which white-browed tit-spinetail in the Government under Supreme Decree No. these six species exist. All six species Cordillera Vilcanota have a very narrow 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276854). The occur in Peru; two of them occur in estimated niche (Benham et al. 2011, p. IUCN considers the white-browed tit- Bolivia. The Peruvian plantcutter occurs 153; Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.; Lloyd spinetail to be endangered due to its in coastal northern Peru, the Junı´n grebe 2009, p. 5; Lloyd and Marsden 2008, pp. very small and severely fragmented and Junı´n rail occur in and around Lake 2645–2660). The estimated potential range and population, which continue Junı´n, and three (the white-browed tit- range of the species is approximately to decline with ongoing habitat loss and spinetail, royal cinclodes, and ash 2,500 km2 (965 mi2) (BLI 2011f, p. 1). a lack of habitat regeneration (BLI breasted tit-tyrant) occur in forest 2009d, p. 1). Additional protections that habitat dominated by Polylepis species. Population Estimates are likely to benefit this species include Within each of these three habitats, Peru. An estimated 305 birds were three new recently approved these three species depend on similar located within 3 disjunct Polylepis community-owned, private conservation physical and biological features and on forest patches in Peru (Aucca-Chutas areas (3,415 ha or 8,438 ac) to protect the successful functioning of their 2007, p. 8). This included 205 birds and Polylepis forest in the Vilcanota ecosystems to survive. They also face 36 birds in Cordilleras Vilcanota and Mountains of southeastern Peru, near the same or very similar threats within Vilcabamba, respectively (Cusco), and Cusco, which will subsequently provide each habitat type. One peer reviewer 64 birds in Cordillera del Apurı´mac protection for bird species such as the thought that the proposed rule was (Runtacocha highlands of Apurı´mac) white-browed tit-spinetail (American difficult to follow, so we hope that the (Aucca-Chutas 2007, p. 8). The species Bird Conservancy 2011, unpaginated; way we have organized our evaluation may occur at higher densities in other Salem News 2010, p. 1). and finding in this final rule is more areas of Polylepis forests (Lloyd 2008c, Summary of Factors Affecting the clear. as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 9). Despite the Although the listing determination for Species low population estimates of this species, each species is analyzed separately, to the quantitative data from Cordillera Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), avoid redundancy we have organized Vilcanota indicates that the white- and its implementing regulations at 50 the specific analysis for each species browed tit-spinetail is one of the most CFR part 424, set forth the procedures within the context of the broader scale abundant Polylepis specialists in for adding species to the Federal Lists and threat factor in which it occurs. southern Peru (Lloyd 2009, p. 9). This of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife Since within each habitat, these species species was documented in Laguna and Plants. A species may be face a suite of common or mostly Anantay, Apurı´mac in 2010, and its determined to be an endangered or overlapping threats, similar estimated population size in this threatened species due to one or more management actions would reduce or location was 229 individuals (Benham of the five factors described in section eliminate those threats. Effective et al. 2011, p. 153). 4(a)(1) of the Act. The five factors are: management of these threat factors often Global population estimate: BLI (A) The present or threatened requires implementation of conservation categorizes the white-browed tit- destruction, modification, or actions at a broader scale to enhance or spinetail as having a population size curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) restore critical ecological processes and between 500 and 1,500 mature overutilization for commercial, provide for long-term viability of those individuals (BLI 2011f, p. 1). However, recreational, scientific, or educational species in their native environment. the estimate is based on Engblom et al. purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) Thus, by taking this broader approach, 2002 (p. 58). In 2002, Fjeldsa˚ (2002b, p. the inadequacy of existing regulatory we hope this final rule is effectively 9) also estimated a total population size mechanisms; and (E) other natural or organized. of between 250 and 1,000 pairs of birds. manmade factors affecting its continued More recently it was described as existence. Listing actions may be Summary of Factors having one of the highest densities of all warranted based on any of the above A. The Present or Threatened the threatened Polylepis bird species in threat factors, singly or in combination. Destruction, Modification, or this area (Benham et al. 2011, p. 153; In considering what factors might Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or Lloyd 2010, pers. comm.). It is described constitute threats, we look beyond the Range

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Ash-breasted tit-tyrant, royal cinclodes, and Cusco), Cordilleras Vilcanota and birds observed in 3 study sites in Peru) and white-browed tit-spinetail (Polylepis Vilcabamba (Cusco), and Cordillera de (Aucca-Chutas 2007, p. 8), Polylepis habitat) Carabaya (Puno)—in Peru—and ranges woodland habitat is highly fragmented 1. Ash-breasted tit-tyrant. The ash- into Bolivia, where it is found in the and degraded. According to Engblom et breasted tit-tyrant is dependent upon Cordillera Real and the Cordillera al. (2002, pp. 57–58), the species has high-elevation semihumid Polylepis or Apolobamba (La Paz) (BLI 2009e, p. 1; been recorded in patches of woodland Polylepis-Gynoxys woodlands (del Hoyo Aucca-Chutas 2007, p. 8; del Hoyo et al. as small as 0.25 ha (0.6 ac) in Cordillera et al. 2004, pp. 281; Collar et al. 1992, 2004, p. 281; Collar et al. 1992, p. 753; Vilcabamba, but the species’ persistence ˚ p. 753; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, pp. Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, pp. 468–469). in small patches appears to be 468–469). Researchers believe that this The ash-breasted tit-tyrant was only dependent on the patches being in close recently (in 2008) reported in Arequipa proximity to each other. habitat was historically contiguous with Region, Peru (BLI 2009j, p. 1). lower-elevation cloud forests and The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is highly Polylepis habitat widespread above 3,000 m (9,843 ft) localized (Collar et al. 1992, p. 753) and High-Andean Polylepis woodlands are ˚ (Fjeldsa 2002a, pp. 111, 115; Collar et has been described as very rare, with considered by experts to be the most al. 1992, p. 753), but Polylepis usually only 1–2 pairs per occupied threatened habitat in Peru and Bolivia woodlands occur today only between woodland (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. (Purcell et al. 2004, p. 457), throughout 3,500 and 5,000 m (11,483–16,404 ft) 469). It exists at such low densities in the Andean region (BLI 2009a, p. 2), and ˚ (Fjeldsa 1992, p. 10). The species prefers some places that it may go undetected are one of the most threatened dense woodlands (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 114; (Collar et al. 1992, p. 753). The species woodland ecosystem types in the world Smith 1971, p. 269), where the best appears to be unable to persist in forest (Renison et al. 2005, as cited in Lloyd foraging habitat exists (De la Via 2004, remnants smaller than 1 ha (2.5 ac) (BLI 2009, p. 10). The IUCN has listed p. 10). 2009o, p. 1). several Polylepis species as vulnerable, Within La Paz, there may be two 2. Royal cinclodes. The royal including two species, Polylepis incana separate populations that are separated cinclodes is restricted to high-elevation and P. pepei that occur within the range by the Mapiri canyon (see (3,500–4,600 m or 11,483–12,092 ft), of these three species (Ramsay and www.birdlife.org/datazone/ moist, moss-laden areas of semihumid Aucca 2003, pp. 3–4; WCMC 1998a, p. speciesfactsheet.php?id=4173 for a Polylepis or Polylepis-Gynoxys 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). Peruvian and range map of the species). The woodlands (BLI 2009i, p. 2; del Hoyo et Bolivian Polylepis woodlands today are population in the Runtacocha highland al. 2003, p. 253; BLI 2000, p. 345; Collar highly fragmented. In the late 1990s, in Apurı´mac, Peru, is morphologically et al. 1992, p. 588). Polylepis woodlands Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler (1996, as cited in distinct from that in Cusco, although a are dispersed and sparse, with an Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113) conducted formal subspecies description has not estimated remaining area of 1,000 km2 comprehensive ground surveys and been published (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. (386 mi2) in Peru and 5,000 km2 (1,931 analyzed maps and satellite images of comm.). Several other areas with similar mi2) in Bolivia (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler the area. They estimated that the current dense Polylepis stands exist further 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). range of Polylepis woodlands had been south in Apurı´mac, east of the Within the remaining Polylepis reduced from historical levels by 97–98 Chalhuanca valley (a zone with fairly woodlands, the royal cinclodes’ range is percent in Peru and 90 percent in high precipitation) and could hold other approximately 2,700 km2 (1,042 mi2) Bolivia. Contemporary Polylepis populations. These could act as links or (BLI 2011e, p. 1) (See http:// woodlands are dispersed and sparse, corridors to other suitable habitat such www.birdlife.org/datazone/ covering an estimated area of 1,000 km2 as a small Polylepis patch that exists speciesfactsheet.php?id=9773 for a (386 mi2) and 5,000 km2 (1,931 mi2) in near Nevado Solimana in western range map of the species). Less than 1 Peru and Bolivia, respectively (Fjeldsa˚ Arequipa. However, this patch is percent of the remaining woodlands and Kessler 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ isolated and could only accommodate a occur in humid areas, where denser 2002a, p. 113). Of the remaining few pairs of ash-breasted tit-tyrants stands occur (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, Polylepis woodlands, only 1 percent is (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.). as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). The found in humid areas, where the denser Although there is currently no optimal habitat for the royal cinclodes is Polylepis forests preferred by the ash- evidence to suggest that populations in large areas of dense woodlands in the breasted tit-tyrant tend to occur (Fjeldsa˚ Cusco and in La Paz are connected, they high Andes, with a closed canopy that and Kessler 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ may have been connected in the past. In supports its preferred foraging habitat of 2002a, p. 113). 2007, the ash-breasted tit-tyrant was shady, moss-laden vegetation (Lloyd Habitat loss, conversion, and observed in the Ancash Region, 2008, p. 735; De la Via 2004, p. 10; del degradation throughout these three Corredor Conchucos (Aucca-Chutas Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. species’ range have been and continue 2007, pp. 4, 8). Here, a Polylepis 2002, p. 57). to occur as a result of ongoing human reforestation project is under way to 3. White-browed tit-spinetail. The activity, including: connect two protected areas where ash- species is known from only a small (1) Clear cutting and burning; breasted tit-tyrants were known to number of sites at four locations: The (2) Extractive activities; occur: In Parque Nacional Huascara´n Runtacocha highlands (in Apurı´mac (3) Human encroachment; and and Zona Reservada de la Cordillera Region), and the Nevado Sacsarayoc (4) Climate fluctuations that may Huayhuash (MacLennan 2009, p. 1; massif, Cordillera Vilcabamba, and exacerbate the effects of habitat Antamina Mine 2006, p. 5). Cordillera Vilcanota (in Cusco Region); fragmentation. The second location spans the however, new Polylepis habitat has been Clearcutting and burning. Clear Peruvian-Bolivian border—in the located (Benham et al. 2011, p. 145). In cutting and burning are among the most Peruvian Administrative Regions of the Cordillera de Vilcanota (Cusco, destructive activities and are a leading Apurı´mac, Cusco, Puno, and Arequipa Peru), where a large portion of the cause for Polylepis habitat loss (WCMC (from north to south) and in the known white-browed tit-spinetail 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). Bolivian Department of La Paz. Here it population occurs (205 birds were Forested areas are cleared for agriculture occurs in Cordillera Oriental (Apurı´mac recently observed there, of 305 total and to create pasture for cattle, sheep,

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and camels (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009c, erosion (Purcell et al. 2004, p. 458; Ma´laga (Cusco Region), wood has been pp. 1–2; BLI 2009d, pp. 1–2; BLI 2009e, Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56). The loss of harvested for sale to local hotels in the pp. 1, 5; BLI 2009h, p. 1; BLI 2009m, p. nutrient-rich soils leads to habitat towns of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo 1; BLI 2009n, p. 4). Grazing lands degradation, which reduces the ability to support tourism activity (Engblom situated among remaining forest patches of the habitat to support dense stands of 2000, p. 1). Engblom (2000, p. 1) are regularly burned in order to Polylepis woodlands (Jameson and documented felling for firewood at this maintain the grassland vegetation Ramsay 2007, p. 42; Purcell et al. 2004, site in Cusco over a 2-day period that (locally known as chaqueo). Regular p. 458; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8). significantly reduced the size and burning prevents regeneration of native Polylepis habitat is also subject to quality of the forest patch. Purcell et al. forests and is considered the key factor conversion, degradation, or destruction (2004, p. 458) noted a positive limiting the distribution of Polylepis caused by extractive activities such as correlation between habitat destruction forests (BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI 2009n, p. 4; firewood collection, timber harvest, and and increased demand for (and the Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8; WCMC 1998a, p. 1). mining. Cutting wood for fuel has a concomitant rise in the price of) fuel. In some areas, the burns escape control, consistent and ongoing impact Polylepis is also harvested for causing further habitat destruction (BLI throughout these three species’ ranges construction, fencing, and tool-making 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009e, pp. 1, 5). (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009b, pp. 1–2; BLI (Aucca-Chutas and Ramsey 2005, p. Burning and clear cutting occur 2009c, pp. 1–2; BLI 2009d, pp. 1–2; BLI 287; BLI 2009a, p. 2). Commercial-scale throughout the ash-breasted tit-tyrant’s 2009f, p. 1; BLI 2009l, p. 1; WCMC activities such as clear cutting, logging, range, including Ancash, Apurı´mac, and 1998a, p. 1). The high-altitude zones tourism, and infrastructure development Cusco in Peru; and in La Paz, Bolivia where Polylepis occurs have long been are ongoing throughout these species’ (BLI 2009a, p. 2). These activities are inhabited by subsistence farmers who ranges, and alter otherwise sustainable also ongoing within protected areas, rely on Polylepis wood for firewood and resource use practices (MacLennan including Parque Nacional Huascara´n, charcoal production (Aucca-Chutas and 2009, p. 2; Aucca-Chutas and Ramsay Santuario Histo´rico Machu Picchu, and Ramsay 2005, p. 287). Habitat 2005, p. 287; Purcell and Brelsford Zona Reservada de la Cordillera degradation is occurring in the 2004, pp. 156–157; Purcell et al. 2004, Huayhuash (BLI 2009l, p. 4; BLI 2009n, Santuario Histo´rico Machu Picchu in pp. 458–459; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56; p. 2; Barrio 2005, p. 564). Peru (BLI 2009h, p. 4), and Parque Engblom 2000, p. 2; WCMC 1998a, p. 1). With years of extremely high rainfall Nacional y A´ rea Natural de Manejo Human encroachment. Human followed by years of extremely dry Integrado Madidi, Parque Nacional y weather, the risk of fire is increased A´ rea Natural de Manejo Integrado encroachment and concomitant from the accumulated biomass during Cotapata, and the colocated protected increasing human population pressures the wet period that dries and adds to the areas of Reserva Nacional de Fauna de exacerbate the destructive effects of fuel load in the dry season (Block and Apolobamba, A´ rea Natural de Manejo ongoing human activities throughout Richter 2007, p. 1; Power et al. 2007, p. Integrado de Apolobamba, and Reserva Polylepis habitat. Habitat destruction is 898). Evidence suggests that the fire de la Biosfera de Apolobamba in Bolivia often caused by a combination of human cycle in Peru has shortened, particularly (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI activities that contribute to habitat in coastal Peru and west of the Andes 2009c, p. 2; BLI 2009d, p. 5). degradation. In the Cordillera de (Power et al. 2007, pp. 897–898). Community-based Polylepis Vilcanota (Cusco, Peru), where an Changes in the fire-regime can have conservation programs fostered by the estimated 181 ash-breasted tit-tyrants broad ecological consequences (Block Peruvian nongovernmental organization were reported in 2007 (Aucca-Chutas and Richter 2007, p. 1; Power et al. Asociacio´n Ecosistemas Andinos 2007, pp. 4, 8), the rate of habitat loss 2007, p. 898). Research in Ecuadorian (ECOAN) have been under way in Peru was studied by comparing forest cover Polylepis-Gynoxys mixed woodlands and Bolivia since 2004, encompassing between 1956 and 2005. This study indicated a strong reduction in P. Cordilleras Vilcanota and Vilcabamba revealed a rate of habitat loss averaging incana adult and seedling survival (Cusco Region), highlands of the only 1 percent. However, remaining following a single fire. This indicates Apurı´mac Region (Lloyd 2009, p. 10; patches of Polylepis woodland were that Polylepis species do not recover Aucca-Chutas and Ramsey 2005, p. 287; small, with a mean patch size of 3 ha well from even a single fire event ECOAN no date (n.d.), p. 1) and in the (7.4 ac). Four forest patches had (Cierjacks et al. 2007, p. 176). Because Ancash Region (MacLennan 2009, p. 2). disappeared completely; and no new burning has been considered to be a key These are known as the Vilcanota patches were located within the study factor preventing Polylepis regeneration Project or ECOAN Projects (Aucca- area (Jameson and Ramsay 2007, p. 42). (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ Chutas and Ramsey 2005, p. 287; Lloyd (2008, p. 532) studied bird 2002b, p. 8), an accelerated fire cycle ECOAN n.d., p. 1). Local communities foraging habits at three Polylepis would exacerbate this situation. enter into and enforce management woodland sites in the Cordillera As a result of the intensity of burning agreements aimed at mitigating the Vilcanota during 2003–2005. The sites and grazing, Polylepis species are primary causes for Polylepis were described as highly fragmented, generally restricted to areas where fires deforestation: burning, grazing, and consisting of many small remnant cannot spread and where cattle and wood-cutting. These projects foster patches (less than 1 ha (2.5 ac)) and sheep do not normally roam—in stream local, sustainable use of resources scattered trees separated from larger ravines and on boulders, rock ledges, (Aucca-Chutas and Ramsay 2005, p. woodland tracts (greater than 10 ha (25 and sandy ridges (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112; 287; ECOAN n.d., p. 1; Engblom et al. ac)) by distances of 30–1,500 m (98– Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8). Grazing and 2002, p. 56), such as the use of more 4,921 ft) (Lloyd and Marsden in press, trampling by domesticated animals fuel-efficient wood-burning stoves that as cited in Lloyd 2008, p. 532). ECOAN further limit forest regeneration (Fjeldsa˚ require half the amount of wood fuel is working with local communities in 2002a, p. 120) and contribute to the (MacLennan 2009, p. 2). this area to address habitat degradation degradation of remaining forest patches. Polylepis wood is also harvested for and is working on Polylepis Sheep and cattle have solid, sharp local commercial use, including within reforestation projects, which are hooves that churn up the earth, protected areas (BLI 2009a, p. 2; WCMC discussed below in this document (ABC damaging vegetation and triggering 1998a, p. 1). At one site, near Abra undated, pp. 1–3).

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Extractive activities. Mining in supports the planned reforestation farmland, which are prevalent activities Polylepis habitat occurs in the Peruvian within a 50,000-ha (123,552-ac) area. throughout the ranges of these three regions of Ancash and Hua´naco and in Planting of Polylepis species will assist species (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009b, p. the Bolivian Department of La Paz (BLI in connecting habitat between two 2; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56; Fjeldsa˚ 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009d, p. 1; BLI 2009g, protected areas, Parque Nacional 2002a, pp. 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8; p. 1). As of 2006, Ancash was home to Huascara´n and Zona Reservada de la Purcell et al. 2004, p. 458; WCMC the largest zinc and copper mine in the Cordillera Huayhuash (Antamina Mine 1998a, p. 1). These habitat-altering world, with a monthly average 2006, p. 5). As of 2009, the project had activities are considered to be key production rate of 105,000 metric tons succeeded in restoring 150 ha (371 ac) factors preventing regeneration of (231,485 pounds) of minerals per day of forest, with a 95 percent survival rate Polylepis woodlands (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. and a 300-kilometer (km) (186-mile (MacLennan 2009, p. 1). Known as 112, 120) and are factors in the (mi)) underground pipeline that Corredor Conchucos, at least 30 ash- historical decline of Polylepis- stretches from the mine to the port of breasted tit-tyrants have recently been dependent bird species, including these Punta Lobitos along the coast (Antamina observed there (Aucca-Chutas 2007, p. three species (BLI 2009i, p. 6; Fjeldsa˚ Mine 2006, pp. 4, 9; 8). 2002a, p. 116; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; www.antamina.com/02_operacion/ Mining and hydroelectric projects Kessler 2002, pp. 97–101; Fjeldsa˚ and En_puerto.html). A mixture of water open previously undisturbed areas to Kessler 1996). and minerals are transported by the exploitation and attract people seeking The royal cinclodes’ population size pipeline (Biodiversity Neutral Initiative employment (Purcell et al. 2004, p. is considered to be declining in close [BNI] 2006, p. 2). The actual mining 458). Increased urbanization and mining association with continued habitat loss footprint was estimated to be 2,221 have led to increased infrastructure and degradation (BLI 2009i, p. 6). The hectares (5,488 acres) (BNI 2006, p. 2). development. Road building and mining royal cinclodes may once have been As a result of mining activities, the projects further facilitate human access locally common and distributed across habitat is affected by effluent containing to remaining Polylepis forest fragments, most of central to southern Peru and metals such as copper, zinc, iron, and throughout these three species’ ranges into the Bolivian highlands, in once- molybdenum) (BNI 2006, p. 7). Mining (Purcell et al. 2004, pp. 458–459; contiguous expanses of Polylepis forests also occurs in ash-breasted tit-tyrant Purcell and Brelsford 2004, pp. 156– (BLI 2009i, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111– habitat in La Paz, Bolivia, where there 157), including protected areas. In the 112, 115; BLI 2000, p. 345). In the are active gold, tin, silver, and tungsten Bolivian Department of La Paz, one of Cordillera de Vilcanota (Cusco, Peru), mines, in addition to gravel excavation the most transited highways in the where a large portion of the known for cement production (USGS Minerals country is located a short distance from royal cinclodes population occurs (116 Yearbook 2005, pp. 4–7). the Parque Nacional y A´ rea Natural de birds were observed there, out of 189 Recently, an accelerated rate of Manejo Integrado Cotapata (BLI 2009b, total birds observed in 4 study sites in Polylepis forest destruction has been p. 2). Road building, mining, and other Peru) (Aucca-Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8), attributed to clear cutting for road large-scale resource exploitations have Polylepis woodland habitat is highly building and industrialization projects, major impacts on the habitat (Purcell fragmented and degraded. The species such as mining and construction of and Brelsford 2004, p. 157). may have been extirpated from its type hydroelectric power stations (Purcell Tourism. Ecotourism is considered a locality (Aricoma Pass, Puno), where and Brelsford 2004, pp. 156–157). growing problem within protected areas Polylepis forest no longer occurs. A Between 1991 and 2003, approximately where these three species occur such as search for the species in 1987 resulted 200 ha (494 ac) of Polylepis habitat was in the Zona Reservada de la Cordillera in no observations of the royal cinclodes destroyed. Thus, nearly two-thirds of Huayhuash in Peru, and in the (Engblom 2002, p. 57; Collar et al. 1992, the forest cover that existed in the 1990s Apolobamba protected areas in Bolivia p. 589). The royal cinclodes is not no longer existed in 2003 (Purcell and (BLI 2009e, p. 5; Barrio 2005, p. 564). predicted to occur in Puno because Brelsford 2004, p. 155). Only 520 ha For example, in Huascara´n National habitat no longer exists there (1,285 ac) of Polylepis forest was Park, irresponsible tourism is affecting (InfoNatura 2007, p. 1), and only two estimated to remain in the Bolivian habitat (TNC 2011, p. 6). Visitors form birds have been observed at that Department of La Paz, representing base camps at the foot of mountains and location in recent years (Aucca-Chutas approximately a 40 percent rate of make expeditions to the summits. 2007, pp. 4, 8). Therefore, further habitat loss in just over one decade. The Tourists camp and hike for several days habitat loss will continue to impact the researchers inferred that this rate of (TNC 2011, p. 6). Tourism along the species’ already small population size destruction could result in extirpation climbing routes and circuits is causing (see Factor E). of the remaining Polylepis forest in La progressive loss of vegetative coverage Polylepis habitat throughout the range Paz within the next 30 years if no and is disturbing wildlife in the of the white-browed tit-spinetail has mitigation is implemented (Purcell and surrounding areas (TNC 2011, pp. 6–8). been and continues to be altered and Brelsford 2004, pp. 157). Poorly managed tourism results in destroyed as a result of human Since 2003, Antamina Mine has contamination by unmanaged garbage activities, including clear cutting and undertaken Polylepis habitat and waste, unauthorized trail and road burning for agriculture and grazing conservation programs within the areas openings, soil erosion, and vegetation lands and extractive activities including affected by mineral extraction in loss (TNC 2011, p. 6). Burying garbage harvest for timber, firewood, and partnership with ECOAN and other can damage soil because it causes charcoal. It is estimated that only 2–3 NGOs. Antamina Mine has committed erosion as well as contamination. percent of the dense Polylepis to investing a million dollars in Garbage and waste left behind woodlands preferred by the species programs ranging from education and contaminates water (originating from remain. Observations suggest that the tourism, to organic agriculture and glaciers), lakes, rivers, and streams. white-browed tit-spinetail is able to sustainable development, and Lack of Polylepis forest regeneration persist in very small forest fragments reforestation of areas using Polylepis during nearly 50 years underscores the (e.g., areas as small as 0.25 ha (0.6 ac) species. The Antamina Mining ramifications of continued burning and in Cordillera Vilcabamba); however, this Company conservation program clearing to maintain pastures and depends on whether or not adequate

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patches are near one another. Continued of Polylepis woodlands and in the populations, especially in cases where loss, degradation, and fragmentation of historical decline of Polylepis- woodlands have undergone disturbance remaining Polylepis woodlands increase dependent bird species, including these such as fire and grazing (Villalba and the degree of isolation (distance) three species (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 116). Veblen 1998, pp. 2624, 2637; Villalba between populations and Therefore, further habitat loss will and Veblen 1997, pp. 121–123). subpopulations (and neighboring continue to impact these species’ Some changes in the physical woodland fragments within the same already small population sizes (see environment include changes in site). Since individuals tend not to cross Factor E). precipitation and temperature and the the larger gaps between neighboring frequency and severity of events (Huber Climate Fluctuations woodland patches, increasing isolation and Gulledge 2011, p. 3; Solman 2011, (at whatever scale) is likely to affect the Peru is subject to climate fluctuations p. 20; Laurance and Useche 2009, p. dispersal and other movement patterns that may exacerbate the effects of habitat 1432; Margeno 2008, p. 1; Nun˜ ez et al. between populations, and, therefore, fragmentation, such as those that are 2008, p. 1). Climate change has also impact the species’ population related to the El Nin˜ o Southern resulted in a variety of alterations in persistence within the landscape. Oscillation (ENSO). The term ENSO ecosystem processes, species The white-browed tit-spinetail prefers refers to a range of variability associated distributions, and the timing of seasonal areas of high density of tall, large with the southern trade winds in the events such as bird migrations and the Polylepis trees, which usually eastern and central equatorial Pacific onset of flowering (GCCIUS 2009, pp. correspond with areas containing dense Ocean. El Nin˜ o events are characterized 79–88). Forecasts of the rate and and extensive moss ground cover. When by unusual warming of the ocean, while consequences of future climate change habitat is degraded, there is often a lag La Nin˜ a events bring cooler ocean are based on the results of extensive time before the species losses are temperatures (Tropical Atmosphere modeling efforts conducted by scientists evident (Brooks et al. 1999, p. 1140), so Ocean (TAO) Project no date (n.d.), p. around the world (Solman 2011, p. 20; the white-browed tit-spinetail may still 1). Generally speaking, extreme ENSO Laurance and Useche 2009, p. 1432; be present, despite the low quality of its events alter weather patterns, so that Nun˜ ez et al. 2008, p. 1; Margeno 2008, habitat. This species is not likely able to precipitation increases in normally dry p. 1; Meehl et al. 2007, p. 753). While persist in forest remnants smaller than areas, and decreases in normally wet projections from global climate model 1 ha (2.5 ac) (Gomez in litt. 2003, 2007 areas. During an El Nin˜ o event, rainfall simulations are informative and various in BLI 2009o, p. 1), and the remaining dramatically increases, whereas a La methods exist to downscale global and Polylepis forest patch sizes have met or Nin˜ a event brings near-drought national projections to the regional or are approaching the lower threshold of conditions (Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89). local area in which the species lives, in this species’ ecological requirements. Climate change is characterized by many cases, downscaled projections are Larger concentrations of people put variations in the earth’s temperature and still being developed (Solman 2011, p. greater demand on the natural resources precipitation, causing changes in 20; Insel et al. 2009; Nun˜ ez et al. 2008, in the area (Donald et al. 2010, p. 26). atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial p. 1; Marengo 2008, p. 1), and the local Increasing demand for firewood upsets conditions (Parmesan and Mathews effect of climate change on Polylepis is informal and otherwise sustainable 2005, p. 334). In addition to substrates unclear. community-based forest management (vegetation, soil, water), habitat is also Jetz et al. (2007, p. 1,211) investigated traditions (Purcell and Brelsford, 2004, defined by atmospheric conditions; the effects of climate change on 8,750 p. 157). Increasing human populations changes in air temperature and moisture land bird species that are exposed to in the high-Andes of Bolivia and Peru can effectively change a species’ habitat. ongoing manmade land cover changes have also resulted in a scarcity of arable Periodic climatic patterns such as El (i.e., habitat loss). They determined that land. This has led many farmers to burn Nin˜ o and La Nin˜ a can cause or narrow endemics such as these three additional patches of Polylepis forests to exacerbate such negative impacts on a species are likely to suffer greater plant crops, even on steep hillsides that broad range of terrestrial ecosystems impacts from climate change combined are not suitable for cultivation (BLI and Neotropical bird populations with habitat loss (Jetz et al. 2007, p. 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2009h, p. 1; Hensen (Gosling et al. 2009, pp. 1–9; Plumart 1213). This is due to the species’ already 2002, p. 199). These ongoing farming 2007, pp. 1–2; Holmgren et al. 2001, p. small population size, specialized practices result in the rapid loss of 89; England 2000, p. 86; Timmermann habitat requirements, and heightened Polylepis forests stretching from Bolivia 1999, p. 694). risk of extinction from stochastic to Peru. Over the past decade, there have been demographic processes (see also Factor Thus, habitat degradation has serious four El Nin˜ o events (1997–1998, 2002– E). According to this study, by 2050, up impacts in Polylepis woodlands 2003, 2004–2005, and 2006–2007) and to 18 percent of the ash-breasted tit- (Jameson and Ramsay 2007, p. 42), three La Nin˜ a events (1998–2000, 2000– tyrant’s current remaining range is especially given these species’ 2001, and 2007–2008) (National likely to be unsuitable for this species preference for dense woodlands (Fjeldsa˚ Weather Service (NWS) 2009, p. 2). due to climate change. By 2100, one 2002a, p. 114; Smith 1971, p. 269). The Some research suggests the Andean estimate predicted that about 18 to 42 fact that no new Polylepis forest patches highlands, and Polylepis species in percent of the species’ range is likely to had become established between 1956 particular, are strongly influenced by be lost as a result of climate change (Jetz and 2005 underscores the long-term ENSO events (Christie et al. 2008, p. 1; et al. 2007, Supplementary Table 2, p. ramifications of ongoing burning, Richter 2005, pp. 24–25). Christie et al. 73). With respect to the royal cinclodes, clearing, grazing, and other habitat- (2008, p. 1) found that tree growth in P. researchers predicted that, by 2050, altering human activities that are tarapacana is highly influenced by approximately 3 to 15 percent of its pervasive throughout these three ENSO events because ENSO cycles on current remaining range is likely to be species’ ranges (BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI the Peruvian Coast are strongest during unsuitable for this species due to 2009n, p. 4; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8; WCMC the growing season (December– climate change and, by 2100, it is 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). These February). ENSO-related droughts can predicted that about 8 to 18 percent of activities are considered to be key increase tree mortality and dramatically the species’ range is likely to be lost as factors both in preventing regeneration alter age structure within tree a direct result of global climate change

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(p. 89). With respect to the white- mist-zone is determined more by threshold of the species’ ecological browed tit-spinetail, the researchers topography rather than by regional or requirements. The historical decline of predicted that, by 2050, another one global climate (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. habitat suitable for these species is percent of its current remaining range is Comm; Fjeldsa˚ et al. 1999). This attributed to the same human activities likely to be unsuitable for this species characteristic is demonstrated by the that are causing habitat loss today. due to changes in the local climate. By persistence of relict endemic species in Ongoing and accelerated habitat 2100, it is predicted that about 43 these places. Therefore, preferred destruction of the remaining Polylepis percent of the species’ range is likely to Polylepis habitat may be less susceptible forest fragments in both Peru and be lost as a direct result of global to larger scales of climate change. Bolivia continues to reduce the climate change (p. 89). Unpredictable climate fluctuations quantity, quality, distribution, and There is conflicting information about may exacerbate the effects of habitat regeneration of remaining patches. how changes in climate might affect fragmentation (Jetz et al. 2007, pp. Some NGOs and local communities are these species’ habitat, which is 1,211, 1,213; Mora et al. 2007, p. 1,027). conducting reforestation efforts in areas associated with cloud mist-zones. Fossil In the face of an unpredictable climate, such as the Cordillera Vilcanota, Peru records indicate that these species’ the risk of population decline due to (ECOAN 2012). However, the growth of habitat, Polylepis forest in the central habitat fragmentation is heightened. Polylepis species will take some time, Andes, was at a maximum during warm, Researchers have found that the and the results of these efforts are not wet conditions approximately 1,000 combined effects of habitat yet clear. Human activities that degrade, years ago, but might be at a minimum fragmentation and climate change (in alter, and destroy habitat are ongoing during the warmer and drier-than- this case, warming) had a synergistic throughout the species’ range, including modern conditions predicted for later effect, rather than additive (Laurance within protected areas. this century (Gosling et al. 2009, pp. 2, and Useche 2009, p. 1427; Mora et al. Although some climate models 10). The maximum abundance of 2007, p. 1,027). In other words, the predict that fluctuations in precipitation Polylepis is coincident with times of interactive effects of both climate and temperature, particularly ENSO warmer, wetter conditions, while fluctuation and habitat fragmentation events, could affect this species’ habitat, warmer, drier conditions minimize led to a greater population decline than other research suggests that its very optimum habitat (Gosling 2009, p. 18). if either climate change or habitat local climate will not be significantly This suggests that Polylepis forests may fragmentation were acting alone on affected (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.; become scarcer. If these three bird populations. However, the effect of a Gosling et al. 2009). Climate change species are unable to adapt to other changing climate on these species’ models, like all scientific models, habitat, the lack of mature Polylepis habitat is still unclear. produce projections that have some forests may affect these species. uncertainty because of the assumptions Summary of Factor A—Ash-breasted tit- However, this same paper and other used, the data available, and the specific tyrant, royal cinclodes, and white- research indicate that Polylepis habitat model features (Fernanda and Solman browed tit-spinetail (Polylepis habitat) may experience more moisture (Gosling 2010, p. 533). The science supporting et al. 2009, p. 11; Insel et al. 2009, These three species are dependent on climate model projections as well as unpaginated; Marengo 2008, p. 4). The Polylepis habitat, with a preference for models assessing their impacts on effects of climate change are still dense, shady woodlands. Although the species and habitats will continue to be uncertain, in part due to the localized white-browed tit-spinetail has been refined as more information becomes effects of the Andes (Insel et al. 2009, recorded in patches of woodland as available, but there are still pp. 1–2). Other recent regional models small as 0.25 ha (0.6 ac), the ash- uncertainties. Nevertheless, the species’ project both an increase in wet-season breasted tit-tyrant and the royal population declines are commensurate precipitation and a decrease in dry- cinclodes both require larger ranges with the declining habitat. Therefore, season precipitation over most of South than the white-browed tit-spinetail: 1–2 we find that destruction and America (Kitoh et al. 2011, p. 1; Nun˜ ez ha (2.5–5 ac) and 3–4 ha (7–10 ac) modification of habitat threaten the et al. 2008, p. 1081). In the future, for respectively. In the Department of La continued existence of these three almost the entire South American Paz, Bolivia, which encompasses species throughout their range continent, precipitation intensity is Bolivia’s largest urban area, most of the (primarily Polylepis-dominant habitat). expected to increase (Kitoh et al. 2011, Polylepis forest had been eliminated Junı´n grebe and Junı´n rail (Lake Junı´n) p. 2; Avalos-Rolda´n 2007, p. 76). prior to the late 1990s (Purcell and Other new information suggests that Brelsford 2004, p. 157). In Cordillera 1. Junı´n grebe. The Junı´n grebe is climate change may not be a significant Vilcanota (Cusco, Peru), where a large endemic to Lake Junı´n, where it resides factor affecting species in Polylepis concentration of the royal cinclodes year-round. The species is completely forests (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.). individuals was observed in 2007, the dependent on the open waters and Although stronger ENSO impacts may average size of forest fragments just marshland margins of the lake for cause drier conditions in Peru’s western meets the lower threshold of the feeding and on the protective cover of cordillera, the effect further east would species’ ecological requirements. the marshlands during the breeding likely be opposite. The areas where the Polylepis habitat throughout their season (BLI 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2008, p. 1; ash-breasted tit-tyrant occurs, for range has been and continues to be Tello 2007, p. 3; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 247). example, correspond with peaks of altered and destroyed as a result of The current estimated range of the endemism in the humid Peruvian human activities, including clear cutting species is 143 km2 (55 mi2) (BLI 2009b, Andes. These areas have been found to and burning for agriculture and grazing p. 1). However, its actual range is correlate with stable local lands; tourism; extractive activities smaller (see http://www.birdlife.org/ environments, likely due to interactions including firewood, timber, and datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3644 between atmospheric flows and local minerals; human encroachment, and for a range map of the species), because topography (Fjeldsa˚ 2010 pers. comm.). concomitant increased pressure on the species is restricted to the southern The Polylepis forests generally occur at natural resources. Forest fragments in portion of the lake (BLI 2009b, p. 1; Gill the transition between deep Andean some portions of these three species’ and Storer in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; valleys and cold highlands, where the ranges are approaching the lower Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254). Breeding season

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begins in November (O’Donnel and offtake for hydropower generation Junı´n grebe for food (Fjeldsa˚ 1984, pp. Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 44, further drains the lake, such that, by the 413–414). Competition becomes more 246). Junı´n grebes build their nests and end of the dry season, in November, the critical the longer the water level obtain their primary prey, pupfish, in marshlands encircling the lake are more remains low at the end of the dry the expansive offshore flooded apt to become completely desiccated season, and activities that further reduce marshlands that may extend into the (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123). low water levels only exacerbate this lake up to 2–5 km (1–3 mi) from shore Reduced water levels directly impact competition (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 252– (BLI 2008, p. 1; Tello 2007, p. 3; Fjeldsa˚ the Junı´n grebe’s breeding success by 253). 2004, p. 200; O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ reducing the amount of available Water quality affects the availability 1997, pp. 29–30; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 247). nesting habitat (BLI 2008, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ of habitat for both the endemic Junı´n 2. Junı´n rail. The Junı´n rail is also 2004, p. 200). The giant bulrush grebe and Junı´n rail. The water in Lake endemic to Lake Junı´n, where it also marshlands, upon which the Junı´n grebe Junı´n has been contaminated from resides year-round and is restricted to relies for nesting and foraging habitat, mining, agricultural activities and two localities within the shallow have virtually disappeared from some organic matter and wastewater runoff marshlands encircling Lake Junı´n (BLI sections of the lake (O’Donnel and from local communities around the lake 2009b, p. 2; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 278). The Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). When the (Shoobridge 2006, p. 3; ParksWatch current estimated range of the species marshlands are completely desiccated, 2006, pp. 5, 19; Martin and McNee (160 km2, 62 mi2) (BLI 2009b, p. 1) is the Junı´n grebe is reported to not breed 1999, pp. 660–661). Heavy metal likely an overestimate of this species’ at all (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123). contamination throughout the lake has range (see www.birdlife.org/datazone/ Reduced water levels impact the exceeded established thresholds for speciesfactsheet.php?id=2842 for a species by reducing the Junı´n grebe’s aquatic life throughout at least one-third range map of the species). The species primary prey, pupfish (Orestias species) of the lake, and has rendered the is known only from two discrete (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200). The perimeter of northern portion of the lake lifeless (BLI locations, which are near Ondores and the flooded marshlands provides the 2008, p. 4; Shoobridge 2006, p. 3; Pari, on the southwest shore of the lake. primary recruitment habitat for fish in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; Martin and McNee The quality of both Junı´n grebe and the lake particularly during extremely 1999, pp. 660–662; ParksWatch 2006, Junı´n rail habitat and their reproductive dry years (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; pp. 20–21). At the lake’s center, lake success is highly influenced by water O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). bottom sediments are lifeless and anoxic levels and the water quality of the lake. Submerged aquatic vegetation, habitat (having low levels of dissolved oxygen) Water levels in the lake are affected by for pupfish, has become very patchy, due to contaminants (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. hydropower generation which is further triggering declines in the prey 124; Martin et al. 2001, p. 180), and the exacerbated by unpredictable climate population. Few marshlands are lakeshore has become polluted with fluctuations (such as drought or permanently inundated now due to the toxic acidic gray sediment (O’Donnel excessive rain). Water quality in Lake power generation of the Upamayo Dam, and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 30). Martin et al. Junı´n has been compromised by and the giant bulrushes that previously (2001, p. 180) determined that contamination, in part due to waste provided extensive cover for this sediments at the lake’s center are from mining activities that drain into species for breeding and feeding have contaminated with copper, zinc, and the lake (ParksWatch 2012, pp. 2–3). virtually disappeared, reducing both lead and are anoxic. High Environmental Mitigation Programs nesting and foraging habitat for the concentrations of dissolved copper, (PAMA) have been implemented to Junı´n grebe. The reduction in nesting lead, and zinc have damaged an combat pollution from mining wastes, and foraging habitat is believed to estimated one-third of the lake and impacts have been reduced contribute to mass mortality of Junı´n (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 2, 20; Shoobridge significantly because miners have begun grebes during extreme drought years 2006, p. 3; Martin and McNee 1999, pp. to use drainage fields and residual water such as those that occurred during 660–661). is being recycled (ParksWatch 2012). 1983–1987, 1991, and 1994–1997 There is no vegetation at the northern However, the PAMAs do not adequately (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 30). end of the lake (ParksWatch 2006, pp. address responsibilities for the mining Manipulation of the Lake Junı´n’s 20–21; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124), and wastes discharged into the San Juan water levels also results in competition ongoing contamination has the potential River course and delta; sediments between the white-tufted grebe to reduce vegetative cover in other areas containing heavy metals in the San Juan (Rollandia rolland) and the Junı´n grebe of the lake, including the marshlands River delta leach into Lake Junı´n (also for food resources during the Junı´n where these two species occur. These see Factor D). Additionally, the grebe’s breeding season (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. pollutants have severely affected animal Upamayo Dam, located at the 200). During the breeding season, in and plant populations in the area, northwestern end of the lake, has been years when water levels remain high, contributing to mortality of species in operation since 1936, and the lake the Junı´n grebe and white-tufted grebe around the lake including the Junı´n rail water is used to power the 54-megawatt are spatially separated. White-tufted and the Junı´n grebe (ParksWatch 2006, Malpaso hydroelectric plant grebes use the interior of the reed pp. 3, 20), and are likely to reduce the (ParksWatch 2006, p. 5; Martin et al. marsh, and Junı´n grebes use the health and fitness of these two species 2001, p. 178). Dam operations have remaining at the edges of the (see Factor C). caused seasonal water level fluctuations marshlands, closer to the center of the Lake Junı´n is a sink for several up to 2 m (6 ft) in Lake Junı´n (Martin lake (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 245, 255). Near streams that transport mining wastes and McNee 1999, p. 659). Under normal the end of the dry season, as early as and other pollution downstream and conditions, water levels are lower in the October, when water levels are lower in into the lake (ParksWatch 2006, p. 19). dry season (June to November), and the the lake and the marshlands can The San Juan River is the primary marshlands can become partially or partially or completely dry out (BLI source of water for Lake Junı´n, and completely dry (ParksWatch 2009, p. 2). 2009b, p. 1; ParksWatch 2009, p. 2), feeds into the lake from the northern The floodgates of the dam are often thousands of white-tufted grebes move end (Shoobridge 2006, p. 3; Martin and opened during the dry season from the interior of the marshlands to McNee 1999, pp. 660–661; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, (ParksWatch 2009, p. 2), and water the edges, where they compete with the p. 255). Tests indicate that the San Juan

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River contains trace metals including events), tend to increase precipitation in continue as a result of deteriorating copper, lead, mercury, and zinc in normally dry areas, and decrease habitat and water quality (BLI 2009b, excess of currently accepted aquatic life precipitation in normally wet areas pp. 1, 6–7). Therefore, further habitat thresholds (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. (Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; TAO degradation is expected to continue 660–661). Non-point-source pollutants Project n.d., p. 1); exacerbating the impacting this species’ already small from agricultural fertilizers such as effects of habitat reduction and population (see Factor E). ammonium and nitrate concentrations alteration on the decline of a species The habitat in and around Lake Junı´n are also suspended in the water column (Jetz et al. 2007, pp. 1211, 1213; Mora is subjected to manmade activities that (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 660–661). et al. 2007, p. 1027; Plumart 2007, pp. have altered, destroyed, and degraded Iron oxide contamination is 1–2; Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; the quantity and quality of habitat prominently visible near the outflow of England 2000, p. 86; Timmermann available to the Junı´n rail. These the San Juan River (iron oxide produces 1999, p. 694), especially for narrow activities include: (1) Artificial a reddish tinge, which colors the water endemics such as the Junı´n grebe and manipulation of water levels; (2) water and reed borders). Vegetation near the Junı´n rail. Moreover, the Junı´n grebe’s contamination; and (3) plant harvesting river’s outflow is completely absent low breeding potential is considered to in the species’ breeding grounds. The (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 20–21; Fjeldsa˚ be a reflection of its adaptation to being negative impacts of these activities are 2004, p. 124), and this portion of the in a highly predictable, stable accentuated by unpredictable climate lake has been rendered lifeless by the environment (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. fluctuations such as droughts or precipitation of iron oxide from mining 195). excessive rains (Jetz et al. 2007, pp. wastewaters (BLI 2008, p. 4). The giant The Junı´n grebe’s breeding success 1211, 1213; Mora et al. 2007, p. 1027). bulrush marshlands, which once existed and population size are highly Lake drawdown has been known to in great expanses around the entire influenced by the climate, with cause water levels to fluctuate perimeter of the lake, have virtually population declines occurring during seasonally up to 2 m (6 ft) (Martin and disappeared, and at least one species of dry years, population increases during McNee 1999, p. 659) and has at times catfish (Pygidium oroyae) may have rainy years, and mortality during caused complete desiccation of the been extirpated from the lake (O’Donnel extreme cold weather events. Several marshlands by the end of the dry season and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). times during the last two decades (e.g., (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123). The ground- Heavy metal contamination is not 1983–1987, 1991–1992, 1994–1997), the nesting Junı´n rail breeds near the end of limited to the northern end of the lake Junı´n grebe’s population declined to 100 the dry season, in September and (ParksWatch 2006, p. 20), but extends birds or less following particularly dry October, and the species relies on the throughout the southern end (Martin years (BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2008, pp. 1, dense vegetative cover of the rushes on and McNee 1999, p. 662), where the 3–4; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; Elton 2000, p. the lake perimeter in which to build Junı´n grebe and Junı´n rail are now 3). There have been short-term their nests (BLI 2009b, p. 2). Eddleman restricted (BLI 2009b, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, population increases of 200 to 300 birds et al. (1988, p. 463) noted that water p. 254; Gill and Storer in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, in years with higher rainfall amounts drawdown before nesting season p. 200). In 2009, conservation following El Nin˜ o events (such as the disrupts nest-building initiation by rails. organizations and civil society groups 1997–1998 and 2001–2002 breeding Therefore, water drawdown near the demanded action to reverse the seasons) (Valqui pers. comm. in BLI end of the dry season that results in deterioration of Lake Junı´n and 2009b, p. 2; PROFONANPE 2002, in complete desiccation of the shallow requested an independent Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 133). However, marshlands (BLI 2009b, p. 1; environmental audit and continuous excessive rains also can increase ParksWatch 2009, p. 2) is likely to monitoring of the lake (BLI 2009b p. 4). contamination in Lake Junı´n, which disrupt Junı´n rail nest initiation. The conservation groups BLI, American decreases the amount of suitable habitat Experts believe that the Junı´n rail is Bird Conservancy (ABC), Asociacio´n for the species and has adverse effects restricted to the marshes at the Ecosistemas Andinos (ECOAN), and on the species’ health (see Factor C). southwestern corner of the lake because INRENA adopted the Junı´n grebe as the Many Junı´n grebes died during of the high level of contamination at the symbol of wetland conservation for the extremely cold conditions in 1982 (BLI northwestern margins of the lake high Andes (BLI 2009c, p. 1). A 2008, p. 4). In 2007, the population (Martin and McNee 1999, p. 662). translocation has been a consideration declined again following another cold Experts also believe that pollution and for the conservation of the Junı´n grebe weather event (Hirshfeld 2007, p. 107). artificial water level fluctuations will since the mid-1990s; however, no These ENSO cycles are ongoing, having continue to have adverse consequences suitable habitat for the species has been occurred several times within the last for the vegetation surrounding the lake located (BLI 2009b, p. 2; O’Donnel and decade (NWS 2009, p. 2), and evidence and, therefore, the Junı´n rail (BLI 2007, Fjeldsa˚ 1997, pp. 30, 35). To date, none suggests that ENSO cycles have already p. 1; J. BLI 2000, p. 170; Fjeldsa˚ in litt., of these conservation organization’s increased in periodicity and severity 1987, as cited in Collar et al. 1992, p. activities have been able to adequately (Richter 2005, pp. 24–25; Timmermann 190). In some places, the tall curb the ongoing habitat degradation. 1999, p. 694), which can exacerbate the marshlands, which rely on inundated The effects of habitat alteration and negative impacts of habitat destruction soils to thrive, have virtually destruction (such as those caused by on a species. disappeared because the reed-beds are artificially reduced water levels and Habitat degradation and alteration no longer permanently inundated water contamination) are exacerbated by caused by fluctuating water levels and (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 30). unpredictable climate fluctuations (such environmental contamination are Moreover, as the marshes dry, livestock as drought or excessive rains) (Jetz et al. considered key factors in the Junı´n (primarily sheep (Ovis aries), but also 2007, pp. 1,211, 1,213; Mora et al. 2007, grebe’s historical decline (Gill and cattle (Bos taurus), and some llamas p. 1027). Peru is subject to Storer, pers. comm. in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. (Llama glama) and alpacas (Llama unpredictable climate fluctuations, such 200; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254). The Junı´n pacos)) move into the desiccated as those that are related to the ENSO. grebe has experienced a population wetlands surrounding the lake to graze. Changes in weather patterns, such as decline of 14 percent in the past 10 Overgrazing is a year-round problem ENSO cycles (El Nin˜ o and La Nin˜ a years, and this decline is expected to around Lake Junı´n because the entire

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lakeshore is zoned for grazing a large protective cover of the marshlands. As Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary), the number of livestock (approximately water drawdown occurs near the end of vast majority of P. pallida dry forest, 60,000–70,000 head) (ParksWatch 2006, the dry season and the inception of arid lowland scrub, and riparian pp. 12, 19). During the dry season, the these two species’ mating seasons, vegetation has been reduced due to livestock moves into the marshlands to portions of the marshlands may dry out human activities. Seasonally dry graze, compacting the soil and completely. Reductions in water levels tropical forests are considered the most trampling the vegetation (ParksWatch decrease the availability of suitable threatened of all major tropical forest 2006, p. 31). Increased access to the breeding and foraging habitat, and types (Stotz et al. 1996, p. 51; Janzen wetlands during the end of the dry decrease the availability of the Junı´n 1988, p. 13). The Peruvian plantcutter season, which coincides with the grebe’s primary prey, the pupfish, has been extirpated from most of its inception of the Junı´n rail’s nesting forcing competition with the white- historical sites due to loss or season, likely disrupts the rail’s nesting tufted grebe for food. Drought years degradation of habitat (Flanagan et. al. activities or leads to nest trampling. have a negative impact on these two in litt. 2009, pp. 1–15; Elton 2004, p. 1; Therefore, activities that increase species, resulting in severe population Snow 2004, p. 69; Flanagan and More lakeshore access, such as water fluctuations due to poor breeding 2003, pp. 5–9). Current information drawdown, decrease the amount of success and limited recruitment of indicates that the vast majority of available habitat for the Junı´n rail (for juveniles into the adult population. The occupied sites of the Peruvian nesting and feeding) and are likely to severe dry conditions can cause total plantcutter are small, remnant, disjunct negatively impact the Junı´n rail’s breeding failure. patches of P. pallida dry forest, each a reproduction (through trampling) and Although these two species may few acres in size (Flanagan et. al. in litt. mating habits (through disturbance) (BLI rebound during wetter years (i.e., 2009, pp. 2–7; Snow 2004, p. 69; 2009b, p. 1). following El Nin˜ o events), excessive Walther 2004, p. 73). Local residents also harvest and burn rain also decreases the suitable habitat Habitat loss, conversion, and cattails from the marshland habitat, for these two species, as pollution degradation throughout the Peruvian which the Junı´n rail depends upon. washes into the water from around the plantcutter’s range have been and Cattails are harvested to assemble rafts, lake and the upstream rivers that feed continue to occur as a result of human baskets, and mats and as forage for the lake, increasing contamination activities, including: livestock (ParksWatch 2006, p. 23). levels in Lake Junı´n. This increased (1) Clearcutting and burning of dry forest Cattails are also burned to encourage contamination affects these two species’ for agriculture and other purposes (BLI shoot renewal (ParksWatch 2006, p. 23) health and has resulted in mortality of 2009a, p. 2; Flanagan et al. 2005, p. 244; and to facilitate hunting the montane both species. Severe water Williams 2005, p. 2; Snow 2004, p. 69; guinea pig (Cavia tschudii), which seeks contamination has rendered the Walther 2004, p. 73; Bridgewater et al. 2003, cover in the cattail marshes and is part northwestern portion of the lake lifeless, p. 132; Engblom 1998, p. 1; Ridgely and of the local human diet. Burning cattail devoid of aquatic and terrestrial species. Tudor 1994, p. 734; Collar et al. 1992, p. 806); communities has a negative and long- Experts believe that these two species (2) Extraction activities, including cutting lasting impact on species that use the once inhabited the entire lake, but they for timber, firewood, and charcoal cattails as permanent habitat (INRENA are now confined to the southern production (BLI 2009d, pp. 1–2; Rodriguez et 2000, as cited in ParksWatch 2006, p. portion of the lake due to water al. 2007, p. 269; Williams 2005, p. 1; Snow 22; Eddleman et al. 1988, p. 464), contamination. Elevated levels of heavy 2004, p. 69; Best and Kessler 1995, p. 196; including the Junı´n rail, which relies on metals may reduce their fitness and Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 734); the dense vegetative cover of the overall viability. Nest disturbance also (3) Grazing by goats of P. pallida dry marshlands for year-round residence occurs due to livestock grazing in the forests, and arid scrub and riparian vegetation (Capra species) (BLI 2009a, p. 2; and nesting (BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2007, area. Therefore, we find that destruction More 2002, p. 37; Snow 2004, p. 69; Best and p. 1; BLI 2000, p. 170). and modification of habitat are threats Kessler 1995, p. 196); to the continued existence of the Junı´n Summary of Factor A—Junı´n grebe and (4) Human encroachment (Fernandez-Baca grebe and Junı´n rail throughout their Junı´n rail et al. 2007, p. 45); and ranges. (5) Unpredictable climate fluctuations that The habitat in and around Lake Junı´n, exacerbate human activities and encourage where these two species are endemic, Peruvian plantcutter further habitat destruction (Block and Richter has been and continues to be altered The Peruvian plantcutter is 2007, p. 1; Jetz et al. 2007, p. 1211; Richter and degraded as a result of human dependent upon undisturbed Prosopis 2005, p. 26). activities, including human-induced pallida dry forest with floristic diversity The vast majority of P. pallida dry water level fluctuations to generate (Flanagan and More 2003, p. 4; Engblom forest habitat has been converted to hydropower and water contamination 1998, p. 1; Collar et al. 1992, p. 805). In commercial agricultural production, caused by mining waste, agricultural northwestern Peru, P. pallida dry forest which is the primary factor in the and organic runoff from surrounding was historically contiguous, covering historical decline of the Peruvian lands, and wastewater from local approximately 7,000 km2 (2,703 mi2) of plantcutter (BLI 2009a, p. 2; Williams communities. Water levels in Lake Junı´n the coastal lowland of northwestern 2005, p. 2; Snow 2004, p. 69; Walther are manipulated to generate electricity, Peru (Ferreyera 1983, p. 248). There 2004, p. 73; Engblom 1998, p. 1; Ridgely which leads to dramatic fluctuations in were also extensive wooded stands of and Tudor 1994, p. 734; Collar et al. water levels of up to 1.8 m (6 ft). The small to medium trees of P. pallida, 1992, p. 806). Agriculture in the coastal Junı´n grebe is dependent on the Acacia spp., Capparis spp., and Salix lowlands of northwestern Peru consists quantity and quality of lake water for spp., along permanent lowland rivers, of modern large, privately owned farms breeding and feeding. It is dependent on which have since been cleared for and large cooperatives that primarily the marshland habitat surrounding the agricultural purposes (Lanyon 1975, p. produce crops (e.g., sugarcane, cotton, lake for breeding and feeding and relies 443). rice) for export (Roethke 2003, pp. 58– on the protective cover of flooded Today, with the exception of three 59; Lanyon 1975, p. 443). marshlands for nesting. The Junı´n rail relatively large intact dry forests (i.e., Continual habitat destruction and nests on the ground, within the Talara Province, Murales Forest, and degradation of the dry forest is also due

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to firewood cutting and charcoal area identified as the Talara Important habitat destruction and increases production. P. pallida is the dominant Birding Area (IBA) by BLI (Flanagan in infrastructure development that further tree of the dry forest habitat, and is litt. 2009, p. 1). Since 2005, there has facilitates encroachment. highly sought after because the wood been extensive cutting and clearing of P. Peruvian plantcutters are also provides an important source of high- pallida trees for fuel to cook and dry impacted by unpredictable climate quality cooking fuel (Pasiecznik et al. Humboldt giant squid (Dosidicus gigas) fluctuations that exacerbate the effects 2001, p. 75; Brewbaker 1987, p. 1). carcasses (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. of habitat fragmentation. Changes in Throughout the Peruvian plantcutter’s 8). The most important commercial weather patterns, such as ENSO cycles range, whole trees, branches, and roots fishery of the Humboldt giant squid (El Nin˜ o and La Nin˜ a events), tend to of P. pallida are cut for firewood and occurs along the coast of Peru (Zeidberg increase precipitation in normally dry production of charcoal, which is used and Robison 2007, p. 12,948; UNEP areas, and decrease precipitation in for cooking fuel in homes, restaurants, 2006, p. 33). Harvested carcasses are normally wet areas (Holmgren et al. and businesses that use brick kilns, both transported by truck from the Talara 2001, p. 89; TAO Project n.d., p. 1), locally and in urban centers (Flanagan port to recently cleared areas in the dry while intensifying the effects of habitat et al. in litt. 2009, p. 7). Wood of P. forest, where they are boiled and dried fragmentation on the decline of a pallida is also used for construction and (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 8). This species (Jetz et al. 2007, pp. 1211, 1213; fence posts (Pasiecznik et al. 2001, p. fishery not only adds to the collection Mora et al. 2007, p. 1027; Plumart 2007, 78). Additionally, roots of older P. pressure on Prosopis species for use as pp. 1–2; Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; pallida trees are used in wooden art fuel, but also adds to forest clearing in England 2000, p. 86; Timmermann crafts (BLI 2009a, p. 2). the area. Another relatively new 1999, p. 694), especially for narrow Talara Province (in the Piura Region) demand for P. pallida firewood is endemics (Jetz et al. 2007, p. 1213) such contains the largest remaining intact P. associated with the illegal extraction of as the Peruvian plantcutter. pallida dry forest in northwestern Peru, crude oil from above-ground pipes in The arid terrestrial ecosystem of encompassing approximately 50,000 ha the Talara Province. The stolen oil is northwestern Peru, where the Peruvian (123,553 ac) (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, distilled by heating it with firewood plantcutter occurs, is strongly pp. 2–3; Walther 2004, p. 73; Flanagan (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 8). influenced by the ENSO cycle and More 2003, p. 5). The Province also Capparis scabrida (locally known as (Rodriguez et al. 2005, p. 1), which can has the largest subpopulation of the sapote) is a tree that occurs with P. have severe and long-lasting effects Peruvian plantcutter, reportedly pallida and is also a food source for the (Mooers et al. 2007, p. 2; Holmgren et between 400 and 600 individuals or Peruvian plantcutter. Although the tree al. 2006a, p. 87). The amount of rainfall approximately 60 to 80 percent of the is listed as critically endangered by the during an El Nin˜ o year can be more than total population (BLI 2009a, p. 2; Peruvian Government, the highly 25 times greater than during normal Williams 2005, p. 1; Elton 2004, pp. 3– sought-after wood is cut to produce years in northern Peru (Holmgren et al. 4; Snow 2004, p. 69; Walther 2004, p. handicrafts for the local, national, and 2006a, p. 90; Rodriguez et al. 2005, p. 73). Until recently, a large portion of the international markets and is used for 2). El Nin˜ o events are important triggers Province, including P. pallida dry forest firewood and charcoal production for regeneration of plants in semiarid habitat, was owned by the State-owned (Rodriguez et al. 2007, p. 269). ecosystems, particularly the dry forest of petroleum company PetroPeru, which Habitat alteration is also caused by northwestern Peru (Holmgren et al. prohibited access to approximately grazing goats, which remove or heavily 2006a, p. 88; Lopez et al. 2006, p. 903; 36,422 ha (90,000 ac). Under the degrade the shrubs and trees (BLI 2009a, Rodrı´guez et al. 2005, pp. 2–3). During management of PetroPeru, the P. pallida p. 2; Williams 2005, p. 2; Elton 2004, El Nin˜ o events, plant communities and dry forest was not subject to the same pp. 3–4; Snow 2004, p. 69; BLI 2000, p. barren lands are transformed into lush habitat destruction and degradation 402). The seed pods and leaves of P. vegetation, as seeds germinate and grow activities (e.g., clearing of trees, pallida provide highly nutritious fodder more quickly in response to increased firewood cutting, and charcoal for goats (Pasiecznik et al. 2001, p. 95; rainfall (Holmgren et al. 2006a, p. 88; production) as other dry forest habitat Brewbaker 1987, pp. 1–2). Goats roam Holmgren et al. 2006b, pp. 2–8; areas (Elton 2004, pp. 3–4; Hinze 2004, freely and graze on trees and shrubs, Rodrı´guez et al. 2005, pp. 1–6). Over the p. 1). Recently, the land was reverted to particularly lower branches close to last 20 years, recruitment of P. pallida the Peruvian Government, and it is ground which are preferred by the in northwestern Peru doubled during El unclear whether the government plans Peruvian plantcutter for foraging and Nin˜ o years, when compared to non-El to issue private concessions as in other nesting (Williams 2005, p. 2; Elton 2004, Nin˜ o years (Holmgren et al. 2006b, p. 7). areas of the Province (Elton 2004, p. 4). pp. 3–4; Snow 2004, p. 50). However, the abundant supply of Consequently, there have been efforts, Human encroachment and vegetation encourages locals to expand including a formal petition to the concomitant increasing human goat breeding operations, which results Peruvian Government, to create a 4,856 population pressures exacerbate the in overgrazing by goats and further land to 10,000-ha (12,000 to 24,710-ac) destructive effects of ongoing human degradation (Richter 2005, p. 26). protected reserve for the northern activities (e.g., clearing of P. pallida dry ENSO cycles increase the risk of fire subpopulation of the Peruvian forest, firewood cutting, and charcoal because El Nin˜ o events are often plantcutter (Elton 2004, p. 4; Walther production) throughout the Peruvian followed by years of extremely dry 2004, p. 73). However, the government plantcutter’s range. Although the coastal weather (Block and Richter 2007, p. 1). has not designated such a reserve for the lowlands represent only about 10 Accumulated biomass dries and adds to species (NCI 2011, Williams 2005, p. 3; percent of the country’s total territory, the fuel load in the dry season (Block Elton 2004, p. 4). many urban centers are located on the and Richter 2007, p. 1; Power et al. Habitat destruction and degradation coast, which represent approximately 52 2007, p. 898). Evidence suggests that the of P. pallida dry forest, including percent of the total population of Peru fire cycle in Peru has shortened, firewood cutting and charcoal (Fernandez-Baca et al. 2007, p. 45). particularly coastal Peru and west of the production, is ongoing in the Talara Large concentrations of people put Andes (Power et al. 2007, pp. 897–898), Province, including on the land greater demand on the natural resources which can have broad ecological previously owned by PetroPeru and an in the area, which spurs additional consequences (Block and Richter 2007,

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p. 1; Power et al. 2007, p. 898). Neotropical habitat (Stotz et al. 1998, p. B. Overutilization for Commercial, According to Block and Richter (2007, 51). Recreational, Scientific, or Educational p. 1), P. pallida dry forest and Capparis Purposes spp. scrublands in northwestern Peru Summary of Factor A—Peruvian plantcutter The best available information does would likely experience a long-term not indicate that overutilization for change in plant species composition The Peruvian plantcutter is commercial, recreational, scientific, or that favors aggressive, annual, nonnative dependent upon intact P. pallida dry educational purposes is a threat to any weedy plant species (Richter 2005, p. forest with low-hanging branches and of the six bird species (the ash-breasted 26). An accelerated fire cycle would high floristic diversity, and associated tit-tyrant, Junı´n grebe, Junı´n rail, further exacerbate changes in species Peruvian plantcutter, royal cinclodes, composition that hinder long-lived arid lowland scrub and riparian vegetation. P. pallida dry forest habitat, and the white-browed tit-spinetail) perennial, native plant species, such as addressed in this final rule. With Prosopis species, upon which the as well as arid lowland scrub and riparian shrub habitats, throughout the respect to the ash-breasted tit-tyrant and Peruvian plantcutter relies. royal cinclodes, most areas where they Peruvian plantcutter’s range have been ENSO cycles are ongoing, having occur are in very steep areas that are and continue to be altered and occurred several times within the last difficult to access. With respect to the decade (NWS 2009, p. 2). Evidence destroyed as a result of human Junı´n grebe, Fjeldsa˚ (1981, pp. 254–255) suggests that ENSO cycles have activities, including conversion to noted that local hunters were not increased in periodicity and severity agriculture; timber and firewood cutting interested in grebes as food because they (Richter 2005, pp. 24–25; Timmermann and charcoal production; grazing of have too little meat. No other 1999, p. 694), which will exacerbate the goats; and human encroachment. Extant information was located or provided negative impacts of habitat destruction P. pallida dry forest today consists of during the proposed rule comment on a species. It is predicted that, by remnant, disjunct patches of woodlands, period regarding the overutilization of 2050, approximately 11 to 16 percent of which are heavily disturbed and under these six species. Therefore, we find existing land is likely to be unsuitable continued threat of degradation by that overutilization for commercial, for this species due to climate change; human activities. Observations suggest recreational, scientific, or educational and, by 2100, it is predicted that about that this dry-forest–dependent species is purposes is not a threat to any of these 24 to 35 percent of the species’ range is six species. likely to be lost as a direct result of able to occupy very small remnant climate change (Jetz et al. 2007, p. 81). patches of dry forest with low-hanging C. Disease or Predation Habitat destruction is often caused by branches and floristic diversity, and is a combination of human activities. In able to persist to some degree near Ash-breasted tit-tyrant, Peruvian Lambayeque Region, a 1,500-ha (3,706- developed lands. However, many of plantcutter, royal cinclodes, and the ac) section of remnant P. pallida dry these sites are so small that they are white-browed tit-spinetail forest is under continual threat from below or approaching the lower We are not aware of any scientific or human activities, including conversion threshold of the species’ ecological commercial information that indicates to agriculture, cutting for firewood and requirements. This species has been disease or predation pose a threat to the charcoal production, and grazing by extirpated from most of its historical following four species: Ash-breasted tit- goats. This area may support between 20 sites due to loss or degradation of tyrant, royal cinclodes, white-browed and 40 Peruvian plantcutters (BLI 2009f, habitat. Additionally, many of the tit-spinetail, or Peruvian plantcutter. p. 1; Walther 2004, p. 73). In the 1990s, extant occupied sites are separated by Disease and predation remain a concern a significant portion of this dry forest great distances, which may lead to for the management of each of these four was converted to sugarcane fields genetic isolation of the species. species; however, the best available (Engblom in litt. 1998, p. 1; Snow 2004, information does not indicate that the p. 69; Walther 2004, p. 73; Williams The same activities that caused the occurrence of disease or predation 2005, p. 2). Within Piura and historical decline in this species are affecting these species rises to the level Lambayeque Regions, threats to the dry ongoing today. These habitat-altering of threats that place any of these species forest habitat include conversion to activities are compounded by at risk of extinction. Therefore, we do agriculture, firewood and timber unexpected climate fluctuations, not find that disease or predation cutting, and grazing by goats (BLI especially for narrow endemics such as threaten the continued existence of any 2009d, pp. 1–2). Habitat destruction and the Peruvian plantcutter. Excessive of these four species. alteration also occurs within two rains accompanied by El Nin˜ o events Junı´n grebe and Junı´n rail (Lake Junı´n) protected areas where the Peruvian induce further habitat destruction, as plantcutter occurs (in Lambayeque people take advantage of better grazing Disease: Although no specific Region), Po´mac Forest Historical and growing conditions. Destruction of diseases have been identified for the Sanctuary (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, the remaining P. pallida dry forest Junı´n grebe and Junı´n rail, pp. 7–8; Andean Air Mail and Peruvian fragments in Peru continues to reduce contamination of Lake Junı´n exposes Times 2009, p. 1; Williams 2005, p. 1), the quantity, quality, distribution, and these two species to mortality and a reduction in the overall fitness and and the Murales Forest (BLI 2000, p. regeneration of remaining patches of dry health of these species. Water 402; BLI 2009a, p. 3; Walther 2004, p. forest. Human activities that degrade, 73; Stattersfield et al. 2000, p. 402). contamination affects the health of alter, and destroy habitat are ongoing Experts consider the population of species inhabiting Lake Junı´n where this range-restricted endemic species to throughout the species’ range, including mining activities occur (Shoobridge be declining in close association with within protected areas. Therefore, we 2006, p. 3; Martin and McNee 1999, pp. the continued habitat loss and find that destruction and modification 660–661). Agricultural runoff, organic degradation (BLI 2009a, pp. 1–2; BLI of habitat threaten the continued matter, and wastewater have 2009g, pp. 1–3; BLI 2000, p. 401), and existence of Peruvian plantcutter contaminated the entire lake with high suggest that the effects are greater in dry throughout its range. concentrations of dissolved chemicals forest habitat than in any other (ParksWatch 2011, pp. 2–3; ParksWatch

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2006, pp. 5, 19, 20–21; Shoobridge 2006, levels of lead into body tissues (Friend overcome individuals. According to p. 3; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; Martin and and Franson 1999, p. 317). Fjeldsa˚ (1981, p. 254), the Junı´n grebe McNee 1999, pp. 660–662). Water contamination has directly bears a heavy infestation of stomach Environmental contaminants exceed affected the health of the Junı´n grebe nematodes (parasitic roundworms), current established thresholds for population. As predators of aquatic especially as compared to other grebe aquatic life (ParksWatch 2006, p. 20; organisms, the Junı´n grebe occupies a species. Stomach contents of Junı´n Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 660–661) mid-tertiary level position in the food grebes that have been examined had an and have rendered the northern portion chain and is prone to bioaccumulation average of 16.7 nematodes, compared of the lake lifeless due to eutrophication of pesticides, heavy metals, and other with no nematodes in silver grebes (P. (BLI 2008, p. 4; Shoobridge 2006, p. 3). contaminants that are absorbed or occipitalis) and 1.6 nematodes in white- Due to severe contamination, the ingested by its prey (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. tufted grebes (Rollandia rolland). sediments in the center of the lake are 123; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 255–256). Species Fjeldsa˚ (1981, p. 254) postulated that anoxic (containing no dissolved such as the Junı´n grebe, which inhabit the higher nematode infestation in Junı´n oxygen), and the lake’s turbidity has high trophic levels, are strictly grebes may be an indicator of poor increased (ParksWatch 2006, p. 20; dependent upon the functioning of a health. Martin et al. 2001, p. 180). Chemical multitude of ecosystem processes. The Predation—Junı´n grebe. Predators waste has damaged at least one third of loss or absence of species at lower around Lake Junı´n include the Andean the lake, severely affecting animal and trophic levels can result in cascading fox (Pseudalopex culpaues), the long- plant populations in the area and ecosystem effects, causing imbalances in tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), Pampas completely eliminating vegetation from the food web at all higher trophic levels cat (Onicifelis colocolo), and hog-nosed the northern portion of the lake (The University of the Western Cape skunk (Conepatus chinga) (ParksWatch (Shoobridge 2006, p. 3; ParksWatch 2009, p. 1). Analysis of feathers and 2009, p. 4). However, nest sites of the 2006, pp. 20–21; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; bone tissue of Junı´n grebes and of Junı´n grebe are generally inaccessible to O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). pupfish, the species’ primary prey, mammalian predators (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. As discussed under Factor A, lead, indicate that both the grebe and its prey 254). The only raptor likely to take a copper, and zinc mining residues, contain elevated lead levels (Fjeldsa˚ grebe on Lake Junı´n is the Cinereus agricultural runoff, organic matter, and 1981, pp. 255–256). harrier (Circus cinereus), which Drought conditions exacerbate the wastewater are discharged directly into primarily feeds in white-tufted grebe effects of water contamination and Lake Junı´n (Shoobridge 2006, p. 3; habitats. Moorhens (Gallinula bioaccumulation of contaminants in ParksWatch 2006, pp. 5, 19; Martin and chloropus), which also inhabit the lake aquatic species and species at higher McNee 1999, pp. 660–661; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, (ParksWatch 2009, p. 3; Tello 2007, p. trophic levels (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123; 2), may steal Junı´n grebe eggs for food p. 255). High concentrations of Demayo et al. 1982, as cited in Eisler (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254). However, there is environmental contaminants (including 1988, p. 5). From 1989 to 1992, an no direct evidence of predation upon ammonium, copper, iron oxide, lead, extensive drought occurred in the Lake the Junı´n grebe or indication that mercury, nitrate, and zinc) have been Junı´n area. During that time, many dead predation is a concern. detected throughout the lake Junı´n grebes and other water birds were Predation—Junı´n rail. Junı´n rails are ˚ (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 20–21; Fjeldsa found along the edges of the lakeshore preyed upon by pampas cats (BLI 2009b, 2004, p. 124; Martin and McNee 1999, (Valqui and Barrio in litt. 1992, as cited p 2). Under normal conditions, water ˚ pp. 660–662; Fjeldsa 1981, pp. 255–256) in Collar et al. 1992, p. 45, 190). In 1992, levels are lower in the dry season, and and exceed established thresholds for one of the driest years in decades, up to the marshlands can become partially or aquatic life (ParksWatch 2006, p. 20; 10 dead grebes per month were reported completely dry (BLI 2009b, p. 1; Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 660–661). around the lake (Valqui and Barrio in ParksWatch 2009, p. 2), reducing High concentrations of suspended litt. 1992, as cited in Collar et al. 1992, protective cover and allowing predators particulate matter increase the turbidity p. 45). Experts consider the cause of to more easily locate the rail. When the of the water, making it less penetrable death to have been either heavy metal floodgates of the Upumayo Dam are to sunlight and results in die-off of contamination, which increased in opened during the dry season (June to aquatic plants and algae (ParksWatch concentration as water levels decreased November) (BLI 2009b, p. 1; ParksWatch 2006, p. 20). The northern portion of the (Valqui and Barrio in litt. 1992, as cited 2009, p. 2), drawdown has led to lake is completely devoid of vegetation in Collar et al. 1992, p. 45), or reduced complete desiccation of the marshlands (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 20–21; Fjeldsa˚ prey availability (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124). by the end of the dry season (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124), and the giant bulrush Reduced prey availability is exacerbated 2004, p. 123). The ground-nesting Junı´n marshlands, which once existed in great by manmade activities that are reducing rail breeds near the end of the dry expanses around the entire perimeter of the water levels of the lake, increasing season, in September and October, and the lake and upon which the Junı´n grebe competition among sympatric grebe builds its nests in the dense vegetative relies for nesting and foraging habitat, species (different grebe species that cover of the rushes on the lake have virtually disappeared. occupy the same range) and decreasing perimeter (BLI 2009b, p. 2). Water During years of heavy rainfall, the the marshlands that provide primary drawdown and periods of drought lake is filled; however, the lakeshore spawning habitat for the pupfish. increases the bird’s vulnerability to becomes polluted with toxic acidic gray Persistent exposure to contaminants predation because nesting grounds sediment that has caused large-scale can contribute to a decline in fitness for become exposed and larger areas of the mortality of cattle (approximately 2,000 long-lived, mid-trophic level species. marsh are accessible to predators died in 1994) and birds, apparently due Contaminants may be inherited by (ParksWatch 2006, p. 23). Predation to lead poisoning (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ offspring and can impact embryonic increases the risk of extirpation due to 1997, p. 30). Lead poisoning from the development, juvenile health, or the species’ already small population presence of mining waste is a common viability (Rose 2008, p. 624). The size. In addition, species that inhabit a cause of mortality in water birds, and is excessive contaminant load in Lake small geographic range, occur at low medically described as an intoxication Junı´n could also allow opportunistic density, occupy a high trophic level, resulting from absorption of hazardous bacterial and viral infections to and exhibit low reproductive rates tend

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to have a higher risk of extinction than Predation by the pampas cat results in evaluating these regulatory mechanisms species that are not limited by the same the direct removal of Junı´n rails from in terms of nationally protected parks risk factors (Purvis et al. 2000, p. 1949) the population and can remove because this is where these species (Factor E). potentially reproductive adults from the generally occur. The FAO conducted a breeding pool. The species’ habitat review of forest policies and laws in Summary of Factor C—Junı´n grebe and becomes more accessible to predators 2010, and a summary for Peru and Junı´n rail during droughts and water drawdowns Bolivia is in table 1. The study found Disease. The best available due to ongoing habitat destruction that, although Peru does not have a information indicates that (through reduced water levels and national forest policy, it does have both environmental contaminants (Factor A) contamination), which continues to a national forest program and law in in Lake Junı´n likely have negative degrade the quality of habitat available place. Bolivia has a national forest to the Junı´n rail. Predation renders the policy, national forest program, and law consequences on the health of both the species particularly vulnerable to local program in place. No forest laws at the Junı´n grebe and Junı´n rail. The species’ extirpation due to its small population subnational level (such as jurisdictions trophic level also exposes them to size. Therefore, we find that predation, equivalent to states in the United States) accumulation of toxins in the tissue of exacerbated by ongoing habitat exist in these countries. FAO reported prey species. Therefore, we find that destruction, is a threat to the continued that Peru and Bolivia reported a disease due to contamination is a threat existence of the Junı´n rail throughout its significant loss of primary forests; this to the continued existence of both the range. loss peaked in the period 2000–2005 in Junı´n grebe and Junı´n rail. Peru and increased in Bolivia in the last D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Predation. There is no available decade compared with the 1990s (p. 56). Mechanisms evidence to indicate that predation is FAO also reported that, at a regional causing declines in Junı´n grebe Regulatory mechanisms affecting each level, South America suffered the largest populations or otherwise contributing to of these six species could potentially net loss of forests between 2000 and the species’ risk of extinction. fall under categories such as wildlife 2010; at a rate of approximately 4.0 Therefore, we do not find that predation management, parks management, or million ha (9.9 million ac) per year (p. is a threat to the Junı´n grebe. forestry management. We are primarily xvi).

TABLE 1—SUMMARY OF FOREST POLICIES AND LAWS IN BOLIVIA AND PERU [Adapted From FAO Global Forest Resource Assessment 2010, p. 303.]

National National forest program Forest law national Country Sub- Exists Year Exists Year Status National—type Year national exists

Bolivia ...... Yes ...... 2008 Yes ...... 2008 In implementation ..... Specific forest law ...... 1996 No Peru ...... No ...... Yes ...... 2004 In implementation ..... Specific forest law ...... 2000 No

Ash-breasted tit-tyrant, royal cinclodes, (3) Reserva Nacional (National land and, thus, these areas tend to and the white-browed tit-spinetail Reserve, for sustainable extraction of provide more habitat protection than (Polylepis habitat) certain biological resources); other designations. All other protected (4) Bosque de Proteccio´n (Protection areas are established by supreme The following analysis of regulatory Forest, to safeguard soils and forests, resolution, which is viewed as a less mechanisms is discussed on a country- especially for watershed conservation); powerful form of protection (Rodrı´guez by-country basis, beginning with Peru. (5) Zona Reservada (Reserved Zone, and Young 2000, p. 330). Peru: The ash-breasted tit-tyrant and for temporary protection while further Protected areas have been established the white-browed tit-spinetail are study is under way to determine their through regulation in at least three sites considered endangered, and the royal importance); occupied by the ash-breasted tit-tyrant cinclodes is considered critically (6) Bosque Nacional (National Forest, and the white-browed tit-spinetail in endangered by the Peruvian to be managed for utilization); Peru: Parque Nacional Huascara´n Government under Supreme Decree No. (7) Reserva Comunal (Communal (Ancash), and Santuario Histo´rico 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276854, Reserve, for local area use and Machu Picchu (Cusco); and Zona 276855). This Decree prohibits hunting, management, with national oversight); Reservada de la Cordillera Huayhuash take, transport, and trade of protected and (spanning Ancash, Hua´nuco, and Lima) species, except as permitted by (8) Cotos de Caza (Hunting Reserve, (BLI 2009i, p. 1; BLI 2009l, p. 1; BLI regulation. for local use and management, with 2009n, p. 1; Barrio 2005, p. 563). The The Peruvian national protected area national oversight) (BLI 2008, p. 1; royal cinclodes is known to occur in the system includes several categories of Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). Santuario Histo´rico Machu Picchu habitat protection. Habitat may be National reserves, national forests, (Cusco, Peru) (BLI 2009h, p. 4). designated as any of the following: communal reserves, and hunting Resources within Santuario Histo´rico (1) Parque Nacional (National Park, an reserves are managed for the sustainable Machu Picchu are managed for area managed mainly for ecosystem use of resources (IUCN 1994, p. 2). The conservation (Rodrı´guez and Young conservation and recreation); designations of National Parks, 2000, p. 330). However, activities such (2) Santuario (Sanctuary, for the Sanctuaries, and Protection Forests are as habitat destruction and alteration, preservation of sites of notable natural established by supreme decree that including burning, cutting, and grazing or historical importance); supersedes all other legal claim to the occur within the sanctuary and prevent

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regeneration of the woodlands (BLI the Parque Nacional y A´ rea Natural de temporary (5-year) designation for an 2009c, p. 3; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 58). Manejo Integrado Cotapata, which may area that requires further research before Abra Malaga and Mantanay are now add to the habitat degradation in this any official designations can be made established as community reserves area. Grazing also occurs within the and during which time no natural (Lloyd 2010, pers. comm.). These protected area (BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI resource concessions can be made community reserves may be a more 2009c, p. 2). Within the Apolobamba within the area) (Supreme Decree No. effective way of protecting area than protected areas, uncontrolled clearing, 24,781 1997, p. 3). other categories (e.g., national park, extensive agriculture, grazing, and Within parks, sanctuaries and natural reserved zone), because local tourism are ongoing (BLI 2009d, p. 5; monuments, extraction or consumption community-based projects greatly assist Auza and Hennessey 2005, p. 81). of all resources are prohibited, except in resolving land tenure problems Commercial logging has occurred for scientific research, ecotourism, between local communities. within Parque Nacional y A´ rea Natural environmental education, and Habitat destruction and alteration, de Manejo Integrado Madidi (BLI 2009a, authorized subsistence activities of including burning, cutting, and grazing, p. 2; WCMC 1998a, p. 1). Grazing and original towns. National protected areas are ongoing within Parque Nacional firewood extraction are also ongoing are under the management of the Huascara´n and Santuario Histo´rico within Parque Nacional y A´ rea Natural national government, while Machu Picchu (BLI 2009l, p. 4; BLI de Manejo Integrado Cotapata (BLI departmental protected areas are 2009n, p. 2; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 58). 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2009c, p. 2). managed at the department level (eLAW Reserved zones are intended to be Uncontrolled clearing, extensive 2003, p. 3; Supreme Decree No. 24,781 protected pending further study agriculture, and grazing are ongoing 1997, p. 3). Despite these protections, (Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). within the Apolobamba protected areas habitat degradation continues to occur Burning for habitat conversion and (BLI 2009e, p. 5; Auza and Hennessey even in areas that are designated as maintenance of pastures for grazing and 2005, p. 81). Habitat degradation and protected. increasing ecotourism are ongoing destruction from grazing, forest fires, Bolivia’s 1975 Law on Wildlife, within Zona Reservada de la Cordillera and timber extraction are ongoing in National Parks, Hunting and Fishing Huayhuash (Barrio 2005, p. 564). other protected areas such as Tunari (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1–34) Although these three species occur National Park (Department of has the fundamental objective of within protected areas in Peru, these Cochabamba, Bolivia), where suitable protecting the country’s natural protected areas do not adequately habitat exists for these two species (De resources (ELAW 2003, p. 2). This law protect the species. Therefore, the la Vie 2004, p. 7). governs the protection, management, occurrence of these three species within In Bolivia, habitat is protected either use, transportation, and selling of protected areas in Peru does not protect on the national or departmental level. wildlife and their products; protection these species, nor does it mitigate the Recently, Bolivia passed the ‘‘Law of of endangered species; habitat threats to the species from ongoing Rights of Mother Earth’’ to add strength conservation of fauna and flora; and the habitat loss and concomitant population to its existing environmental protection declaration of national parks, biological decline. laws. This law has the objective of reserves, refuges, and wildlife Bolivia: In Bolivia, several activities recognizing the rights of the planet sanctuaries, tending to the preservation, are occurring that affect the royal (Government of Bolivia, 2010). promotion, and rational use of these cinclodes and ash-breasted tit-tyrant. Protected habitat in Bolivia has the resources (ELAW 2003, p. 2; Decree Law They occur within several protected following designations: No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1–34). Although areas in the Department of La Paz, (1) Parque (Park, for strict and this law designates national protection Bolivia: Parque Nacional y A´ rea Natural permanent protection of representative for all wildlife, there is little de Manejo Integrado Madidi, Parque ecosystems and provincial habitats, as information as to the actual protections Nacional y A´ rea Natural de Manejo well as plant and animal resources, this confers to these two species or their Integrado Cotapata, and the colocated along with the geographical, scenic and habitat. Law No. 12,301 also placed into protected areas of Reserva Nacional de natural landscapes that contain them); public trust all national parks, reserves, Fauna de Apolobamba, A´ rea Natural de (2) Santuario (Sanctuary, for the strict refuges, and wildlife sanctuaries. Manejo Integrado de Apolobamba, and and permanent protection of sites that Bolivia passed an overarching Reserva de la Biosfera de Apolobamba house endemic plants and animals that environmental law in 1992 (Law No. (BLI 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1; Auza are threatened or in danger of 1,333 1992), with the intent of and Hennessey 2005, p. 81). Although extinction); protecting and conserving the national parks are intended to be strictly (3) Monumento Natural (Natural environment and natural resources. protected, the two parks in which these Monument, to preserve areas such as However, there is no specific legislation species occur are also designated as those with distinctive natural to implement these laws (eLAW 2003, p. areas of integrated management, which landscapes or geologic formations, and 1). are managed for biological conservation to conserve the biological diversity A national strategy for conservation of balanced with the sustainable contained therein); Polylepis forest has been developed, and development of the local human (4) Reserva de Vida Silvestre (Wildlife will be used in combination with population (Supreme Decree No. 24,781 Reserve, for protection, management, current research to elaborate a specific 1997, p. 3). Within the Parque Nacional sustainable use and monitoring of plan for the conservation of these two y A´ rea Natural de Manejo Integrado wildlife); species and their habitat (Gomez 2010, Madidi, habitat destruction is caused by (5) Area Natural de Manejo Integrado p. 1). In an effort to reverse the loss of timber harvest used for construction, (Natural Area of Integrated Polylepis forest, the Peruvian wood collection for firewood, and Management, where conservation of Government has endorsed the creation burning (that often goes out of control) biological diversity is balanced with of several new conservation areas that to maintain pastures (BLI 2009a, p. 2; sustainable development of the local should have significant ramifications in WCMC 1998a, p. 1). In addition, one of population); and the ongoing efforts to protect habitat for the most transited highways in the (6) Reserva Natural de Inmovilizacio´n endangered bird species in the country country is located a short distance from (Immobilized Natural Reserve, a (American Bird Conservancy (ABC)

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2010, unpaginated). Three new protection in both countries are either international cooperation for the community-owned, conservation areas inadequate or inadequately enforced to conservation and wise use of wetlands encompassing 3,415 ha (8,438 ac) to protect the species or to mitigate and their resources. There are presently protect Polylepis forest in the Vilcanota ongoing habitat loss (Factor A) and 159 Contracting Parties to the Mountains of southeastern Peru, near population declines (Factor E). Convention, with 1,874 wetland sites, Cusco have been established. ECOAN Therefore, we find that the existing totaling more than 185 million ha (457 and ABC are collaboratively working regulatory mechanisms are inadequate million ac), designated for inclusion in with the local communities to protect to mitigate the current threats to the the Ramsar List of Wetlands of and restore these conservation areas: continued existence of these three International Importance (Ramsar 2009, Choquechaca, Mantanay, and Sele Tecse species throughout their range. p. 1). Peru acceded to Ramsar in 1992. Ayllu Lares in the Vilcanota Mountains Junı´n grebe and Junı´n rail—Lake Junı´n As of 2009, Peru had 13 sites on the (ABC 2010). A goal of planting 8,000 Ramsar list, comprising 6.8 million ha Polylepis trees (5,000 at Abra Malaga The Junı´n grebe is listed as critically (16.8 million ac) (Ramsar 2009, p. 5). In and 3,000 at Cancha) was reached (ABC endangered by the Peruvian reviewing five Ramsar sites, experts undated, p. 1). These efforts should Government under Supreme Decree No. noted that Ramsar designation may have a positive impact on the three 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276853). The provide nominal protection (protection Polylepis-dependent species in this rule: Junı´n rail is listed as endangered by the in name only) by increasing both The ash-breasted tit-tyrant, royal Peruvian Government under Supreme international awareness of a site’s cinclodes, and white-browed tit- Decree No. 034–2004–AG (2004, p. ecological value and stakeholder spinetail (MacGregor-Fors et al. 2010, p. 276855). involvement in conservation (Jellison et 1,492; Lloyd and Marsden 2009, pp. 7– These two species occur wholly al. 2004, pp. 1, 4, 19). However, ´ 8). Despite these efforts, they do not within one protected area: The Junın activities that negatively impact these National Reserve (Junı´n, Peru) (BLI adequately protect these species, nor do two species within this Ramsar wetland 2009b, pp. 1–2). The Junı´n National they sufficiently mitigate the threats to include livestock grazing, severe water Reserve has an area of 53,000 ha these species from ongoing habitat loss fluctuations, and contamination (133,437 ac), bordering Lake Junı´n and and concomitant population decline. resulting in poor health. These activities its adjacent territories (Wege and Long Given the ongoing habitat destruction that negatively impact both species are 1995, p. 264). In Peru, national reserves throughout these two species’ ranges in ongoing throughout this wetland. are created in part for the sustainable Bolivia, the laws and protections in Therefore, the Ramsar designation has extraction of certain biological resources place do not protect these species, nor not mitigated the impact of threats on (BLI 2008, p. 1; Rodrı´guez and Young do they mitigate the threats to the the Junı´n grebe or Junı´n rail. species from ongoing habitat loss 2000, p. 330). Established in 1974, In 2002, the Peruvian Government (Factor A) and concomitant population through Supreme Decree No. 0750–74– passed an emergency law to protect decline (Factor E). AG, the stated objectives of the Junı´n National Reserve include: Integrated Lake Junı´n. This law makes provisions Summary of Factor D—Polylepis habitat conservation of the local ecosystem, its for the cleanup of Lake Junı´n, and Peru and Bolivia have enacted various associated flora and wildlife; placed greater restrictions on extraction laws and regulatory mechanisms to preservation of the scenic beauty of the of water for hydropower and mining protect and manage wildlife and their lake; and support of socioeconomic activities (Fjeldsa˚ in litt. 2003, as cited habitats. As discussed under Factor A, development in the area through the in BLI 2007, p. 3). However, this law has these three species require dense sustainable use of its renewable natural not been effectively implemented, and Polylepis habitat, which has been resources (BLI 2009a, p. 2; Hirshfeld conditions around the lake may even reduced by an estimated 98 percent in 2007, p. 107). Most of the lake shore is have worsened after passage of this law Peru and Bolivia. The remaining habitat designated a direct use zone, which (BLI 2009c, p. 1). The Ministry of is fragmented and degraded. Habitat allows fishing, grazing, and other Energy and Mining has implemented a throughout the species’ range has been educational, research, and recreational series of Environmental Mitigation and continues to be altered as a result activities (ParksWatch 2006, p. 12). Programs (PAMAs) to combat mine of human activities, including Although designation of this reserve has waste pollution in the Junı´n National clearcutting and burning for agriculture, heightened awareness of the ecological Reserve (ParksWatch 2009 p. 3). The grazing lands, and industrialization; problems at Lake Junı´n (BLI 2009c, p. PAMAs were scheduled to have been extractive activities, including firewood, 1), it has not reduced or eliminated the completed by 2002, but extensions were timber, and minerals; and human primary threats to these two species: granted, indicating that many of the encroachment and concomitant Water fluctuations and contamination mines currently in operation are still increased pressure on natural resources. (Factor A), contamination resulting in functioning without a valid PAMA. A strategy for conservation of Polylepis poor health (Factor C), and small Reductions in pollution are reported; forest has been developed, and will be population size (Factor E). Therefore, some mining companies have begun to used in combination with current the existence of this species within a use drainage fields and recycle residual research to develop a plan for the protected area has not reduced or water. However, analysis of existing conservation of these species and their mitigated the threats to the species. PAMAs indicate that they do not habitat (BLI 2012; Gomez 2010, p. 1). Ramsar. The Junı´n National Reserve address specific responsibilities for NGOs are conducting reforestation was designated a Ramsar site under the mining waste discharged into the San efforts of Polylepis in some areas of Convention on Wetlands of Juan River and delta, nor do they Peru, but it will take some time for these International Importance (Ramsar address deposition of heavy metal-laced saplings to grow and create suitable Convention) in 1997 (BLI 2009a, p. 2; sediments in Lake Junı´n (ParksWatch habitat. Despite the laws in place in Hirshfeld 2007, p. 107; INRENA 1996, 2009, p. 3; ParksWatch 2006, p. 21). Peru and Bolivia, destructive activities pp. 1–14). The Ramsar Convention, Recent information indicates that are ongoing within protected areas and signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an mining waste contamination in the lake in these species’ habitat, indicating that intergovernmental treaty that provides continues to be a source of pollution the laws governing wildlife and habitat the framework for national action and (Lebbin et al 2010, p. 382; ParksWatch

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2006, pp. 20–21; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124). archeological site, P. pallida dry forest, Ongoing firewood cutting and charcoal Therefore, neither this law nor other and wildlife species. However, habitat production degrades the small amount protections in place are effective at destruction and alteration, including of remaining dry forest habitat within mitigating the threat of habitat illegal forest clearing for farming, timber the species’ range (BLI 2009d, pp. 1–2; degradation and health issues associated and firewood cutting, and grazing, Rodriguez et al. 2007, p. 269; Williams with contamination and small continually threaten the sanctuary 2005, p. 1; Snow 2004, p. 69; Ridgely population size of either species. (ParskWatch 2005; Williams 2005, p. 1). and Tudor 1994, p. 734). In Talara For 8 years, more than 250 families Province (in the Piura Region, north of Summary of Factor D—Junı´n grebe and illegally occupied and farmed land in the Lambayeque Region), a recent Junı´n rail the Sanctuary. During the illegal increase in the illegal extraction of Peru has enacted various laws and occupancy, the inhabitants logged 2,000 crude oil has generated further demand regulatory mechanisms for the ha (4,942 ac) of P. pallida trees for for P. pallida firewood, which is used as protection and management of wildlife firewood and burned many other trees fuel to heat-distill the oil. According to and their habitats. The entire for charcoal production (Andean Air Flanagan et al. (in litt. 2009, p. 8), populations of both species occur Mail and Peruvian Times 2009, p. 1). enforcement to combat this illegal within one protected area. As discussed The logged forest was subsequently activity is difficult. This further under Factor A, the distribution, converted to agricultural crops, while illustrates how existing laws are breeding success and recruitment, and remaining forest habitat was continually ineffective at mitigating the ongoing food availability for both species on degraded by firewood cutting, charcoal threat of habitat destruction. Lake Junı´n has been curtailed, and are production, and grazing of goats Summary of Factor D—Peruvian negatively impacted due to habitat (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 8). In plantcutter destruction that is caused by artificial January 2009, the government forcibly water fluctuations and water removed the inhabitants, but it is too Peru has enacted various laws and contamination from human activities. soon to determine the effect that habitat regulatory mechanisms to protect and These species are endemic to this lake, destruction has had on the suitability of manage wildlife and their habitats. The they have populations of between 100 the habitat for the Peruvian plantcutter. Peruvian plantcutter is endangered and less than a few thousand There is insufficient information to under Peruvian law and occurs within individuals, and their populations have conclude that recent efforts to stop the two protected areas in Peru. As declined in the recent past. These illegal human occupancy of the area discussed under Factor A, the Peruvian habitat-altering activities are ongoing will have a positive impact on the plantcutter inhabits P. pallida dry throughout these two species’ ranges. species or remaining habitat within the forest. This habitat has been drastically Thus, despite the species’ status and protected area. Therefore, any reduced, and remaining habitat presence within a designated protected protections afforded by this sanctuary comprises small remnant patches of dry area, laws governing wildlife and have not mitigated the threats to the forest that are separated by great habitat protection in Peru are species from ongoing habitat loss and distances. Habitat throughout the inadequately enforced or ineffective at associated population decline. species’ range has been and continues to protecting the species or mitigating The Murales Forest is a designated be destroyed and altered as a result of ongoing habitat degradation, impacts archeological reserved zone (BLI 2009a, human activities, primarily conversion from contaminants, and concomitant p. 3; Stattersfield et al. 2000, p. 402; BLI to agriculture, and continual population declines, and in the case of 2000, p. 401) and contains a declining degradation by timber and firewood the Junı´n rail, predation. Therefore, we population of Peruvian plantcutters. harvest and charcoal production, and find that the existing regulatory According to Peruvian law, designation grazing by goats. These activities are mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate as a reserved zone allows for temporary ongoing, including within protected the threats to the continued existence of protection while further study is under areas and despite the species’ the Junı´n grebe and Junı´n rail way to determine the area’s importance endangered status. This indicates that throughout their ranges. (BLI 2008, p. 1; Rodrı´guez and Young the laws governing wildlife and habitat 2000, p. 330). Although strict protection in Peru are either inadequate Peruvian plantcutter monitoring has protected some habitat or inadequately enforced to protect the The Peruvian plantcutter is (BLI 2009a, p. 3), the actual dry forest species or to mitigate ongoing habitat considered endangered by the Peruvian is not protected. In 1999, land rights to loss and population declines. Therefore, Government under Supreme Decree No. sections of the forest were sold for we find that the existing regulatory 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276854). This agricultural conversion, and government mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate Decree prohibits hunting, take, intervention has been necessary to the current threats to the continued transport, and trade of protected prevent further sales of land for existence of the Peruvian plantcutter species, except as permitted by conversion to agriculture (BLI 2009a, p. throughout its range. regulation. 3). In 1999, Murales Forest and adjacent E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors The Peruvian plantcutter occurs areas contained approximately 494 ha Affecting the Continued Existence of the within two nationally protected areas, (1,221 ac) of habitat, and reportedly Species’ Small, Declining Population the Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary supported 140 Peruvian plantcutters and the Murales Forest (both in the (BLI 2000, p. 402). In 2004, the An additional factor that affects the Lambayeque Region on the population was estimated to be 20 to 40 continued existence of these six species northwestern coast of Peru). The Po´mac individuals (Walther 2004, p. 73). The is their small, declining population Forest Historical Sanctuary supports an decline in population indicates that sizes. Small, declining population sizes, estimated 20 to 60 Peruvian plantcutters threats to the species from ongoing in concert with other threats, and the (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009e, p. 1; habitat loss and associated population lack of connectivity based on habitat Walther 2004, p. 73). Resources within decline have not been mitigated. fragmentation leads to an increased risk the Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary Other incidences of illegal activity of extinction (Harris and Pimm 2008, p. are managed for various purposes that occur throughout the species’ range 169). All six species have limited and including the preservation of the also impact the Peruvian plantcutter. increasingly fragmented geographic

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ranges in addition to small population most cases, their existing populations modification and destruction, natural sizes (see Table 2). One of IUCN and are extremely localized, and sometimes catastrophic changes to their habitat BirdLife’s criteria to determine if a geographically isolated from one (e.g., flood scour, drought), and other species is categorized as threatened is a another, leaving them vulnerable to stochastic disturbances. breeding range of under 20,000 km2. In localized extinctions from habitat

TABLE 2—POPULATION ESTIMATES FOR SIX BIRD SPECIES FOUND IN BOLIVIA AND PERU

Population Estimate of population decline in past Peruvian species estimate 10 years

ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Anairetes alpinus), also native to Bolivia ...... 780 between 10 and 19 percent. royal cinclodes (Cinclodes aricomae), also native to Bolivia ...... 50–250 between 30 and 49 percent. white-browed tit-spinetail (Leptasthenura xenothorax) ...... 500–1,500 between 10 and 19 percent. Junı´n grebe (Podiceps taczanowskii) ...... 100–300 14 percent. Junı´n rail (Laterallus tuerosi) ...... 1,000–2,499 between 10 and 19 percent. Peruvian plantcutter (Phytotoma raimondii) ...... 500–1,000 between 1 and 9 percent.

A small, declining population size fluctuations (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254). For population size is small relative to other renders a species vulnerable to any of example, in 1993, the population size plantcutters. However, there are several several risks. Extinction risk is declined to below 50 individuals, of indications that this number of heightened in small, isolated, declining which fewer than half were breeding individuals represents a small, populations because they are more adults (BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2008, p. 3). declining population. susceptible to environmental Even if the population estimate of 100– First, the Peruvian plantcutter’s fluctuations and demographic shifts 300 individuals is correct, the number population size—which is defined by such as reduced reproductive success of of mature individuals is likely to be far BLI as the total number of mature smaller, perhaps only half (Fjeldsa˚ in individuals and chance disequilibrium individuals—is not the same as the of sex ratios (Harris and Pimm 2008, p. litt. 2003, as cited in BLI 2009b, p. 2). effective population size—the number 163; Pimm et al. 1988, pp. 757, 773– Therefore, 100–300 individuals likely of individuals that actually contribute to 775; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Additionally, overestimates the species’ effective the next generation (Shaffer 1981, pp. the increasing isolation of populations population size (the number of breeding 132–133; Soule´ 1980, pp. 160–162). Not due to ongoing habitat loss and individuals that contribute to the next all individuals in a population will degradation (fragmentation), unless the generation). The population has contribute to reproduction each year. population is managed, greatly affects declined by at least 14 percent in the Therefore, the estimated population size dispersal and other movement patterns last 10 years and is expected to continue for the Peruvian plantcutter may be an of individuals between subpopulations. to decline, as a result of declining water overestimate of the species’ effective 1. Ash-breasted tit-tyrant. The ash- quality and extreme water level population size. Moreover, the breasted tit-tyrant is considered to have fluctuations (BLI 2009b, pp. 1, 4, 6–7). population structure and extent of a very small population of less than 3. Junı´n rail. BLI placed the Junı´n rail interbreeding are unknown. If the 1,000 individuals (see table 2; BLI in the population category of between species does not breed as a single 2009o, p. 1). Its population declined at 1,000 and 2,499 individuals (BLI 2009b, population, its effective population size a rate between 10 and 19 percent in the p. 2), and considers the population to be would be further reduced. past 10 years, and this decline is likely very small and presumably expected to continue in close declining (BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2000, p. Second, the extant Peruvian association with continued habitat loss 170). The Junı´n rail is known from two plantcutter population occurs primarily and degradation (BLI 2009o, p. 1). The localities (Ondores and Pari) on the in two disjunct subpopulations—Talara ash-breasted tit-tyrant is currently southwestern shore of Lake Junı´n in and Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary confined to restricted and severely central Peru. The population has (BLI 2009g, pp. 1–2; Walther 2004, p. fragmented forest patches in the high declined at a rate between 10 and 19 73)—and in several smaller sites Andes of Peru and Bolivia, where it is percent in the past 10 years, and this (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 2–7; estimated that approximately only 2 decline is expected to continue as a Williams 2005, p. 1; Walther 2004, p. percent of the dense woodlands result of the declining quality of habitat 73; Flanagan and More 2003, pp. 5–9). preferred by the species remains within its small, restricted range (BLI Talara and Po´mac Forest Historical (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 114; Smith 1971, p. 2009b, pp. 4–5). Sanctuary are approximately 257 km 269). 4. Peruvian plantcutter. BLI placed (160 mi) apart (FCC (Federal 2. Junı´n grebe. The current population the Peruvian plantcutter in the Communications Commission—Audio of the Junı´n grebe is estimated to be population category of between 500 and Division 2009). Its habitat is heavily 100–300 individuals, however, only a 1,000 individuals (BLI 2009g, p. 1). The degraded and localities are small, small number of adults remain (BLI Peruvian plantcutter has experienced a severely fragmented, and widely 2009b, pp. 1, 3; BLI 2008, p. 1). The population decline of between 1 and 9 separated (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, species is restricted to the southern percent in the past 10 years due to pp. 1–9; Bridgewater et al. 2003, p. 132; portion of Lake Junı´n (BLI 2009b, p. 1; habitat loss. This decline is expected to Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 18). It is Gill and Storer, pers. comm. As cited in continue in close association with possible that the distance between Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. continued habitat loss and degradation. patches of suitable habitat is too far to 254). The Junı´n grebe underwent a There is insufficient information on support interbreeding between severe population decline in the latter similar species (i.e., the other South localities, so that the extant occurrences half of the 20th century, and American plantcutters) to understand of this species would function as experienced extreme population whether the Peruvian plantcutter’s genetically isolated subpopulations.

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5. Royal cinclodes. Based on recent human activities that continue to curtail immediacy, severity, and scope of the observations in Peru and Bolivia, the the species’ habitat throughout their threats described above. Although there total population of royal cinclodes is range. We expect that the risks are ongoing attempts to alleviate some between 50 and 250 mature individuals associated with small, declining threats, no populations appear to be (BLI 2011e; Aucca-Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8; populations will continue to impact without current significant threats, and Go´mez in litt. 2007, p. 1). The royal these six species and may accelerate if many threats are without obvious or cinclodes has undergone a population habitat destruction continues unabated. readily available solutions. NGOs are decline between 30 and 49 percent in We recognize that reforestation efforts conducting conservation efforts the past 10 years in close association are occurring in some areas, but these including educational programs and with the continued loss and degradation efforts will take years to have a positive reforestation; however, these efforts are of the Polylepis forest (BLI 2009i, p. 6). effect on these species. Therefore, we not adequately mitigating the threats to It is an intrinsically low-density species. find that these species’ small, declining these species. We expect that these The exacerbated small population size, populations, in concert with their species will continue to experience an lack of connectivity (isolation), and restricted ranges, habitat loss, and increased vulnerability to local small areas of remaining habitat which heightened vulnerability to adverse extirpations into the future. On the basis are localized and highly fragmented, all natural events and manmade activities of the best available scientific and affect the continued existence of this are threats to the continued existence of commercial data, these six species meet species (Lloyd 2010, pers. comm.). these six species throughout their the definition of endangered species Engblom et al. (2002, p. 57) noted that ranges. under the Act, rather than threatened the royal cinclodes may descend from species, because these species are in Finding the mountains to forage in the valleys danger of extinction at the present time. during periods of snow cover at the Section 3 of the Act defines an Therefore, endangered status is higher altitudes. Thus, interbreeding endangered species as any species appropriate for all six species in may occur at least among localities with which is in danger of extinction accordance with the Act. shared valleys, but there is insufficient throughout all or a significant portion of Status Determination for the Ash- information to determine that the its range and a threatened species as any breasted Tit-tyrant species breeds as a single population. It species which is likely to become an is currently restricted to high-elevation, endangered species within the The total population of the ash- moist, moss-laden patches of foreseeable future throughout all or a breasted tit-tyrant is estimated to be semihumid woodlands in Peru and significant portion of its range. We have approximately 780 individuals. We have Bolivia (BLI 2009i, p. 6; Fjeldsa˚ and carefully assessed the best scientific and carefully assessed the best available Kessler 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, commercial information available scientific and commercial information p. 113). Remaining Polylepis woodlands regarding threats to each of these six regarding the past, present, cumulative, are highly fragmented and degraded, bird species. Significant effects have and potential future threats faced by the and it is estimated that approximately already occurred as a result of habitat ash-breasted tit-tyrant and have only 2 percent of the dense woodlands loss, and some populations have likely concluded that there are three primary preferred by the species remain (del been extirpated. The most significant factors that threaten the continued Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. threat to the six species in this rule is existence of the ash-breasted tit-tyrant: 2002, p. 57). habitat loss and alteration. Various past (1) Habitat destruction, fragmentation, 6. White-browed tit-spinetail. BLI has and ongoing human activities and their and degradation; (2) limited size and placed the white-browed tit-spinetail in secondary influences continue to impact increasing isolation of remaining the population category of between 500 all of the remaining suitable habitats populations; and (3) inadequate and 1,500 individuals (BLI 2009d, pp. 1, that may still harbor each of these six regulatory mechanisms. 5). The white-browed tit-spinetail is species. We expect that any additional The ash-breasted tit-tyrant population currently confined to high-elevation, loss or degradation of habitats used by is small and declining, rendering the semihumid patches of forest in the these species will have a greater, species particularly vulnerable to the Andes of Peru, and its population has cumulative impact on these species. threat of adverse natural events and declined at a rate between 10 and 19 This is because with each contraction of human activities (e.g., deforestation and percent in the past 10 years, in close an existing subpopulation, the habitat alteration) that destroy association with the continued loss and likelihood of interchange with other individuals and their habitat. Ongoing degradation of the Polylepis forest (BLI subpopulations within patches human activities that curtail the species’ 2009d, pp. 5–6). decreases, while the likelihood of their habitat throughout its range exacerbate reproductive isolation increases. the demographic risks associated with Summary of Factor E Under the Act and our implementing small population sizes. The population Based on their small, declining regulations, a species may warrant has declined 10–19 percent in the past population size and fragmented listing if it is threatened or endangered 10 years, and is predicted to continue distribution, combined with the threat throughout all or a significant portion of declining commensurate with ongoing of disease (Junı´n rail and Junı´n grebe), its range. Each of the species in this habitat loss. Habitat loss was a factor in we have determined that all six species listing rule is highly restricted in its the ash-breasted tit-tyrant’s historical addressed in this final rule are range. In each case, the threats to the population decline, and the species is vulnerable to the threat of adverse survival of these species occur considered to be declining today in natural events that exacerbate human throughout the species’ range and are association with the continued activities (e.g., deforestation, habitat not restricted to any particular portion reduction in habitat. alteration, and infrastructure of that range. Accordingly, our A species may be affected by more development) that, alone or in assessment and determination apply to than one threat in combination. We combination, destroy individuals and each species throughout its entire range. have identified multiple threats that their habitat. The stochastic risks We find that each of these six species may have interrelated impacts on the associated with small, declining is presently in danger of extinction species. However, it is not necessarily populations are exacerbated by ongoing throughout its entire range, based on the easy to determine (nor is it necessarily

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determinable) which potential threat is listing the Junı´n grebe as an endangered concluded that there are three primary the operational threat. These threats, species throughout all of its range. factors that threaten the continued either individually or in combination, existence of the Peruvian plantcutter: (1) Status Determination for the Junı´n Rail are occurring at a sufficient geographical Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and or temporal scale to significantly affect The Junı´n rail is a ground-nesting bird degradation; (2) limited size and the status of the species. endemic to Lake Junı´n, where it resides isolation of remaining populations; and Based on the immediate and ongoing year-round. The current estimated range (3) inadequate regulatory mechanisms. 2 2 threats to the ash-breasted tit-tyrant of the species is 160 km (62 mi ), and Human activities that degrade, alter, throughout its range, as described its population size is estimated to be and destroy habitat are ongoing above, we determine that the ash- 1,000–2,499. However, both of these throughout the Peruvian plantcutter’s breasted tit-tyrant is in danger of figures are likely to be overestimates. range. Widespread land conversion to extinction throughout all of its range. We have carefully assessed the best agriculture has removed the vast Therefore, on the basis of the best available scientific and commercial majority of P. pallida dry forest habitat available scientific and commercial information regarding the past, present, throughout the range of the Peruvian information, we are listing the ash- and potential future threats faced by the plantcutter. ´ breasted tit-tyrant as endangered Junın rail and have concluded that there The Peruvian plantcutter’s population throughout all of its range. are four primary factors that threaten the is small, rendering the species continued existence of the rail: (1) particularly vulnerable to the threat of Status Determination for the Junı´n Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and adverse natural events and human Grebe degradation; (2) disease and predation; activities (e.g., deforestation and (3) limited size and isolation of The Junı´n grebe, a flightless grebe, is firewood extraction) that destroy remaining populations; and (4) individuals and their habitat. Ongoing endemic to Lake Junı´n, where it resides inadequate regulatory mechanisms. human activities that cause habitat loss year-round. The species’ population size Junı´n rail habitat continues to be throughout the species’ range exacerbate is estimated as 100–300 individuals, altered by human activities, which the stochastic and demographic risks although the number of mature results in the continued degradation and associated with small population sizes. individuals may be half this amount. destruction of habitat and reduces the The population has been estimated to We have carefully assessed the best quality and distribution of remaining have declined 1–9 percent in the past 10 available scientific and commercial suitable habitat. The Junı´n rail years, in association with continued information regarding the past, present, population is small, increasing the habitat loss. Habitat loss was a factor in and potential future threats faced by the species’ vulnerability to the threat of this species’ historical decline—the Junı´n grebe and have concluded that adverse natural events (e.g., Peruvian plantcutter has been extirpated there are four primary factors that demographic or environmental) and from 11 of its 14 historical sites—and threaten the continued existence of the human activities (e.g., water the species is considered to be declining Junı´n grebe: (1) Habitat destruction, contamination, water level today in association with the continued fragmentation, and degradation; (2) manipulation, cattail harvest, and reduction in habitat. Based on the disease; (3) limited size and isolation of overgrazing) that destroy individuals immediate and ongoing significant remaining populations; and (4) and their habitat. The Junı´n rail threats to the Peruvian plantcutter inadequate regulatory mechanisms. population has declined at a rate throughout its range, as described Junı´n grebe habitat continues to be between 10 and 19 percent during the above, we determine that the Peruvian altered by human activities, conversion, past 10 years, and this decline is plantcutter is in danger of extinction and destruction of habitat, which reduce predicted to continue commensurate throughout all of its range. Therefore, on the quantity, quality, distribution, and with ongoing threats from habitat the basis of the best available scientific regeneration of habitat available for the destruction, water contamination, and commercial information, we are Junı´n grebe on Lake Junı´n. Population overgrazing, and cattail harvest and listing the Peruvian plantcutter as an declines have been correlated with burning. endangered species throughout all of its water availability, and droughts have Based on the immediate and ongoing range. caused severe population fluctuations threats to the Junı´n rail throughout its Status Determination for the Royal that have likely compromised the range, as described above, we determine Cinclodes species’ long-term viability. The Junı´n that the Junı´n rail is in danger of grebe population is small and believed extinction throughout all of its range. The royal cinclodes, a large-billed to be declining, rendering the species Therefore, on the basis of the best ovenbird, is native to the high-altitude, vulnerable to the threat of adverse available scientific and commercial semihumid Polylepis or Polylepis- natural events and human activity (e.g., information, we are listing the Junı´n rail Gynoxys woodlands of the Bolivian and water extraction and contaminants from as an endangered species throughout all Peruvian Andes, where it occupies a mining) that destroy individuals and of its range. narrow range of distribution at their habitat. The population has elevations between 3,500 and 4,600 m declined 14 percent in the past 10 years, Status Determination for the Peruvian (11,483 and 12,092 ft). The species has and this decline is predicted to continue Plantcutter a highly restricted and severely commensurate with ongoing threats The Peruvian plantcutter is endemic fragmented range and is found only in from habitat destruction and water to semiarid lowland dry forests of the Peruvian administrative regions of contamination. Based on the immediate coastal northwestern Peru. The species’ Apurı´mac, Cusco, Junı´n, and Puno, and and ongoing threats to the Junı´n grebe population size is estimated to be 500– in the Bolivian Department of La Paz. throughout its range, as described 1,000 individuals. The population of the royal cinclodes is above, we determine that the Junı´n We have carefully assessed the best estimated to be fewer than 300 grebe is in danger of extinction available scientific and commercial individuals. throughout all of its range. Therefore, on information regarding the past, present, We have carefully assessed the best the basis of the best available scientific and potential future threats faced by the available scientific and commercial and commercial information, we are Peruvian plantcutter and have information regarding the past, present,

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and potential future threats faced by the fragmentation of habitat throughout the to all endangered and threatened royal cinclodes and have concluded that range of the white-browed tit-spinetail. wildlife. As such, these prohibitions there are three primary factors Researchers estimate that only one would be applicable to these species. impacting the continued existence of percent of the dense Polylepis These prohibitions, under 50 CFR 17.21, the royal cinclodes: (1) Habitat woodlands preferred by the species in part, make it illegal for any person destruction, fragmentation, and remain. Limited by the availability of subject to the jurisdiction of the United degradation; (2) limited size and suitable habitat, the species occurs States to take (take includes to harass, isolation of remaining populations; and today only in a few fragmented and harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, (3) inadequate regulatory mechanisms. disjunct locations. The species’ severely trap, capture, or collect, or to attempt to Only 2–3 percent of the dense Polylepis restricted range, combined with its engage in any such conduct) any woodlands preferred by the species small population size, renders it endangered wildlife species within the likely remain (ABC 2010, p. 1). Limited particularly vulnerable to the threat of United States or upon the high seas; or by the availability of suitable habitat, adverse natural and manmade (e.g., to import or export; to deliver, receive, the species occurs today only in some deforestation, habitat alteration, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or of these fragmented and disjunct wildfire) events that destroy individuals foreign commerce in the course of locations. Royal cinclodes habitat is and their habitat. The species has commercial activity; or to sell or offer particularly vulnerable to the drying experienced a population decline of for sale in interstate or foreign effects associated with diminished between 10 and 19 percent in the past commerce any endangered wildlife forest cover. Because the royal cinclodes 10 years, and is predicted to continue species. It is also illegal to possess, sell, population is small and declining, the declining commensurate with ongoing deliver, carry, transport, or ship any species is particularly vulnerable to the habitat loss and degradation. Based on such wildlife that has been taken in threat of adverse natural events (e.g., the immediate and ongoing threats to violation of the Act. Certain exceptions demographic or environmental) and the white-browed tit-spinetail apply to agents of the Service and State human activities (e.g., deforestation and throughout its range, as described conservation agencies. habitat alteration) that destroy above, we determine that the white- Permits may be issued to carry out individuals and their habitat. The browed tit-spinetail is in danger of population has declined 30–49 percent extinction throughout all of its range. otherwise prohibited activities in the past 10 years, and is predicted to Therefore, on the basis of the best involving endangered and threatened continue declining commensurate with available scientific and commercial wildlife species under certain ongoing habitat loss. information, we are listing the white- circumstances. Regulations governing Based on the immediate and ongoing browed tit-spinetail as an endangered permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for threats to the royal cinclodes throughout species throughout all of its range. endangered species. With regard to its range, as described above, we endangered wildlife, a permit may be determine that the royal cinclodes is in Available Conservation Measures issued for the following purposes: For danger of extinction throughout all of its Conservation measures provided to scientific purposes, to enhance the range. Therefore, on the basis of the best species listed as endangered or propagation or survival of the species, available scientific and commercial threatened under the Act include and for incidental take in connection information, we are listing the royal recognition, requirements for Federal with otherwise lawful activities. cinclodes as an endangered species protection, and prohibitions against Required Determinations throughout all of its range. certain practices. Recognition through listing results in public awareness, and Paperwork Reduction Act (44 U.S.C. Status Determination for the White- encourages and results in conservation 3501 et seq.) browed Tit-spinetail actions by Federal and State The white-browed tit-spinetail is governments, private agencies and This final rule does not contain any restricted to high-altitude woodlands of interest groups, and individuals. new collections of information that the Peruvian Andes. The species has a Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, require approval by the Office of highly restricted and severely and as implemented by regulations at 50 Management and Budget (OMB) under fragmented range, and is currently CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies the Paperwork Reduction Act. This rule known from only a small number of to evaluate their actions within the will not impose new recordkeeping or sites in the Apurı´mac and Cusco regions United States or on the high seas with reporting requirements on State or local in south-central Peru. The population of respect to any species that is proposed governments, individuals, businesses, or the white-browed tit-spinetail is or listed as endangered or threatened. organizations. We may not conduct or estimated to be approximately 500 to Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the sponsor, and you are not required to 1,500 individuals. We have carefully provision of limited financial assistance respond to, a collection of information assessed the best available scientific and for the development and management of unless it displays a currently valid OMB commercial information regarding the programs that the Secretary of the control number. past, present, and potential future Interior determines to be necessary or National Environmental Policy Act threats faced by the white-browed tit- useful for the conservation of (NEPA) spinetail. There are three primary endangered and threatened species in factors impacting the continued foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) We have determined that existence of the white-browed tit- of the Act authorize the Secretary to environmental assessments and spinetail: (1) Habitat destruction, encourage conservation programs for environmental impact statements, as fragmentation, and degradation; (2) foreign endangered and threatened defined under the authority of the limited size and isolation of remaining species and to provide assistance for National Environmental Policy Act of populations; and (3) inadequate such programs in the form of personnel 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not regulatory mechanisms. and the training of personnel. be prepared in connection with Widespread deforestation and the The Act and its implementing regulations adopted under section 4(a) conversion of forests for grazing and regulations set forth a series of general of the Act. We published a notice agriculture have led to the prohibitions and exceptions that apply outlining our reasons for this

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determination in the Federal Register List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 16 U.S.C. on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). 1531–1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201–4245; Pub. L. 99– Endangered and threatened species, 625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. References Cited Exports, Imports, Reporting and A complete list of all references cited recordkeeping requirements, ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding entries in this rule is available on the Internet Transportation. for ‘‘Cinclodes, royal’’, ‘‘Grebe, Junı´n’’, at http://www.regulations.gov or upon ‘‘Plantcutter, Peruvian’’, ‘‘Rail, Junı´n’’, request from the Endangered Species Regulation Promulgation ‘‘Tit-spinetail, white-browed’’, and ‘‘Tit- Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Accordingly, we amend part 17, tyrant, ash-breasted’’ in alphabetical (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the order under Birds to the List of Authors Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, as follows: The primary authors of this final rule below: are the staff members of the Branch of § 17.11 Endangered and threatened PART 17—[AMENDED] Foreign Species, Endangered Species wildlife. Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, * * * * * 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Arlington, VA ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 (h) * * * 22203. continues to read as follows:

Species Vertebrate population where Critical Special Historic range endangered or Status When listed habitat rules Common name Scientific name threatened

******* Birds.

******* Cinclodes, royal ...... Cinclodes aricomae Bolivia, Peru ...... Entire ...... E 799 NA NA

******* Grebe, Junı´n ...... Podiceps Peru ...... Entire ...... E 799 NA NA taczanowskii.

******* Plantcutter, Peruvian Phytotoma raimondii Peru ...... Entire ...... E 799 NA NA

******* Rail, Junı´n ...... Laterallus tuerosi .... Peru ...... Entire ...... E 799 NA NA

******* Tit-spinetail, white- Leptasthenura Peru ...... Entire ...... E 799 NA NA browed. xenothorax. Tit-tyrant, ash- Anairetes alpinus .... Bolivia, Peru ...... Entire ...... E 799 NA NA breasted.

*******

* * * * * Dated: June 28, 2012 Daniel M. Ashe, Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2012–17402 Filed 7–23–12; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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