Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42757-9 — When Movements Become Parties Santiago Anria Index More Information

Index

Achacachi, 57 authoritarianism, 181, 191 Achacollo, Nemecia, 146 “competitive authoritarian” regimes, 24 AD. See Democratic Action FA formative years under military ad hoc committees, 119–20, 138 authoritarian rule, 184 adaptive capacity, 32 autonomous social mobilization, 4, 17, 26, 42, African National Congress (South Africa) 63, 161, 199 (ANC), 9, 213, 217, 219–20 bottom-up participation and, 166 agrarian reform, 133–4, 144 capacity for, 62–9, 156, 202 Aldrich, John H., 8, 214 sustaining, 211 Alencar, José, 176 check on executive power by, 94 Alianza País (PAIS Alliance) (Ecuador), 1 demand making by, 137 allied groups, 18–19, 209 internal party politics and, 130 constraining capacities of, 50, 161 MAS autonomous mobilization capacity, 18 creative capacities of, 160 MAS unable to control, 152 Almaraz, Alejandro, 145–6 party-movement relations and, 91 El Alto, 57, 80, 86–9 strength of, 160 Aymara immigrants to, 77 top-down structures countered by, 198 candidate selection in, 123–4 autonomy general elections in, 77–80 embedded autonomy, 143 MAS in, 76–82 mobilization capacity, autonomy of, 48, municipal elections in, 79 131–2 population of, 77 of social organizations, 87 poverty in, 77 state funding and, 24 Amaral, Oswaldo E., 53, 168, 175 Aymara peoples Amenta, Edwin, 219 immigrants to El Alto, 77 ANC. See African National Congress katarista Aymara indigenous movement, (South Africa) 13–14 anticorruption law, 133–4 Arce Catacora, Luis, 91, 155 Banzer, Hugo, 76 Argentina, 38 Batlle, Jorge, 189 ASIP. See Popular and Solidarity Alliance Blancos (Uruguay), 184 ASP. See Sovereignty of the People Bloque Oriente (Eastern Block), 89 AU. See Uruguay Assembly Bogliaccini, Juan, 189

265

266 Index

Bolivarian Circles, 23 bodies for deliberation and consultation, 187 Bolivia, 201–2, 209–10, 216, 225–9 bottom-up participation in, 183, 190–1 decentralization reforms in, 222 electoral progress, 194–6 domestic power relations in, 97 formative years under military authoritarian economic and social crises in, 196 rule, 184 greater inclusiveness of Bolivian politics, ideological moderation of, 185–6 91–2, 96 labor unions and, 190 major departments in, 56–7 majoritarianism, commitment to, 187, 192 MAS and political system of, 24 MAS and PT, comparison across cases with, under Morales, 23 195, 211–12 personalistic leadership in, 227 membership rights and obligations of, 192–3 rural syndicalism in, 28 organizational vitality of, 190 “ruralization” of politics in, 14 origins of, 182–3, 186–7, 190 “shock-therapy” shift to neoliberalism, 14 policy-making under FA governments, 188–9 social and cultural diversity of, 128 power distributions in, 164, 166–7 Bolivian Communist Party (PCB), 74 rise to power of, 197 Bolivian Law 1008, 70 Bruera, Gómez, 177, 180 Bolivian Socialist Falange, 72 Bruhn, Kathleen, 206 Bolivian Workers’ Central (COB), 13, 87, 150–1 bureaucratization, 37, 170 Ministry of Economy and, 144–5 weak, 21–2 Bolsa Familia, 178 Weber on, 43 bottom-up participation, 2, 26, 84–5, 167, 183, 191–2 Campo Majoritário (Majority Group), 171, autonomous social mobilization and, 166 175–6 candidate selection and, 210 candidate selection, 33–5, 49, 57, 108 conditions for, 208–9 in El Alto, 123–4 correctives to hierarchy, 127, 160 bottom-up participation and, 210 executive branch and, 137 civil society and, 104 in FA, 183, 190–1 Duverger on, 35 governing parties open to, 6 ﬁeldwork sites for local level, 122 gradual suppression of, 162 grass-roots social movements and, 128 institutional structures for, 181 importance of, 34–6 logic of mobilization, 91, 102 of legislative candidates, 99, 109 MAS and, 1, 68, 93, 211 MAS and, 209 Morales and, 72 mechanics of, 112 movement-based parties and, 214 plurinominal representatives and, 116–20 permeability to, 58 top-down structures and, 102 policy-making and, 209 uninominal representatives and, 110–16 pressure from, 58 variation in, 100, 105 in PT, 32 capitalism spaces for, 171 anti-capitalist rhetoric, 188 weakening channels of, 151–2 reforming, 45, 175, 194 Brazil. See also Workers’ Party cartel party thesis, 31–2 economic and social crises in, 196 causal process observations, 56 Lula and constraints of Brazilian politics, CCSI. See Civicus Civil Society Index 177–8 CEDIB. See Center for Documentation and participatory programs at municipal level in, Information 196 Centellas, Miguel, 28 pension system in, 179 Center for Documentation and Information Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB), 169 (CEDIB), 58 Broad Front (Uruguay) (FA), 9, 19, 51, 167, centrales, 112–13 181, 192 Chaco War, 12–13

Index 267

Chamber of Deputies, 95, 110 CONAMAQ. See National Council of Ayllus Chamber of Senators, 110 and Marcas of Qullasuyu Chapare region, 15 CONDEPA. See Conscience of the Fatherland coca producers in, 84 Confederation of Bolivian Indigenous Peoples charismatic political leaders, 52–3 (CIDOB), 93, 157–8 Chávez, Hugo, 1, 18, 23, 228 Congress, 110, 117 Chávez, Marcelina, 118 MAS control over, 149–50 CIDOB. See Confederation of Bolivian socio-demographic composition of, 133 Indigenous Peoples Congress Socialist Party (Kerala) (CSP), 9 Civic Solidarity Union (UCS), 81, 90, 126 Conscience of the Fatherland (CONDEPA), Civicus Civil Society Index (CCSI), 202–3 73, 80 civil liberties, 227 constant causes, 16–17, 40–1, 47–51, 165, 199 civil society, 47, 49, 127, 208–9, 219 internal power distributions and, 203 aligned with MAS, 112–13, 121–3 Constituent Assembly, 93, 95 aligned with opposition parties, 113–14, Constitution, 2009, 95, 134 125–7 constitutional reform, 71 of Bolivia, 201–2, 210 constraining capacities, 132, 152–9 candidate selection and, 104 of allied groups, 50, 161 configuration of, 22–3, 47, 199, 205 of grass-roots social movements, 131 constellations of party-civil society, 103–4, cooperative miners, 142 108 core constituency, 8 cyclical attributes of, 41 COR-El Alto. See Regional Labor Federation democratic politics and, 22–5 corporatism, 131, 142 density of, 22, 44, 220–1 Correa, Rafael, 1 highly mobilized, 49, 224 corruption, 168 movement-based parties and, 20 anticorruption law, 133–4 policy-making and, 199–204, 210–11 creative capacities, 40, 49–50, 136–7 political alignment of, 98–9, 102, 114–15, of grass-roots social movements, 130–1, 161 217 CSP. See Congress Socialist Party (Kerala) multiple, 123–5 CSUTCB. See Unique Confederation of Rural power distributions and, 18, 20 Laborers of Bolivia shaping internal party structures, 199–203 CUT. See Unified Workers’ Central (Brazil) significance of, 212–13 Cyr, Jennifer, 74 strength of, 44, 49, 102, 114–15, 217, 228 weak, 115, 193 Dahl, Robert A., 24–5, 227 clientelism, 23–4 de Leon, Cedric, 31 COB. See Bolivian Workers’ Central debt crisis, 221 coca eradication programs, 69–70, 85 decentralization reforms, 222 coca growing unions, 83 Decree 748, 155 coca producers (cocaleros), 15, 67–8, 156 Delgadillo, Wálter, 157 in Chapare region, 84 Delgado, Rebeca, 141 Marxism and, 70 della Porta, Donatella, 2–3, 8–9 political instrument of, 62, 71–2, 82–3 de-mobilization, 39, 176–7, 190 Collier, David, 22–3, 221 Democracy and the Organization of Political Collier, Ruth Berins, 22–3, 199–201, 221 Parties (Ostrogorski), 3–4 Colorados (Uruguay), 184 Democratic Action (AD) (Venezuela), 36 COMIBOL. See state mining sector democratic politics, 5, 225–6 Communal Councils (Venezuela), 23 civil society and, 22–5 Communist Party (Uruguay) (PC), 182–3 delegative democracy, 226–7 CON. See Regular National Congress direct democracy, 107, 185 CONALCAM. See National Coordinator for internal party democracy, 36 Change democratizing democracy, 6

268 Index

Department of Cochabamba, 118, 120 Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front Departmental Directorates, 137 (FMLN) (El Salvador), 9 direct democracy, 107 Federation of Neighborhood Boards mechanisms of, 185 (FEJUVE-El Alto), 86–9, 123–4 Direct Election Process (PED) (Brazil), 171–3 feminism, CSTUCB feminist branch, 146 Do Alto, Hervé, 107, 117, 133 FENCOMIN. See National Federation of Downs, Anthony, 20 Mining Cooperatives Dunkerley, James, 92 FETCT. See Special Federation of Peasant Duverger, Maurice, 30, 35, 170 Workers of the Tropics of Cochabamba on candidate selection, 35 FEYCH. See Special Federation of the Yungas of the Chapare Eastern Block (Bloque Oriente), 89 FMLN. See Farabundo Martí National economic crises, 196, 224–5 Liberation Front economic growth, 143 food sovereignty, 146–7 economic pressures, 52 French, John D., 169 Ecuador, 26, 216–17, 228 FSTMB. See Union Federation of Bolivian elections, 73, 86 Mineworkers El Alto general elections, 77–80 El Alto municipal elections, 79 Gallardo, Germán, 147 April 2010 municipal elections, 121 García, Fernando, 120 cities central for winning electoral majorities, García Linera, Álvaro, 53, 75, 112, 140, 159 134–5 Gas War, 80–1 electoral competition, 30, 37, 44 Gasolinazo, 85, 97, 154–5 electoral rules, 98, 100–1, 127 gasoline subsidies, 94–5 electoral strategies, 68 gender equality, 111, 128 FA, MAS and PT rates of electoral progress, Gibson, Edward L., 21, 64–6 194–6 governing parties, 6–7 FA victory in, 184 decision making in, 36–7 IU vote share in municipal elections, 237 executive branch of, 38 in Latin America, 208 movement-based parties becoming, 44–5 logic of supraclass electoral recruitment, 132 open to bottom-up participation, 6 MAS vote share in municipal elections, power distributions within, 27 237–40 grass-roots social movements, 8, 91 Morales and, 62, 151–2 autonomy of, 131 La Paz general elections, 77–80 candidate selection and, 128 La Paz municipal elections, 79 constraining capacities of, 131 presidential elections, 64–7 creative capacities of, 130–1, 161 vote-maximizing strategy, 74 internal grass-roots control, 34 environmental movements, 10 MAS maintaining core as, 16 EP. See Progressive Encounter (Uruguay) Morales and, 115 ethnopopulism, 15, 63 Morales unmediated consultations with, Evans, Peter B., 213 138–9 executive branch, 38, 143–9 oligarchic decision-making and grass-roots autonomous social mobilizations check on participation, 108–10 executive power, 94 passivity, grass-roots level in, 37 bottom-up participation and, 137 strong backing from, 101 concentrated executive authority, 38 Green parties, 218 Morales concentrating power in, 135–6 Grisafﬁ, Thomas, 84 extractivist policies, 69 Handlin, Samuel, 199–201 FA. See Broad Front (Uruguay) health workers conﬂict, 153–4 factionalism, 32 Heller, Patrick, 213

Index 269

historical causes, 16–17, 40–7, 164–5, 204–5, labor unions, 6–7, 10, 169, 172, 197, 200 217 FA and, 190 horizontal accountability, 228 mobilization capacity of, 173 Huber, Evelyne, 22–3, 188 labor-based parties, 8, 169, 229 Hunter, Wendy, 32, 177 Lacalle, Luis Alberto, 189 hydrocarbon industry, 133–4, 151 land redistribution, 144 land reform, 12–13 imperialism, 70 Landless Movement (Brazil) (MST), 173–4 Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI), 184, LAPOP. See Latin American Public Opinion 221, 229 Project Independent Democratic Union (Chile) (UDI), latifundio, 145–6 36 Latin America, 167, 210, 214, 219–20, 228 Indigenous peoples, 13–15, 25 conservative parties in, 64–6 in collective decision-making, 96 corporatism in, 131 constituencies of, 63 elections in, 208 in middle-classes, 117 movement-based parties in, 3 “non-core” indigenous organizations, new parties in, 2 145–6 personalistic politics in, 7 inequality, 57, 208 politics of “new incorporation” in, 27 institutional checks and balances, 96 populism in, 21 institutional resources, 45–6 Latin American Left, 25 institutional structures, 42, 181 classiﬁcations of, 214–16 institutionalization, 32, 94 historic goal of, 216 of input from grass-roots social movements, “moderate” camp of, 26, 205 183 Latin American Public Opinion Project institutionalized left, 214–15 (LAPOP), 59–60, 200 interest aggregation, 69 Law 180, 158 interest intermediation, 152 Law 222, 158 internal party democracy, 36, 191–2 Law of Administrative Decentralization, 1995, inter-party competition theory, 20 70–1 IPSP. See Political Instrument for the Law of Communitarian Renewal of the Sovereignty of the Peoples Agrarian Reform, 145, 151 ISI. See Import Substitution Industrialization Law of Popular Participation, 1994 (LPP), 14, Isiboro Sécure National Park and Indigenous 70–1, 111 Territory (TIPNIS), 94–5, 97, 156–8, Law of Productive Revolution, 146–7 224 Lazar, Sian, 86 IU. See United Left (Bolivia) LCR. See Radical Cause (Venezuela) leadership accountability, 36, 93 katarista Aymara indigenous movement, 13–14 legislative candidates, 99, 109 Katz, Richard S., 32 legislative opposition, 175, 184–5 on party development, 37 “Letter to the Brazilian People” (Lula), Keck, Margaret E., 170 177 Kirchheimer, Otto, 30 Levitsky, Steven, 3, 8, 21, 25–6, 197, 214–15 on party development, 37 on organizational inheritance, 47–8, 102 Kitschelt, Herbert, 8 Liberal Party (Brazil) (PL), 176 on organizational legitimacy, 38–9 liberal rights, 24, 225–6 Loayza, Román, 80 labor mobilization, 197 local party organization, 100–1 labor reform, 189 LPP. See Law of Popular Participation, labor sectors 1994 formal, 27 Lula. See da Silva, Luiz Inácio informal, 27, 134–5, 222–3 Luna, Juan Pablo, 21, 60, 173–86, 215

270 Index

Madrid, Raúl, 15, 63 ﬁrst term of, 89, 93 Maduro, Nicolás, 18, 23, 228 grass-roots criticism of, 84–5 Mair, Peter, 32 grass-roots social movements and, 115 on party development, 37 humble origins of, 28 majoritarianism, 187, 192 landslide victory of, 75 Majority Group (Campo Majoritário), 171, policy-making and, 166 175–6 positional authority of, 137 Mamani, Abel, 87–8 power concentrated in executive branch of, Mamani, Feliciano, 83 135–6 Marxism, 70, 188 unmediated consultations with grass-roots MAS. See Movement Toward Socialism social movements, 138–9 MDB. See Brazilian Democratic Movement Véliz split with, 72 Media Luna, 95 movement left, 25–6, 214–15 Mendonça, Duda, 176 Movement Toward Socialism (MAS), 9, 26–9, Mendoza, Adolfo, 118–19 46, 86, 108, 165–7, 198–9, 208–9 Meneguello, Rachel, 168, 170 in El Alto, 76–82 Menem, Carlos, 38 ascendance to power by, 69–76 Mesa, Carlos, 75 autonomous mobilization capacity of, 18 resignation of, 76, 80–1 Bolivian political system and, 24 metallurgical industries, 168 bottom-up participation and, 1, 68, 93, Michels, Robert, 3–4, 30 211 on candidate selection, 35 candidate selection and, 209 organizational development and, 51 central coalition of, 67–8 on party development, 37 civil society aligned with, 112–13, 121–3 Michelsian shift, 19, 45, 49, 163, 212, 217–19 clashing with core of grass-roots social middle-classes, 91–2, 116 movements, 152 Indigenous peoples in, 117 control over Congress, 149–50 militant movement activists, 8 core constituency of, 134 military coups, 13 early development of, 53–5, 193 Ministry of Economy, 144 early success of, 17–18 COB and, 144–5 electoral progress, rate of, 194–6 Ministry of Mining, 147–9 executive level, 137 Ministry of Planning, 147, 155 expansive phase of, 100 Ministry of Rural Development, 145–7 FA and PT, comparison across cases with, MIP. See Pachakuti Indigenous Movement 195, 211–12 mixed-member proportional electoral systems FENCOMIN and, 148 (MMPs), 100–1, 106, 110 foundational phase of, 17 MNR. See Nationalist Revolutionary growth from rural districts, 89 Movement as hybrid party, 62–9 mobilization capacity, 5–6, 142–3. See also internal heterogeneity within, 127 autonomous social mobilization internal organization of, 53 constraints on central leadership with, 18 “invited” leaders in, 140–1 of labor unions, 173 irrelevance of party structure of, 137–40 sustaining autonomy of, 131–2 mobilization capacity of, 126 mobilization tactics, 198 as movement-based party, 11–12, 216 Molina, Fernando, 117–18 National Directorate of, 105–6, 111, 118 Morales, Evo, 15, 53, 55, 74, 94, 225, 228–9 origins of, 69–76, 193 assuming ofﬁce, 92–3 in La Paz, 76–82 Bolivia under, 23 peripheral coalition of, 67–8 bottom-up participation and, 72 policy-making and, 210 elections and, 62, 151–2 positional authority within, 137 evolution of cabinet of ministers of, 132–3 in power, 90–6, 198–9

Index 271

power distributions in, 164, 166–7 National Coordinator for Change power structure of, 19 (CONALCAM), 94, 150–1 Regular National Congress in, 105 National Council of Ayllus and Marcas of representatives’ occupations prior to being Qullasuyu (CONAMAQ), 93, 147, elected to congress, 92 157–8 tendencies toward top-down structures, 132 National Directorate, 105–6, 111, 118 turning point for, 222 meetings of, 137 unable to control autonomous social National Federation of Mining Cooperatives mobilization, 152 (FENCOMIN), 147–8 vertiginous growth of, 45 MAS and, 148 vote share in municipal elections, 237–40 National Revolution of 1952, 223 weak bureaucratic development, 97 Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR), Movement without Fear (MSM), 81 12–13, 90, 223 movement-based parties, 11, 102, 207, 209–10, military coup overthrowing, 13 213–14 neighborhood associations, 47, 111 becoming governing parties, 44–5 neoliberalism, 97, 185 bottom-up participation and, 214 anti-neoliberal movement, 70, 133–4, 175 challenges to legitimacy of, 39 crisis of, 69, 73 civil society and, 20 draconian neoliberal reforms, 69–70 deﬁning attributes of, 8–9 extractivist policies of, 69 examples of, 10 legacies of, 222 ﬂexibility of, 20 “shock-therapy” shift to, 14 genetic features of, 212 New Agrarian Reform Law, 93 importance of organizational context in New Majority (NM) (Uruguay), 188 emergence of, 48 New Unionism, 169 internal politics of, 7 NM. See New Majority in Latin America, 3 Nogueira-Budny, Daniel, 192 MAS as, 11–12, 216 overarching evolutionary trajectory of, 32 October Agenda, 93, 133 policy-making and, 160 O’Donnell, Guillermo, 222, 226–7 popularity of, 2–3 oligarchy power concentration in, 35 grass-roots participation and oligarchic seen as transitional phenomena, 9–11 decision-making, 108–10 similarities in origins of, 43 “iron law of,” 3–4, 6–7, 9–11, 30, 51, 207 successful, 221 oligarchic organizational development, 4–5 trajectory to top-down structures for, oligarchic temptations, 6, 105, 130 33, 205 oligarchy theory, 3–4, 6–7 with weak bureaucratization, 21–2 party oligarchy, 36 Movimiento al Socialismo. See Movement opposition parties, 57, 98–9 Toward Socialism civil society aligned with, 113–14, 125–7 Movimiento Quinta República (MVR) Organic Congress, 138 (Venezuela), 1 organizational centralization, 43, 162, 192 MPP. See Popular Participation Movement organizational density, 21–2, 199–200, 205 (Uruguay) organizational development, 32–3 MRTKL. See Revolutionary Liberation Michels and, 51 Movement Tupac Katari organic model of, 191 MSM. See Movement without Fear patterns of organizational evolution, 192 MST. See Landless Movement (Brazil) organizational inheritance, 47–8 Mujica, José, 188, 201 organizational legitimacy, 38–9 Murillo, María Victoria, 60, 161 organizational strength, 101 Muslim Brotherhood, 9 organized contestation, 223 MVR. See Movimiento Quinta República Ortiz, Concepción, 116

272 Index

Ostrogorski, Moisei, 3–4 Pedraza, David Añez, 72–3 on candidate selection, 35 Peredo, Antonio, 74 OTBs. See Territorial Grass-roots Peronism (Argentina), 21 Organizations personalism, 1, 217–18, 227–8 Latin America and, 7 Pachakuti Indigenous Movement (MIP), 14–15 personalistic politics, 5 Pachakutik Plurinational Unity Movement – personalization of power, 91 New Country, 9 PJ. See Partido Justicialista (Argentina) Panebianco, Angelo, 30–1, 35, 38 PL. See Liberal Party (Brazil) genetic model of party development, 42, 62 Plurinational Legislative Assembly, 95, 225–6 parliamentary groups, 139–43 plurinominal representatives, 110 participatory programs, 196 ad hoc committees and, 119–20 Partido Justicialista (Argentina) (PJ), 36 candidate selection and, 116–20 parties, 30 policy-making, 33–4, 50–1, 141–2, 146, 160, civil society shaping internal party structures, 188 199–203 bottom-up participation and, 209 constellations of party-civil society, 103–4, civil society and, 199–204, 210–11 108 under FA governments, 188–9 internal stakeholders of, 5 importance of, 36–40 party oligarchy, 36 internal power distributions and, 199–204 party-building, 7, 47–8 MAS and, 210 policy-making and party structures, 199–203 method of analysis of, 58 popular movements and, 186 Morales and, 166 scholarly literatures on, 7–8 movement-based parties and, 160 variation in power distributions of, 127–8, party structures and, 199–203 207–8 power distributions and, 36–7 party development, 9, 16, 169, 191, 199 political incorporation, 221–3 conventional models of, 37 Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Panebianco, genetic model of, 42, 62 Peoples (IPSP), 72 Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), 36 Political Parties (Michels), 3–4 party-movement relations, 91, 219 Politics as a Vocation (Weber), 3–4 party-society linkages, 26–7, 200, 205, 216 polyarchy, 25, 227 maintenance of, 217 Popolo Della Libertá (Italy), 1 Patana, Edgar, 88 Popular and Solidarity Alliance (ASIP), 90 path dependence, 16–18, 33, 40–3, 53, 60, 96, popular input, 143–4 163–4, 169, 190–3, 204, 207–8, popular movements, 12–16, 53, 82–90, 136, 211–12 153, 173, 190–1, 210–11 La Paz, 57, 80, 86–9 parties and, 186 general elections in, 77–80 positive accountability to, 93 MAS in, 76–82 rank and ﬁle in, 18 municipal elections in, 79 urban, 14–15 population of, 77 veto coalitions and, 152 PC. See Communist Party (Uruguay) Popular Participation Movement (Uruguay) PCB. See Bolivian Communist Party (MPP), 182, 187 peasant associations, 6–7, 47 populism, 7 peasant groups, 145–6, 156 ethnopopulism, 15, 63 in rural districts, 125 in Latin America, 21 peasant unions neo-populism, 68–9, 81 functional levels of, 112 populist left, 214–15 organizational structure of, 113 Power, Timothy J., 53 peasant unity, 13–14 power concentration, 21, 30–1, 207, 215, PED. See Direct Election Process 225–6, 228

Index 273

factors in, 191 Rocha, Manuel, 75 governance structures and tendencies toward, Rousseff, Dilma, 19, 168 48 Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, 22–3 internal, 32, 199, 218 rural districts, 82, 121, 127, 174, 210 intra-party power, 33 MAS growth from, 89 in movement-based parties, 35 peasant groups in, 125 trends toward, 198 in Santa Cruz, 113 power distributions, 2, 16, 33–4, 42 rural poor, 47 civil society and, 18, 20 rural syndicalism, 28 in FA, 164, 166–7 rural-urban divides, 107 in governing parties, 27 internal, 21, 33, 205 Salazar, Julio, 118 constant causes and, 203 Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo, 70–1, 75 mode of access to power and, 41–5 constitutional reform under, 71 policy-making and, 199–204 resignation of, 76 sources of variation in, 7, 43–4, 205 Sanguinetti, Julio María, 189 in MAS, 164, 166–7 Sanjinez, Tito, 90 MAS relevant for study of, 104–10 Santa Cruz, 57, 89–90, 113 in movement-based parties, 35 Schattschneider, E. E., 35 parties variation in, 127–8 Schipani, Andrés, 211 policy-making and, 36–7 Schrank, Andrew, 60 in PT, 164, 166–7 Schwartz, Mildred A., 31 social movements and, 27 Serra, José, 177 variation within and across parties, 207–8 Shaping the Political Arena (Collier and Power Resource Theory, 220 Collier), 221 Prada, María Nela, 144 Silva, Eduardo, 96 PRD. See Party of the Democratic Revolution Silva, Jorge, 113, 117 Pribble, Jennifer, 182, 190 da Silva, Luiz Inácio (Lula), 168 professionalization, 43 Campo Majoritário and, 176 Progressive Encounter (Uruguay) (EP), 187 constraints of Brazilian politics and, 177–8 Przeworski, Adam, 37, 132 ﬁrst administration of, 178 PS. See Socialist Party leadership of, 169 PT. See Workers’ Party (Brazil) “Letter to the Brazilian People,” 177 personal appeal of, 176 qualitative data, 56 sindicatos campesinos (peasant unions), 112 Quiroga, José A., 74 norms of, 121 Quispe, Felipe, 73, 76 single-member district (SMD), 110 Six Federations of the Tropic of Cochabamba, Radical Cause (Venezuela) (LCR), 9 118, 157 redistribution, politics of, 5, 216 SMD. See single-member district Reforma da Previdência (Social Security Snyder, Richard, 57 Reform), 179–80 social accountability structures, 61 Regional Directorates, 114, 119 social bases, 34 Regional Labor Federation (COR-El Alto), creative capacities of, 40, 49–50 86–9, 123–4 empowering, 183 Regular National Congress (CON), 105, 138 marginalization of, 40 religious communities, 10 of MAS, 4 Renta Dignidad, 2007, 151 of PT, 168 Revolutionary Liberation Movement Tupac social crises, 196 Katari (MRTKL), 15 social movements, 6–7, 48, 68, 220, 222. Ribeiro, Pedro, 172 See also grass-roots social movements Roberts, Kenneth M., 3, 9, 25–6, 191, 197, 214–15 environmental movements and, 10

274 Index

social movements (cont.) Uniﬁed Workers’ Central (Brazil) (CUT), 173, power distributions and, 27 179–80 PT and, 167 uninominal representatives, 110 rural, 17 candidate selection and, 110–16 scholarly literatures on, 7–8 Union Federation of Bolivian Mineworkers student movements and, 182 (FSTMB), 147–8 social organizations, 87, 101 Unión Juvenil Cruceñista (UJC), 120 nominations by, 107, 117 Unique Confederation of Rural Laborers of Social Security Reform (Reforma da Bolivia (CSUTCB), 13–14, 76, 87, Previdência), 179–80 145–7 social vetoes, 131 feminist branch of, 146 socialism, 45, 175, 177 United Left (Bolivia) (IU), 71–2 advocacy of, 194 vote share in municipal elections, 237 Socialist Party (PS) (Uruguay), 182–3 United States (U.S.) Solidarity (Poland), 9 imperialism of, 70 Sovereignty of the People (ASP), 71–2 intervention in domestic politics of Bolivia Special Federation of Peasant Workers of the by, 75 Tropics of Cochabamba (FETCT), 83, mobilizations against free trade agreements 121 with, 190 Special Federation of the Yungas of the Chapare Unity Pact, 93, 135, 146–7, 150 (FEYCH), 121 urban poor, 47 Sprague, John D., 37, 132 urbanization, 14 state mining sector (COMIBOL), 14 Uruguay, 38, 163, 211 Stefanoni, Pablo, 107, 117 constitutional reform in, 185 Stepan, Alfred, 22–3 dominant parties in, 184 student movements (Uruguay), 182 economic and social crises in, 196 subcentrales, 112–13 participatory programs at municipal level in, Syndicalist Confederation of Intercultural 196 Communities (CSCIB), 145–6 Uruguay Assembly (AU), 182 U.S. See United States Tapia, Luis, 138 Tavits, Margit, 101 Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project, 202 Territorial Grass-roots Organizations (OTBs), Vázquez, Tabaré, 184, 188, 201 111 Vázquez, Víctor Hugo, 147 TIPNIS. See Isiboro Sécure National Park and V-Dem. See Varieties of Democracy Indigenous Territory Véliz, Alejo, 71–2 top-down structures, 2, 37, 51, 104, 202, 207–8 Venezuela, 23–4, 26, 216–17 autonomous social mobilization counter to, veto coalitions, 131, 152, 209 198 formation of, 155–6 candidate selection and, 102 strength of, 153 causes for, 208 veto players, 131 MAS tendencies toward, 132 Vice Presidency, Ofﬁce of, 145 movement-based parties, trajectory towards, Villa Tunari, 57, 82–4, 121 33, 205 Villarroel, Wálter, 148 resisting, 207 tendencies toward top-down control, 5 wage councils, 189 top-down mobilization strategies, 68–9 Water War, 14–15, 73 transportation sector, 142 spread of, 76 Webber, Jeffery R., 75 UCS. See Civic Solidarity Union Weber, Max, 3–4 UDI. See Independent Democratic Union (Chile) on bureaucratization, 43 UJC. See Unión Juvenil Cruceñista on candidate selection, 35

Index 275

windfall rents, 134 power distributions in, 164, 166–7 Wolff, Jonas, 96 power structure of, 19 Workers’ Party (Brazil) (PT), 9, 12, 18, 163, requirements for afﬁliation, 172 168, 177–8, 180–1 rise to power of, 46–7, 174–7, 197 Bolsa Familia, 178 social bases of, 168 bottom-up participation in, 32 social movements and, 167 early development of, 44, 212 weak counter-mobilization capacity of, electoral progress, rate of, 194–6 179 FA and MAS, comparison across cases with, workplace democracy, 6 195, 211–12 moderates in, 178 Zegada, María Teresa, 139 origins of, 169–73, 193–4 Zuazo, Moira, 71, 106–7, 152 partisans, 200–1 Zurita, Leonida, 116