Projecting Hegemony: Parties, Organizations, and Indigenous Forms of Governance in Bolivia A dissertation presented by Carla Alberti B.A. in Political Science, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile M.A. in Political Science, Brown University To the Department of Political Science In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of Political Science Brown University Providence, Rhode Island May 2016 © Copyright 2016 by Carla Alberti This dissertation by Carla Alberti is accepted in its present form by the Department of Political Science as satisfying the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Date_____________ _________________________________ Richard Snyder, Advisor Recommended to the Graduate Council Date_____________ _________________________________ Patrick Heller, Reader Date_____________ _________________________________ Ashutosh Varshney, Reader Date_____________ _________________________________ Todd Eisenstadt, Reader Approved by the Graduate Council Date_____________ _________________________________ Peter M. Weber, Dean of the Graduate School iii Curriculum Vitae Carla Alberti was born in Temuco, Chile on March 25, 1985. She obtained a B.A. in Political Science from Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile in 2007 and earned an M.A. in Political Science from Brown University in 2011. After working for about a year and a half in the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile’s College UC department as an academic coordinator for the area of social science, Carla was awarded a Fulbright Fellowship to pursue graduate studies in the United States. She began her Ph.D. in Political Science at Brown University in 2009. During her graduate studies, Carla conducted research thanks to the generous support of the Graduate School, the Department of Political Science, the Graduate Program in Development (GPD), the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), and the Global Mobility Program at Brown University. During the Spring Semester of 2016, Carla taught the undergraduate seminar “Indigenous Politics in Latin America” for the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies. Her works have been published in Development (2015) and Revista de Ciencia Política (forthcoming). In 2016, Carla will begin a tenure-track appointment as Assistant Professor in the Department of Political Science at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. iv Acknowledgements This dissertation would have not been possible without the help of my advisors, friends, and family. Their constant support and encouragement have made this project stronger and the process of writing it a lot more pleasant and less lonely. I thank my dissertation committee for their thoughtful feedback and their constant help and support. Richard Snyder has been more than just an advisor during my years as a graduate student. I will always be grateful for his dedication to make my dissertation project stronger, for supporting my academic development, and for caring about his students on a personal level. Ashutosh Varshney’s fascinating insights and comments about ethnicity and conflict inspired me to research indigenous politics in Latin America. Patrick Heller has always pushed me to think big, to connect my research to the major debates in political sociology, and his comments and feedback have made this project better. Todd Eisenstadt has provided me with valuable feedback, constant support, and his fascinating work on indigenous politics has been an inspiration and a model for my own research. To my friends and coleagues at Brown who have made the process of writing this dissertation so much better with their collegiality and support. I thank each and one of them. My sincere appreciation goes to the administrative staff in the department of political science, especially to Suzanne Brough, and everyone at the Center for Latin American Studies (CLACS) for their help and encouragement. Finally, I thank my family. My parents’ sacrifice, their strength, love, and support have made my journey here possible. My sisters, their partners, and children have given v me companionship and brought joy to my life. My friend Rodrigo, almost a brother, has encouraged me in every step of the way and made me laugh when I most needed it. My husband’s family has been a constant source of support, love, and strength. Last but not least, I want to give special and enormous thanks to my husband, Diego. His unwavering support, love, and companionship have helped me get through the most difficult moments, and his sense of humor has made my path to academia –and life– a lot happier. I thank God to have them in my life and for the successful completion of this process. vi Table of Contents List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii List of Maps ..................................................................................................................... viii Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................ ix Chapter 1. Varieties of Local Governance: Participatory, Hegemonic, and Hybrid Indigenous Governments .................................................................................................... 1 I. Introduction: Understanding Indigenous Governance ................................................. 1 II. Ethnicity and Democracy in Latin America: Prevailing Explanations and Enduring Gaps .......................................................................................................... 9 III. The Argument: Explaining Variation in Indigenous Forms of Governance ........... 31 Chapter 2. The MAS in Power: Centralization of Power and the Search for Hegemony ......................................................................................................................... 60 Chapter 3. Participatory Indigenous Governance: The Ayllu, Horizontal Organization and Political Autonomy ................................................................................................ 92 I. Jesus de Machaca: The Rebel Marka ........................................................................ 95 II. Uncía: The Resilience of the Ayllu Governance and the Costs of Autonomy ................................................................................................................... 120 Chapter 4. Hegemonic Indigenous Governance: The Coca Growers’ Discipline and Militant Unity as a Path to Political Power ................................................................. 146 I. Chimoré’s Coca Growers: “We Are Evo’s Soldiers” .............................................. 149 II. Coripata: The Breakdown of Local Hegemony and the Renegotiation of Linkages to the MAS .............................................................................................. 177 Chapter 5. Combining Participation and Hegemony: Hybrid Indigenous Governance in Bolivia ............................................................................................................................. 194 I. Semi-Participatory Governance in Umala: A Disconnected Peasant Union ........... 194 II. Semi-Hegemonic Governance in Kirkiawi (Bolívar): An Ayllu with Tight Links to the MAS ........................................................................................................ 212 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 229 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 242 vii List of Tables Table 1.0: Interactive Model of Indigenous Governance ................................................... 5 Table 2.0: Explaining Variation in Indigenous Forms of Governance ............................. 40 Table 3.0: Subnational Variation of Indigenous Governance in Bolivia .......................... 46 Table 4.0: Indicators of Access to and Exercise of Power in Indigenous Governance. ... 51 Table 5.0: Cases, Control Variables, and Variation in Indigenous Governance .............. 54 Table 6.0: Cases of Indigenous Governance in Bolivia .................................................... 56 Table 7.0: Distribution of Resources and Projects of the Indigenous Fund by Organization ...................................................................................................................... 89 Table 8.0: Municipal Elections in Jesús de Machaca (2004-2015) ................................ 107 Table 9.0: Municipal Elections in Uncía (2004-2015) ................................................... 132 Table 10: Municipal Elections in Chimoré (2004-2015) ................................................ 160 Table 11: Municipal Elections in Coripata (2004-2015) ................................................ 186 Table 12: Municipal Elections in Umala (2004-2015) ................................................... 203 Table 13: Municipal Elections in Bolívar (2004-2015) .................................................. 220 Table 14: Municipal Elections in the Main Bolivian Cities (2015) ................................ 237 List of Figures Figure 1.0: Jesús de Machaca's Organizational Structure ................................................. 97 Figure 2.0: Uncía’s