unesco takes on the taliban The Fight to Save the Buddhas at Bamiyan Eleanor Boggs

“Their golden color sparkles on every side,” said a traveler of the two vast standing Buddhas. For fifteen centuries they had stood here— towering above the valley, with their battered faces, broken-off arms and all, undisturbed in their cusped sandstone niches hewn out of the sheer cliffs of the Hindu Kush, spangled with a honeycomb of monasteries and chanting stupas—as a stairway to heaven.

“We don’t understand why everyone is so worked up; we are only breaking stones,” chuckled the soldiers as they blew up the statues, leaving a gap in the world. The fabled Silk Road hangs in tatters now. The wind howls in the poplars as it did once when the valley was trampled underfoot by the Great Khan and his avenging horde. Who will stop the Hun from knocking on our door?

R. Parthasarathy

n early March 2001, the Taliban in the world.1 In September of destroyed the two giant 2000—less than a year before Buddha statues in Bamiyan, the destruction—Mullah IAfghanistan under direction Omar ordered the same statues from Mullah Muhammed Omar. protected due to their importance The Buddha statues, constructed as significant artifacts of Afghan fourteen centuries ago, were 1. Llewelyn Morgan, The Buddhas of Bamiyan the largest Buddhist statues (Wonders of the World), (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012). 23 cultural heritage and also because recognition of the Taliban they were a source of income for government by the majority of the country’s tourism industry.2 world powers.5 Before eradicating However, on February 26, 2001 the Buddha statues at Bamiyan, Mullah Omar reversed his the Taliban came into conflict declaration of preservation and with the international community sentenced the religious statues on a variety of issues including to destruction “so that no one women’s rights, providing refuge can worship or respect them in for terrorists, and international the future.”3 The Taliban’s team, aid to Afghanistan.6 The Taliban along with Pakistani and Arab rejected criticism with the engineers, drilled holes into proclamation that outsiders had the two statues and detonated no right to protest Afghanistan’s explosives including dynamite internal affairs and that the and anti-aircraft weapons.4 government’s Islamic system was In his poem “Stones of above secular law.7 Bamiyan,” Indian poet R. As the world community Parthasarathy indicated the learned of the Taliban’s plan for Bamiyan Buddhas’ cultural the Bamiyan Buddhas, attempts importance. Although the statues to protect the icons and prevent no longer held significance as their destruction emerged from religious icons to the entirely global agencies, including the Islamic nation of Afghanistan, United Nations Educational, they had stood in the Bamiyan Scientific, and Cultural valley for over a thousand years Organization (UNESCO). physically commemorating the UNESCO worked to prevent the lasting impact of Buddhism destruction by bringing global and the Silk Road economy attention to the Buddhas and that transformed Bamiyan into communicating with the Taliban. a meeting point of different However, the Taliban’s religious cultures. Given the cultural agenda, determination to gain significance of the Bamiyan international recognition, and Buddhas, the destruction of the influence from Al-Qaeda blocked statues was meant to display the these efforts, which resulted Taliban’s power in Afghanistan in the agency’s failure and the in response to the lack of demolition of the giant Buddha statues. 2. Morgan, The Buddhas of Bamiyan (Wonders of the World). 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. The engineers were brought in at a later point in the destruction process. Locals were forced to place explosives in the drilled holes by dropping down the 5. Thomas Barfield, “Idol Threats,”Religion sides of the Buddha statues by rope. The in the News 4 (Summer 2001). The only people of Bamiyan are chiefly Shi’a, whereas countries that recognized the Taliban the Taliban is an aggressive movement of Pashtun and Sunni peoples—the religious government in Afghanistan were Pakistan, and ethnic differences between the groups is Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. the source of the Taliban’s detestation of the 6. Ibid. locals. 7. Ibid. 24 How UNESCO Functions carries out the decisions of the General Conference as well as UNESCO acts as an agency functions assigned by the agency’s of the United Nations to protect constitution and agreements with world heritage. The organization the United Nations and its other is the first-responder of sorts to specialized organizations.13 threats to cultural heritage such as UNESCO works to form Mullah Omar’s orders to destroy legal policies that protect the giant Buddhas.8 Founded culture and promote worldwide during World War II, UNESCO’s support for the preservation of mission is to encourage scientific global cultural heritage.14 The ties between nations on a global agency holds conventions, such scale, to promote the accessibility as The Convention for the of education, and to protect Safeguarding of the Intangible cultural heritage in order to Cultural Heritage (2003), that strengthen acceptance of incorporate the shared values of different cultures.9 The agency international leaders into treaties was founded after the allied that govern the protection of governments expressed concern cultural heritage.15 UNESCO for the educational institutions includes “ancient archaeological in Europe that suffered due to sites, intangible and underwater World War II.10 The organization heritage, museum collections, expanded their focus on oral traditions and other forms education to include cultural of heritage” in the agency’s and scientific international definition of cultural heritage.16 cooperation in 1944 and 1945.11 The main body of UNESCO UNESCO’s Efforts to Save is the General Conference, the Bamiyan Buddhas comprised of representatives from the nations that hold membership UNESCO’s efforts to in the United Nations, which communicate with the Taliban meets every two years to decide and amass global support to on policies, focused lines of work preserve the Buddha statues for the organization, and the demonstrated the role of budget.12 The Executive Board, UNESCO as an international with fifty-eight members elected force protecting world heritage. by the General Conference, The agency’s efforts failed due to the Taliban’s quest for 8. UNESCO, “Introducing UNESCO,” international recognition, an Accessed November 10, 2013. http:// agenda that was shaped by en.unesco.org/about-us/introducing-unesco. 9. Ibid. religious ideals and rejection of 10. Gene M. Lyons, “International Study of UNESCO,” Bulletin of the American 13. Ibid. Academy of Arts and Sciences 31 (April 1978): 14. UNESCO, “Protecting Our Heritage and 5-16. Fostering Creativity,” Accessed November 11. Ibid. 10, 2013, http://en.unesco.org/themes/ pro- 12. UNESCO, “Governing bodies,” Accessed tecting-our-heritage-and-fostering-creativity. November 10, 2013, http://en.unesco.org/ 15. Ibid. about-us/introducing-unesco. 16. Ibid. 25 Western influence and influenced fifty-five meters high in its niche by Al-Qaeda. Even though in the cliff; the other statue of UNESCO did not prevent the the Buddha at thirty-eight meters demolition of the Buddha statues was shorter on the eastern side.20 at Bamiyan, the event acts as a Stupas were built throughout case study of how UNESCO other Buddhist centers in defines world heritage sites and Afghanistan, but not Bamiyan— the extent of its authority over the giant sculptures represented these sites. a break from former Buddhist The Buddhas of Bamiyan tradition.21 The departure from met UNESCO’s standards of building stupas was evidence world heritage because the of the Silk Road’s impact on statues physically represented Bamiyan: large sculptures came the enduring influence of the from western culture, in Egypt, Silk Road, a series of trade routes Greece, and Rome.22 Without that spanned approximately the merger of cultures at Bamiyan 7,000 miles connecting the east through the Silk Road, Buddhism to the west from 200 B.C. to the would not have come into contact 14th century A.D.17 The Bamiyan with such decorative architecture. valley became a meeting point of The appearances of the statues clashing cultures and a center of also bore western characteristics Buddhism by the fourth century seen in classical sculpture. The A.D. due to its location at the Buddha statues wore a robe intersection of roads from China, similar to a toga, they had a India, and Persia. Its location straight nose and distinct brow, provided a pathway for Buddhism and their hair was wavy.23 There to travel along the Silk Road were Buddhist influences as well, and spread into the area that is seen through eyes with heavy now Afghanistan.18 The cliffs lids, elongated ears, and a plump of Bamiyan were Afghanistan’s face.24 The giant Buddha statues most valuable archaeological represented a period of transition sites, exhibiting the largest for Buddhism and also for Buddha statues in the world. Bamiyan as the valley came into The Bamiyan caves also claimed contact with the non-materialistic cultural and historical value trade of the Silk Road, and through Buddhist mosaics, lesser experienced an influx of differing statues, and evidence of monks cultures. living in the caves.19 Once Mullah Omar The larger statue, on the announced the destruction of western side of the cliffs, stood at the Buddha statues, UNESCO 17. Subhakanta Behera, “India’s Encounter recognized the Taliban threat to with the Silk Road,” Economic and Political Afghan culture and reached out Weekly 37 (Dec. 21-27, 2002): 5077-5080. 18. Behera, “India’s Encounter with the Silk 20. Ibid. Road.” 21. Ibid. 19. Takayasu Higuchi and Gina Barnes, 22. Ibid. “Bamiyan: Buddhist Cave Temples in 23. Behera, “India’s Encounter with the Silk Afghanistan.” World Archaeology 27 (Oct. Road.” 1995): 282-302. 24. Ibid. 26 to organizations in Japan and was still bound to its 1970 Switzerland to arrange for the convention and did not officially protection of Afghan artifacts support the museum until July of of cultural significance.25 The 2001, though it was established in agreement with Switzerland 1999.29 proved to be especially Although the agency did not helpful. Three years before the directly support the Afghanistan Taliban’s actions at Bamiyan, a Museum from its beginning, museum opened in Bubendorf, UNESCO managed to create a Switzerland to harbor Afghan way for cultural objects to find artifacts. According to the protection there. UNESCO museum’s founder, as stated developed a policy that permitted in an article published by the the removal of cultural objects Archaeological Institute of under serious threat—with the America, the museum and country of origin’s permission exhibitions came second to and under the condition that the protecting Afghan cultural items would be returned.30 The objects. Artifacts donated and Afghanistan Museum and the transported to the museum from methods behind its establishment Afghanistan included 2,300-year- demonstrated the limitations of old bronzes from the reign of UNESCO in a cultural crisis, as Alexander the Great and first- well as how UNESCO handled century A.D. Begram Ivories.26 these restrictions. Architect Paul Bucherer- Following the release of the Dietschi founded the Taliban’s decision to destroy the Afghanistan Museum in statues at Bamiyan, UNESCO Bubendorf, Switzerland in 1998 launched a campaign to garner by negotiating an agreement global support to save the between the Taliban and the Buddha statues. UNESCO also Northern Alliance.27 It was the 29. Romey, “The Race to Save Afghan same year Mullah Omar initially Culture.” The museum violates UNESCO declared the Buddhas at Bamiyan and the international community’s and other items of Afghan “near-sacred policy of keeping objects of heritage would be protected.28 In archaeological and cultural importance in 1999 the Swiss government met their country of origin.” The museum’s existence and activities are possible because with the director of UNESCO’s even though Afghanistan and Switzerland World Heritage Center, who are both members of UNESCO, neither approved of the idea for a cultural countries have signed the 1970 Convention sanctuary. However, UNESCO on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer 25. Christian Manhart, “The Afghan Cultural of Ownership of Cultural Property—the Heritage Crisis: UNESCO’s Response to the convention that forbids the transfer of Destruction of Statues in Afghanistan.” cultural artifacts out of their country of 26. Kristin M. Romey, “The Race to Save origin without approval. Afghan Culture,” Archaeology 55 (May/June 30. Romey, “The Race to Save Afghan 2002): 18-25. These items are not on display Culture.” This “special” policy allowed for preservation reasons. UNESCO to support a Japanese program 27. Ibid. dedicated to saving Afghan cultural artifacts 28. Morgan, The Buddhas of Bamiyan as well. UNESCO ambassador in Tokyo, (Wonders of the World). Ikuo Hirayama, sponsored the program. 27 attempted to communicate with the destruction. At UNESCO’s the Taliban. The agency created request, Muslim religious leaders an online petition to lobby for from Egypt, Iraq, and Pakistan the protection of objects of took part by issuing fatwas— Afghan cultural heritage and Islamic religious rulings— started a special funds-in-trust against the Taliban’s plans for account to finance safeguarding Bamiyan.33 Despite UNESCO’s efforts.31 After Mullah Omar’s efforts to save the statues, the intention to demolish the Taliban carried through with the Buddha statues became public, demolition of the monumental UNESCO made initial attempts Buddhas. at communication with the After the destruction of the Taliban. The organization Buddha statues, The Executive intended to sway the Taliban’s Board drew up a draft resolution decision with multiple appeals in June of 2001 that labeled the and press releases. Christian destruction as a crime against Manhart, Chief of the UNESCO humanity’s shared heritage and Section of Museums and Cultural challenged UNESCO to develop Objects, reported that UNESCO better methods of protection of issued two appeals to the Taliban, cultural heritage.34 The resolution the first of which was distributed acknowledged the Buddhas of to the Pakistani and international Bamiyan as a world heritage site, press. They also published three therefore solidifying its value to other press releases; however, it the international community. is unclear where these statements were distributed. The Director- The Taliban’s Religious General sent a personal appeal to Reasoning and Agenda Mullah Omar through the Taliban Behind the Destruction ambassador in Islamabad to plead for the Buddhas. A special The religious motivation representative of the Director- behind the Taliban’s decision to General, Pierre Lafrance, also met destroy the statues at Bamiyan with the Taliban Foreign Minister stemmed from abhorrence toward in Kandahar and the Taliban idolatry. Mullah Omar’s timing Minister of Culture. 32 of the destruction reflected After the appeals, the one of the most religiously UNESCO Director-General met significant periods in the Islamic with ambassadors from a number lunar year, the Hijri calendar of Islamic nations including those and was observed throughout who acknowledged the Taliban Afghanistan.35 Called the Hajj government. Ambassadors 33. Manhart, “The Afghan Cultural from nations such as Pakistan Heritage Crisis: UNESCO’s Response to and Egypt gave their support the Destruction of Statues in Afghanistan.” to UNESCO’s efforts to stop Unfortunately, I was unable to find translations of the original fatwas or any 31. Manhart, “The Afghan Cultural Heritage reactions from the Taliban to these religious Crisis: UNESCO’s Response to the rulings. Destruction of Statues in Afghanistan.” 34. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 35. Jamal J. Elias, “(Un) making Idolatry: 28 pilgrimage, Muslims celebrate the Shiva temple at Somnath, Abraham’s rift with his ancestors’ Gujrat in 1025 A.D.40 The Sultan practices of idolatry as an act became a legend for refusing to of heroism from March third accept ransom for the temple’s to March sixth by taking the main icon by declaring to be pilgrimage to Mecca or vicariously a smasher of idols, not a seller participating in rituals.36 The of them.41 Omar’s point also holiest day of the Hijri calendar, reflected another justification Eid al-adha, was the last day of used by the Taliban, which the Hajj pilgrimage; demolition claimed that UNESCO was work was suspended to celebrate willing to pay for the statues this day.37 By demolishing the but did not offer any money to Buddhas during this religiously help the Afghan people.42 By sensitive period, the Taliban attempting to stop the destruction actively honored the memory of the Buddha statues, UNESCO of Abraham in the Qur’an. The unintentionally offended the Taliban’s strong Islamic ideals Taliban. The Taliban interpreted acted as justification for the the organization’s actions as destruction to Mullah Omar and idolatry—at the very least, they other members of the Taliban. interpreted it as preserving Mullah Omar demonstrated another religion’s idols instead of these religious values in his providing aid to Afghanistan. reaction to the Metropolitan The source of Islam’s distrust Museum of Art’s offer to pay for of idolatry and iconoclasm arose the removal of all transportable from the religion’s avoidance Afghan artifacts during the Hajj of shirk, a word that originally period.38 Mullah Omar responded meant affiliating other deities by asking his fellow Muslims, with God and later became a “Do you prefer to be a smasher term for polytheism.43 However, of idols or a seller of idols?” His in medieval Islam absolute answer outlined the hypocrisy destruction of idols was not of a religion profiting from common.44 The head and face idolatry while simultaneously of an idol were targets for condemning the practice of transformation or physical idol-worship.39 Mullah Omar’s damage—similar practices rhetorical question echoed the occurred in Roman, Byzantine, words of Sultan Mahmud of and early Christianity.45 Ghazna, an Afghan who sacked Recognizing the similarity between Muslim iconoclasts with From Mecca to Bamiyan.” Future Anterior: Journal of Historic Presevation, History, Theory, 40. Ibid. and Criticism 4 (Winter 2007): 12-29. 41. Ibid. 36. Ibid. The destruction of the Bamiyan 42. Ibid. The U.S. government dismissed the st Buddhas started March 1 2001. Taliban’s claim on March 20th, 2001. 37. Ibid. 43. Finbarr Barry Floyd, “Between Cult and 38. Elias, “(Un) making Idolatry: From Mecca Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and to Bamiyan.” the Museum,” The Art Bulletin 84 (Dec. 2002): 39. Ibid. Mullah Omar’s rebuttal came on 641-659. the eve of Eid al-adha, the holiest day of the 44. Ibid. Islamic year. 45. Ibid. 29 iconoclasts of other cultures and international goals whereas the religions avoided the stereotype Taliban featured more domestic of Muslim hatred towards idols. interests until the destruction To further illustrate this point, of the Buddha statues.50 This Arabic and Persian texts from difference between the two the tenth to thirteenth centuries groups demonstrated how the revealed the Buddhas of Bamiyan Taliban’s agenda changed to as wonders rather than idols reflect the more aggressive and that needed to be obliterated.46 expansive Al-Qaeda. Therefore, assuming that the Mullah Omar’s political destruction of the Buddha statues agenda became increasingly stemmed from a long-term concerned with international hatred of idols is incorrect. The attention due to the influence Taliban’s destruction of idols such of Al-Qaeda.51 After the as the giant Buddhas comes from announcement to destroy the the group’s more modern and Buddhas went public, the Taliban extreme Islamic ideals enacted to maintained the spotlight by reject the Western world. bringing in Western reporters to Mullah Omar’s declaration of Bamiyan to document the results the plans to destroy the statues of the destruction.52 The fact that indicated that the Taliban wanted the Taliban invited foreigners to the world’s attention—attention Bamiyan reinforces the idea that to the Taliban’s authority in the the group’s target was not just the face of a Western world that had statues, but also a global audience. sanctioned their government for The Taliban’s agenda, inspired harboring Osama bin Laden.47 by religious zeal, manifested in a The Taliban’s escalation prior to desire to capture global awareness the incident at Bamiyan provides of its power—a goal that was met evidence of bin Laden and Al- with international attention and Qaeda’s influence in Afghanistan. despair towards the destruction Arab fighters from Al-Qaeda of the giant Buddha statues. were instrumental to the Taliban’s capture of Bamiyan and much Conclusion of northern Afghanistan, which only solidified the relationship Although the giant Buddhas between the two groups.48 no longer stand, their significance According to the director of the as symbols of the lasting impact Kabul public library, the Taliban of the Silk Road on regional removed inappropriate books religions and cultures remains in under the direction of an Arab Bamiyan. The giant sculptures member of Al-Qaeda.49 The Al- overlooked the Bamiyan valley Qaeda movement started with 50. Ibid. 46. Floyd, “Between Cult and Culture: 51. Morgan, The Buddhas of Bamiyan (Wonders Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the of the World). According to a U.S. ambassador Museum.” to Pakistan, Mullah Omar “became a bin 47. Ibid. Laden convert, a believer in bin Ladenism.” 48. Morgan, The Buddhas of Bamiyan (Wonders 52. Floyd, “Between Cult and Culture: of the World). Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the 49. Ibid. Museum.” 30 for centuries, and UNESCO and religious leaders, such as the did not give up on the Buddhas Taliban ambassador in Islamabad, even as they lay in pieces. A little the Taliban Foreign Minister over a year after the Taliban’s in Kandahar, and the Taliban destruction of the statues, Minister of Culture. When UNESCO sent an expedition to direct communication did not Bamiyan to assess the damage and work, UNESCO amassed global determine if the statues could be support online and worked reconstructed.53 They discovered with organizations in Japan enough of the larger Buddha’s and Switzerland, particularly pieces to make a reconstruction with the Afghanistan Museum feasible.54 According to Christian in Switzerland. However, the Manhart, who headed a team Taliban’s political agenda under of scientists and engineers, the influence of Osama bin Laden reassembling the Buddhas would was concerned with proving take approximately 3 years and that the Western world had $1.5 million dollars.55 UNESCO no influence in Afghanistan. also made a contract with That ambition, together with the International Council on a religious condemnation of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) idolatry, proved to be a disastrous to provide a security guard at combination when non-Islamic the site.56 However, it is up to objects of Afghan heritage the Afghan government, not became a focus for the Taliban UNESCO, to decide whether or government. Even though not to reconstruct the Buddha UNESCO was not able to deter statues—demonstrating the the Taliban from destroying the boundaries of UNESCO’s Buddha statues, its mission to jurisdiction over world cultural protect Afghan cultural heritage heritage sites. did not end after the events The demolition of the giant of March 2001. The agency’s Buddha sculptures at Bamiyan in continued interest and efforts 2001 devastated the international in Bamiyan, post-destruction, cultural community. The not only provide evidence of event served as an example the value of the monumental of how UNESCO functions Buddhas to the world, but also to protect cultural heritage, demonstrated UNESCO’s as well as its limited ability to value as an international force succeed in that goal. Before the in preserving cultural heritage, destruction, UNESCO attempted and in the case of the Bamiyan communication with the Taliban Buddhas, the physical reminders through multiple appeals and of humanity’s past and progress. contact with Islamic ambassadors

53. Andrew Lawler, “Buddhas May Stretch Out, If Not Rise Again,” Science 298 (Nov. 8, 2002): 1204. 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid. 31

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