Social Psychological Dimensions of Conflict
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF CONFLICT
Yohanes Budiarto Dosen Fakultas Psikologi Universitas INDONUSA Esa Unggul, Jakarta [email protected]
ABSTRACT Every conflict needs to be resolved. However, doing such intervention requires acknowledgment to many aspects of conflict. History of conflict is the first step to be taken in order to compose effective resolution. Through this first step then some aspects will be figured out namely social perceptions of the conflicting groups, ethos of conflict, social identity, dehumanization process, delegitimization and deindividuation. The intervention available from social psychology, then addressing cognitive dissonance through behavior modification
Keywords: Conflict, social perceptions, ethos of conflict, social identity, dehumaniza- tion, delegitimization, and deindividuation
Introduction What is considered harmful is that Reformation in Indonesia has led, sometimes this religious identity tends to be partially, the citizens into greater freedom exclusive and expansive and it is the especially in expressing their attitudes, beginning of deadly embryonic cells of social thoughts and attribution. It is conflict. confirmed that the side effects of this Now, we have seen in our daily freedom sometimes bring us to difficulties lives that conflict emerges in many regions in our daily social life. Sometimes, to in Indonesia, ex. unresolved yet Poso, express freely means undervaluing and Mataram, Ambon and Papua Barat. These misjudging other people. These might lead conflicts, even though exist in other to social discomfort and finally bring regions, far from Java for example, have conflict among us. permeable power to influence daily lives in Considering that Indonesia is very Java. This due to what we sometimes call diverse in lot of aspects, namely religions, ‘false’ solidarity. beliefs, norms, ethnics, tribes as well as So much less tangible than the political directions, then conflict is physical destruction of war, the effects of sometimes inevitable. The majority and conflict on the psychology of individuals minority approach have led us into a sense and a society are as profound as they are of majority and minority. This walling neglected. If the attitudes that lead to block has successfully segregated us into conflict are to be mitigated, and if it is conflicting dichotomies. The sense of taken that psychology drives attitudes and majority and minority has also brought behaviors of individuals and groups, then effect a wide social polarization which new emphasis must be placed on could end in conflict. understanding the social psychology of There is no doubt that in this conflict and its consequences. The suffering country, the sense of disintegration is and trauma that are the results of war need growing due to social expression of social to be addressed and prioritized in plans for identity. In 1990’s the sense of cultural peace. Effective means for dealing with majority (Javanese culture) had been these less-visible consequences of violent transformed into religion orientation, which conflict must be developed if a true and inevitably created clearer religious identity. sustained peace is to be realized. Jurnal Psikologi Vol. 4 No. 2, Desember 2006 88
Social Psychological Dimensions of Conflict
Components of the Social-Psychological It is important to acknowledge the Dimension of Conflict negative experiences and consequences of Druckman (1994) proposes his history between parties in order to reduce notion that Social psychology permeates all tensions. Tensions can thus be limited to aspects of intractable conflict. While contemporary issues over which control and history, perceptions and identity are inhe- change can be affected. Acknowledging the rently present in the escalation of conflict, aspects of history in the national discourse, they are also intrinsic to managing conflict specifically its darker aspects, allows for at and contributing to a sustainable peace. least the possibility of positive transfor- Acknowledging history, building aware- mation, where lessons can be learned and ness, learning empathy, according legiti- new relationships are built. macy, and recognizing fears are among the most powerful tools for building peace. b. Social Perceptions Perceptions between social groups Discussion are formed by interactions over time. a. History Values of and threats from others, power Any analysis of conflict requires distribution, and resource control, each learning its history, the progression of contribute to these perceptions. In social- events which led to the violence eruption. psychological terms, it is the perception of As social groups interact with each other, power, rather than the actual possession of patterns of interaction develop over time. power, which is important. Power is most Repeated experience leads to the formation often perceived in military, economic or and solidification of beliefs and perceptions political terms. If these terms are perceived of self and others. While this can be a as zero-sum, it is likely that conflict will positively reinforcing process in which the erupt or escalate. However, if the terms of relationship between the two parties is conflict and their perception can be moved based on trust and cooperation, in situations from zero-sum to positive sum, then of conflict such processes are largely options for conflict management are greatly negative. When there is a history of augmented. domination of one social group over the Kelman's exposition of mirror other, there is little basis for trust or image theory describes how parties develop cooperation. Each of these past experiences parallel images of the other, with self- lays the foundation for interactions in the perceptions largely positive and perceptions present and the future. In assessing the of the other mostly negative (Druckman, conflict in Indonesia, the conflicting parties 1996). Violence and aggression become must trace their unique historical interact- associated with the other party while virtue tion, to determine whether it is reinforcing and justice are qualities possessed by or punishing. oneself or one's own group. Deutsch's folk In the social-psychological analysis theory of war as cited in Susan (2000), in of conflict, emphasis is placed on the which one side perceives itself as only good importance of acknowledging history. and the other side as only evil can lead to a Previous wars fought, previous aggressions self-fulfilling prophecy, where violence committed, or previous actions that led to rapidly escalates. In cases, the best tools to the loss of trust are not easily forgotten. counter the negative effects of mirror- Denying these past realities does not imaging and the good-versus-evil dialectic remove them from history. On the contrary, is empathy, a capacity rarely found in the denying claims rooted in history creates realm of conflicting relations. The realistic fear and insecurity, challenging the exis- conflict theory (Bobo, 1983 in Baron and tence of other groups and nations, exacer- Byrne, 2004) also states the same bating tensions, and heightening conflict. phenomena that are in-group is usually considered superior, has better moral than 89 Jurnal Psikologi Vol. 4 No. 2, Desember 2006
Social Psychological Dimensions of Conflict the out-group. Usually negative emotion is The ethos, along with the goals and the central ingredient of this perception. aspirations, is what binds the members of Empathy may be sought by society together, gives meaning to societal exchanging group programs or group life, imparts legitimacy to social order and workshops. In this activity the other group fosters integration among society members. may share their unique visions, values and The societal beliefs which make up the interests. Hopefully through direct contact ethos are typically organized around several liking toward other group increases themes: one's goals , one's identity, one's (Pettigrew, 1997; and Wright, et al., 1997 in role in society, etc. These beliefs are widely Baron and Byrne, 2004). Exchange shared by society members, appear as programs and group workshops can be central topics on the public agenda, are valuable opportunities to learn empathy, frequently discussed in public discourse, build trust, open communication, increase are expressed in cultural products, are sensitivity, and augment perspectives and transmitted in educational system, serve as appreciation for the other. relevant references in decisions made by the leaders, and influence the choices c. Social Identity regarding courses of action. They provide a Social identity self definition about sense of similarity and thus constitute one who they are, including personal attributes of the contextual bases of social identity. and shared attributes with other people like The beliefs which make up a gender or races. Identity can also be society's ethos evolve from the conditions described as the norms, beliefs, practices, under which the society lives over a long and traditions with which one engages one's period of time, and the particular collective environment (Rothmans, 1997). Self- experiences that shape the society during perception underlies the notion of identity, this period. Under prolonged conditions of a pivotal component of social-psycho- intractable conflict, when violent experien- logical analysis. Identity and perceptions of ces are common collective experiences, the the self provide the lens through which one conflict comes to preoccupy most members views others. Identity is not an immutable of the society. They therefore develop an concept, rather, it forms and changes "ethos of conflict," which provides a clear depending on the particular historical picture of the conflict, its goals, its condi- moment. Conceptions of identity influence tions, requirements, and images of one's the process of conflicts. Yet identity is still own group and of the rival. The narrative of overlooked when attempting to understand the ethos of conflict is supported by the origins of conflict, or in planning its society's collective memory. management. Social intervention is then needed in order to resolve conflicting e. Delegitimization identities within this country. Maybe Every conflict is accompanied by broader social identity might help overco- the parties’ psychological repertoire, which ming this situation. The writer believes that evolves with time, and plays a determi- the government’s effort to produce national native role in its dynamics. In general, identity card for the citizens is very useful delegitimization refers to extremely nega- to deescalate the threat potency of having tive stereotypes that are used to describe a regional identity. This will build a sense of specific group. Delegitimized groups are awareness that hopefully bring unity in us. viewed as violating basic human norms or values, and are therefore excluded from d. Ethos of conflict being characterized as "good" or even The concept "ethos" is defined as "acceptable" people. Delegitimization does the configuration of central societal shared not appear in every inter-group conflict. It beliefs that provide a particular dominant tends to emerge especially in very violent orientation to a society (Bar-Tal, 2000). and intractable conflicts, when the contes- Jurnal Psikologi Vol. 4 No. 2, Desember 2006 90
Social Psychological Dimensions of Conflict ted goals are perceived as endangering the lization of its members or differentia- fundamental goals of the group. In such tion among its subgroups. situations, most of the information that the 5. It automatically arouses strong nega- rivals receive about each other is dominated tive emotions. by conflict-related themes. These themes 6. It provides rigid, persistent durable present the malevolent characteristics, categories that are unlikely to change intentions, and acts of the other side. while the conflict lasts, and most (Kelman, 1999). probably long after. There are at least five types of In order to maintain peace, then we delegitimization (Bar-Tal, 2000) namely need to reverse our delegitimization over dehumanization, which involves catego- enemy. The following processes are consi- rizing a group as non-human (e.g., devil, dered necessary to take into action: monsters); trait characterization, which 1. Legitimization allows viewing the consists of attributing traits that are opponent as belonging to an acceptable considered extremely negative and unac- category of groups, behaving within the ceptable in a given society (e.g., aggressors, boundaries of international norms, with idiots,); out-casting, which consists of whom it is possible and even desired to categorizing the adversary into groups that terminate the conflict and construct are considered as violators of pivotal social positive relations. Legitimization thus norms (e. g., murderers, terrorists); political plays crucial role in changing the nature labels, which involves categorization into of the intergroup relations. It enables political groups which are absolutely reject- initiation of negotiation with the ted by the values of the delegitimizing opponent to achieve peaceful resolution group (e. g., for example, Nazis, commu- of the conflict and eventually building nists); group comparison, which occurs peaceful and cooperative relations. when the delegitimized group is labeled by 2. Equalization makes the rival into an a name of a group that traditionally serves equal partner with whom it is possible as an example of negativity in the to establish new relations. This requires delegitimizing group (e.g., Vandals, Huns). recognition of the principle of status Often, such delegitimization occurs equality between the groups, a principle on both sides of the conflict. For example, that is brought to bear first in negotia- in the case of the confrontation between the tions and later in all types and levels of U.S. and Muslim countries, the U.S. is intergroup interactions. considered as the “Zionist protectors”, 3. Differentiation leads to heterogeni- “capitalist”, and “Dajjal”. Similarly the zation of the enemy group. It enables a U.S. branded some of Muslim countries as new perception of the rival which has “Terrorist”, “barbaric”, and Violence hitherto been viewed as a homogeneous lover”. hostile entity. The new perception Delegitimization affects inter-group implies that the other group is made up relations in the context of intractable con- out of various subgroups, which differ flict because of its following features: in their views and ideologies. 1. It consists of extremely negative labels Differentiation thus also makes it possi- that are salient and unique in the ble to see that members of the rival group's repertoire of characterizations group differ in their opinions regarding of other groups. the conflict and its resolution. 2. It has the aim of denying the delegiti- 4. Personalization allows one to view the mized group's humanity. rival group not as a depersonalized 3. It magnifies the difference between the entity, but as made up of individuals groups in conflict. with ordinary human characteristics, 4. It homogenizes the delegitimized group concerns, needs, and goals. This is a as one entity, not allowing individual- process of individuation after a period 91 Jurnal Psikologi Vol. 4 No. 2, Desember 2006
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of de-individuation and consists of a are individuated. It then becomes easier to further step after differentiation. Diffe- rationalize contentious moves or severe rentiation among individuals allows the actions taken against one's opponents. acknowledgement of individual diffe- While deindividuation and the rentces, namely to view groups as formation of enemy images are very composed of individuals who differ in common, they form a dangerous process appearance, characteristics, opinions, that becomes especially damaging when it concerns, needs, and goals. It also reaches the level of dehumanization. Once enables viewing members of groups in certain groups are stigmatized as evil, different personal or social roles such morally inferior, and not fully human, the as mothers, sons, students, teachers, persecution of those groups becomes more physicians, peasants, etc. Any type of psychologically acceptable. When say for individuation of group members defu- example, Christian community and Muslim ses generalizations and enables one to community in Poso stigmatize each other as perceive similarity and even commo- evil or bad, then the persecution toward nality with them. These may include each of the community is seen just. shared features, ideology, beliefs and It is thought that the psychological feelings with at least with some mem- process of dehumanization might be bers of the rival group. It facilitates the mitigated or reversed through humanization development of new individual and efforts, the development of empathy, the group representations that go beyond establishment of personal relationships the stereotyped ones. These, in turn, between conflicting parties, and the pursuit facilitate personal references to mem- of common goals as the children of the bers of the rival group, and may even nation. We should over emphasize the evolve empathy for their hardships and individuation and humanization in the identification with some of their needs nation framework, Indonesia in brothers. or aspirations. Application of Cognitive Dissonance f. Dehumanization and Conflict Dehumanization is a psychological This theory focuses on conse- process whereby opponents view each other quences of incompatibility between two as less than human and thus not deserving related cognitions (Franzoi, 2003). For of moral consideration. This process makes example- if we are one brother and sister of it difficult for conflicting parties to recog- Indonesia, then why should we hate and nize that they are part of a shared human attack each other? - dissonance is aroused. community. Such conditions often lead to Cognitive dissonance can play a feelings of intense hatred and alienation tremendous role in conflict -- both in its among conflicting parties. The more severe perpetuation and in its elimination. Both the conflict, the more the psychological large-scale and small-scale conflicts can be distance between groups will widen (Rubin aggravated and/or lessened because of and Pruitt, 1994) cognitive dissonance. An example from ethnic conflict may help to demonstrate. g. Deindividuation facilitates Dehu- A large-scale conflict, particularly manizetion as well. one based on identity such as a religion or This is the psychological process an identity conflict can be perpetuated by whereby a person is seen as a member of a cognitive dissonance. For example in Poso, category or group rather than as an once negative cognitions are in place, they individual. Because people who are deindi- are often reinforced by other similar cog- viduated seem less than fully human, they nitions while contradictory thoughts are are viewed as less protected by social ignored or avoided. norms against aggression than those who Jurnal Psikologi Vol. 4 No. 2, Desember 2006 92
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This all means that a Christian or Muslim come out of them with a new respect for who otherwise may strongly believe in the people "on the other side" and an teaching that "You shall not murder" may understanding that logical, rational, "good" participate in terrorist acti-vities. Although people can feel the opposite way they do these two cognitions are dissonant, this about this issue. This tends to tone down dissonance can be overcome by creating their approach to advocacy, generally new cognitions ("they aren't my brothers" making it more constructive than it might or "they're rivals," etc.). Perhaps more otherwise have been. importantly, the conflict can be perpetuated Disarming behaviors are another by the fact that these people aren't open to way to create cognitive dissonance. This is new information that might dispel these done by simply learning what the other side false ideas about the other side. thinks of or expects of you, and then doing In spite of people's desire to avoid something very different. For example, if it, the proper use of cognitive dissonance you are considered by the other side to be can be a useful tool in overcoming conflict. uncaring and cruel, make a small gesture Cognitive dissonance is a basic tool for that demonstrates that you care about the education in general. Creating dissonance other sides' feelings or situation. This can induce behavior or attitude change. By causes cognitive dissonance. In case of creating cognitive dissonance, you force Christian belief, there is a teaching to love people to react. By introducing cognitive whoever the enemy and no matter how dissonance (pointing out the conflict cruel they are. Just showing the teaching between what people know and do), we can through behavior may create consonant encourage a change in thought or action. information, on the other side, failing to do Turning again to the conflict in this may create dissonant cognitive in the Poso, by pointing out the contradiction Muslim side. However, just doing this once between religious beliefs and terrorism, may not be enough to change anyone's people can be forced to rethink their attitudes or behavior, as they are likely to actions. A Christian or Muslim can partici- ignore the dissonant information. If it is pate in violent activities because they have done several times, however, or if the dehumanized the other side in their mind. behavior is visible enough that it cannot be This eliminates any dissonance between ignored, the results are sometimes striking. their actions and their beliefs against On the other side what we see, hear or read murder or violence. By introducing new is sometimes half – baked. We sometimes information -- perhaps emphasizing the see the flag brought by “some” Muslim humanity of the other side (their families, groups are depicted in “violence” as their lives, letting the two sides meet in a represented with Arabic sword. However, if casual environment, etc.) -- a new what the other group expects – to be violent dissonance is created between what they are – is countered by opposite behavior then doing and what they now know to be true. changes in attitude and behavior are This forces a reaction. The individual must hopefully occurred. now either change their actions or readjust Any way to increase interpersonal their thoughts to account for this new communication and contact is another way information. to produce dissonance, break down Then, how to produce a cognitive stereotypes, and start building trust where dissonance? Dialogue between the conflic- none existed before. Joint projects, problem ting parties is then inevitable. Dialogue is solving workshops, prejudice reduction one method to produce cognitive disso- workshops, and tolerance education all are nance and thus attitude change that has ways to create cognitive dissonance and been used in both these and many other change hostile attitudes between disputants cases. While people do not leave these into attitudes that are likely to be more dialogues having changed sides, they do conciliatory to conflict transformation. 93 Jurnal Psikologi Vol. 4 No. 2, Desember 2006
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Conclusion To conclude, it is important to Kelman, H. C, "The interdependence of consider the history of conflict as detector Israeli and Palestinian national of conflict causes. The long relationship identities: The role of the other in between the conflicting groups may be existential conflict" Journal of identified bad or good. In this case, whether Social Issues 55:3, 1999. trust and cooperation or distrust and negative competition are built through the Susan Opotow, "Aggression and Violence," groups’ histories will determine the quality in The Handbook of Conflict of group relations. It is also considered Resolution: Theory and Practice, important to change negative-biased social eds. M. Deutsch and P.T. Coleman, perception toward other group. More Jossey-Bass, San Fransisco, 2000. importantly, creating national identity and transforming ethos of conflict are challenging effort that sometimes requires political will from the government. Applications of cognitive dissonance are also important intervention that might reduce the conflict.
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