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William of Tyre and the Byzantine Empire,” Byzantine in the Tyreand of “William Hamilton, Bernard Rowe, and Edbury Although Thesestudieshaveid

William of Tyre and the Byzantine Empire,” Byzantine in the Tyreand of “William Hamilton, Bernard Rowe, and Edbury Although Thesestudieshaveid

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WILLIAM OFTYREAND WILLIAM THE CONSTRUCTION AND CONSTRUCTION THE MA ThesisinMedievalStudies Central European University OF ANIMAGE Luka Špoljari May 2008 Budapest THE : EMPIRE: BYZANTINE THE

DECONSTRUCTION ć

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Central European University, Budapest, inpartial fulfillment of therequirements WILLIAM OFTYREAND WILLIAM THE CONSTRUCTION AND CONSTRUCTION THE Thesis submittedtothe Depa Accepted inconformance with ______of theMasterArtsdegreeinMedievalStudies Chair, ExaminationCommittee OF ANIMAGE Thesis Supervisor Luka Špoljari May 2008 Examiner Examiner Budapest () by THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE: EMPIRE: BYZANTINE THE

rtment ofMedievalStudies, thestandardsofCEU DECONSTRUCTION ć

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Central European University, Budapest, inpartial fulfillment of therequirements WILLIAM OFTYREAND WILLIAM THE CONSTRUCTION AND CONSTRUCTION THE Accepted inconformance with Thesis submittedtothe Depa ______of theMasterArtsdegreeinMedievalStudies External Supervisor OF ANIMAGE Luka Špoljari Budapest (Croatia) May 2008 by THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE: EMPIRE: BYZANTINE THE

rtment ofMedievalStudies, thestandardsofCEU DECONSTRUCTION ć

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Budapest, 26May2008 institution of highereducation foran academic degree. also declare thatnopart of the thesis has been submitted inthis form toanyother of others,andnopartthe bibliography. Ideclare thatnounidentified andillegitimate use wasmade of thework research and onlysuch externalinforma declare herewiththatthe present thesis I, theundersigned, Luka Špoljari thesis infringesonanyperson’s ć , candidatefortheMAde is exclusivelymy ownwork,basedonmy tion asproperlycreditedinnotesand ______or institution’scopyright.I gree inMedievalStudies Signature CEU eTD Collection T III. II. BIBLIOGRAPHY 61 V.

E I. ABBREVIATIONS vi v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IV. T REACHERY OF THE HE

FFEMINACY OFTHE FFEMINACY

E OSRCIGTEIAE 12 5 IMAGE CONSTRUCTING THE TYREANDHISTIME WILLIAM OF INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION H MG HTEE 51 CONCLUSIONS 57 THE IMAGESHATTERED MPERORS

12 G G REEKS REEKS 27 42 CONTENTS

CEU eTD Collection Laszlovszky, forwhoseguidance,adviceand There aretwo peoplewhohavegreatlycontri encouragement made itpossible. This thesisisdedicatedtomy parents, online, whetherIneededinformation fr me. Finally,Iwanttothankmy youngerbrot mention, theirsupport inthefirstweek for midnight coffeebreaksthatIwillmiss themo come tocherish as friends.Oncewepartwa Thesis. Thanksgoto mycolleagues, w was onlyrightthatthisstudentfocusedon book onWilliam toan overzealous ofTyre want toexpressmy gratitudetoPeterE year, fortheyhavemade thisprogram ch gratitude to allthe professors whose cour criticisms and neverlackedwordsofencour can onlybe eversograteful;and Niels

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS om books home orasimplecheer. dbury, who,more thantwoyears ago,senthis PetarandVlasta,whose lovingsupportand hom astheacademic yearpassed byIhad allenging butatthesame time interesting.I v s oftheacademic yearmeant theworldto ses Ihaveattended duringthis academic agement. Iwouldalsoliketoexpressmy Gaul, who always offered constructive Gaul, whoalwaysofferedconstructive an aspectofWilliam’s work in hisMA buted tomy my work: supervisor,József under-graduateCroatia. It studentfrom st. Myfriendsfrom home alsodeservea patient reading of my patient readingof her Matej,whohasalwaysbeenthere, ys, itwillbethos e long talks during numerous draftsI CEU eTD Collection WT Willelmus PL Tyrensis OLD Archiepiscopus ODB ODB

Turnhout: Brepols, 1986. CorpusChristianorum,ContinuatioMedievalis63,63A. C. Huygens. Migne. :J.-P.Migne,1844-64. Patrologia cursuscompletus, serieslatina, Oxford LatinDictionary. Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress,1991. The OxfordDictionaryofByzantium.

ABBREVIATIONS Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress, 1968. vi . Chronicon, Ed. Alexander P.Kazhdan. Ed. Alexander 221 vols.Comp. J.-P. 2 vols.Ed. RobertB. CEU eTD Collection Historia. chose Robert 1. Press, University When B. C. 1990), Edbury and John G. Rowe, Peter work: W. William’s of manuscripts English two incipits of two titleof itisapossible that arguing fifteenth century, by Christopher Tyerman, the Thesis of Growing Animosity,” in in Animosity,” Growing of Thesis the on SomeRemarks 1204: Eyesbefore in “Byzantium Ebels-Hoving, Bunna 1996); Brill, (Leiden: Relations Political and Cultural 962–1204, West Byzantium The and to Travellers : and Victoria D. van Aalst, 21-32 (Kaastel Aalst,21-32 van Victoria D. and lead tothesackof inConstantinople,actedasmaincata The twelfthcenturyrepresentsaperiodof 4 3 2 1 Crusader statesprobably entitled growing tensions,waswritinghiswork,a continually grew. greatly tothe Western resentment of theGr Alexios I(r.1081–1118)firstin culture, verymuch differentfrom theirown.Theactionsof theByzantineemperor spheres. help theEasternChristiansagainstIslam, west andtheGreekeast. TheFirstCrusade,launched bythepapacy ideallyinorderto He wasanativeoftheKingdom ofJerusalem, whichremained from thelate1150s York: Longman, 2003). 2003). Longman, York: Penguin Books, 2007), which replaced Steven Runciman, Penguin Books, 1990-1991), an authority in the field for the last 50 years. years. last50 the for the in field authority an 1990-1991), Books, Penguin This is the title that Peter W. Edbury and John G. Rowe suggested in their work on William of Tyre, of William work on their in G.Rowesuggested John and PeterW. Edbury that title isthe This Angold, cf.Michael Constantinople, sack Forthe of On the problem ofthe twelfth-century growing cultural tensions, see Krijnie N. Ciggaar, Thereis a new detailed study on the whole period of the , spanning from eleventh to Chronicon William (ca.1130–ca.1185),thearchbishopofTyre,aman ofthisworld

1 TheCrusadersontheirwaythroughtheByzantineEmpire encountereda as the title instead. I will following Edbury and Rowe regularly use the shorthand title title theshorthand use regularly Rowe Edbury and I following titleinstead. will as the 2 Thus,theSecondCrusadeand,a Constantinople in1204. William of Tyre: Historian of the Latin East Latin the of Tyre:Historian of William I.

INTRODUCTION The Latin Empire: Some Contributions Historia Ierosolymitana Constantinopleandthen Hernen: A. A. Bredius Foundation, 1990). 1990). Foundation, Bredius A. A. Hernen: God’ War: A New History of the Crusades Huygens made a critical edition of he made work, William’s acriticaledition Huygens 1 3 infactwidenedthegapbetweentwo

growingestrangement betweentheLatin lysts fortheeventsthatwouldeventually eeks, whichinthecourseof thecentury The : EventandContext TheFourth history oftheFirstCrusadeand A History of the Crusades, bove all,the1182massacreof , 4 from ca.1170until1184. atAntiochcontributed (Cambridge: Cambridge , ed. Krijnie N. Ciggaar , ed. N.Ciggaar Krijnie 3 vols.

(London: (London: (London: (London: Western Western (New (New

CEU eTD Collection Western medieval cultures,regard 1143–1180 IKomnenos of Manuel Empire (r.1143–1180)inagoodlight. supporter ofthispolicy,William triedtopr depicted astreacherousandeffeminate, his contemporaries hedidnotstroveto the work; (2) those episodes in whichthe proceeds inthreesteps byanalyzing: (1)th were reconciled withthe view strategies indifferentepisodes,depending epithets appear throughout William’s work, but until 1182almost continuouslyunderthepatronage theByzantine . 7 6 5 Edbury andJohnRowesome twentyyears and depictionof,theByzantin detail. on differentaspectsofthe separate, shortchapter. the evolution intheimageofGreeks work. Finally,sinceWilliam recorded some eventsafterthe 1182massacre aswell, emperors willbeanalyzed, sinceitisonly (3) episodes inwhichthe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Bernard Hamilton, In this thesis I use the term “Latin” in the meaning William used it, designating all the people of all of the people thesis theI term it,designating this inuse themeaning used In William “Latin” Fora detailed study of the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Manuel, seePaul Magdalino, Forthe history oftheKingdom of

There are twoprevious studies that have dealt withWilliam’s attitude towards, The question thisthesis seekstoanswer This approachcanbejustified,sincepr The Leper King and his Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Historia effeminacy less of their ethnic background. ethnic less background. their of

Jerusalem from the until the e Empire.First,thetopi s oftheGreekshechoseto , andthequestionsposedhe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). oftheGreeksisevoked.OnlyKomnenian they figured asinferior totheLatins. presenttheGreeks 2 on theparticularcont they whofigured prominently inWilliam’s 6 treachery esent theempire andits ManuelI However, atthesame likemany However, time, of e images oftheKomnenian emperors in and theempire willbeaddressed ina ago, aspartoftheirseminal studyof ishowWilliam’s viewsoftheempire evious historicalstudiesconcentrated they, itwillbes of the Greeksisreferred to;and c was touched upon by Peter c wastoucheduponbyPeter introduce to his text. It introducetohistext.It fall ofJerusalem in1187,see in agoodlight.Being re werenotanalyzedin ext oftheevent. hown, hidedifferent

7 These 5 As a Asa The The CEU eTD Collection the pages 130-150. 130-150. pages the (Aldershot: Ashgate Publisihing Limited, 2003). 2003). Limited, Publisihing Ashgate (Aldershot: 219-233 Herrin, Judith and Harvalia-Crook Eirene Harris, Jonathan Dendrinos, Charalambos Chrysostomides of Honour East in Latin and the Byzantium of Literature and History be added.More some details regarding William’s general at Their approach helped muchtoilluminate into consideration nearly allthe episodes inwhich theempire appears in thenarrative. the ByzantineEmpire, theauthorshaveopted strove toconvey tohisaudience.As for figures todayasessentialtoanyoneinterest and workanalyzedhistreatment ofhissour the Byzantine Empire. Furthermore, theyhave provided an overview of William’s life between thechurchandstate, papac William’s viewsonfivedifferent topics: the William’s life andwork. 9 8 of thisstudytoanalyzetheproblem ofthe can shed light onWilliam’s changingattitudes image oftheGreeks.Therefore, adetailed the positiveimage of Manuelindifferent pa different perspectives.Ashasbeenstated, of William’s work, the complexity of the views ontheOrthodoxChurch. his shortarticle, itcanbe statedthat his though headoptedthesame linearapproachas Bernard Hamilton, “William of Tyre and the Byzantine Empire,” Byzantine in the Tyreand of “William Hamilton, Bernard Rowe, and Edbury Although thesestudieshaveid

William of Tyre of William recently, Bernard Hamilton hasreturned tothequestion. 8 Themain contributionofth

. William’s attitude towards the Byzantine Empire in the Byzantine towards is analyzed . attitude William’s entified themain historical main contributionliesindiscussing William’s their analysis of William’s attitude towards discussionoftheaforementioned questions 3 y, the waragainst theMuslims, andfinally there seems tobeacontradiction between “image oftheother”inWilliam’s workin ed inWilliam ofTyreandthe message he particular historical episodes; however, titude towardstheByzantine Empire can rts of the work, and the general negative rts ofthework,andgeneralnegative royal dynastyofJerusalem, therelations for alinearapproachtothework,taking

EdburyandRoweinthegreaterpartof in thewholenarrative. Historia ces. Itshould be stated that theirwork allowsapproachingitfrom e authorsliesinanalyzing Porphyrogenita: Essays on the issuesinthecontext

It isnotthe task 9 Even , ed. CEU eTD Collection Crusader historiographer. image oftheByzantineEmpire wascreatedin theworkofakeytwelfth-century general, buttocontribute toourunderstanding of howaparticular, multi-layered

4 CEU eTD Collection Ralph H. C. Davis, “William of Tyre,” in Tyre,”in of H.C. “William Davis, Ralph William of Chronicle of the Archbi Continuation French Old “The Morgan, SeeRuth generation. second the atleast of Land the Holy settlersof the designate burgus 75. 1973): Press, University Edinburgh (Edinburgh: Baker Derek class ofthe Frankish society ofthe East, see Prawer, church administration. William can probably benumb discernible, which rose to prominence either by accumulation of wealth or by royal, seigniorial or indicated the new and free standing ofthe settlers. was attendingschoolsofFranceandItaly. William’s life,especially histwenty early lost autobiographicalchapterbyRobertH from whathehimself recordedinthe elementary education,whereforeitispossi born sometime around1130inJerusalem. Itcanbeassumed thathehadsome The knowledgeaboutthe lifeandworkofW 14 13 12 11 10 standing whobelongedne known. Hewasprobablyofaburgessstock( Jerusalem concentrated after attached to theChurch Kingdom: European Colonialism in the retrouvé,” the Holy City under Frankish Rule Frankish Cityunder Holy the Jerusalem, AdrianJ. see Boas, In the Kingdom ofJerusalem, unlike in Europe, the term JoshuaPrawer, Edbury and Rowe, Theword Tyrétudi “Guillaume B.C.Huygens, de Robert . Thesettlements oftheburgesse A thirdgenerationFrankish

Latomus polain polain II.

XXI (1962): 811-829. 811-829. (1962): XXI ( Crusader Institutions Crusader pullanus William of Tyre of William WILLIAM OFTYREANDHISTIME ) derived from theword of theHolySepulcher, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape and Art in ither tothenoblesnorItaliancommunes. (New York: Routledge, 2001), 34. 34. 2001), Routledge, York: (New the conquest of thecity.

, 13-14. For information about the intellectual life of the Frankish Frankish the lifeof intellectual the about information For , 13-14. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 90; idem, s grew aroundfortified places settler oftheHolyLand,a Relations between East and East between Relations Historia 10 Among them aclass of semi-patricians soon became 5 Crusaders’ Kingdom Crusaders’

year longsojournintheWest, wherehe uygens hasdonemuch toshedlighton ble thatheattended (London: Phoenix Press, 2001), illiam, archbishop ofTyre,comes mainly pullus ered amongst these. Formore abouttheburgess ant. Un chapitre (XIX, chapitre Un ant. shop of Tyre to 1232,” (D. Phil thesis) cited in cited thesis) (D. Phil of Tyreto 1232,” shop . Inthisrespect,thediscoveryof burgensis 12 (the young of an animal) andwasused to aroundwhich thepopulationof burgensis 13 Asforhisbackground,littleis ), aclassofsettlersfree WestintheMiddleAges had no connection with the the with connection no had , 76-85. , 76-85. , andthetermthussimply polain the cathedralschool 12) de son ‘Histoire’ ‘Histoire’ son 12) de ,

11 80. William was Crusaders’ Crusaders’ 14 Even , ed. CEU eTD Collection to support the . Cf. Magdalino, Jerusalem. Cf.Magdalino, the Kingdom of support to 100,000 of dowry enormous about theWestern attitude towardstheLatinEast wastohave animpact onhiswork. Byzantines, whosetreacherywasseen resentment thatthe returningCrusaders felt towardsthe Jerusalemites andthe under thewalls ofDamascus.William wasthusboundtoexperience atfirsthandthe organized inaresponsetothefallofEdessa1144,endedcompletefailure arrival toFrance,theSecondCrusade,le clear thatheonlythoughtof though theItalianorFrenchoriginsofhis 18 17 16 15 he didnotreact,theweaka 1143–1163) maintained duringthelastfiveyearsofhisreign. patronage oftheEmperor Manuel,which hisbrotherandpredecessorBaldwinIII(r. Although atfirstwaryof wings, andtheking’spatronagein1167s in the cathedral of Acre. law equippedhim forthetaskshewas latertoface. Orléans, followedbythefouryearsspent education. Tenyearsofstudyingliberalarts reason for the indifferencethe reason for see WT17.6. of theWest, 15. Edbury and Rowe question his knowledge ofthe canon law. SeeEdbury andRowe, teachers and shortnotesabout them, In 1158 Baldwin IIImarried animperial ni Prebend is a portion of cathedral reve Tyerman, numerous lists William William returnedtotheHolyLandin Around 1146William setforWestern Euro God’s War God’s , 336. For William’s awareness of the failure of the as the asthe Crusade the , Second of For failure William’sof awareness 336. the magistri hyperpyra 17 KingAmalric(r.1163–1174) nd faction-tornFatimid Calipha Jerusalemashishome. whoselectures hehad been attendi the Byzantine influence, Amalric soon embracedthe the Byzantineinfluence,Amalric

see Huygens,“GuillaumedeTyrétud . The alliance was thus concluded by which Manuel committed committed Manuel which by concluded . was The alliance thus nues set aside to support the clergy. clergy. the tosupport setaside nues asthereason for the failure. ece, Theodora, and received from the emperor an d bytheFrenchandGerman kingand 6 in Bolognamastering bothcanonandcivil

family areasubjectofspeculation,itis and sixofstudyingtheologyinParis Empire of Manuel I 1165,whereuponhereceivedaprebend ecured him thearchdeaconryofTyre. 15 However,threeyearsuponhis pe inordertopursuehigher ng there. Forthenames ofthese soontookhim underhis te inCairowouldsoonfall , 69-70. , 69-70. 18 iant.” Itshouldbenotedthat Foritwasclearthat if 16 Theknowledge William of Tyre of William , CEU eTD Collection Manuel, wastheonewhosuccessfullynegotia planned whichaimed atsecuring for to gainanadditional leverage,and joint soonaByzantine-Frankish expeditionwas as prey to Nural-Din, 24 23 22 21 20 19 was elected archbishop ofTyre. also bestowed onhim atthattime. chancellor of thekingdom, whilethetitleof Thus asaresultofhispatronage, bytheendof1174William appointed was (r. 1152–1187), tookovertheregency andgaveWilliam pushesinhiscareer. further already suspectedtobesufferingfromleprosy. kingdom leftundertheruleof was athir enjoyed greatconfidencewiththeking,and which ultimately allowedSaladin, thecomm IV (1174–1185). 1170 Amalric appointed him tutortohissonand successor, thefutureKingBaldwin reliable Byzantine satellite untilthe endof hisreign. (), in1171decidedtomade astr Egypt. Nevertheless,Amalric, underpressurefrom botheast(Nural-Din)andsouth Church western European states the Franks. against cooperation their This prevented WT 21.8. Appointing achancellor of a kingdom to abishopric wasa standard practicemany in Rowe, and Edbury Hamilton, 21.1. WT Magdalino, . of denomination Sunni the to Nur al-Din while Shia, the to belonged ofEgypt Caliphs Fatimid (London: Variorum,1980), 118. However, thingssoonchangedasAmal Leper King Empire of Manuel I 21 William ofTyre William

, 38. . Cf. Bernard. Hamilton, atabeg , 75; Hamilton, , 75;

of AleppoandMosul. , 18. 24 23 Atthe same time Byzantineinfluenceoverthe Finalpromotion followedsoon,whenin1175he The Latinthe Churchin :SecularThe Leper King onger commitment toManuel,actingasa 7 teen-year old king, Baldwin IV, who was teen-year oldking,BaldwinIV,whowas thearchdeacon of wasprobably ; William, sentby Amalric to as aresulthiscareer ander ofNural-Din’s ted it.Theexpeditionendedinafailure, 22 Atthispoint Raymond IIIofTripoli ric unexpectedly , 66. 19 ThusAmalric lookedtoManuel 20 DuringthistimeWilliam flourished. Thusin died in1174.The army,toconquer CEU eTD Collection church affairs. and spurredtheConstantinopolitanmobto and thealliancewasrenewed. young emperor’s mother, MaryofAntioch,ma underthe his eleven-year-oldsonAlexiosII(r.1180–1183).Theregency,formed the Byzantine Empire aswell.In1180ManuelKomnenos by diedandwassucceeded reverse inhiscareer. place withHeraclius,thearchbishop ofC ofJerusalem, died,andthe posit kingdom continued, 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 anti-Latin orientatedA on churchbusiness. the ThirdLateran CouncilinRome andlater a largearmy, astheoneresponsible. Jerusalemite alliance,condemned Philip,count proposed but neverrealized.William, ast since 1158,theCrusaderstateshavereliedon the Patriarchal Election of 1180,” 1180,” of Election Patriarchal the perutilem nostre King Cf.Hamilton, 1177. in Egypt against expedition joint proposed failure of the afterthe suspended restoration of the Byzantin wasthe Constantinople 1988). Joan Hussey forHer 80th Birthday Hamilton, “Manuel I Comnenus and Baldwin IV of Jerusalem,” in Ibid., 173-174. Hamilton, Tyreand of G. Rowe, “William John and Edbury seePeter W. election, the on study a For detailed ( to our church” and us to useful was“very visit the saysthat William WT22.4: Rowe, and Edbury For a detailed overview of the whole episode, see Hamilton, Foran overview oftheByzan , 149. , 149. As archbishop ofTyre, William, hiswr Leper King ). However, Hamilton suggests that the main reason behind William’s visit to to visit William’s main behind reason the that ). However, Hamilton suggests 27 From 1178until1180 he wasabsent from thekingdom attendingfirst William ofTyre William , 160. 25 28 29 andin1177anewjointexpe UponhisreturnAmalric of Soon,however,agreatsetbacko ndronikos (regent1182–1183;r. The English HistoricalReview , ed. Julian Chrysostomides, 353-375 (Camberley: Porphyrogenitus, tine-Jerusalemite relations between 1174 and 1182, see Bernard seeBernard 1182, and 1174 between relations tine-Jerusalemite

30 , 20. However, afteran1182uprisinginConstantinople, However, 26

8 aunch supporteroftheConstantinopolitan- massacre alltheLatinsofcity. ion fellvacant. William competed forthe e protectorate over the aesarea, butlost; this pointsignified a visiting Constantinople,apparently also the help of the empire; nowthisperiod the helpof of Flanderswhocame totheEastwith intained closelinkswithJerusalem, itings suggest,devoted himself to Leper King Nesle(r.1157–1180),theold Vol.93, No. 366 (Jan., 1978): 1-25. dition againsttheEgyptwas 1183–1185)came topower ccurred inthe Kathegetria: Essays Presented to , 127-131. , 127-131. Kingdom of Jerusalem, nobis et ecclesie nobis etecclesie relations with 31 Ever Leper CEU eTD Collection and theGreeks inWilliam’s work. came Theeventswereboundtohaveanimpact toanend. ontheimage oftheempire 33 32 (r. 1099–1110) whoreceivedoneandBaldwinIIIthree. Furthermore, thereignof reign ofeachkingwas allotted twobooks, w the HolyLandandSyria.Thesecondpart second (books9–23)describesthefortunesof conquest of Jerusalem byOmar (r.634–644) 1–8) recountstheFirstCrusade,offeri definitely lost, the Muslimworld,titled has writtentheaccountofth William hasauthoredthree worksaltogether. Besides 1185 or1186. of hisdeathiscertain,29September, while the ByzantineEmpire appears,whileW his death,sincetheaccount ofthe1182mass when infactdidhedie. Thereisnoneed and Then?” example of many others, I've really looked for it.” Robert B. C. Huygens “Looking for Manuscripts … the you'llme Istressthat, following believe Isayso, lost. I dohope And when when be definitely seem a Oriental of which of Rulers, to History both in for certainparticular more two works, he wrote Hamilton, One can quote hereRobert Huygens: “Speaking about William ofTyre, I maymention that we know date the establishing Forproblems in After 1182notmuch knownabouthisactivities,anditisadebatedissue is The structure of the work revealstwoeas The structureofthework Leper King Essays in Medieval Studies 32 33

andthe , 199-201. , 199-201. Historia Gesta orientaliumprincipum e decreesoftheThirdLate

4 (1997): 1. 4 (1997): remains hisonlysurvivingwork. William’s death, see Edbury and and Rowe, seeEdbury William’s death, illiam towriteuntil1184.Thedate continued ng abriefintroductiongoingbacktothe toaddressherealltheproblems concerning 9 was furtherdividedinthewaythat itisdebatedwhethertheyear1184, ith theexception of theEasternLatinsuponconquestof acre representsthefinalepisodewhere , second caliph after ; the , secondcaliphafterMuhammad;the ily discernibleparts:thefirst(books Historia . Thesearenow considered ran Councilandahistoryof , he informs us that he , heinforms usthathe Godfrey ofBouillon William of Tyre of William , 22; CEU eTD Collection Francorum Raymond ofAguilers,Fulcher ofChartres, BaldricofDolandtheanonymous B. Edgington (Oxford: Clarendon Presss, 2007), xxiv. xxiv. 2007), Presss, Clarendon (Oxford: Edgington B. arguments for the theory of two redactions, however, is manuscripts that hold the final redaction of the work, comprising twelve books, areextant. One of the to continue his work with another six books covering the period from 1099 to 1119. Today only the this atalaterdate decided he circulated firstand version only that ofJerusalem. Itisprobable liberation source, but only upto the sixth book. See Albert of Aachen, the courseofthesis. them tohisownviewsonmore thanoneoccas topographical descriptions ofthecities. to occur. such alargework,composedoverlongperiodoftime, inconsistencieswerebound introducing sections dealingwithecc William madeextensiverevisions tohiswork,reworking thefirstbookand work, consistsonlyofasinglechapter accompanied byaprologue. King BaldwinIVisalsodescribedinthree 37 36 35 34 relied onoral traditions andwritten sources,making useof Albertof Aachen, experiences aswellthe memories ofot belong eithertotheearlyor Empire. From 1181hecontinued hisnarra massacre oftheLatins,whichundoubtedly excludes anyserioustemperingwiththe Edbury and Rowe, and Edbury Ibid., 27-29. Rowe, and Edbury

Albert firstset outtowrite theaccount ofthe When presentinganaccountofhisowngenerationWilliam own usedhis William workedonhis 34 Theseinconsistenciesshowthat, . 37 Eventhough William approachedthese William ofTyre William ofTyre William tothelaterpartof1184.

, 45-46. , 45-46. , 26. opus magnum 35 10 Itisimportant tonotetheyear, sincethis hers. Innarratingpriorevents,however,he books, butthelastone,finaloneof tive untiltheend recording eventswhich lesiastical affairsandpossiblyeven earlier partofthe insix book changedhisviewsoftheByzantine from about1170untilhisdeath,andin upon hisreturntoJerusalem in1180, ion, some ofwhichwillbe discussed in thefactthat William ofTyre uses Albertasa Historia Ierosolimitana Historia with acriticaleye, hemolded work afterthe1182 s, culminating inthe , ed. andtr. Susan Gesta 36

CEU eTD Collection interventions. interventions. Co York: (New C. Krey August and William archbishop of Tyre, of William archbishop amor patrie Christians. WT Prologue: ofallthe homeland Land as the Holy the Jerusalem and convention, writing atAmalric’s suggestion, this may benothingmore thanamedieval literary presented favorable,but nonewasinfallible.Ev was notsimplytowriteanencomium oftherulingdynasty.Thekingsweregenerally 39 38 even more onthemethods ofworkhehasused the differentelements ofhisworktherefore of hislifeforcedhim tore-considertheim Empire inhis work.However,atthesame tim influenced him increatingamulti-layered and idiosyncratic image of theByzantine William’s lifeandcareer,his educationa mission, explainingandjustifyinghis Muslim lands casted ashadow reinvigorate itspeople,atthetime when and hiscompatriots.Byrecountingthehi his homeland tohisintendedaudience,am predicaments of theLatinEast.Theintenti made him write. (1973): 438. 438. (1973): Ibid., 440. Vessey suggested that by evoking his Ty W. T. C. Vessey,“William of Regardless of thepatronageheenjoyedfrom KingAmalric, William’s goal

. In this thesis I have relied on the only available English translation of William’s work: William’s work: of translation English available only onthe I relied thesis have . this In 38 anditis more probable that 39 William knewverywell the The History of Deeds Done beyond the SeaDone beyond of Deeds The History

lumbiaUniversity Press, 1943). However, where necessary, Imade over theirfuture.Furthermore, re and the Art of Historiography,” Art the of re and Historiography,” patria 11 “the insistent lovefor the l background and thenetwork ofcontacts on wasthustopresentafavorableimage of age hehadcreated.Athoroughanalysisof Saladin’sunificatio tothe westernaudience. ongst which figured both the westerners ongst whichfiguredboththewesterners can shedlighton thiscomplex issue,and patria story oftheLatinEastheaimed to increatingthisimage forhisaudience. e, thedramatic events en ifheindicatedthat hadstarted William referred to both the Kingdom of the Kingdomof toboth referred William Western indifference of the , 2 vols., tr. Emily A.Babcock hewasonanapologetic n ofthesurrounding Mediaeval Studies patria of thelast years urgentissimus instat ” waswhat 35 CEU eTD Collection and inthecourseofwholesecondbookhe time-span thatthe of eachthethreeKomnenian emperors, As outlined intheintroduction, thefirst step 40 the worst.William presentedhim tohisaudience as“awicked andacrafty man,” Of thethreeKomnenian emperors, Alexios,withouta doubt,came toberegardedas ALEXIOS Latins. between thetwosides;Manue was notwritingonlyabout without assertingdirectcontro in thewaragainst theinfidel. Manuel, acti Empire, whichwasnowsupposedtoplayane approved defendersoftheHolyLand,and,assuch,successors oftheByzantine empire. TheLatinswerethelegitimate a supporter ofManuel’spolicy,William inhi WT2.5:

vir nequam et subdolus. III. Historia

CONSTRUCTING THEIMAGE

deals with.Ithasbeenunderlinedthatasastaunch the contemporary period,wh l, compliedwiththisidea.Still,thearchbishopofTyre l’s predecessors did not always show sympathy for the l’s predecessorsdidnotalwaysshowsympathyforthe THE EMPERORS 12 nd, throughtheFirstCrusade,divinely ng asaprotectoroftheCrusaderstates whose reignstook upalmost the entire of theanalysis istoexamine theimages s workstrovetofindaplaceforthe w role–tosupport strovetoportrayaperfidiousGreek en everythingwentwell the Crusaderstates 40

CEU eTD Collection Crusade, whilekindly treatingthePeople’sCrusade. the fact thatWilliam presentedAlexios as has tobeaddressedbefore analysis inthefollowingsubc played akeyroleinthis,andaccordingl treachery andfrequentlyemphasized Gr persecutor of theLatins.” emperor’s obit inthework. Theaudience of thearch-nemesis Latins.Incons ofthe portrait showed complexity, Alexios wastoremain forever encapsulated intheimage usual trickery.” come fromthesincerityandgoodfaith;”rath traitor, whose wordswhendealingwithth 44 43 42 41 occasions. inconsistency. Inthecourseofthis failure ofthePeople’s Crusadeispresen the episodeswhereAlexiosappe 221. army oftheSicilianNormans underBohemund of Lorraine; army of northern French under Robert II ofLower armyunder Godfrey Bouillon, Lorrainer were:the of These late1096. the in Europe He ofPeterthe figure charismatic led by the opposed to the first wave, often called the “People’s Crusade,” comprising bands of peasants and lowly possent admisceri. ducem solita fraude sed processit, sinceritate fidei Crusades to Constantinople, see Tyerman, Raymond, count ofToulouse. Foran overview ofthe progress of both the People’s andPrinces’ Two times in 1.18, five in 1.22, once in 1.23, once in 1.24, and three times in 1.26. Rowe, and Edbury 12.5: WT WT2.12: Namely, bothofthepreviousstudiesonth 44 Alexius, Latinorum maximus persequutor. Quod autemmaturius ducisexer However,notoncewasheaddresse 41 Theterm“Princes’ Crusade”designates the Allthe animosity William felt towa William of Tyre of William 42 proceeding toanalyze theimag UnlikethefollowingemperorJohn(r.1118–1143),whose hapter. Yet,thereissome am

, 132; Hamilton, “William of Tyre and the Byzantine Empire,” Empire,” Byzantine “William , Tyre the Hamilton, 132; and of ars inthefi God’s War God’s citum transfretare persuasioni book theemperor referredtoontwelve was eekness mattered themost. Thesecondbook 13 y itwillbebrought underthescopeof tructing thisimage, re , count of , and Robert, duke of Normandy; e leadersofthePrinces’ Crusade“didnot acting treacherously towards thePrinces’ rmit. Armies ofthe Princes’ Crusade set out from was toremember Alexiosas“theworst , 92-122. circumvenit, ne aliis advenientibus eius copie copie eius advenientibus aliis ne circumvenit,

ted, showsthat in fact there was no er Alexios chose to play them “with his er Alexioschosetoplaythem“withhis ; andfinally rst bookofthe d byname. William indeedportrayed is subject interpret asinconsistency 43 second wave of theFirst Crusade, as rds Alexiosisreflected inthe Still, acloseexamination of es ofothertwoemperors. biguity inhis image, which bus suiscompulerat, nonde Historia peated accusationsof , Provencal army under , inwhichthe CEU eTD Collection responsum etconcessum est lifted asawhole,following thena reach Constantinople. Albert described itin asingle chapter –chapter whichWilliam Walter, lordofBoissySansAvoir,and everything hesought.” episode that heenters thestory in William’s Alexios entersthestoryinAlbert’swork the People’sCrusade, “the lordemperor”favorably,buthedid 50 49 48 47 46 45 sentence, but,instead,acons the emperor’s identity.Thiswasnotan him simply as“theemperor.” Thusintheendwholefirstbookstoodsilentabout kept Alexios’name tohimself andcontinue point, wasquitereticentin emperor, emperor lodgingspacetoshelterhisarmy, for and,accordingtoAlbert,“the lord did sountilthelast part,thearrival atC contemporary reader. that time, itwasnotnecessarily evid though itisevidenttothemodern dayscholar following Albertin describing Walter’s passagethrough ,, Belgradeand Niš. of the Crusaders returning home, probably those of . WT 1.18: 1.18: WT Albert of Aachen, isfaithfully 1.18. William in William’s is1.6,while In in Albert’s question work the passage For Albert’s account of the People’ Rowe, and Edbury Albert, canon ofthe church of Aachen wrote ahistory of the First Crusade based on oral testimonies Comparing William totheAlbert of Aachen, quod ei concessit imperator. Alexios byname Historia William ofTyre William 46 49 . suggeststhistobeadeliberateact. , 12-13: William, althoughmeticulously followingAlbertuptothis sayingthat“theempero

cious anddeliberateattempt (emphasis mine), graciouslyrespondedandgranted , 47. s Crusade, see Albert ofAachen, a domnoimperatore Alexi nomine benigneet deomnibus petenti

rrative faithfullybutparaphrasing. onstantinople. There,Walter pleadedtothe 14 ent toWilliam’s contemporary ornear- his bandofknights,th not statewhichemperoratanytime. Even actof simply omitting aname from a d todoso,eleventimes morereferringto is mostrevealing,foritinthesame thatitisAlexioswhowasreigningat Historia r grantedthattohim.” 45 hissourcefortheaccountof . It describes the journey of . Itdescribesthejourney Historia at erasingAlexiosfrom a 47 Theepisode when , 8-45. e firstCrusadersto 48 Atleast,he 50 William CEU eTD Collection William's account of the episode, see 1.11-12. WT these twoepisodesreveals allth finer methods ofreshaping,andthesubtletywithwhichhetweakedAlbert’sworkin occasions where theydid notsuithisargument, These twoexamples revealmuch about visit toJerusalem andmeeting withthe patriarch. William addedatouchof hisrhetoric totheAlbert’s account of Peter theHermit’s not theonlytime. EdburyandRowehaveal Empire,” William wroteonthisoccasion. wicked andacraftyman, Alexios,surnam account altogetherbut into consideration. HereWilliam wasboundto unveiled Alexiostotheaudienceforfirsttime inthe historical episodeinwhichhefigured 53 52 51 the Latins as the successors of the By Albert made nomention of this point. This waspurelyWilliam buildingthe image of spoke oftheweaknessth to influencethereaderform apicture Alexios inafavorablelight.Thusbyavoidingmentioning Alexiosbyname, hetried detailed accountofthePeople’sCrusade,did the archbishopofTyrerefertoAlexios’ agnomine dictusConnino. For Albert's account of Peter the 's visit to Jerusalem, see Albert of Aachen, Aachen, of Albert Jerusalem,see to visit Hermit'sthe Peter of account For Albert's Rowe, and Edbury WT 2.5:

It canbeassumed thatWilliam, althoughkeentoincludeAlbert ofAachen’s Preerat autem per idem tempus Grecorum imperio vir nequam et subdolus Alexius nomine, William ofTyre William

rather chosetomold ittohis e ,from whom nothingcouldnowbeexpected.

, 131-132. , 131-132. e finesseofhispropaganda. zantine EmpireindefendingtheHolyLand. treatment ofthePeop highly. It was only the second book that highly.Itwasonlythesecondbookthat 51 15 of theemperor without Moreover,notatanypointofhisworkdid ed Komnenos, wasrulingovertheGreek William’s treatment ofthesources. On ready notedhow againinthefirstbook, not wanttofollowAlbertinpresenting herespected them enoughtoresort 52 Albert,and hedidnotinverthis InWilliam’s account,the patriarch own purposes. Interestingly it was own purposes.Interestinglyitwas Historia le’s Crusadeagain. taking thisepisode . “At thistime a Historia , 2-7; for , 2-7;for 53

CEU eTD Collection book. Historia Latins.” thought ofJohn’sactionsagainstAntiochas good light,eventhough“healsowasnot As forAlexios’sonJohn, thereisno doubt JOHN 56 55 54 least: siege ofaMuslim city ofShaizar,heportr andNorthernSyria, territories Byzantium and the Crusader States 1096-1204 States Crusader andthe Byzantium have ithisway. Hedied nextas yearinCilicia to wasnot he end the In atany price. to have determined John with in 1142, ensued expedition A second to Constantinople. to withdraw chose end the city,inthe in the Latins of upheaval the to together. Regardless of their failure to do so, the emperor persevered in his claims on Antioch, but due cede Antioch to him andreceive compensation inth 1149), , managed to negotiate with John an agreement, by which he was supposed to regions. Ina matter ofmonths Ciliciawaspart probably was one prevailing the Still, it. behind Unlike his father, John was mentioned by his given name from the start. For William’s account of Johnexpeditions to Cilicia Firstexpeditiontook place in11 WT12.5: 56

William notdispassionate in was his accountofthe campaigns. While he endured theheatofbattle.He among thetroops.From firsthourofthedayevenuntolatesthe the the fray.Thusdidthisman ofloftyspiritmove aboutwithoutceasing and foughtvaliantly,thathemight Again, likeaman ofthepeople, he ranks andcheered nowthesethose,withwordsofencouragement. sword, hisheadcoveredwithagold combats ofwar.Protectedbythe enthusiasm oftheyoung,evereager glowing zealandpromised rewards The emperor, aman ofgreatcourage, pressed ontheassault with 54 theseeventstakeuptheend ofthefo Johnonlycame intothepicturewith Iohannes, filius eius … qui etiam non omnino sincerus erga Latinos Orientales extitit Orientales Latinos erga sincerus omnino etiam non …qui eius filius Iohannes,

37 and according tothe sources under theruleofprinceAntioch. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 96-141. 96-141. Press, 1993), Clarendon (Oxford: a resultof hunting accident of the empire oncemore, whileRaymond (r. 1136– 16 John’s ambition to assert Byzantine claims to the the claims to assertByzantine to ambition John’s gave himself norest–notevento render othersmore courageousfor thatWilliam wantedtopresent him ina roused theirvalorbyhisexample breastplate andgirdled withthe ayed him inafavorablelighttosaythe unjust,duringthejointLatin-Byzantine for victory.Thushekindledthe en helmet, hemingled withthe and ,see WT, 14.24, for glory,thestrife andthe e Muslim citiestheythenset out toconquer entirely sincereto urteenth andonethirdofthefifteenth the accounts of his there was more thanonemotive . Cf.Ralph-Johannes Lilie, wards theEastern two expeditionsto 30 and 15.1-5, 19-23. 55 Inthe . CEU eTD Collection joint expedition against theMuslims, this wasthe first andthe onlytime thataByzantine Emperor inperson ledaserious the reasonbehindtheserhetoricalflourishes and noLatinleaderwhatsoeverprovoked th matter –essential inany field-commander. Nolegendaryleader of theFirstCrusade and abilitytoinspirerespectfrom troops, his John’s actionsontheba conspicuous inbattlebytheeminence of perceive John.Firstofall,unlikeAlexios, The wholepassagereveals twoelements bywhichWilliam wantedhisreaders to 59 58 57 the siege. of Antiochandthecount the blame fortheultimate failureofthis William envisaged,andforwhichhebelievedanemperor shouldstrive. expedition, see Magdalino, seeMagdalino, expedition, bought off by Nur al-Din with the release of Christian prisoners. For adetailed assessment ofthe war against the this campaign did not achieve anything, since Manuel allowed himself to be illos sermonibushortaturcongruis,nunc nuncexempl quoque indutus et accinctus gladio, casside caput tectus aurea, mediis inmixtus agminibus nunc hos, propositis braviis adolescentium glorie cupidos ad cer successiones vires reparans et pro deficientibus recentes subrogans et integris conatibus validos. vicarias per animos, addebat desudabant conflictibus in qui his aut ammonebat, iacularentur ut vel cibum sumeret indulgebat, sed aut hos qui machinis deserviebant ut frequentius aut directius sibi quietis nichil sustinens ad novissimam usque estus hora a prima diei belli discurrens, intermissione sine insignis animositate viregregia Sic igitur animosiores. reddat instandum ad alios viriliter, ut Edbury and Rowe, and Edbury army. a great In Syrialeading terms the marched to Ciliciaand of Manuel the winter In 1158-59 of WT15.1: fresh troopsforthosewhowereexhausted. strength ofthefightersbysuccessiv those whowereengagedinthethic to takebetterandmore frequentai take food.Foreitherhewasadmoni Urgebat imperator, sicut vir erat magnanimus, studio fervente propositum et William ofTyre William Empire of Manuel I ttlefield wasmeant toawethe , whosedissolutebehavi

, 140 , 140 58 andinthisrespectJohnmirrored theidealthat , 67-72. , 67-72. expedition wasplacedentirelyon theprince 17 his armor.Second,ade he waspresentedwithfullimperial dignity, shing thosewhoservedtheengines m inspiringcouragein orhewas k ofthecombat. the Herestored is kind ofadmiration from William, and o tanquamunuse p e relaysofmen andsubstituted qualities thatwere–andstillarefor tamina etcongressus accendebat animos, lorica lies inthenature 57

audience of his courage, vigor audience ofhiscourage,vigor or ledtheemperortoraise opularibus provocat etinstat of thiscampaign.For tailed descriptionof 59 Intheend CEU eTD Collection to ourpeople.” humane thanhis fatherhadbeen, and, accord of hisposition,whoalthoughactingagainst which rightfullymake theeldermore important.” successor tothethrone,eventhoughitmean provident andintelligentman,” hepr could havebeensaved,hewaspresentedas 62 61 60 subjugate them todirectimperial control. reason, ashasbeenalreadyunderlined,is The image of ManuelKomnenos differsgreat MANUEL rhetoric. Antioch ultimately stayedinLatin hands,leftmaneuvering spaceforWilliam’s brought againsttheGreeks.J the same withAntioch,butthere were treacherous Greek. and clothed withtheimperialdignity, differed greatlyfrom thatof Alexios,the Press, 1973), 173-179. 173-179. 1973), Press, Ernst Robert Curtius, Curtius, Ernst Robert William of of Tyre William Rowe, and usurpers, seeEdbury and rule legitimate on views ForWilliam’s heir. be his to Manuel have beenpassed over. Yet with Manuel’s accessi William wasindignant thattherightsofEustace, th circumstances will.Itisinteresting God’s and was eldestson, presente the if not even Manuel, towards andwas succession regularly ill-disposed usurpe faciunt potiorem, videbimur contraire. About the development ofthe topos of 12.5: WT 15.23: WT Even onhisdeathbed,byrefusingtolet

patre multo humanior, et meritis exigentibus, populo nostro patre longe acceptior. acceptior. longe patre nostro populo exigentibus, et meritis humanior, multo patre tanquam vir providus et discretus vir providus tanquam , 65-70. , 65-70. 61 Theimage ofJohn,chiseledwiththe European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages 62 JohnincorporatedCiliciatotheempire andindeedhetriedtodo

ohn’s expeditionagai Throughout his work, William emphasized hereditary rights in rights hereditary emphasized work, his William Throughout sapientia etfortitudo sapientia at when Baldwin II (r. 1118–1131) was crowned king, was crowned II(r.1118–1131) Baldwin at when oclaimed hisyoungersonManuelasthe no accusations oftreacheryor Latin-hatred 18 Because ofthishestoodhighintheeyes

who wasthebrother ofBaldwinI (r. 1100–1118), d as the right choice due to his ability, military military to his ability, due choice right asthe d ... legibus humanitatis, que primogenitum merito merito primogenitum que humanitatis, legibus ... on, John showed hispr ing tohis worth, wasfarmore acceptable befitting anemperor.Furthermore, “asa that unlikehisfather,didnottryto t “togoagainstthelawsofmankind, rs. Here however he took rs. Herehoweverhe the Latinswas intheend“farmore ly from thatofhispredecessors,The his handbeseveredsothatlife 60 Hewasanobleemperor, worthy nst theinfidelandfactthat from Antiquity to Middle Ages, see MiddleAges, to from Antiquity topos (Princeton: Princeton University of fortitudo et ovidence by designatingovidence by a different approach. a approach. different

sapientia

CEU eTD Collection Latins.” … stoodhighintheesteem andfavorof successor between Manuel andIsaac,W Greek, butratheras“oneofus.”Thus argument proposed hereisthat emperor. ManuelwasfondofusingtheByzan William, whoseopinionwasfurthermore infl 65 64 63 supposed toheraldthecomi meant toinstructtheread the winterof1179-80: this clearly made animpressiononWilliam Komnenoi, see Magdalino, seeMagdalino, Komnenoi, courts of Jerusalem, the Palermo in .” and ceremonial oftheByzantinecourtwa extollebatur. specialis ad hoc deputaretur tractatus. inme prosequi, singula velimus per munificientiam inmense liberalitatis quam tamsuos exteros in sieffusam omnes magnificientiam, nuptiarum numerositatem sifamulorum etcurialium precium, dependentium ornatum ad sivelorum infinitam, etpondere argenteam, numero auream, suppellectilem forthe background itthe made corporis indumenta in lapidibus pr cumsollempnitate illos dies per populo spectaculorum ofBy image “The 206: 1992), Longman, (London: WT15.23: WT 22.4: to instructive Itis and theweightnumber ofjewels performed forthe people on those o hippodrome andthewondersofvariousspectaclessolemnly Indeed, if wetriedto describe indetail the circus games inthe However, itwasalready Manuel’sfirst appearance inthe write aseparatebookaboutthem. visitors, weshouldlack emperor andthelargessebestowed magnificence oftheweddingfestivities to conveyinwordsthenumber ofc amount ofsilverwareandthecostly which theemperorwore;goldenfu 65 Theemphasis ontheLatinsasManue Verum si ludos circenses, quos cives illius urbis ipodromos vocant, et variorum gloriam Manuel, iuniorfilius...universi exercituset quote , 63 Empire of Manuel I

er inthewayhewassuppos ng ofanewemperor whowasmindful oftheCrusader romans d’antiquité eciosismargaritarumet et pondere

William consistently soughttoportrayManuel notasa s much admired in the and West, its robes ofhonour werecopied words toexpresstheseth , commenting onJohn’s , 237-248. , 237-248. The Byzantine Empire 1025-1204: A Political History History APolitical 1025-1204: Empire Byzantine The 64 illiam notedhow“Manuel,theyoungerson 19 For more aboutthe Byzantin

ourtiers andhouseholdservants,the byhim onhisownpeopleand embroidered hangings;ifwetried zantium fascinated the West. Its fairy-tale quality the Itsfairy-talequality fascinated West. zantium andpearlsadorningthegarments scripto comprehendere temptemus, siapparatus ccasions; theimperial vestments, uenced byhispersonalknowledge of the , then in vogue in the in the vogue in , then during hismission toConstantinople in nsitate materie sermo subcumberet, etiam si etiam sermosubcumberet, materie nsitate tine ceremonial forallitwasworth,and the entirearmy,particularlywith exhibitam, si imperialem circa vestes et proprii vestesetproprii circa siimperialem exhibitam, rnishings of the palace, the vast rnishings ofthepalace,vast , the great generosity of the , thegreatgenerosityof maxime Latinorumfavore etpreconiis l’s most ardent supporters was ings evenwereweto numero excellentiam, si palatii ed toperceivehim. The doubts inchoosinghis e ceremonial duringthe courts of . The Historia that was CEU eTD Collection emperor wassupportingtheEasternLa represented theidealinConstanti this waylike acaringservant.” of hisimperial andnegligentofhi personally, while“his nobles and kinsmen wereindignant and amazed that, unmindful trip thekingfellfromhishorseandbr Baldwin IIIofJerusalemandtreatedhim in of theGreeks. wrote afterManuel’sdeath,emphasizing the effeminate andentrusted important affairs of thestateto Latinsalone,” William states. This wasnotanexception. “He 69 68 67 66 wrote abouttheconsternationofManuel’s arises. Namely,ifthisindeedwasanimpe foreign diplomacy. ButifAnca’s interpreta Christ, and,judgingbyWilliam’s succeededin comments, making animpression in representation. another aspectofthisepisode,namely that this wasmost probablyso,butrecently 225. familiarem. et devotum regiita seexhiberet dignitatem imperatorie negligens oblitus maiestatis etaugustalem negocia. committeret ( Sources Medieval in Relations Personal Image: and inWord Interaction http://www.univie.ac.at/amicitia /Abstracts.pdf http://www.univie.ac.at/amicitia Edbury and Rowe, Rowe, and Edbury 18.25: WT 22.11: WT

Alexandru Anca, “Der heilende Herrscher: Manuel I. Komnenos als Arzt,” (Abstract) in Workshop: During Manuel’scampaigntoSyriain

neglectis Greculissuistanquamvirismollibus ut cum indignatione stuperent et mirarentur eius principes et consanguinei quod 66 69

The emperor, by presentinghimself Theemperor, asahealer,soughttoimitate William of Tyre of William

67 , 143; Hamilton, “William of Tyre and the Byzantine Empire,” Empire,” Byzantine “William , Tyre the Hamilton, 143; and of Aspreviousstudieshaveargued,forWilliam thisact ; lastaccessed: 26/05/2008) tins andnottryingtoreplacethem. nopolitan-Jerusalemite relations,wherethe 20 Alexandru Anca’s research has focused on Alexandru Anca’sresearchhasfocusedon oke hisarm. Theemperor tendedtohim nobles andkinsmen,whowouldhavebeen s supreme dignity,hepresentedhimself in rial ritual, why did the archbishop of Tyre rial ritual,whydidthearchbishopofTyre passed overhisGreeklingsassoftand anhonorablefashion.Later,onahunting Manuel’s actions were tion isaccepted, anadditional question difference betweenManuelandtherest 1159,theemperor receivedKing eteffeminatis...solisLatinis grandia a partofhisself- (Vienna: 2007) 2007) (Vienna: 68 Indeed

CEU eTD Collection “gave backhissoultotheheaven.” Latins and“themost generousamongalltherulersinworld,”whoend He neverreferredtoitagain,butportraye stated that,intheend,William’s opinionofManuelwasunchangedbythisepisode. episode willbeanalyzedthoroughlyinth the Greeks oftreachery. According totherese approached Manuelinthesame manner as Greeks. Greeks. Oncemore itwasemphasized that seized theopportunitytoemphasize thediffe expected toparticipateinit? 71 70 subjected to theinvestigati advancement ofthePrinces’ Crusadethr Byzantine Emperor. Byzantium throughhistory;second,his images oftheemperors: first, his attempt toreshapethe Western perceptions of Two more issuescan be analyzed when ADDITIONAL DEVICESINCONSTRUCTINGIMAGES March 1990 Diplomacy: Papers from the Twenty-fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, kinsmenand not by ranksoffice of holders. Jonathan Shepardand Simon Franklin eds., since when theemperors faced western leaders th alone,” the Greek nobles and the kinsmen were named he WT 22.5: 22.5: WT Latins the stateto the matters of important “entrusted Manuel that specified William Although However, theSecondCrusadepresented First, thealreadydisc (Aldershot: Variorum, 1992), 56. omnium principummunificentissimus terre on again.GodfreyofBouillon’sarmy isinthefocushere 70

Theanswer couldverywellbe thatonce moreWilliam ussed secondbookofthe 71

discussing the way William constructed the 21 e following subchapter. For now let it be e followingsubchapter.Fornowletitbe ough theByzantinete he approachedAlexios,accusinghim and use ofterminology whenaddressinga d Manuel asanemperor inclinedtothe ey were attended most conspicuously by their rence between Manuel and the rest of the rence betweenManuelandtherestof Manuel ispro-Latin

... animam celo reddidit. celo reddidit. ... animam arch plan statedintheintroduction this an episodewhereseemingly William re astheentourage. It comes asnosurprise Historia rritory, hastobe , unliketheother , devotedtothe Byzantine CEU eTD Collection opportunity topresenttheByzantin as thefirst one tobepresentedentering theByzantineterritory andWilliam usesthis 73 72 “Latin” policy,whichwastobevigorously prospects of theempire. Themessage thus important affairs of thestate totheLatinsalone,” emperor, thatistosay anemperor c them theirempireand itsstatus offer totheaudiencekeyforunderst difference betweentheGreekandLatinrulers, themessage may havebeenusedto classification oftheemperorsas Greek impression ofConstantinople oftheempire empire asopposedtoitsgloriouspast. into provinces,takingadvantageoftheGr the Greekones,startingwithNikephoros order: (1)the displacementof The threeelements ofthis in eorum provincias irruentes pro arbitrio suo regionis ceperunt tractare habitatores. peccatis exigentibus, descendit impe deficientibus apud Constantinopolim Latinis principibus, in eorum potestatem sub primo Nicheforo, postquam, Nam imperii. debilitas sit Grecorummiseriaet quanta eorum provincie, fuerunt WT 22.11: 22.11: WT WT 2.4: they wantedto. into theirprovincesandbegantotreat the barbarouspeople,confidentin sins, fellintothepowerofGreek rule ofLatin rulersofConstanti provinces filledwithallkindsof conjectured from thestateofth The misery oftheGreeksand Conicere est ex hislocis,quealiquandoConicere estex ub solis Latinis grandia committeretnegocia. grandia solis Latinis 72

passage areeasily separated a

theLatin rulersof Constantinople andthe accession of rium, statim barbare nationes, de vis-à-vis e Empire tohisreaders: nople ceased, the empire, because ofits anding theKomnenian emperors andthrough onstructing apro-Latin policy, “entrusting desirable commodities.Forwhenthe 22 the weaknessoftheGreeks,stormed ese places,whichwereoncerich They areartfullyco s underNikephorosI.Immediately I(r.802–811);(2)“bar weakness oftheirempire areeasily the WesternChristendom. Onlya“Latin” or Latin.However,byemphasizingthis supported by the archbishop of Tyre in the supported bythearchbishopofTyrein eek weakness;and(3) , thefortunesofwhichweretiedto aimed togive credencetoManuel’s the inhabitants of

eriores et omnimodis commoditatibus referte commoditatibus etomnimodis eriores 73 wasabletoguaranteegood nd sequencedinthefollowing Grecorum inbecillitateconfise, mbined toconveyan theregionas barian” incursions the misery of the

CEU eTD Collection tempore quo imperatores eorum a Romano divisi sunt imperio, usque ad nostra tempora. procedat. Contra Graecos tressive libri q devolvunt inLatinos Graeci quas Etherian (1115–1182)abouthisinterestin patriarch ofAntiochfluentinGreekand woman,” EmpressIrene(r.797–802). because the ruleovertheirempire “passed a participantoftheSec Great, thushintingattheideaof the first “Greek” rulerprobably aims to coincide withthecoronation of Charlesthe rule ofaGreekemperor, whichbroug later partof hiswork.Atthesame time itaimed atrejecting theruleof Alexiosasa 78 77 76 75 74 Constantinople, “separate capital of the period from900to1044,contrast Rodulfus Glaber(985–1047),aCluniacmonk when their[Greek]emperors separated fromtheRoman Empire.” signified thetransfer it canbeascertained, completely original. differentiating betweenthe“La University Press, 2002), 283. 283. Press, 2002), University 171-172. 1998), Blackwell, (Oxford: use oftheidea asadeviceofpropaganda, seeJacques LeGoff, the then to Medes and Persians, tothe Babylonians 1993), 41. 41. 1993), Aeneas: The Hapsburgs and the Mythic Image of the Emperor Ibid., 352: Otto bishop of Freising, SeeCiggaar, and Rowe, Edbury See Rescriptum Aimerici ad Hugonem As EdburyandRowewereobservantto quod in manus faminae non digne devenerat. Western Travellers to Constantinople to Travellers Western William of Tyre William of of powertotheGreeks, , PL 202, comp. J.-P. Migne (Paris: J.-P. Migne, 1855), col. 232A: 232A: col. , comp. J.-P.Migne, 1855), PL 202, Migne J.-P. (Paris: The Two Cities Two The ond Crusade,thoughtthatal

tin” and“Greek”rulersofC , 132. According to this idea, the power proceeded from the , published asan appenix to Hugo Eterianus, ed , theheadof , tr. Charles Christopher Mi Christopher , tr.Charles ht onlyillfortunetotheempire. 77 uod Spiritus Sanctus ex utroque Patre scilicet et Filio, Filio, scilicetet Patre exutroque Sanctus Spiritus uod Aimery (r.1140–1193),Latin ofLimoges 23 75 Greeks andotherpeopl Latin, wrotetothefamed theologianHugh Macedonians and after them totheRomans. Forthe in no honorable fashion into the hands of a in nohonorablefashionintothe handsofa Otto(1114–1158),bishopofFreisingand the historyofByzantium “from thetime 76 , 93-101; Marie Tanner, Tanner, Marie , 93-101; whointurn lost ittoCharles the Great notice,emphasizing NikephorosIas who wroteahistor (New Haven:Yale UniversityPress, . 74 ready Constantine’s move ready Constantine’smove Medieval Civilization 400–1500 Civilization Medieval Analyzedinthis context, onstantinople is,asfar erow (New York: Columbia Columbia York: (New erow Universa Latinitas The Last Descendant of of Descendant Last The es who live in the 78 Stilleven earlier y covering the y coveringthe

De haeresibus ex illo ex illo , to

CEU eTD Collection the Greeks.” theleaderofNorman referto himas“thewickedprinceof had Bohemund, army, constructing the image oftheevil and should beenoughofareasonnot idiosyncratic character ofthemessage plus the “official”introductionofByzan Thus theidea,seenin contextofthesesequencedpassages, inasenserepresents succeeded inturnbytheaccountof thetopographicalfeaturesofConstantinople. followsisthealreadydi What immediately taken lightlyaswell. It isthevery first indeed hadaLatinhistory.Theveryprominen as Latin.William respondedbyreshapingthis such itwassituated outside the worldof a Greekcity, thecapitalofGreekEmpire eastern landsbeyondthesea.” 83 82 81 80 79 Greeks” ( West, itseems, theByzantineemperor was interchangeably titledas“emperor of the Western audiencetheGerman kinghe Romans” ( ( partibusquam ceterorum. 30-31: 1993), Press, University Oxford Romanorum imperator Romanorum For William referring to the Holy Henry IV (1099–1125) asthe “Roman For Emperor” Roman tothe WilliamHoly referring Emperor IV (1099–1125) Henry 235, 264. ODB 2.10: WT For Alexios, see WT 2.5, while for Constantinople, see WT 2.7. Glaber, Rodulfus The second issuethatdrawsattenti impium Grecorum principem. imperator Grecorum kaiautokratortonRhomaion 81 Infactthe Byzantineemperor styl Opera ), see WT13.19.), , eds. and trs. John France, Neithar France, John trs. and , eds.

79 Constantinople wasnotperceivedasLatin;it Constantinople ) oras“Constantinop todiscarditlightly. Constantinopolis tam Grecorum speciale caput in transmarinis transmarinis in caput speciale tam Grecorum Constantinopolis treacherous Alexios, ononeoccasion William ld the titleof ,whichperceiveditself 24 description oftheempi theprominent placeWilliam allottedtoit scussed unveilingoftheEmperor Alexios, tine Empire intothenarrative.The on isthequestionof eversincethetime ofConstantine.As ce hegavetothispassageshouldnotbe view, creatinganimage ofacitywhich ed himself asthe“emperorof ), 82 d Bulst and Reynolds (Oxford: (Oxford: Reynolds Paul and d Bulst the Roman emperor. whilefor William andhis olitan emperor” ( re in thenarrative. terminology. In imperator 83 Inthe 80

CEU eTD Collection in thisway, considered thistitlemore offensivetoth him astheemperor orevenprince oftheGreeks,whichcan suggest thathe three instances whereheaimed toshowan excellence Second Crusade,atonein emperor. Whenreportingonthetrialsandtr to Constantinople,knewverywelltheim empire orthekingdom oftheGreeks. Constantinopolitanus 87 86 85 84 the exclusive “emperor oftheGreeks.” history, thetitleof“Consta possible that for William, givenhisviewsof contemporaries William didnotthinkof Crusade, he referredto the empero while informing hisaudienceoftheprobabi instance wherehedidsoconfirms this.Justafewlinesbeforethequotedpassage, he himself hadputit,“todetract …from Thus, whileaddressingAlexiosasthe“empero dicunt tanquam Romanorum unicum et solum imperatorem. imperatorem. etsolum unicum Romanorum tanquam dicunt suo nimium detrahi videtur imperatori, quem ipsi monarcham, id est singulariter principari omnibus WT 16.21: WT 2.4, 2.5. WT 7.16. 2.10, WT Magdalino, the onlyemperor oftheRomans. monarch, thatis,theonewhorules from theprestige oftheirownemperor,whom theythemselves call emperor oftheRomans. Forthereb They [the Greeks] takeitillthat , butacapitalwheretheLatin rulers Moleste siquidem ferunt quod eorum rex Rom Empire of Manuel I 85 anditisonlyduringhisreignthat ), 84 whileWilliam regularlyused stance hecommented: ntinopolitan emperor” didnotprovokesuchnegativityas , 86.

86 William, whowasontwooccasions anenvoy r inthe same way.UnlikehisWestern 87 e imperial dignity.Twi their [German] kingcallshimself their [German] the 25

portance ofterminology inaddressingthe emperor inanegativelight,hereferredto the prestige oftheiremperor.” Thethird ibulations oftheGerman armyduringthe supreme overallandtherefore is y heseems todetracttoomuch ConstantinopleasaGreekcity lity thatManuel betrayedthe Second Constantinople asacitywithLatin r oftheGreeks,”possiblyhetried,as anorum se dicit imperatorem: in hocenim didoncereside.Therefore,itis Byzantium was referredtoasthe the latter title.However,on ce helabeledAlexios par CEU eTD Collection Manuel was emphasized withotherrhetorical latter inamorenegative light. emperor” and the“emperor oftheGreeks,”andhis useoftheseshowsthat hesawthe Second, William usedtwotitlestoaddre history. Itaimed atcontra present more acceptable tohisreaders.Cons an intentiontoreshapethepopularviewof stepping stonebetweenManuelandAlexio who wagedwaragainsttheinfidelbutalso who wasmoldedinto“oneofus”figure,a argued, Alexios represented atypical Greekand figured asanantithesis toManuel, the Crusaderstates,whileAlexiosconsiste Alexios immediately becomes apparent.Ma When lookingattheimages ofthethree

sting Alexios’Greekempire emperors, anoppositi 26 held designs on Antioch, posed a kind of a held designsonAntioch,posedakindof ntly actedagainstthem. Thus,ithasbeen ss theemperor, the“Constantinopolitan “Latin.” Inthisway,John,anemperor of nuel’s reignbrought tantinople, according tohim, hadaLatin s. Theoppositionbe devices. First,itseems thatWilliam had the empire’s pastinordertomake the to Manuel’s “pro-Latin” one. on betweenManueland Byzantine supportto tween Alexiosand CEU eTD Collection Grecorum of civilizations. History oftheCrusades modern scholarship.Itwasal ultimately resulted inthe 1204sackofConsta A growingestrangement betweenEastan ORIGINS OFTHEIMAGE work, itisusefultoreflectonitsorigins. First Crusade. Buttounderstandtheimage treacherous ofthe GreeksinWilliam’s problem canonlybeelucidated whencompared totheaccusations oftreacheryinthe accused Manueloftreacheryseemingly cont Crusade regularly spokeoftheperfidious pages willshow,thechroniclersofFi surprise since, as Krijnie Ciggaarap Crusade (includingtheof1101)and There aretwoepisodesinthe 89 88 demonstrate thepresence oftheseimages done byMichaelRenschler, seeking deeperrootsofthene Runciman, Ciggaar,

Western Travellers Constantinople Travellers to Western became anestablished History of the Crusades 89 Thetheoryneverthelesssoon receivedrevisions,with historians TREACHERY OFTHEGREEKS thatthe First Crusade represen ready popularizedbythelateSi Historia

gative images oftheGreeks. Inthis respect the research . and lately,KrijnieCigg topos that tellofthetreachery tly put it, inthetwelfth century the ,

rst Crusade,Crusadeof1101andtheSecond 78-79. 27 in Crusade chronicles. Greeks.However,thefactthatWilliam in theeleventhandevententhcentury, d West inthe twel ntinople, isasahighlydebated issue in the SecondCrusade.Thiscomes asno radicts his image inthework.This ted aclassic case oftheclash aar, hasdonemuch to r StevenRunciman inhis of theGreeks:First 88 fth century,which Asthe following fallatia CEU eTD Collection and theCrusaders, century and shifted thefocus tothe conf Even though JonathanHarrishad recentlyagai overview presentedherefollowsthemain pointsof the estrangement whichfinallyledtothe when Latinhistoriansfrequently spokeof 93 92 91 90 Komnene, Alexios’daughter Emperors whendealingwith“barbarians”wereinfinitelyflexible.AsAnna Byzantines therewasnothingunusualabou numerous gifts andkind words,butalso resorting tomilitary force. Forthe leaders. the strengthofthesetroopstohisaims, Al Asia Minor, butalsoathreatto Emperor Alexiossawinthem potential mercen mission tohelptheEastern Christians a relations. WhereastheCrusadersthoughtofth the First Crusaderemains thecrucialpointindeterioration of theintercultural Even thoughthenegativitysurroundingim complements itbylooking alsoatthe deeperroots oftheimage. signification constitutionelle,” constitutionelle,” signification Jahrhunderts,” des 11. westlicher Autoren Jahrhunderts,” for the submission thesis. of the submission for the di Archeologia, 1986) was ordered through the Interlibrary Loan, but did not arrive before the deadline italo-bizan ed greco-romani nei rapporti dell’alterità Constantinople to On oaths in Byzantium, see Nicolas Svoronos, “Le serment de fidélité à l’empereur byzantin et sa etsa byzantin àl’empereur fidélité de “Leserment Svoronos, Nicolas in oaths see Byzantium, On 32. Ibid., Jonathan Harris, 10. Autoren im des Urteilwestlicher Byzanz Kultur und “Griechische Rentschler, Michael

93 The policyheappliedwascharacterized bythreatsandrewards:offering The Saeculum . The article byHerbert Hunger, “Graec Byzantium and the Crusades the and Byzantium 91 itisquiteclearthatthe presen 29 (1978): 324-355; idem, “Griechische Kultur und Byzanz im Byzanz und Urteil idem,Kultur “Griechische 29 (1978): 324-355; Revue des Études Byzantines

and panegyrist,succinctlypu thesecurityof Constantinople. Saeculum (London: Hambledon and London, 2003). 28 licting ideologies of theByzantineEmpire nd liberate Jerusalem from theMuslims, sack ofConstantinopl tini,” (Rome: Unione Internazionale degli Instituti Instituti degli Internazionale tini,” (Rome: Unione 31 (1980): 112-155; Ciggaar, Ciggaar, 112-155; (1980): 31 Grecia exios soughttoextractoathsfrom their emselves assoldiersofGodonadivine t that. ThetacticsoftheByzantine age oftheGreekswaspresentearlier, n confinedtheresear aries tobeusedagainst theTurksin 9 (1951): 106-142. 106-142. (1951): 9

ce ofanegativeim callida ulus perfidus/Italos itamos: Il senso , t it:“sometimes when the

fraudulens Harris’ argument, but 92 e in1204.Thus,the Hopingtoharness ch tothetwelfth Western Travellers or age facilitated mendax . 90

CEU eTD Collection mark ofsuperiorityover Byzantines, Constantinople. EvenAlbertofAachen,generallywelldisposedtowardsthe surprise thattheCrusadersweredisgr of attitudewas,asJonathan chance offersitself,anenemy canbebeatenbyfraud.” 98 97 96 95 94 century authorsand,more importantly, Cla Greek, basedontheattestationsfoundin old negative stereotypes oftheGreeks.Alex accusations foundfertilegroundintheWest overwhelmingly negativeimage ByzantinesinWestern ofthe chronicles. recorded the FirstCrusadefromtheNormanperspective,finally ledtoan propaganda, togetherwiththesuccessof Bohemund touredItaly andFrancein1106, a principality for himself in the . In order to realize these ambitions Taranto, aNorman andoneoftheCrusadeleaders, wholonghadambitions ofcarving Crusaders. Alexios’actionsatConstant Alexios, deterredbythepossibl however, andfurthermisunderstandings were wishes andsworeoathsoffealty.Frictions deceitful words.” Harris, Ibid., 74-75: Albert ofAachen, Harris, Anna Comnena, Here Harris’ argument fallsshorthowever,becausethe factthatthese Byzantium and the Crusades the and Byzantium Crusades the and Byzantium 96 versutias et venenatas vestes ipsius imperatoris acverba dolosa. wroteabout“thetricksandpoisone The Alexiad Historia 97 Still, nearlyalltheleaders ev , xxxiii. , xxxiii. , tr. E. R. A. Sewter (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1982), 477. 477. 1982), Books, Penguin (Harmondsworth: E.R.A.Sewter , tr. the uneducatedanduncultured.” Harris has argued, “almost a

, 89. , 31. e onslaughtoftheTurks,fa inople andAntiochworkedforBohemund of untled bythetreatment theyreceivedin 29 ssical authors.CiceroandJuvenal,among did notendatthewallsofConstantinople accusing the emperor of treachery. This accusing theemperoroftreachery. This was largelyduetothepresence ofage- ios’ actionswereaccepted astypically works ofprevioustenth-andeleventh- to come atthesiegeofAntioch,where d garments oftheemperor, andhis entually complied with emperor’s 94 FortheByzantines thiskind measure ofsophistication,a 95 iled tocomehelpthe Thusitcomes asno

, aworkwhich 98

CEU eTD Collection falleretcommodius, Grecorum observans morem, dequibusdicitur: “timeo Danaosetferentes.” dona notum fuit, “timeo Danaos et dona ferentes.” 26-27: 1948), Company, & Norton W. W. even when they beargifts.” See, WT 20.2. Greeks, “Ifearthe ofVergil: words the proved this that remarked Komnenos, William Andronikos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 68. strife betweenEastandWestindeedhaddeep perfect exampleofthis: “wisdom souniversalastobeinstantlyrecognizable.” Westerners. The ancient stereotypes,and Classicalliterature “Greeklings” ( always beenwell-known,evenamong certainlaymen.” in theSecond Crusade,“theproverb‘Ifear origin, Greeks wassimply confirmed inthenewcultural context.William of courseknewits The famous linefrom Vergil’s others, grumbledonandabouttheperfi 103 102 101 100 99 of conflictingideologiesduri elite. AccordingtoOdoofDeuil(1110–1162), Interestingly, knowledgeofthis Invention of Racism in Classical in Racism of Invention Foran overview oftheRomannegative attit Whenretellingthe story of abduction ofQueenTheodora, then wife of late KingBaldwin III,by WT11.6: Morse, Ruth Odo ofDeuil, 102 fear theGreeks,evenwhentheybeargifts.” them. Thusheupheldthecustom of abundantly withgifts,inorderthathemight morereadilydeceive before him[Alexios],hegavethem kindanswersandshoweredthem Nevertheless, whenthey[theCrus andthusbyrepeatingitheaimed togivehisviewsasignofconfirmation. presentibus tamen et coram positis benigna dabat responsa et munera largiebatur, ut eo eo ut largiebatur, etmunera responsa dabat benigna positis etcoram tamen presentibus The Journey of LouisVIItothe East Truth and Convention in the Middle Ages: Rhetoric, Representation and Reality Reality and Ages:Rhetoric, Representation in the Middle Convention and Truth Graeculi fallatia ).

Grecorum 99 Confrontations with theByzantinesthusenlivened the ng theFirstCrusade,aspropos

Aeneid particularlinewasnoteven (Princeton: Princeton University2003),Press, 381-405. became a Semper tamen etiam inter quosdam laicos istud proverbium proverbium istud laicos inter quosdam etiam tamen Semper condemningthedeceitfulsack ofTroybythe udes towards the Greeks, seeBenjamina Isaac, 30 ade leaders] presented themselves the Greeks,even whentheybear gifts’ has in turn gavecredence to theclaims ofthe dy, inconsistency, and effeminacy of the dy, inconsistency,andeffeminacy ofthe , ed.and tr. Virginia Gingerick Berry (NewYork: his nation,ofwhom itissaid“I topos er roots.Still,themain concernhereis chaplain toLouis 101 , andreferringtoitmeant evoking

100 103

William’s Thusevenifitwasacase ed byJonathanHarris,the restricted tothecultured VII and participant VII andparticipant Historia offersa The The CEU eTD Collection 107. Crusade: Origins and Impact or Greeks in generaland thatthey has pointedoutthateye-witnessaccountshad repeating certainmotifs andaccusations of heightened theinvective against Alexios transferred toAsia Minor.Thefollowing pages willshow howWilliam greatly were ultimately puttoanendoncethe by Alexios’schemes, grewrestive andreso Princes’ Crusadecoming one byonetoCons book thatwillbesubjected tothe analysis. second bookofthe image throughtheaccounts oftheFirstCrusade andtheCrusadeof1101.Itwas a treacherous Greekand“theworstpersecutor of Latins.” As theprevioussubchapterhasshown, theimage ofAlexiosinthe THE FIRST CRUSADE Crusade. in whatwayWilliam portrayed Byzantine actionsduringtheFirstand theSecond 105 104 with some minor digressions,recountedth is required. be shown,thisisnotthe caseinthe WT 12.5: 12.5: WT Jonathan Shepard, “Cross-Purposes: Alex

Of thefive leaders,Godfrey of Bouillonwasthefirst tobe presented. William, Alexius, Latinorum maximus persequutor. Historia , ed. Jonathan Phillips Jonathan , ed. that playedthekeyrolehowev

solely based theirattacksonAlexios. Historia ius Comnenus andthe First Crusade,” in 31 e Byzantine adventures There, William presentedtheleadersof

(Manchester: Manchester treachery.Moreover, Jonathan Shepard leaders tookoathsoffealtyandwere . First,however,asummaryofthebook tantinople, wheretheirarmies, provoked found inhissources

rted toviolence.Directconfrontations very littletosayaboutConstantinople 104 er, andtherefore itisthis William constructed this University Press, 1997), Press,1997), University of Godfrey and the of Godfreyandthe Historia byconsistently 105 Asitwill is that of The First CEU eTD Collection The lasttoarrivewasRobertofNorma Raymond ofToulouseandtheProvençalarmy inchapters17to22(pp.182–191). chapter 16(pp.181–182),followedbyamore deta Norman contingent. Ashortaccount ofRobe chapters 13to15(pp.177–181)describethepa chapter 23(pp.191–192).Theverylast Lorrainer army inchapters4to 106 the ones that hold themostprominent places, of thematerial isthatGodfrey, Bohe Alexios’ right-handman. What immediatel introduction of anewvillain tothe story, ( formation oftheunifiedChristianarmyonAsianshoreBosphorus,and is the accounts ofthefirstthree that Willia Normandy (ca. .” they leadthetroopsacross bridge requesting withpacifyingwords( encamped beforethewallsofConstant benignly, heinfactdidsowithahidden Crusaders; and(3)hisdeep-seate Alexios’ kindwordsandhishiddeninten emphasizing theGreekness andthree recurrent motifs: (1)thecontrast between est iuxta palatium quod appellatur Blaquernas, legiones suas transferant WT 2.6: WT First, itbecomes evident that every time Alexiosapproached theCrusaders affuit imperatoris nuntius, monens verbis pacificis et tamen in dolo ut, ponte transito qui qui transito ponte ut, in dolo tamen et pacificis verbis monens nuntius, imperatoris affuit 106

“Although by his words theemperor seemed “Althoughbyhiswords tobeinsympathywith 2 pp.altogether),dueto

d hatredtowardstheLatins. verbis pacificis 12 (pp.165–177).Immediately following, the mund andRaymond (ca.23pp.altogether) are the lackofdetail,fade 32 ndy, whosejourneyisbr agenda. ThuswhenGodfrey’stroopswere inople, “theemperor’smessenger came m coloredwith hisrhetoric, mostofallby y becomes evidentfromtheorganization chapter,24(pp.193–194),marks the whichisnexttothepalacecalled tions; (2)hissecret actions againstthe while RobertofFla ssage ofBohemund ofTarantoandthe rt ofFlanders’travelcomes nextin ), yetwithhiddenguile( iled descriptionofthetravels Tatinus . 2.14: intothebackground.It according toWilliam), nders andRobertof Hec imperatoris verba, iefly presented in iefly presentedin dolus ) that CEU eTD Collection de fideisinceritate processit. tota eius properabat intentio eius properabat tota Flattering wordswerenotlacking a “seemed tocontainmuch kindness,theywereimbuedwithpoison.” faith.” across theseasoonerthanheintended,di persuasion andstronglyurgedto experiences fellnothingshortof subtly concealingtherealguilebeneath,a messenger wascommandedbytheemperor to“address him withwordsofpeace, Alexios’ persuasivewords,which“induced the partiessettheirdifferencesasidein the pilgrims, yethisreal in 113 112 111 110 109 108 107 admixtum etsi in superficie multam videbantur habere hu this trickery. Alexios “secretly sent archers” night ( supposed tocarryoutsecretly( minions were highlighting tohispublic,thusproviding troops wereattacked.Itwasthemalicious concealing andhiding hispurpose,” occultabant admixtum. admixtum. occultabant ... exhiberet. WT 2.14: WT. 2.13: 2.13: WT 2.12: WT WT2.6: WT 2.7: [Imperator] WT 2.19: WT 108 de nocte And itwasnotlongthattheemperor took . Theapproachoftheem His autem etsi verbo compati videretur imperator, longe tamen alia mens eius erat et eo blandis persuasionibus et multa instantia pulsatus ut imperatori fidelitatem et iuramentum etiuramentum fidelitatem imperatori ut pulsatus et instantia multa persuasionibus blandis sicut vir erat subdolus, potens si Quod autem maturius ducis exercitum transfr verbis pacificis ei loquutus est in dolo, temptans si quo modo eum decipere. modo temptans estinposset si quo ei dolo, loquutus verbis pacificis etsi in superficie multam videbantur ha videbantur multam etsi superficie in ), asWilliam dulyemphasized.Again,allthreeleaders experienced misit occulte sagittarios. misit occulte . tent wasentirelydifferent.”

these. First,he was“assailed withflattering wordsof takeanoathoffealty,” peror, this“craftyma mulare etdissimulare propositum. nd, William emphasized again,althoughthey 109

proof tohisaccusationsoftreachery. towardsBohemund wasthesame. The 33 the end. However evenafterreconciled, theend.However nd tomake everyefforttodeceivehim.” manitatem, intrinsecus tamen virus occultabant virus tamen occultabant intrinsecus manitatem, intentoftheempe theduke[Godfrey] d notproceedfrom sincerityandgood 113 clam againstGodfrey,“covertlyprepared bere humanitatem, intrisecus tamen virus virus intrisecus tamen humanitatem, bere etare persuasionibus suis compulerat,non concrete stepsofactions,whichhis / occulte 107 Fightingsoonbrokeoutbut 112 ), attimes evenduringthe butoncehedeclined,his n, thoroughlyskilledin

ror thatWilliam was to conducthisarmy

111 Raymond’s

110

CEU eTD Collection [Imperator] semper nostrum persequi ardentissimestuduerunt clam William wrotehow treacherous Emperor Alexios, rhetoric thatcoloredthis episode,all for eye-witness accounts,ashasbeen pointedout already.InsteaditwasWilliam’s pursue our[Latin]peoplewithinexorablehatred.” werewellaware“thatthecrafty and Bohemund “wicked princeoftheGreeks”nothingelse every waypossible,pursueeventodeathLatinnation.” inchapter10.Theemperor’s and Bohemund present tohisaudienceforthefirsttime explicit accusations oftreacherywhichfollowed. suggestive terms, suchas ” 119 118 117 116 115 114 William’s sourcefor thisepisode, makesnomention of this hatred, make asuddenattackoncount[Raymond’s]forces.” irruentes, modisquibus possent, molestare attentarent occasio etitaopport agminibus et quinquagenarii, etnumerismilitaribusprep fatigare temptarent WT 2.10: 2.10: WT WT2.19: [Imperator] 2.13: WT Albert ofAachen, WT 2.10: There are moreThere four examples William secrecywhen at the of 2.13: pointed actions: Alexios’ aGrecis impugnatur exercitus leaders towhom itwasnotplain,in treachery oftheemperor werereve more andmore,daybyday,thetrickeryofGreeks Alexios’ motives werethefinal touch toWilliam’s rhetoric, whichhechoseto clam etde nocte primiceriis exercituumsuorum … impium Graecorum principem 114 semper fallere et omnem Latinorum nationem usque ad mortem modis omnibus persequi insidias. ei parat occulte imperator forBohemund andagain “secretlyor ; 2.14: ; 2.14: Historia unitas se offerret, offerret, se unitas clam praecipit legionum clam praecipit Irruit Irruit in domini comitis irruunt expeditiones expeditiones comitisirruunt in domini , 82-83. “secretly”and“atnight” clam

; 2.20: ; 2.20: personification of alltheGreeks. Inthefinal chapters exercitusimperatoris nocte Igitur qui imperatoris mandat imperatoris qui Igitur ; 2.10:

throughthecorrespondencebetween Godfrey vel interdiu, clamsive vel interdiu, aliter

clam . the purposeofconstructinganimage ofthe 34 quod odio inexorabili Graecorum astutiae populum populum astutiae Graecorum inexorabili odio quod suarum primiceriisutre aled. Therewasnownooneofthe ositi, regiamexequentesiussionem, premonitis fact clearerthanthesunatmidday, precipit could havebeenexpected;bothGodfrey . alleged purposewasto raceofthe Greeksalwaysdesiresto in castraBoamundi 116 118 dered thechiefsof thusaimed togivesupportthe … Interestingly,Albertof Aachen, 115 (emphasis mine). ut, si forte eis conveniens daretur Frequentrepetitionofhighly um susceperant, centuriones, pente in exercitum comitis pente inexercitumcomitis exercitumprocedentem ; 2.20: ; 2.20: 119 117 “deceiveand,in nordotheother Butfrom the hislegionsto Comitis absentis absentis Comitis . CEU eTD Collection [ irruatur exercitum loquebatur, fraus imperator habentes compertam suorum nostrum et omne Latinorum genus haberet invisum. esset de principibus, cui non esse manifestum et luce clarius quanto odio populum persequebatur variations ofthephrase trickery ( throughout thesecondbook.Theemperor’s acti proof. Thisepisodestands asaperfect example of William’s approach toAlexios for thearchbishopofTyreensuingat Although Albert,William’s source,didnots emperor’s trickery[Godfrey’s]armyisremovedtoamoreconfinedspace.” treachery. The titleofthesixthchapter Constant reiterationofthesemotifs went Greeks. Alexiosbecame atruevillain. toward theLatins–hatred that William exp Thus theemperor’sintentionsandactions 123 122 121 120 reader wasonlymeant toremembers the sim distinct sameness. BetheyGodfrey’s, combined withthe motifs discussed giveth internuntios internuntios facit liberalitatis erat, nec gratie, sed timoris desperati et desperati timoris sed gratie, erat, nec liberalitatis circumventio Grecorum Besides the previously quoted example, there are ten more. WT 2.9: Albert ofAachen, WT2.6: 2.22: WT ; 2.20: ; 2.20: detested thewholeLatinrace. that Alexioswaspursuingourpeople fraus fraus imperatoris ] fraude imperatoris ducis transfer formam

cotidie magis ac magis Grecorum dolus et fraus imperatoris detegebatur, ita ut iam nemo iam ita ut nemo detegebatur, etfraus imperatoris dolus Grecorum magis magis ac cotidie principis ; 2.23: [ / circumventio ; 2.19: ; 2.19:

recipiens Historia Tatinus

fraus

imperatoris fraus et circumventio detegebatur ; 2.12: [ ; 2.12: Quodque ] , 77-78. erat (emphasis mine). ab ). Appearingaltogether eleventimes evenly dispersed, the eo et circumventio

[ imperator imperatore [ imperator ; 2.21: ; 2.21: 120 tur exercitus ad locum angustiorem.

Raymond’s orBohemund’s experiences,the ] Quicquid

inasensedetermine thewholebook, fraude solita 35 ] ; 2.19: ; 2.19: already informed thereaderhow“by versavicecommentorum et

hand-in-hand withexplicitaccusationsof ] tack oftheemperor’ principibus quasi liberaliter liberaliter quasi principibus all resultedfrom hisdeep-seatedhatred e individualadventuresoftheleadersa ; 2.20: ; 2.20: ee theemperor’s request astrickery, licitly attributed ascommontoallthe ilarities between the events of aseries with intensehatredandthathe fraudulente versutie autem Imperator fraudulenterprecipit imperatoris fraudem ons repeatedlybearthemark of ducemcircumvenit [ imperator ] Fraudem imperatoris loquebatur, loquebatur, ; 2.19: ; 2.19: s troopsconstituted fraudis

apertissimam notam ; 2.14: nequam illorum illorum nequam contulerat perfrequentes quicquid dolus , ut in eius 123 erat et erat nec and and eis 122 121 et

CEU eTD Collection Press, 2002), 111-112. 111-112. 2002), Press, and unscrupulousduplicity.” and ignorethedifferences. 127 126 125 124 plans directinghisnefariousschemes.” through frequentmessengers whowentback whose slitnostrils weresignof hisevilmind.” emperor offeredthem aguide,hisconfidan made itclear that Alexios stillstrove to work. Still,eventhough theCrusadersleft thepeak oftheanti-Greeksentimentssecond bookwastoremain untiltheendof the CrusaderleadersandGreekhatredofLatins. mental image oftheepisodebecomesform Crusade leaderswhosuccessivelypassth occupy thecenterofread the FirstCrusade,buthe wastheone who Indeed, William knewhisphysicaldescriptio the connection William made betweenTatikios’ slit nostrils andhis “evilmind.” enemy now.What isthemost interestingin Crusaders, althoughnotnearlyasAlexios abominable henchman, whonowbecame doing sohe tookhis place in thelonglistof MiekeBal, WT 2.24: 2.24: WT 2.24: WT 2.24: WT Once theCrusaderscrossedBosphor ab eo versa vice commentorum et fraudis per frequentes internuntios formam recipiens. imperator. plurimum presumebat et dolositate perplexa malicia eius de vir nequam et perfidus, narens habens mutilas in signum mentis perverse. in perverse. signum mentis mutilas habens etperfidus, narens vir nequam Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative 124 126

Thus,Alexios andtheGreeksbecome theoneswho Inreturn,Tatikios“was er’s attention,whilepart 36 127 thwart them from reaching their goal. The rough Constantinoplebecome blurred.A t Tatikios,“awickedandtreacherousman did. It was the Turks who were themaindid. ItwastheTurkswhowere made thelinkwith hi ed, marked byAlexios’treacheryagainst thevicinity ofConstantinople, William Alexiosthuspassed the torch tohis this finalchapterof the onewhopresenteddanger forthe 125 n from thecontemporary chroniclesof authors whointhec andforth betweenthem,outlinesof Alexiosgreatlyreliedonhis“malice us theinvectivesubsidedand receivingfrom hismaster, (Toronto: University of Toronto Toronto of University (Toronto: icular experiencesofthe thebookhowever,is s innerqualities.By ourse of invective ourse ofinvective CEU eTD Collection historians.” Cf.Isaac, popular, both among medical authors, notably the highly influental Galen, and among orators and mental characteristicsarealways Mi in the popular remained concept “The . Clement and of Christian like Origen authors even Gellius, and Trogus, Aulus Galen, and theGreekswhom herepresented.W throughout thebook.Thisinvectivehoweverha weaving ofthesemotifs intohis account repetition ofAlexios’sinistermotives, malic Detailed analysisprovidedherehasshow catastrophic defeats. Louisan the route throughtheByzantine Empire, bu VII ofFrance(r.1137–1180)andConrad III (r.1145–1153). UnliketheFirst Crusade, consternation intheWest, a In 1144Edessa,theoldestCrusaderstate,felltoTurks.Thenewscausedgreat THE SECOND CRUSADE where theimage appears–theSecond Crusade. treacherous Greekcanbefullyappreciated personality. used physiognomy, theorythataperson’sout 129 128 the Inantiquity, physiognomywas popular both with Greek and Latin writers, among them Aristotle, Edbury and Rowe, and Edbury Gesta Francorum

As EdburyandRowehavealready not 128

InventionRacism of William ofTyre William ,

fall shortoftheanti-Greeksentiment foundinthe nd asaresultnew Crusad grouped into correlating types. This persumed discipline was very discipline This persumed types. correlating into grouped

d Conradgatheredtheremn , 134. , 134. , 149-162. , 149-162. thus allowed William toshout:“Treachery!” 37 III ofGermany (r.1138–1152).Bothchose hy William emphasized theimage ofthe t upon reaching AsiaMinor bothsuffered only whencompared tothe otherepisode ddle Agesand afterwards. Basically,physicaland ious intent andsurreptitious actions. The n thatthereason liesin theconstant this expedition wasledbykings,Louis ed, allof William’s sources, including er appearance gives insights into his er appearancegivesinsightsintohis d twotargets:Alexios,theemperor, e was called by Eugene e wascalledbyPopeEugene ants oftheirarmies and Historia . 129

CEU eTD Collection De profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem Crusading, emperor. was atleastpartlyattributed tothe duplic betray him asanextreme xenophobe,inth . Thewholeexpeditionwasthusacompletefailure. eventually reachedtheHolyLand, wher 132 131 130 the oneswho takethe spotlight: altogether threepages. of theGreeksinSecondCrusadeisrefe over ca. Alexios and theGreeks onconsistentlyrepeatedaccusations oftreachery spanning account oftheFirst Crusade.Asitwas Alexios; and(2)thewholeepisodefallsshor closely, however,itbecomes clearthat:(1) the anti-Greekinvective of thisandcomposed theepisodewiththisinmind. with the Turks in order todestroy theChristian forces. Greeks permeated hiswork,eventothepoint ofsayingthat theemperor colluded virulent anti-Byzantine bias. Frequentaccusa Cambridge University Press, 1993). Press, University 1993). Cambridge Contemporaries,” analysis ofthecontemporary sources, see Gile , ofthe overview adetailed For Harris, On thesethreepages,theguideswhichManuel provided fortheCrusadersare At firstglance, William’s accountoftheSecondCrusadepresentsareturn to Odo ofDeuilwroteanaccountthe

23 pages,withmoreattacksappearingla Byzantium and the Crusades the and Byzantium 132

volume 1: Western Approaches Havingstudied inFrance for twenty years, William wascertainly aware The Journey ofLouisVIIto theEast Traditio Traditio 9 (1953), 213-279. 213-279. 9 (1953), found inthesecondbookofhiswork.When analyzed Second Crusade,seeTyerman,

, 100. as aSource for the Second Crusade,” in , eds. Marcus Bull and Norman Housley, 80-95 (Cambridge: 38 e they undertookanunsuccessfulsiege of s Constable, “The Second Crusade asSeenby shown, William basedhisvilification of ity andtreacheryoftheGreekstheir e WestthefailureofSecondCrusade t oftheanti-Greeksentiment found inthe tions oftreachery and heresyagainstthe Manuel isnot made intoavillainlike , 68-71. Cf. Jonathan Phillips, “Odo of Deuil’s ofDeuil’s “Odo Phillips, Cf.Jonathan , 68-71. rred tointwochaptersthattakeup Second Crusadecharacterizedbyits ter inthetext aswell.The treachery God’s War God’s 131 EvenifOdo’swritings 130

, 268-338. For a thorough athorough For , 268-338. The Experienceof CEU eTD Collection imperatoris Grecorum, constructa fuerunt hec tam periculosa molimina. regis Francorum ... copia et longe amplior ministraretur oportunitas. etexpugnandi opprimendi simplicem fierethostibus maior populum quibus loca, introducere ea in domini sui sive hostium corrupti pecunia studiose et exindustria per devia ceperunt trahere legiones et command oftheGreekemperor,” plausible, thatthes chapter William confirmed that“itwascommontalk,andnotfar from being outlines ofplansdirecting hisnefarious compared withTatikiosintheFirstCrusad The uncertaintyaboutattribut 135 134 133 his audience.Hisintentionwasnottovi Minor. Thus, itcanbeassumed thatWilliam hadtoaddressthis issuefor thesakeof Manuel wasresponsibleforthecatastrophewh plausible,” butnomore thanthat.Ashe William mentionedthat theaccusations directed athim are“notfarfrom being Second Crusade,howeveritis crime.” of theKingFranceinordertoadd William callsthem, first ledtheGerman army astrayandthen “hastened tothearmy of rhetoric.Theguidesaretheoneswhobeco WT 16.21: WT WT16.20: WT16.21: 135 It isclearthat the anti-Greek sentimen attack andovercome thecredulouspeople.” them intoplaceswhichofferedth they purposelyledthelegionsthro Either commanded bytheirmaster or also bytheircustomary hatredoftheChristians, actedtreacherously. The Greeks[guides],led bythemali

Dicebantur publice, nec a verisimili multum abhorrebat, quod de conscientia et mandato etmandato conscientia de quod averisimili multum abhorrebat, nec Dicebantur publice, Illi autem, ut prolongarent iniquitatemsibi Verum Greci, innata usi malicia et consueto in nostros ducti odio, sive demandato properant exercitum. e perilouswanderingsweredevise

alsoclearthatManuelis ing theblame toManuelis 134 itisclearthat thisaccusationiscompletely void 39 schemes.” Eventhoughinthefollowing himself related, “itwascommon talk”that e enemy favorableopportunities to ugh unfrequentedroutesanddrew e, who“wasreceivingfrom hismaster … theirwickednessandheapcrime upon ce inherent intheGreekraceand lify Manuel,butrathertodeflectthe t ispresent in William’s accountof the becausebribedbytheTurks, me vilified;these “sons ofBelial,”as ich befell the Crusader troops in Asia ich befelltheCrusadertroopsinAsia et peccatumpeccato adde 133

d withtheknowledgeandat not theonewhoisattacked. evident, especiallywhen rent, viri Belial,ad CEU eTD Collection Oriente moram egerunt nostrorum principum vias omnes suspectas habebant. suspectas omnes vias principum nostrorum egerunt moram Oriente esse decernunt, fraudeseorum quieosseduxerantde quorum fidei animas suas et negocia commiserant, maliciam, scientes quod non proficerent redeundum evoked accusationsof treacherysetagainst AlexiosandtheGreeks whom he William coloredthe second book with his rhet Greeks, the latterepisode wasconditioned bytheexpectations of hisaudience. image ofAlexios,the treacherous Greek Crusade, itbecomes apparentthat whileth When comparing theConstantinopolitanepisod inglorious episodewhichwouldbeblurre in theworld.”Hisprobabletreacherydur same withManuel,afriendoftheLatinsand audience, which hewished tobeappreciativ history ofhisownkingdom. Again, itwasneces thusdidnotkeep The archbishopofTyre for theLatin East,commented: also stoodaccusedoftreachery.William, althoughwriting hisworkasan drawn withtheaccountof thesiegeof Damascus, becauseofwhichtheJerusalemites “malice inherentintheGreek race.” accusations oftreachery totheguides,who 136 WT 17.6:

The pilgrimprincesthereforetookc To understandWilliam’s accusation ofManuelbetter,aparallel should be askance onallthewaysofourleaders. long astheyremained intheOrient the perfidybywhichthey havebe whose loyaltytheyhadentrustedthei clearly theynowperceived treachery Colloquentes itaque peregrini principes adinvicem videntes que manifestam illorum, illorum, manifestam que videntes adinvicem principes peregrini itaque Colloquentes

d oncesetagainsta 40 e former servedWilliam inconstructing an and,indeed,afterthattheylooked en deceived.…Henceforward,as silentoveranunpleasantepisodeinthe ing theSecond Crusadewasindeedan e afterreadinghiswholework.Itwasthe testantes. …Quideincep r lives andinterests, and abhorred emperor, thepersonificationofall ounsel withoneanother.Alltoo 136 of those[Eastern Latin lords] to “the most generousamong alltherulers were infacttheonesrepresenting oric byfrequentlyrepeating motifs that e oftheFirstCrusadewithSecond

sary toaddressitforthesakeof larger picture.

s non solums non quamdiuin apologia CEU eTD Collection the SecondCrusadedidnotl treachery duringtheFirstCrusadeprovede account oftheSecondCrusade is Greek andManuel,the pro-Latinemperor. Thisbecomes apparent whenWilliam’s on onemore level;ithighlightedthecontrast at emphasizing thevalorofCrusaders. ha represented. EdburyandRowe 137 Edbury and Rowe, and Edbury William ofTyre William eave anymarks onManuel.

, 135. , 135. takenintoconsideration. ve interpretedthisasarh 41 137 Itcanbeaddedthatthisstrategy worked betweenAlexiosasatypicaltreacherous ssential inconstructing Alexios’image, Whereas theaccusationsof etorical strategythataimed CEU eTD Collection emphasized thestrength andvalorofth referred toindicatethattheimage he When analyzing William’s pre-1182 writings,thecontexts wherethe effeminacy was ORIGINS OFTHEIMAGE problem inordertoelucidat scholars sofar.Thusitbecomes toofferheresomepossibleanswersthe necessary Greeks, responsestotheirallegedeffemin used them showsthathe molles Altogether on fiveoccasion,heevok its boundaries.Hehaddonesobyreferringtothe military effeminacy oftheGreeks. Even if William wasconstructing apositive image of Manuel’sempire, heclearly set 139 138 tender (astypicalofwomen; “untypical, unworthyofa effeminatus As forthemeanings of massacre of Latinsand willthus be addressed accordingly inthefollowing chapter. 1182, andwill beanalyzedhere, whilethe OLD, 588; 1127-1128. 1127-1128. 588; OLD, 22.12. and 22.11, 17.17, 15.1, 2.4, chapters: following the in so did William . 138 Unlike the responsesoftheCrusaders to Threeoftheseappearinthe materi as“imitating awoman inappearanceorbehavior,effeminate” and EFFEMINACY OFTHEGREEKS the words used,while the treated themassynonymous. e the useoftheeffeminacy man, womanish, unmanly,”

also ofemasculated men).” ed thisimage byusingtwowords, ld amilitary connotation; namely, William 42 acy hadnotattractedtheinterestof other twocome upintheaccountof e Latins,towhichhecontrasted the al leadinguptoth what they sawasthe treacheryof the

Oxford LatinDictionary translates as arhetorical device. mollis 139 ThewaythatWilliam isdefinedas“soft, e breakingpointin effeminati and CEU eTD Collection bellorumque exercitiis raro vexata, facile in virtute robustorum potuit superari, superata decollari. decollari. superata superari, robustorum potuit invirtute facile vexata, exercitiisraro bellorumque volumine doctos, in prelio non morte, non aliquo genere armorum posse absterreri. absterreri. posse armorum genere aliquo non morte, non prelio in doctos, volumine equorum miro viros fortissimos, committere,scitote bellum est difficile quos etadversum didicistis, effeminacy oftheGreeks,expressedinthei 141 140 – acharacteristicwhich furthercontribute in additiontobeingweakandcowardly,theGreeks arenotskilledinhorsebackriding death and,furthermore, haveknowledge“about knights, whothusepitomize manliness –they alleged inexperience inmartial activities. Th It isclearthat inAlbert’sview theeffeminate natureoftheGreekscomesfrom their armies. Itisadifferentcase Therefore, inhiseyes,theeffeminate Gr Crusaders defeated,utterthefollowingwords: Greeks. HeachievedthisbyhavingKiliçArslan, leader of theTurkswhom the heroic Crusaderarmy atthesiegeof chroniclers oftheFirstCrusade. an understandingofwhatevokingthisimag Albert ofAachen, Ibid., 254-257: 254-257: Ibid., fear ofdeathinbattle the wonderfulwaysofhorses,andth war –knowthattheyareveryc have learnt from theletters, andag But thesemen whosenames, stre decapitated. easily overcome bythestrengthof hardmen, and,onceovercome, who havebeenrarelytroubledbyth The imperial army andeffeminate Greekpeople, ismadeupofsoft One canstartwith Albert ofAachen Hos veroHos quorumet nomina, Historia 140

, 254-255: , 254-255: , however,withtheCrusaders: or byanysortofweapons.

Imperatoris exercitus gens Grae Nicaea in 1097setitagainsttheimage ofthe ourageous men, knowledgeableabout 43 eeks donotposeathreatfortheTurkish s totheireffeminacy. Assuch,theGreeks virtutes et bella et industrias litterarum noticia virtutesetbellaindustrias litterarum ngth, andwarfaretalentsyou r weaknessandcowardice.Inordertogain ainst whomitis ey represent the antitype of the Crusader ey represent theantitypeofCrusader e exerciseofwars,andcouldbe ey cannotbefrightenedawayby who inconstructing theimage of the arestrong,courageousinthefaceof e meant, itisusefultoturnthe thewonderfulwaysofhorses.”Thus, 141

difficult towage corum mollis eteffeminata, CEU eTD Collection Hadley, 71-88 (London: Longman, 1998). 1998). Longman, (London: 71-88 Hadley, England and Northern Fran arma eorum), denuo exeunt Aachen. observation undoubtedlyoriginatingfrom aCr Crusaders. TheGreekswereperceivedas ( had theirplaceinthe Byzantinearmy, a Seljuq Turks turned Greeks recruited defeat intheBattle remnants of whichwereincorporated into authorofthe provoked aresponse.TheanonymousNorman par excellence struck theCrusadersascont 147 146 145 144 143 142 reader. Ifonetakesintoc wrote. bows –yousee,thesearetheirweapons story ofaGerman-Greek skirmish makes mercenaries tofighthisbattles. recorded how “wretched Emperor Alexios” Turcopolis et Pinzinacis inuadere illos et illos occidere inuadere et Pinzinacis Turcopolis 6: Press, 1979), Tourkopouloi Ibid., 2100. 2100. Ibid., ODB, 1613. in Masculinity “Military seeMatthew Bennett, manliness, of ideal asthe mounted the For Odo of Deuil, Albert ofAachen, The Deeds of the Franks and Other Pilgrims to Jerusalem 147 There wereothercharacteristics of th 146 Itwasacondescendingremark, aime Itisevenmore revealingtoreadOdoofDeuil,whointhemiddle ofthe Et cum putarent exire fiducialiter quo uellent, iniquus imperator Alexius imperauit imperauit Alexius imperator iniquus uellent, quo exirefiducialiter putarent Et cum , lit.“Sons of theTurks”) testifying totheir origin. , arising intheWest atthat time. The Journey of Louis VII to the East Historia ofLebounionagainst . ce c. 1050-c. 1225,” in 1225,” c. 1050-c. ce , 310-311: D , 310-311: onsideration thefact rary totheidealofm

143 anaosque arcu doctos etsagitta doctos arcu anaosque Whereas Pechenegswerenomadic people, 44 . theByzantine army aftertheircatastrophic a small digression. “Then,takinguptheir a small fact whichdidnotgounnoticedbythe the empire in1091, from AsiaMinor,theirveryname Masculinity in Medieval Europe Medieval in Masculinity “skilled with bow , 42-43: that the Lateran Councils of 1139 and thattheLateranCouncilsof1139and usedTurcopoles andPechenegsas 142 they [Greeks]wentforthagain,”he usader veteran,pennedbyAlbertof d atprovokingindignationfrom the e Byzantinearmy thatcould have

ounted knight,amasculine figure , ed. Rosalind Hill (Oxford: Clarendon Clarendon Hill(Oxford: , ed.Rosalind Tunc sumptis arcubus (haec enim sunt . 144 145 andarrow”–an Gesta Francorum Turcopoleswere Archer unitsalso , ed. Dawn M. Dawn , ed.

CEU eTD Collection 1215 banned,although ultimately unsuccessfull 148 The archbishopofTyremade useofthis EFFEMINACY ASARHETORICALDEVICE proxies, and,thusulti its antitype–theimage of fighting theirownbattleshonorablyinclos contrast arose betweenthisimage andthe place, intheworldofWesternChristendom th discrepancy becomes apparent.Whereasinthe Byzantinearmy archershadtheir cessation ofLatinruleoverConstantinoplehe his readers animage oftheempire in a passage ofCrusaderarmies throughtheem and thefirst time thatWilliam labeled theGreeks aseffeminate, hewasnarrating the .Fromtheverybeginningofhis by opposingittotheimage manly ofthe Latinsasdivinelyapprovedrulersofthe dishonorable tactic.Ifonea act avoiding fighting one’sownbattles,the use of archerunitswasperceived asa least ideally. without exposingthemselves todanger,was Publications, 1988), 276. 1988), Publications, Approaches SeeRosemary Ascherl, “The Technology ofChivalry,” in

Thus whiletheuseofmercenaries could , eds. Howell Chickering and Thomas H. Seiler (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Thomas and H. Seiler(Kalamazoo:, Institute HowellChickering Medieval eds. mately, effeminate. weak,cowardlyanddishonor dds thecrudenessofGree

45 image oftheeffeminate, unwarlikeGreek, e combat.Theimage oftheGreeksbecame ideal of manliness – miserable state, andattributing itto the narrative hewasbuildinguptothispoint, pire’s European provinces. He presented pire’s Europeanprovinces.Hepresented considered unjustanddishonorable–at furthernotedthattheeffeminacy ofthe e useoftheseunits, y, archerydirected atChristians, have beeninterpretedasacowardly The Study of : ResourcesChivalry: and The Studyof able peoplefightingthrough ks in horseback riding, a ks inhorsebackriding,a the mounted knights which killedothers 148 a CEU eTD Collection apostolorum sedes prima. apostles.” and splendidmistress ofmany provinces, emperor, hispeopleweresimply notma Greeks asacounter-argument totheemperor’s occasions one findsthistobe the case,andinbothWilliam usedtheeffeminacy ofthe Northern Syria, he stepped overthe line ally. So whenaByzantine Emperor challenged the LatinruleoverAntiochand Empire playedthepartofanallyinth Crusader territory. Theaudiencewas presentedwith ascheme inwhichtheByzantine William’s rhetorical devices used tolimit th Manuel’s reigntheempireregainedits Holy Land. legitimize the First Crusade, whichinturn inability of theGreeks toresist theMu toshowthe reason forthesubsequentdownfallofempire’s fortunes.Theaimwas oftheGreeksdurin pinpoint theeffeminacy Northern Syriawithanarmy of“peoplesu year 1137theemperor, a“man ofgreatco the Greekrulewithmisery oftheem Greeks had ledtothe loss of th 150 149 mollicie. mollicie. Necsolu calamitate. sunt involute cum aliis pari WT 2.4: WT WT 1.9: WT This thoughtiscontinu Again John’sexpeditionstoNorthernSyriahave tobeanalyzed.Thus,inthe 150 Erant et alie in eodem tractu provincie, Achaia, Thessalia, et Tracie tres, que etTracietres,que Macedonia Achaia, Thessalia, eodemtractu provincie, in etalie Erant nobilis et eximia provinciarum multarum moderatrix et princeps civitas, principis civitas, principis etprinceps moderatrix multarum provinciarum et eximia nobilis

e empire’sEuropeanprovinces. ously presentinthe e warsagainst the Mus nly enoughtopreserveAntioch,“thatnoble pire wasnotenough. William felthehadto 46 mmoned from alltribesandtongues,with a that William haddrawnfor him. Ontwo m has predictas provincias sua Greci amiserant Greci amiserant sua provincias m has predictas strength andtheimage becameoneof slims andother barbarians andthusto established Latins asthe protectors of the urage,” a“man ofthepeople,”came to g theruleofGr e ambitions that the empire heldonthe claims. Regardlessof the first seatoftheprince Historia 149 lims –butonlyofan . DuringJohn’sand eek emperorsasthe Simply connecting thepersonof CEU eTD Collection caput et moderatrix provinciarum, in manus effeminati Grecorum populi descenderet. populi Grecorum effeminati manus in provinciarum, et moderatrix caput fuerat semper tantarum que restituta, fidei christiane dispendio felicium principum sanguinis tantoque opportunity to use the effeminacy opportunity tousetheeffeminacy suzerainty. Commenting onthesedemands se to lettheByzantine garrison inside theci into theempire,whileRaymond, princeofAn The goalwastosubdueCilicia to lose itagain. countless number ofcavalryandavast ar 153 152 151 fighting valiantlyagainst theMuslims, th opposite. Thus, while theaudiencewaspresentedwithanimage oftheemperor ideal inwhichtheemperor was supposedtoacttowardstheCrusaderstatesandits inconsistency. However,asithadbeendiscussed,Johninthiswaypresentedbothan soldiers against the infidel duringthesiege of Shaizar,may pointtoWilliam’s discussed hereheisdescribedasa with avastarmy toNorthern Syria,and on more thanoneoccasionbecauseoftheirweakness( eight months. Furthermore, William concludesthatsince the Greekshadlostthecity archbishop ofTyrerecountedthevalorth here isjuxtaposedwiththe“precious Unmanly Greeks,therefore,wouldnotbeabletodefendAntioch.Theireffeminacy curruum et quadrigarum et inauditis copiis equitu copiis etinauditis et quadrigarum curruum WT 15.3: 14.24: WT WT 15.20. 15.20. WT should fallintothehandsofeffeminate Greeks. Christian faithattheexpenseofpr nation hadacquiredatsuchperila For itseemed averyharshandseri Durum enim videbatur et grave nimis, quod civitas tanto nostre gentis adquisita periculo, convocatis de universis imperii finibuspo 153 Thefactthatattheendof

and Antiochto his rule. Soon for thesecondtime inhiswork: magnificent warleader,fightingamong his blood of fortunate princes,” by which the blood offortunateprinces,”bywhichthe m congregatis in Syriam descendere maturabat. maturabat. descendere in Syriam congregatis m 47 rough effeminacy William settheempire’s ray ofchariots and four-wheeledcarts.” nd whichhadbeenrestoredtothe ous matter that thecity, whichour tadel of hiscityandtoaccept Byzantine ecious bloodoffortunateprinces, that eventwochaptersprior totheone e firstcrusaderswhobesiegedthecityfor t forthbytheemperor William tookthe tioch, wasconfrontedwiththerequest previous bookonefindsJohncoming pulis, tribubus etlinguis,in multitudine per ignaviam 152

Ciliciawasincorporated ), they weresure

151

CEU eTD Collection supportare noverant, eam cepit aggravare. frequen presumens, commissa erat, quibus mollicie, conservanda regione omnino desperantes Grecis, viris effeminatis et mollibus, opida resignaverat. time. Cf. atthat Magdalino, theLatin hands were stillin relation to theCrusader states. Theempire Land andNorthernSyria andtodefine relations, William opportunitytojus sawan Edessa, thefortresses inherpossession. final time. In1150,EmperorManuelboughtfr label the Greeksaseffeminate aiming attheirmilitary incapability, for thethirdand with hisquill,putitinto Greekfromof theeffeminate thecontempor limitations inrelationto theCrusaderstat 157 156 155 154 rhetorical figureof make themostofit.Moreover,bygroupingboth effeminacy of theGreekstwotimes inthesame chapter,itisclear thathetried to preserving theentiretyofCrusaderterr force. for Literary Study WT17.17: WT 17.17: county the of part inthe western fortresses in However, 1144. forces al-Din’s toNur Edessa fell For more about 157 And he was soontocorroboratehisar And hewas The proof wasthusprovidedfor William’s argument, andbystressingthe sorely. the Greekstowhosechargeithadbeenresigned,hebegantrouble the aid of the Latins. Accordingly, Nur al-Dinnowperceived thatthe people away. and effeminate people,andthatthekingmarched theretoconductthe retaining theland,hadsu The newsreachedNural-Dinthatthe peopleof Edessa,indespair of Eventhoughatthattime Antioch Audiensitaque Noradinus quodad educendum rex populum ingressus fuerat etquod de Videns igitur Noradinus terram comitis Latinorum auxilio destitutam, de Grecorum de Grecorum destitutam, Latinorum auxilio terramcomitis Noradinus igitur Videns 156 (Leiden: Brill, 1998), 292-295. (Leiden:292-295. Brill,1998), synonymia

155 synonymia

h evc fhspoaad. the serviceofhispropaganda. , see Heinrich Lausberg,

, William, vigorousin emphasizing the needof rrendered theirfortresses

154 48

es. The archbishop ofTyretooktheimage itory, soughttogivehismessage emotional once more thepositionofempire in taking advantageofthesoftness land ofthecountwasleftwithout ary chroniclesoftheFirstCrusadeand, tify theLatinguardian hadbeentested,butitfailedto gument, notmissing theopportunityto tibus irruptionibus et quas Greci non satis satis Grecinon etquas irruptionibus tibus Handbook of Literary Rhetoric: A Foundation A Foundation LiteraryRhetoric: of Handbook Empire of Manuel I was nolongerastumbling blockin om Beatrice,thewidowed countessof molles totheGreeks,soft , 66. and effeminati ship oftheHoly inthe CEU eTD Collection Magdalino, Byzantine fleet; Onthis occasion Andronikos Kontostephanos was the one who was in charge. Cf. in acie decertabant I ( William characterized theactions of th by analyzingsituations reason behindit. preserve theplacesforChristianity. The 160 159 158 imperial army,actingin itsownsphere,f defined thewholeofChristianity–both Greek unmanliness; rather, byfindingthereason suffered agreatdefeat atMyriokephalon. Ag .” against the“themonstrous raceoftheTurksandtheirwicked leader, sultanof ardently supported.In1176Manuelmounted expedition against theinfidel that was pr the LatinsasrulersofHolyLa clearly shows thatWilliam used This wasthecasewhenempire foughtth andnavytogetherwith th other foughtmanly andboldl even thoughtheexpeditionfailed,“their[Greek]commander expedition againsttheFatimid Egypt,laying About Manuel’s campaign against Konya an , 95-98 and Lilie, and , 95-98 viriliter WT WT 21.11: WT 16.20: WT 21.11: 21.11: WT William’s useof theeffeminacy asarhetorical devicecanbe further clarified 159 ). Thecontradictionbetweenthisex Empire of Manuel I Manuel’saim wasto“extend theChristianname,” pro ampliandochristiano nomine. Eorum tamen magistratus megaducas et alii viriliter et satis strenue, quotiens opus erat, erat, opus quotiens strenue, satis et viriliter etalii megaducas magistratus tamen Eorum contra inmanissimam Turcorum gentem et impium eorum ducem, Yconii soldanum. Byzantium and the Crusades ;

ODB, 1330: whereitcouldhaveverywell , 74. “

Megaducas” or y intheba effeminacy simply a rhetorical device used to define effeminacy simplyarhetorical deviceusedtodefine d itsCrusade character, see Magdalino, , 211-215. , 211-215. nd. HereitwastheByzantine-Jerusalemite esented, outcome of apolicywhichWilliam ought theMuslims asaChristianarmy. The 49 e forcesofKingAmalric undertookajoint e Greeksonthebattlefield as“manly” Western andEastern–as“us.”Manuel’s effeminacy ofthe Greekpeople was the megas doux ttle array.” e infidelbutlost.In siege toDamietta. William reportedhow ain, William didnotattribute thelossto ample andtheonesalreadydiscussed agreatcampaign, aCrusadeinfact, forsuchamassacre in“oursins,”he is the title of the commander of the ofthe commander the is the titleof 158 been used,butstillwasnot. Themost striking isthat megaducas 160 theautumn of1169, butintheendhe EmpireManuel of andallthe

CEU eTD Collection protectorate oftheempire However, becauseoftheByzantineclaims forcrusaderterritory inthepastand policy, triedtopresentafavor with the Byzantine Empireuntil1182, andin over theGreeksintheirclaims overtheHolyLand. Jerusalemwasincloserelations William’s viewitwas the manliness of theLatins that gave them additional leverage unit typesimpressedtheCrusadersascontrary context originated from thetime oftheFi As thefirst partaimed toshow,theeffemi need tobringintheeffemin Crusader stateswerenotch not reflectanideologicalconsistencybut a Christianarmy. Thusitbecomes obviousth However, whentheGreeksfoughtbeside events whentherule oftheCrusader st William achievedthis distance byevoking military effeminacy wherereporting onthe need tokeep acertaindistance betweenthe

over thekingdom duringthemost allenged intheirruleovertheHolyLand,andtherewasno acy asarhetoricaldevice. able picture oftheempire tohisWestern audience. ratherapragmatic ambivalence. 50 rst Crusade, whentheByzantine tacticsand ates hasbeenchallenged by theempire. nacy of theGreeksasseeninmilitary Crusader statesand theByzantine Empire. Latins againsttheinfi toknightlyidealsandthusunmanly. In at William’s useoftheeffeminacy did deed William, asasupporter ofthis of hiscareer,therewasa del, theyfoughtas CEU eTD Collection occurred inConstantinople” by informing hisaudiencethat“animporta negative light. Inwhatwastobethelastme will show,William, utterly disappointed, pr image different than in the Mary ofAntioch,whocontinuedManuel’spro-Latinpolicy. 1180–1183), succeededhim onthethrone.Aregencywasformed hismother, under Therefore, thisfinalappearance oftheByzantine Empire inthe introduction, William undertookthe last sign with themassacre of LatinsinConstantin This meticulously constructedimage ofth 164 163 162 161 explained howitcame tothispoint.Ashe who hadbeeneither unwilling or unable toflee withtheothers.” quarter ofthecityoccupied bytheLatins a Komnenos, seizedpowerandwithhelpof ruler onthethronetroublesoonfollowe subsequent four chapters. populi, qui aliis abeuntibus aut noluerant, non aut noluerant, aut abeuntibus qui aliis populi, WT 22.11-14. 22.11-14. WT 22.11: WT WT 22.13: WT Hamilton, Emperor Manueldiedin1180 and his

Leper King apud Constantinopolim grandis circa imperium facta est permutatio. estpermutatio. facta imperium grandis circa Constantinopolim apud una cum civibus in eam urbis partem, quam nostri incolebant, irruentes residuum residuum irruentes incolebant, nostri partem, urbis quam eam civibusin cum una IV. , 160.

162 THE IMAGESHATTERED

161 previous partofthework.

–achangewhichhewenton poterant exire, desevientibus gladiis peremerunt. peremerunt. gladiis exire,desevientibus poterant 51 sawit,theGreekswereindignantthat: d. Theconspirators,ledbyAndronikos I e empire suddenlybroketopiecesin1182 nd puttoswordtheremnants ofthepeople ntion of the Greeks inhiswork,hestarted ntion oftheGreeks Greeks ofConstanti esented itthe empire in anextremely nt changeconcerningtheempire had ificant revisions ofhisworkin1181. ople. Asithasbeenstated inthe eleven-year-old son,AlexiosII(r. Now, asthefollowingpages to elaboratefurther inthe 163 Still,without astrong nople “rushedtothe 164 Historia Butfirst William , reflects an an , reflects CEU eTD Collection negocia,eorum de fide merito presumensviribus. et committeret grandia Latinis solis incomparabilis etstrenuitate ipse virmagnanimus effeminatis, et virismollibus tanquam suis Greculis neglectis gratiam, ut eum apud reppererat populus Latinus 166 165 elucidating theimage. Neither passageisparticularlyrevealing,but referred toonlyinamilitary context,here ascribed by William totheentire Greek people. Unlikebefore wheneffeminacy was Alexios’ lustfulness thus wenthand inhand withhiseffeminacy, traits whichwere Andronikos came topower,William o protosebastos glance atthenextchapter canofferso William meant by labeling the Greeks as effeminate inthis context. However,a inspired anti-Latinsentiments among theGreeks. Thispassage doesnotrevealwhat and asWilliam sawit,itwasManuel’s preference for aLatinadministration that presented anobstaclefortheGreekstobe occasions thistime itdidnotoccurin themilitary context. Here the effeminacy Here, William againreferred totheeffeminacy of theGreeks,butunlikeatprevious proprio sudore comportasset. perficere satageret desideriis, avarus tamen erat et thesauris parcebat imperialibus, tanquam si eos WT22.11: WT 22.12: entrusted important affairs tothe Latinsalone. ability thathepassedoverhisGree man ofincomparableenergy,relied deserved becauseoftheirloyaltyan God, theLatinshadfoundgreatfavorwithhim –arewardwell during thereignofaforementi brow. the imperial treasure, as ifhehad given overtothelustfulsinsoffles Although, likeallGreeks,hewasextr licet Grecorum more mollis esset supra modum et carnis curam toto studio in inmundis studio in inmundis toto curam etcarnis modum essetsupra licet Grecorum more mollis Regnante enim deo amabili predicto imperatore, merito fidei et strenuitatis sue tantam tantam sue fidei etstrenuitatis merito imperatore, predicto enim deo amabili Regnante 166 Alexios, Manuel’snephew,asthe

ffered abrief charactersketch: 52 earned ithimself bythesweatofhis oned emperor [Manuel],belovedof h, hewasavariciousandsparingof thelabelclearly indicates a wayof life. klings assoftandeffeminate and d valor.Theemperor, agenerous so implicitly ontheirfidelityand entrusted withimportant affairsofstate, comparativematerial canoffermuch in emely effeminate andcompletely me answers.There,pointing tothe éminence grise 165

of the empire before oftheempirebefore CEU eTD Collection general, see Kathryn M. Ringrose, Medieval Europe Gender Byzantium Gender (New York:Norton, 1973),79. admirabiles. The opulenceofthekingdom wa the caliph’s“magnificent palace”rece Constantinople. the Greeks aswell.One canagain turnback lacking experience inmilitary training,” about theEgyptians as“softandeffeminate, devotedforalongtime topleasures, labeled themassuchcanshedlight ontheimage itself.Thearchbishop ofTyrewrote causes thatWilliam listsascontributing toth Egypt, marvelous abundance ofallgood th sense theFatimid Egyptiansalsofigure 174 173 172 171 170 169 168 167 empire anditspeoplewereessentiallyeffeminate.” Byzantine Empire may evenhavecontributed that ledShaunToughertoargue“the eunuchs werealwaysliving palace. becomes apparentwhen William mentionsth peace.” Shaun F. Tougher, “Images ofEffeminate Men: the Case ofByzantine Eunuchs,” in Fulcher ofChartres, 19.18. WT 22.4. WT 19.18. WT 19.13: WT 19.13: WT 20.7: WT 172 168 For theGreekswerenotonlyones William labeledaseffeminate. Inthis ForalreadyFulcherofChartreshad Inhisview,these traitswere adir viri molles et effeminati, deliciis a multo re amulto deliciis viri eteffeminati, molles populum deliciis deditum, rei militaris expertem, longa longa rei dissolutum. quiete expertem, militaris deliciis deditum, populum innumerabiles Egypti divitias, bonorum omnium et singularum commoditatum copias copias commoditatum etsingularum omnium bonorum divitias, Egypti innumerabiles , ed. Dawn M. Hadley, 89-100 (London: Longman, 1998). On Byzantine eunuchs in eunuchs Byzantine On 1998). Longman, (London: 89-100 M. Hadley, , ed. Dawn 171 (Chicago: University of Chica Anotherinterestingparallelbe A History of The Expedition to Jerusalem 1095–1127 Jerusalem to Expedition The A of History there [inConstantinople].”

The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of s manifesteds onthehighest ived aseparate chapter inthe 167 53 d, and looking at the occasions where he d, and lookingattheoccasions wherehe go Press, 2003); LizJames, ed., andalsoas“weakenedbyalongperiodof ings andofeachi use andprevalenceofeunuchswithinthe e effeminacy ofthe Egyptiansappliedto e effeminacy to William’s description of hisvisitto tro tempore dediti, rerum militarium expertes. expertes. militarium rerum dediti, tempore tro e presenceofeunuchsin thecaliph’s ect resultofthe “immense wealthof believed that“abouttwentythousand tothewestern perception that this tween theEgyptiansandGreeks 174 173 Butthisperception of the Itisthiskind of evidence ndividual commodity.” level; thedescriptionof , tr. Frances Rita Ryan RitaRyan , tr.Frances Historia Women, Men and

Masculinity in in Masculinity . 170 These 169

CEU eTD Collection 1988). 1988). Historian: Studies of the Man and His Age study on Liudprand of , see Jon N. Sutherland, teristratos, tiaratos, manicatos, effeminatos, estmolles, contumeliosum quamque indecorum quam Quod iudicantes. incedere veste ornatos indignos vos omnesque Italos, Saxones, Francos, Baoarios, Suevos, immo cunctas nationes huiusmodi 20: ClassicalPress, Bristol 1993), clothes and pearls, thinking of them as befitting a woman. See, Magdalino, awoman. and ofthempearls,See, Magdalino, thinking asbefitting clothes the courtof Isaac II (r. and soft. thought oftheGreeksasfaithlessandtreacher writers soughtconfirmation intheClassical stereotypical image inWesterncultureev probably didnotreadthebishopofCremona Otto IItoConstantinoplein968,wascont origins. Liutprand,bishopofCremona andanenvoyoftheHolyRomanEmperor effeminacy oftheGreeks,justasitis 177 176 175 and Beyond Antiquity Eunuchs: Gender in Byzantium to show, mention onmorethanone occasion andwhich women’s headgear,liars,eunuchsandcowards.” and SuebstotheGreeks, that“womanish synonymia both occasions William amplified theimage: thefirsttime throughtheuseof nowcarriedamo1182, thelabelofeffeminacy luxury andcarnalpleasures,gavewaytosin. Isaac, Liudprand of Cremona, (ca. 1155–1216), Byzantin famed Choniates (ca. 1155–1216), Niketas Thus theopulence of the Byzantine Empire, whichWilliam didnotfailto InventionRacism of 177 176 , came tobeconsideredasthereasonthat

while thesecondbyintroducingelative (Swansea: TheClassical Press of Wales, 2002). Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana Legatione de Relatio , 406 , 406 (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Shaun F. Tougher, ed., ed., F.Tougher, Shaun and 1997); Routledge, York: (New Quod cum fieret, quinque mihi pretiosissimas purpuras abstulerunt, 1185–1195; 12

mendaces, neutros, desides purpuratos incedere. (Spoleto: Centro italiano di studi sull’Alto Medioevo, Medioevo, sull’Alto studi di italiano Centro (Spoleto: 54 the casewiththeir 03–1204) looked indignantly rasting Italians,Saxons en inthetenthcentury.Again,allthese effeminates withtheirlong sleeves and authors, forjustassome Roman authors Therefore, itisclearthat,unlikebefore e historian, wrote how the German embassy at ’s work,itshowsthepresenceofthis ous, they also labeled them effeminate ous, theyalsolabeledthem effeminate the emperors themselves werestriving ral indictment initself.In addition,on Liudprand of Cremona, Bishop, Diplomat, Diplomat, Bishop, Cremona, of Liudprand itspeople,byenjoyingthislifeof 175 EventhoughWilliam most supra modum , ed. and tr. Brian Scott (London: (London: Scott tr.Brian , ed.and EmpireManuel of I perfidy, showsearlier

, Franks,Bavarians uponemperor’s fine . Eunuchs in Eunuchs , 13. For a For

CEU eTD Collection insaciabile adversusnostros c muris in pera ... male remuneraverunt hospites suos. the Greeksheretics justa few lineslater: taking into consideration thefact thatfor the veryfirst time inthe 179 178 no longertoshowhisreaderssimplythat The massacre left William disillusioned of his pro-Byzantine policy, and hisaim was painstakingly constructinginhiswor was noturning back.The positive image oftheempire, whichWilliam hadbeen requited itsguestslike a serpent inth “nest ofvipers,”thismorallycorrupt,here Latins inConstantinoplewasboundtoprovoke areaction from William. Itwasthis of theanti-LatinorientedAndronikos,al side, andhisGreekkindreda between distinction aclear is there Again pestilentes opiniones aut gignunt aut sequuntur. sequuntur. aut gignunt aut opiniones pestilentes et novas prevalere, possunt non inferi porte quam fidem, adversus PetrietPauli et apostolorum modum eta Romana ecclesia per in supra enim Arrogantes eteos differentia. inter nos sacramentorum ministrante etincentivum fomitem sequitur traditiones, cum ipsi magis hereticorum si WT 22.11: WT WT22.13:

(Matth. 16:18). apostles PeterandPaul pernicious beliefs contrary totheRoman church andthefaith of the name becausethey ofheretics, heretic. Itwastheythemselves, looked uponeveryonewhodidnotfollo insolently from thechurchofRome, intheirboundlessarrogance additional incentive to theirjealou between oursacraments, andthoseoftheirchurch,whichfurnishedan insatiable hatred towardsus,and thiswasincreasedby the difference [Manuel], andtherestofpeopl The Greeknobles,especiallythe The fullstrengthofWilliam’s message Sic ergoimpius Grecorum populus et genimina viperarum more serpentis in gremio et Unde Grecorum nobiles et maxime eius consanguinei, sed et reliquus populus odium 178

onceperantm accedente etiam ad in nd therestofpeopleonotherside.The ascension solentiamseparati, hereticum omne

against whichthegatesofhellshallnotprevail k, suddenlyshatteredintopieces. e bosom oramouse inthewardrobe.” 55 on the contrary, who deserved the on thecontrary,whodeserved Manuel, thebenefactor had createdorfollowednewand bi nomenadaptent, dum tic andperfidiousGreeknationthat“evilly ong withthesubseque

e aswell,naturally conceived an the effeminate Greekswere notstrong theeffeminate sy. Forthey,havingseparated near kindredoftheemperor however,canonlybeseenwhen w theirfoolishtraditionsas dignationis cumulum etodiorum m eum reputant qui frivolas non contra Romanam ecclesiam oftheLatinsonone nt massacre of the nt massacreofthe Historia helabeled 179 There CEU eTD Collection Empire and theGreeks outsidethe Christ treacherously against the Latins.This time the goalwastosituate the Byzantine enough soldierstoprotecttheHolyLand Historia Thus, itwasonlythefinalepisodewhere beliefs, whichhemay havebeenwillingto like Manuelonthethrone,therewasnoroom view thattheGreeksheldadeep-seatedha

whichrepresented adevelopment intheimage William wishedtoportray. 56 tred towardstheLatinsand,without aruler overlook inthepast,nowcame tothefore. ian world.William wasconfirmed inhis the Byzantine Empire appeared inthe forcompromise. Theheresy oftheir for Christianityorthattheyacted CEU eTD Collection presented as aLatinfavorite. Itwas shownhowWilliam emphasized thedifference stood inthemiddle betweenAlexios,the sapientia his empire. ThearchbishopofTyreshaped John according tothe positive image, eventhough hecriticizedth episode into consideration. AsforJohn, it that aimed atinfluencing theaudience tofo withhold information about the identity ofth acting kindlytowardsthePeople’sCrusade,he memoriae noted asinconsistency inWilliam’s approach,wasinfact asortof completely from theaccountofPeople’s argued that bymanipulating hissources Willia to bepresented astheworst –atreacherousGreek,arch-nemesis oftheLatins.Itwas emperors (Alexios,JohnandManuel)appearinginthe showed inwhatwayWilliam reconciledthesetwo seemingly oppositeimages. Manuel, and theByzantineEmpire indeedhe However, inhiswritingsheshowedhi many ofhiscontemporaries, theycame tobe William of Tyredid not portray the Greeksin

The firstpart ofthe thesisanalyzed theimagesofthreeKomnenian

, thusconstructinganimage hisaudi . While retelling the episode in whic V.

CONCLUSIONS mself asastrongsupporteroftheemperor 57 rm animage of Alexioswithout taking this treacherous Greek, and Manuel, who was treacherous Greek,andManuel,whowas is clearthatWilliam wanted topresent a e emperorfortryingtoannex Antiochto presentedastreacherousandeffeminate. Crusade. Thus,whatthepreviousstudies ld aplaceinhis worldview. Thisthesis e emperor.Itwasa followedthem butintheendchoseto a favorable light.Asintheworksof ence wouldappreciate. As such John m evenwentsofar astoerasehim h his sources presented Alexios as h hissourcespresentedAlexiosas Historia . First, Alexioscame topos rhetorical strategy of fortitudo et damnatio CEU eTD Collection possibility thatManuel wasresponsible treachery of theGreeks, butitwas thegui eyes oftheWest –wasboundtobringW Second CrusadeinAsiaMinor–acatast emperor. Itcomes asnosurprisethat Crusaders; (2)contrastingthetreacherous (1) contrastingthetreacherousAlexios was shownhowthere,narratingthepassage accusations, andtherefore itisthis bookthat account oftheFirstCrusadeitwassec Manuel’s image wasleft largelyunscratched after theSecond Crusade.InWilliam’s Greeks. Thus,whileWilliam heapedaccusations onAlexiosduringtheFirst Crusade, Crusade, wherethe“official versions”of Alexios and ManuelreflectedinWilliam’s oftheFirstand accounts theSecond policy. fortune totheempire, whileatthesame this message aimed todenounceAlexiosa accusations oftreacheryrested. Greeks felttowardstheLatins.Thesemotif surreptitiousness ofhisactions William regularly repeated thedeception hiding behindAlexios’ kind words,the differentiating betweentheLatin and Greekru even wentsofarastoofferanidiosyncraticviewofthehistoryByzantium, by between ManuelandtheotherGreekssought

The followingsubchapterhasshown howthisdifferenceintheportraitsof andtheimmense hatredthatheandtherestof It wasarhetoricalstrategythat workedontwolevels: rophe for whichManuelstoodaccusedinthe narrating thecatastrophe 58 and hisGreekstothevaliantnoble time givecredence toManuel’s pro-Latin Greek AlexioswithManuel, apro-Latin des whotookthespotlight and henoteda nd the Greeks as the ones who brought ill nd theGreeksasoneswhobroughtill the eventsspokeoftreachery ond bookthatplayedakeyroleinthese for it;this was far from therepeated s were foundationsonwhichtheexplicit s were of theCrusadersthr illiam discomfort.He came underthescopeofanalysis. It lers oftheempire.Itwasarguedthat toportrayhim as“oneofus.”He ough Constantinople, which befell the whichbefellthe indeed notedthe CEU eTD Collection accusations ofOdoDeuilandfarfrom realm ofhereticsandmoral degenerates,andt moral effeminacywas used sideby sidewi effeminate, butthistimethelabelaimed attheirmoral corruption. Furthermore, this held a place inthe world. Now,itwas argue an empire of treacherous effeminates, of thepresent thesis reflected onthis development inWilliam’s views.Before, itwas shattered withthe1182massacre oftheLatins ambivalence. the Greeks didnotreflectideological presented asChristiansfigh their claims, notwhenthe Greeks battledagai stronger thantheGreekones.Hereferredtoit Thus, asWilliam sawit,itwasthemanliness effeminacy of theGreekstoemphasize their ineptitude torule overthe HolyLand. Syria. Itwas arguedthatinresponse tothese claims William usedthemilitary The Byzantineemperors heldclaims totheHolyLandandespecially toNorthern empire, hestillneeded tomake acleardi of hisinvective. addition, thesubchapterhas bound bythecommonknowledgeaboutepisode who hadbeeninthesimilar position.Itwasarguedthatthearchbishop ofTyrewas However, theimage oftheempire he Although William strovetopresentafa ting inamanly way.Thushis reflected onWilliam’s useof which, because ofManuelandJohn,indeed stinction betweenitandthe Crusaderstates. 59 th charges ofheresy.Theempirebecame a his owntreatment of d, William againreferred tothe Greeks as consistency, but rather apragmatic hus lostitsplaceintheChristian world. inConstantinople,andthefinalchapter of theLatinsthatgavethem credentials nst theinfidel and lost. Then theywere onlywhentheemperors triedtoassert vorable image andJohn’s ofManuel’s waspatiently constructing suddenly andthusforcedtoaddressit.In physiognomy inthecourse view oftheeffeminacy of AlexiosKomnenos CEU eTD Collection unraveled allofitssecrets. certain isthat there is still much that the comparative analysis,buttheirlivesand figures asapossiblestart.Thusnot Otto bishopofFreising,as context ofothertwelfth-centuryhistori need for amorethorough comparative approa rewarding intheend. However,morework voluminous narrativeasawholeindeedpr analyzing the images oftheemperors andof William of Tyre’s Offering anewvantagepoint Historia , thisthesisforthefirsttime suggestedanapproachin well an authorofagrand ontheimage oftheByzantineEmpire inthe ographers ofsimilar intellectualbackground. 60 only theirworksbecome prospectofa careers aswell.Intheend,whatremains Historia theGreeksseparately. Dealing withthis oved to be challenging, but thus more oved tobechallenging,butthusmore still awaits, and here ch toWilliam of Tyre,especially inthe can offer. By no means has it can offer.Bynomeans hasit work whostudiedinParis, I would stress the Iwouldstressthe CEU eTD Collection Anna Comnena. PRIMARY SOURCES William ofTyre. archbishop Willelmus TyrensisArchiepiscopus. Rodulfus Glaber. Otto bishopofFreising. Odo ofDeuil. Liudprand ofCremona. Hugo Eterianus, Fulcher ofChartres. The DeedsoftheFranksandOtherPilgrimstoJerusalem Albert ofAachen. Press, 1943. Emily A.BabcockandAugustC.Krey.NewYork:Columbia University 1986. Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Oxford, OxfordUniversityPress,1993. Press, 2002. 1146 A.D. Berry. NewYork:W. W.Norton&Company, 1948. Scott. London:Bristol Migne, 1855. Patrologia cursuscompletus, seriesla Spiritus SanctusexutroquePatrescilicet Frances RitaRyan.NewYork:Norton,1973. Clarendon Press, 1979. Clarendon Presss, 2007. Books, 1982. 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