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De Militaire Revolutie in Japan

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De Militaire Revolutie in Japan UNIVERSITEIT GENT FACULTEIT LETTEREN EN WIJSBEGEERTE Academiejaar 2009-2010 De Militaire Revolutie in Japan door Pieter Mets Promotor: Prof. Dr. Andreas Niehaus Inhoudstafel 1. Inleiding 1 2. De Militaire Revolutie; Het Debat 2 2.1. De Militaire Revolutie volgens Michael Roberts 2 2.1.1. De oorzaken van de Militaire Revolutie volgens Michael Roberts 2 2.1.2. De militaire gevolgen van de militaire revolutie volgens Michael Roberts 3 2.1.3. De constitutionele gevolgen van de Militaire Revolutie volgens Michael Roberts 5 2.1.4. De sociale gevolgen van de Militaire Revolutie volgens Michael Roberts 6 2.1.5 Economische gevolgen van de Militaire Revolutie volgens Michael Roberts 7 2.2. De herziening van de Militaire Revolutie volgens Geoffrey Parker (1988) 8 2.3. De weerlegging van de MR volgens David Eltis (1998) 9 2.4. De MR volgens Jeremy Black (2002) 10 2.5. Studies omtrent de Japanse MR 11 2.5.1. Geoffrey Parker en de MR in Japan 11 2.5.2. Peter A. Lorge (2008) en de MR in Japan 12 3. De MR in Japan 14 3.1. Een historisch overzicht van de sengoku jidai 14 3.1.1. Groep 1: shugo-daimyô (±1350- ±1490) 15 3.1.2. Groep 2: sengoku-daimyô (±1490 - ±1560/70) 16 3.1.3. Groep 3: shokuhô-daimyô (Oda Nobunaga begin 17e eeuw) 17 3.1.4. Groep 4: kinsei-daimyô (17e eeuw) 18 3.2. De militaire evoluties in Japan 18 3.2.1. Vochten de samurai in formaties of bekampten ze de vijand individueel? 19 3.2.1.1. Is er sprake van een individualistische oorsprong? 19 3.2.1.2. Was er een overgang van individualisme naar de vorming van formaties? 22 3.2.2. Stijgt het MPR (Militair Participatie Ratio)? 23 3.2.2.1. Hoe evolueerde het aantal soldaten naargelang de periode in de geschiedenis?23 3.2.3 Ontstaat er een evolutie in de samenstelling van de legers? 25 3.2.3.1. Welke rol speelden de ashigaru vanaf de Ônin oorlog? 25 3.2.3.2. Hoe werden de legers georganiseerd? 26 3.2.3.2.1. Creëerde Nobunaga een vernieuwend hiërarchisch systeem? 26 3.2.3.2.2. Een algemeen hiërarchisch systeem van het leger in de segoku jidai 28 3.2.3.2.3. Hoe evolueerde de functie van de generaals? 28 3.2.3.2.4. De organisatie van de legers aan de hand van kassen chûmon 30 3.2.3.2.5. De interne organisatie van de legers aan de hand van sashimono 30 3.2.3.2.6. Was er in de sengoku jidai reeds een notie van uniformen? 31 3.2.3.2.7. Hoe werden de legers gerekruteerd? 32 3.2.4. Conclusie: zijn de militaire evoluties in Japan voltrokken? 32 3.3. Welke invloed hadden vuurwapens op de militaire evolutie? 33 3.3.1. De Aankomst van de teppô op Tanegashima 34 3.3.2. Welke impact had de teppô op de sengoku oorlogsvoering? 35 3.4. De constitutionele evoluties 37 3.4.1. De strategische evolutie in de sengoku oorlogsvoering 38 3.4.1.1. Oda Nobunaga en zijn militaire strategieën 38 3.4.2. Een stijgende administratie om militair apparaat draaiende te houden 40 3.4.2.1. Een nieuw systeem: shôen kandaka kokudaka 40 3.4.2.1.1. Het shôen systeem: het gebruik van shiki rechten 40 3.4.2.1.2. Het kandaka systeem: taksen en dienstplicht 41 3.4.2.1.3. Van kandaka naar kokudaka: administratieve unificatie 43 3.4.3. Een sterkere grip van de staat op het leger 44 3.4.4. Een slinkende staatskas door militaire uitgaven 44 3.4.5. Conclusie: zijn de constitutionele gevolgen in Japan voltrokken? 45 3.5. De sociale gevolgen 46 3.5.1. Werd militaire bekwaamheid belangrijker dan erfelijkheid? 46 3.5.2. Is er sprake van een klasseloos leger met carrièremogelijkheden? 47 3.5.3. conclusie: zijn de sociale gevolgen in Japan voltrokken? 47 3.6. De economische gevolgen 48 3.6.1. Een „mathematisch‟ oorlogskarakter en de oprichting van scholen 48 3.6.2. De economische paraatheid van de staat 50 3.6.3. De formulering van internationale wetten 51 3.6.3.1. Nationale wetten: katanagari (zwaardenjacht) 52 3.6.3.2. Nationale wetten: het bevriezen van de sociale klassen 52 3.6.3.3. Bukeshohatto: wetten voor de samurai klasse 52 3.6.4. Conclusie: zijn de economische gevolgen in Japan voltrokken? 53 4. De Militaire Revolutie in Japan; een nabeschouwing 54 4.1 De Militaire Revolutie in Japan volgens Peter A. Lorge (2008) 54 5. Conclusie 55 Appendix 1 57 Appendix 2 58 Karakterlijst 59 Bibliografie 64 1. Inleiding Tijdens de periode van de strijdende staten, de sengoku jidai (1467-1603), heerste er een voortdurende oorlog in Japan. De leiders van verschillende clans (daimyô) bestreden elkaar gedurende anderhalve eeuw. Algemeen wordt een periode waarin oorlog heerst als donker en verderfelijk bestempeld. Door deze stempel wordt de mogelijke vooruitgang en evolutie van deze „donkere‟ periode genegeerd. Wanneer Michael Roberts in 1955 een lezing geeft over de Militaire Revolutie wordt de Europese Middeleeuwse oorlogsvoering in een ander daglicht gesteld. Volgens Roberts is het juist die oorlogsvoering die grote gevolgen met zich mee brengt. De theorie omtrent de Militaire Revolutie in Europa is reeds meerdere malen in vraag gesteld maar blijft staande na vele uitdagingen. De Militaire Revolutie theorie werd later ook op andere landen en continenten uitgetest, waaronder Japan. Japan werd zelfs als toetssteen gebruikt om de Europese Militaire Revolutie theorie te controleren. De Militaire Revolutie theorie in Japan werd echter niet voldoende verklaard aan de hand van de verschillende onderwerpen die in de oorspronkelijke theorie aan bod komen. Dit wordt dan ook het onderzoeksthema van deze thesis. Alvorens de theorie op Japan toe te passen zal eerst de Militaire Revolutie theorie grondig ontleed worden. Deze ontleding heeft als doel het Europese karakter los te koppelen van de theorie. Aangezien een vergelijking slechts echt mogelijk is wanneer men niet de verschillende landen met elkaar vergelijkt, maar wel de theorie op zich. Na deze ontleding zullen verschillende werken omtrent de Europese Militaire Revolutie aan bod komen die de theorie al dan niet in vraag stellen. Hierna zullen werken besproken worden die de Militaire Revolutie in Japan behandelen. Het eigenlijke onderzoek in deze thesis betreft het theoretische kader van de Militaire Revolutie dat op de Japanse situatie zal worden toegepast. Stap voor stap zullen de verschillende theorieën getoetst worden om vervolgens al dan niet te kunnen concluderen of de Militaire Revolutie in Japan heeft plaatsgevonden. Deze conclusie zal vergeleken worden met de verschillende bevindingen die omtrent de Militaire Revolutie in Japan geopperd zijn. 2. De Militaire Revolutie; Het Debat In januari 1955 gaf Michael Roberts een lezing, getiteld „The Military Revolution, 1560- 1660‟, aan de Queen‟s University van Belfast. In deze manifestatie proclameerde hij de originaliteit, het belang en de historische uniciteit van zekere ontwikkelingen van de „art of war‟ na de renaissance in Europa. De stelling uit dat artikel, dat dezelfde titel draagt als de lezing, werd algemeen aanvaard door de historici die dezelfde periode bestudeerden als M. Roberts en werd gedurende het eerste decennia niet bekritiseerd. 1 Pas in 1976 publiceerde Geoffrey Parker “The „Military Revolution‟, 1560-1660 – a myth?”, waarin de theorie van Michael Roberts voor het eerst herzien werd.2 Hoewel in dit artikel slechts enkele standpunten worden bijgeschaafd, blijft de eigenlijke theorie staande. Na dit artikel volgden vele andere historici 3 het voorbeeld van Parker door de theorie van de Militaire Revolutie in vraag te stellen. In het volgende hoofdstuk zal de theorie van de Militaire Revolutie van Michael Roberts beschreven worden. Daarna komen verschillende critici aan bod om alsnog tot een besluit te komen over de eigenlijke essentie van de Militaire Revolutie. 2.1. De Militaire Revolutie volgens Michael Roberts 2.1.1. De oorzaken van de Militaire Revolutie volgens Michael Roberts Bij de aanvang van „The Military Revolution, 1560-1660‟ tracht Roberts de MR4 eenvoudig samen te vatten: “The military revolution which fills the century between 1560 and 1660 was in essence the result of just one more attempt to solve the perennial problem of tactics – the problem of how to combine missile weapons with close action; how to unite hitting power, mobility, and defensive strength.”5 De oplossing voor dit tactisch probleem wordt meteen verduidelijkt: “In place of the massive, deep, unwieldy squares of the Spanish tercio6, or the still larger but more irregular blocks of the Swiss column, they relied upon a multiplicity of 1 Clifford: ‘The Military Revolution Debate’, p. 37. 2 Clifford: ‘The Military Revolution Debate’, p. 3. 3 Bijvoorbeeld: David Eltis, Jeremy Black, Peter A. Lorge, Brain M. Downing,… 4 Vanaf nu zal de „Militaire Revolutie‟ afgekort worden tot MR. 5 Clifford: ‘The Military Revolution Debate’, p. 13. 6 Regimenten bestaande uit 1200 à 1500 soldaten. small units ranged in two or three lines, and so disposed and armed as to permit the full exploitation of all types of weapons.”7 Niet alleen de formaties van de infanterie maar ook de cavalerie werd aangepast aan de vernieuwde omstandigheden. Er werd afgezien van de caracole8 waardoor de cavalerie terug met het zwaard in de hand de vijand bestormde en de fysieke confrontatie aanging. Na experimenten met het vuurwapen werden kleinere geweren ontworpen om de cavalerie en infanterie te versterken op het moment voor men met de vijandelijke troepen in contact kwam.9 2.1.2. De militaire gevolgen van de militaire revolutie volgens Michael Roberts Deze vernieuwingen, die in essentie tactisch van nature zijn, erkent Michael Roberts als de fundamentele veranderingen voor een MR.
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