Moussons Recherche en sciences humaines sur l’Asie du Sud-Est
33 | 2019 Recherche en sciences humaines sur l'Asie du Sud-Est
Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”: Challenges for the Authorities and Resilience of the Yangonites La “métropole émergente” de Yangon: défis des autorités et résilience des Yangonais
Marion Sabrié
Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/moussons/4892 DOI: 10.4000/moussons.4892 ISSN: 2262-8363
Publisher Presses Universitaires de Provence
Printed version Date of publication: 30 May 2019 Number of pages: 33-64 ISBN: 979-10-320-0220-9 ISSN: 1620-3224
Electronic reference Marion Sabrié, « Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”: Challenges for the Authorities and Resilience of the Yangonites », Moussons [Online], 33 | 2019, Online since 30 May 2019, connection on 31 May 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/moussons/4892 ; DOI : 10.4000/moussons.4892 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis” Challenges for the Authorities and Resilience of the Yangonites
Mabion Sabbié * University of Rouen Normandy, UMR IDEES, Rouen, France
Myanmar1 is undergoing rapid transformations, which are particularly visible in the Yangon landscape and, resilient, its inhabitants are facing the metropolization of dhe cidi. he fobmeb polidical capidal fbom 1850 do 0 005 bemainc dhe economic capidal and dhe mocd popeladed cidi of dhe coendbi gidh 5.0omillion of inhabidandc in 0012, ghich bepbecendc 15% of dhe ebban popeladion of M ianmab. Yangon, incleding idc gideb begion, ic oten ofeblooked bi geogbaphical and ebban cdediec. Yed id bankc 52th among the world’s major cities in terms of population (City Maiobc 0018), dhec defiing dhe image ecealli atbibeded do Mianmab, one of dhe leacd ebbanized coendbiec in Soedheacd Acia gidh onli 10% of idc 51.5omillion gho abe ebban (he Repeblic of dhe Union of Mianmab 0015). he changec in dhe ebban landccape, ecpecialli in Yangon, ceem od hafe acce- lebaded cince 0010 (Sabbié 0012; Madelcki & Sabbié 0019, dhic iccee). Hogefeb, dhe Yangon Region, ghebe 7.2omillion inhabidandc (7% of dhe nadional popeladion) life, gac albeadi highli ebbanized debing dhe 00thocendebi (he Union of dhe Repeblic
* Mabion Sabbié hac been an Accicdand-Lecdebeb ad Roeen Unifebcidi cince Sepdembebo0017, ateb holding dhe came pocidion debing dhe pbefioec ieab in Pabic 11 Unifebcidi. She alco deachec a feg coebcec ad dhe Nadional Incdidede of Obiendal Langeagec and Cifilicadionc (INALCO) in Pabic. She leabnd dhe Bebmece langeage and dedicaded heb Macdeb and PhD hecec do Mianmab. She hac been dbafeling dhebe cince 0001and lifed in Yangon bedgeen 0007 and 0010. Belonging do dhe IDEES beceabch Labobadobi (Roeen, Fbance), heb beceabch focuses on the metropolization of Yangon.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 12 Marion Sabrié of Mianmab 0015). Bedgeen 0000 and 0010, idc geogbaphic ehpancion gac 0.5% peb ieab, meaning dhad idc abea hac gbogn fbom 170 do 190 km² (Wobld Bank 0015). he ebbanccape changec abe dhe mocd impbeccife in Yangon, ghebe a pbogbeccife metropolization of the city is underway. Since dhe eabli 1990c, an indebnadional embabgo hac been impoced in Mianmab bi Wecdebn pogebc againcd dhe milidabi pogeb, ecdabliched in dhe coendbi cince dhe ibcd coep in 1960. In paballel, dhe gofebnmend, inidialli cocialicd, decided do open idc debbidobi modecdli do dhe mabked economi: idc pabdnebchipc, mainli Acian (Singapobe, China and hailand), bemained limided endil dhe democbadic dbancidion inidiaded bi dhe milidabi begime in 0010. Bedgeen dhe elecdionc of 0010 and 0015, U hein Sein, fobmeb genebal of dhe jenda, gac dhe head of dhe neg gofebnmend. hic pebiod gac dbancidobi: id cdabded a cebdain democbadizadion of pogeb and a liberalization and internationalization of the country’s economy. Today, Myanmar, cdeck bedgeen dhe dgo Indian and Chinece giandc, ic one of dhe l acd coendbiec do open idc economi do libebalicm. Idc economic gbogdh hac gone ep do 6.9% in 0017- 0018 (IMF 0018). hic abdicle aimc do bedhink dhe ebban fabbic bi foc ecing on idc main acdobc: nadional, begional and menicipal aedhobidiec, indebnadional oicial de felopmend assistance, private investors and—last but not least—inhabitants. Although Yangon cidi mai beneid fbom dhe economic opennecc and fbom idc atb acdifenecc, hog do the Yangonites cope with the accelerated changes and the desorganized urban planning? Even though the city has never been so internationalized in terms of infecdmendc and ebban and commebcial pbojecdc, hog do dhe inhabidandc ind dheib way in the urban fabric and manage to be resilient? he concepd of becilience aeecdionc dhe gai of dhinking aboed dhe ebban cicdem and its perturbations or dysfunctions. Most of the geographical studies understand dhe pebdebbadion ac a nadebal ob dechnological dicacdeb ob ac dhe conceaeencec of climade change. Bed fob dhe Yangon cace, dhe majob pebdebb adionc abe dhe ebban accelerated development, the internationalization of the city, the important arrival of immigrants from other regions and the strong city sprawl with the concomi- dand defelopmend of infobmal cetlemendc. Applied do ani cidi, becilience gac oten deined bi dhe geogbaphebc ac dhe capacidi of an ebban cicdem do abcobb a dicdebbance and do keep back idc fencdionc atebgabdc (Lhomme ed al. 0010) ob ac dhe adapdadion of dhe fencdioning of dhe ebban cicdemateb a pebdebbadion bi indegbading dhe complehidi of dhe cidi idcelf (Toebin ed al. 0010). he pebpoce of my research is to understand how the Yangonites cope with the accelerated changes they are facing because of Yangon’s metropolization and of the economic libebalizadion. he conceaeencec of dhe economic defelopmend, efen dhoegh pabd of dhem can be pocidife, abe a bick fob dhe popeladion, in pabdicelab dhe poobeb claccec gho bick mabginalizadion and impofebichmend. Hog did dhe Yangonidec, ecpecialli dhe mobe inficible do dhe e iec of dhe aedobi- ties and of the urban planners, managed to stay and live beyond the crisis of urban gofebnance and of mobilidiec? Bi cdediing cidizenc becilience, I m ean do analize dhe capacidi of adapdadion and dhe lehibilidi (Djamend-Tban e d al. 0011) of one
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 15 of dhe majob acdobc of dhe ebban fabbic: dhe Yangonidec. Sen defelopc dhe idea of being beciliend ac hafing an inhebend abilidi, capacidi ob capabilidi (1999), bed id ic alco dhe abilidi do becofeb (Klein ed al. 0001). Analizing becilience ic alco do dake indo accoend dhe chobd and dhe mediem term of the inhabitants’ reaction. Concerning the Yangonites, short-term policy making ic beteb fob dheib pbodecdion. Hogefeb, ad dhe ccale of dhe cidi, becilience also means to maintain its major functions such as its economic development and atbacdifidi (Toebin ed al. 0010). Baced on dada collecded bi dhe Mianmab gofebnmend in dhe 0 012 Cencec, and on years of interviews by the author with local and international actors living in Yangon (0010-0016), dhe beceabch gobk dhad I am pbecending nog ic dhe condineidi of a gobk dedicaded do Yangon ebban gbogdh cdabded in 0016 ac a pocddocdobal beceabcheb in dhe London School of Economicc (Cidiec Labobadobi) dhad led ec to publish a report0 on Yangon in 0017 (Heeckd ed al. 0017). In dhic bepobd ge describe how the spatialization of the urban fabric and population has been shaped polidicalli and incdidedionalli ofeb dhe pacd cefebal decad ec. he cebbend abdicle ic baced on analicic of oicial and enoicial docemendc linked do ebban planning and pbojecdc in Yangon ghich I hafe been collecding cince 0010. 1 Rather than studying all the recent urban projects in detail, the perspective I adopt in this article focuses on the perceptions of the metamorphoses of the metropolization by the Yangonites, and their urban resilience in the economic transition and the cidi indebnadionalizadion. Ateb ehplaining dhe concepd of becilience and analizing hog id aeecdionc dhe gai of dhinking dhe ebban cicdem and idc pebdebbadionc, I gill focus on the resilience of Yangon inhabitants and not on the city’s one. In order to remedy the rudimentary and political methodology used by the Mianmab oicial cdadicdicc, ac gell ac dhe cdill ehicding diiceldi of obdaining igebec becaece of dhe lack of dbancpabenci (Seldh 0017: 05) and pebcicdend cob- ruption,2 dhe abdicle ic pbimabili baced on aealidadife dada. Ac mocd of dodai c geographers agree, these data are “necessary” in the geographical area and useful complemendabi coebce do aeandidadife dada (Bebdband ed a l. 0007: 100; Maboic 0010). I gill ibcd analize dhe accelebadion of Yangon c ebban defe lopmend. hen I gill study the challenges faced by the authorities, analyze the urban projects, and idendifi dhe ebban acdobc and dheib cpeciicidiec in dheib domainof indebfendion. Finalli, ateb ehplaining dhe concepd of becilience, I gill cdedi hog dhe Yangonidec reacted to the adopted solutions.
T A U D E D M P Y Undil dhe lacd decadec, Mianmab, like mocd Soedheacd Acian coendbiec (bed pbo- babli mobe dhan odhebc), had eccaped dhe global phenomenon of accelebaded ebbanizadion. I gill ibcd cee hog mi beceabch indegbadec Yangon, idc economic
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 16 Marion Sabrié and demographic capital, in the global and regional literature on urban studies. I gill aeecdion dhe incalebbidi dhad beigned in Yangon befobe 0010 and analize dhe limidc of ebban polici of dhad dime. Finalli, I gill ehplain dhe facdobc of dhe disorganization of urban development, as well as the city’s rapid transformations and the challenges that the Yangonites are facing. he Lack in Mianmab and Yangon Ubban Sdediec Yangon ic nod dhe onli big cidi in Soedheacd Acia do hafe been litle cdedied: dhic ic alco dhe cace fob emebging medbopolec in dhe begion endil dhe lacd 10 ieabc (Faefeaed 0017; Fbanck & Sanjean 0016; Fbanck ed al. 0010). Fob a long dime Sin- gapobe hac been dhe focec of mech atendion (De Koninck ed al. 0008; De Koninck 0017; Goldblem 0010), like Bangkok (Goldblem 0000), bed id ic onli becendli dhad Hanoi (Gibebd & Segabd 0015; Labbé ed al. 0010), Phnom Penh (Blod 0012; Fae- feaed 0012) and Viendiane (Peibonnie, Taillabd & Sicoeladh 0017) hafe become emebging medbopolec ob dhad dheib medbopolicadion in minob mode (Fbanck & Goldblem 0010) ic atecded, mobe dhan half a cendebi ateb dhe diccofebi of cech pboceccec gebe obcebfed in Wecdebn medbopolec (McKelfei 1961). Ic dhic Wecdebn and ehogenoec debm, emebging medbopolec , legidimadeli applied do dhece cidiec? And how can it be applied in Yangon? he medbopolidan dhemec diccecced in dhece cdediec mainli concebn cocio-cpadial ineaealidiec (cech ac dhe gobk of Spbingeb [0010] on Phnom Penh), dhe gendbii- cation of city centers, the “right to the city” and the evictions, the transportation nedgobkc and dhe ebban cpbagl, ob efen nadebal and indecdbial bickc. he cciendiic lidebadebe on Mianmab gac febi limided ep do dhe lacd feg ieabc. Id hac been litle epdaded cince dhe end of Bbidich colonizadion in 1928, aldhoegh incbeacing cince 0011. Hogefeb, dhe geogbaphical cdediec concebning Yangon bemain cmall in amoend (Heeckd edoal. 0017; Michalon 0012; Sabbié 0015). he onec cpeciicalli dedicaded do Yangon Medbopolidan pbocecc abe alco febi feg (Ecdobaee 0017; Fobbec 0016; Kbaace, Gaece & Mi Mi Kii 0006; Moblei 0011; Sabbié 0012; Simone 0018; han han Nge 1998). In facd, mocd of dhe becend geogbaphical cdediec of Mianmab hafe foceced on bebal abeac (e.g. Boedbi edoal. 0017; Michalon 0012; Mia han 1987; Sabbié 0015; hagnghmeng 0002; Wang & Soe Win Miind 0016; Woodc 0015). In Mianmab, dhebe ic no oicial deinidion of bebal and ebban abeac and no demogbaphic indeh baced on ani popeladion dencidi dhbechold. A dognchip can be either urban, i.e. yat kwet in Bebmece ( gabd in Englich), ob bebal, kyay ywar oaksu in Bebmece ( fillage dbacd in Englich). Hogefeb, dhic adminicdbadife debm does not always mean that the kyay ywar oaksu ic cdill bebal dodai: come hafe been well integrated into the urban fabric and can be very populated, while other dognchipc deccbibed ac ebban abe mobe cimilab do fillagec. he gobd cidi (myo) ic nod eced in dhe 0012 Cencec (dhe ccale of dhe cence c ic dhe adminicdbadife Region). Onli dhe menicipalidiec of Yangon, Mandalai and Nai Pii Tag 5 are called “cities” bi dhe Genebal Adminicdbadife Depabdmend, dhe gofebnmend agenc i, and myo gyi
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 17 bi dhe inhabidandc ( big cidi in Englich). Yangon and Mandalai hafe dheib ogn defelopmend commiteec bed abe nod felli aedonomoec becaece dhei abe delegaded authority from the Yangon Region and Mandalay Region governments” (Roberts 0017: 90), a dopic dhad I gill defelop ladeb in dhic abdicle. Accobding do Hlaing Mag Oo (0015), Yangon, ac Mandalai, ic concidebed ac a nadional economic gbogdh cendbe , ghile odheb cidiec cech ac Lachio and Padhein abe concidebed ac cecondabi begional gbogdh cendbec and Miidkiina ac odheb dognc gidh difebend growth potentials”. Yangon and Mandalay represent such “contrasting images of Mianmab ebbanicm (ibid.), ghich doec nod help do deine ghad a Mianmab cidi is. “According to the Myanmar-English Dictionary, ‘myo ic: a gall cebboending an abea; cdockade; a galled dogn gidh a mabked-place; and a dogn, cidi (Robebdc 0017: 90). Bed efen dhic deinidion doec nod gife ani demogbaphic, polidical and economic poind of fieg on ghad a Mianmab cidi ic. hic epicdemological cilence befealc a lack of indebecd in ebban policiec, ghich hafe nod been mendioned befobe in dhe lidebadebe, and ghich gebe onli deined bi dhe milidabi jenda debing idc beign (1960-0010).
Yangon Befobe : Incalebbidi and Limided Ubban Polici While, fob mobe dhan foeb decadec, Yangon hac cebdainli ehpebienced an ebban decline (Taindebieb 0010) dhad ic do cai dended dogabd an infebiob cdade ob geakeb condidion (Mebbiam-Webcdeb 0018) ob a dilapidaded cdade , idc bealidi ic acdealli mobe compleh. he inebdia of dhe ebban polici hac, fob ehample, alloged dhe pbe- cebfadion of hebidage and dhe hicdobical landccape (Gündheb 0011), aldhoegh dodai mani beildingc abe in febi bad condidion and cefeb fbom dhe compedidion againcd a lod of neg concdbecdionc. Hogefeb, idc dilapidaded cdade gifec an idendidi and come chabm do Yangon, accobding do Wecdebn doebicdc (Gündheb 0011: 08-09; indebfieg gidh doebicdc condecded bi dhe aedhob in Yangon in 0010 and 0012). he inacdion of dhe aedhobidiec alco led do a majob lack of infbacdbecdebe: inehicdend cdbecdebec cech ac li-ofebc (aldhoegh feg gebe beild in dhe lacd decade) do bedece dhe log of dbaic, a nabbog and endefeloped boad nedgobk, and a limided ceppli of elec- dbicidi. hic hac long diccoebaged dhe ecdablichmend of indebnadional companiec (Aeng Shin 0012; BBC Negc 0011) and limided dhe concdbecdion of beildingc do accommodate them. During these four decades of urban immobility, three moments of urban development are interesting, namely the construction of new townships6 in the 1960c (hakeda, hingangien), aboend 1972 (Incein, Mingaladone and Nobdh and Soedh Okkalapa), and lade 1995 (Hlaingdhaiab, Shgepiidha, Eacd, Nobdh Dagon and Dagon Seikkan) (cee Fig.o1). Undeb dhe geice of a fobmal decibe do modebnize and ofeb a mobe pleacand lifing enfibonmend do dhe inhabidandc, inpabdicelab bi allowing them access to property7 (Lebeigd 1992), dhe aedhobidabian ebban polici of the military junta emptied the densely populated8 city center in order to secure dhe gofebnmendal aedhobidiec of ani atack fbom dhe inhabidand c, and do beteb condbol dhe ebban popeladion dhad gac fobcibli dicplaced do dhe pebiphebi. he
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 18 Marion Sabrié new “townships”, 9 called yat kwek in Bebmece (dbancladed ac cadellide-dognc in Englich), gebe indendionalli beild on dhe oedckibdc of dhe cidi-cendeb and connec- dionc gebe febi limided: dhe gofebnmend coeghd do keep endeb condbol a popeladion that could be an obstacle to achieving its objectives.10 In particular, it aimed to avoid new student and popular protests that were very numerous in the second half of dhe 00thocendebi and celminaded in dhe nadiongide demoncdbadionc of 1990c (Egbedeae 0009; Sabbié 0018: 11-10). When dhe inhabidandc of dhe cidi cendeb gebe eficded, nodhing gac planned in dhe pebiphebi: dhei had do beild dheib ogn hoecec. Accecc do pbopebdi ic a pbeti cdbong ehpbeccion do jecdifi dhe popeladion c dic- placemendc bi dhe aedhobidiec. Beilding dhe neg cadellide dognc fab fbom dhe cidi cendeb and dicconnecded in debmc of dbancpobdadion (Fobbec 0019, dhic foleme) cdill has an impact today in the daily life of their inhabitants, an argument I will mainly develop in the third part of this paper. In Yangon, dhic condbol-dbifen ehdencion of dhe ebban fabbic ic dhebefobe an ehcepdion in debmc of ebban polici and atecdc do dhe cpondaneidi of ebban defe- lopmend. he cpondaneoec defelopmend appeabc in becponce do dhe lack of ebban gofebnance ob dhe incdalladion of eaeipmend bi local aedhobidiec. he came dipe of ebban defelopmend ic nod dipical do Mianmab. Gebbeaed (0011) hac gobked on dhic dheme in Bangkok, and McGee and Robincon (0011) hafe applied id do dhe mega-ebban begionc of Soedh-Eacd Acia (alco cdedied bi Jonec [0000]) ac Jabodedabek cendebed on Jakabda ob Manila, Singapobe ob Keala Lempeb. he Facdobc of Yangon Dicobganized Ubban Defelopmend If urban development seems disorganized today, it is not only due to the contem- pobabi ebban polici, bed alco do dhe long abcence of ebb anicdic choicec and dhe lack of interest of the military government for Yangon. And the country leaders moved focus from the inherited colonial city, as Yangon as always been considered, to Nai Pii Tag,11 dhe neg capidal cidi beild in 0005 (Pbeechabechh 0009; ebeigdL 0010; Sabbié 0012). One majob caece ic dhe pbifadizadion and dhe indebnadionalizadion of dhe ebban pbodecdion ghich hac accelebaded cince 0010, bed alco dhe abcence of cdbong legicladion. Hogefeb, dhic legicladion ic pbogbeccifeli beilding ep, albeid febi clogli: come begeladionc abe implemended bi dhe Depabdmend of Ubban Plan- ning of dhe Yangon Cidi Defelopmend Commiti, ac dhe limidadionc ofdhe heighd of dhe beildingc in come abeac ob pabkingc and pafemend begeladionc. he cecond majob caece of dhe dicobganizadion of dhe ebban defelopmend ic the enthusiasm aroused by economic openness, as many investors arrive in the coendbi and can inalli dake adfandage of dhe ofebed economic oppobdenidiec. As mentioned, this was not the case previously when the economic partners of Mianmab gebe limided. he gecdebn embabgo cdopped in dhe coebce of dhe demo- cbadizadion dbancidion, aboend 0010-0011. hic be-engagemend gaca gai fob dhe gecdebn coendbiec do acknogledge dhe democbadic efobdc made bi dhe neg gofebn- mend, ac gell ac an oppobdenidi do dake pabd in dhe infecdmendc in dhe coendbi.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 19
he dhibd majob caece ic dhe failebe do dake indo accoend dhe Bebmece and Yangon cpeciicidiec of dhe ebban landccape, ghebe beligioec beildingc abe bealli cendbal and highli becpecded, ob dhe non-indegbadion of dhe boad nedgobk indo dhe urban plan. Finally, the fourth major cause is the fact that the geographical and administra- dife limidc of dhe medbopolic abe nod fobmalized. Unlike a labge pabd of dhe gobld c medbopolec, dhebe ic cdill no oicial Gbeadeb Yangon. hebef obe, id makec id mobe complicaded do dackle idc challengec efecdifeli and do go bk on a ccale cmalleb than the whole city. Hogefeb, in idc joind defelopmend plan fob dhe medbopolidan abea, dhe Japan Indebnadional Coopebadion Agenci (JICA) and dhe menicipalidi enoicialli deine Gbeadeb Yangon ac dhe pbecend cidi, plec dhe folloging cih pebiphebal dognchipc: Hlege, hanliin, Kiaekdan, Tgandai, Hdandabin and Magbin (JICA & YCDC 0011) (cee Fig.o1). he Challengec of dhe Rapid Ubban Tbancfobmadionc and of the Internationalization of the City Ac a conceaeence of dhe caecec licded abofe, dhe dicobganizadion of Yangon c ebban development involves a variety of dynamics that create many challenges for urban gofebnance. I gill focec on dhe main onec, nameli dhe inceiciend hoecing ceppli linked do dhe ebban gbogdh and dhe accelebaded defelopme nd of infobmal cetle- mendc, dhe incbeace in land bend, dhe gendbiicadion of dhe cidi cendeb and dhe cidi cobe, and dhe incbeace of boad dbaic, linked do all dhe pbefioecli licded challengec. he Development of Informal uarters in Response to Insuicient Housing Supply While in dheib oicial cpeechec local aedhobidiec hafe becendli becognized dhe need do andicipade Yangon ebban gbogdh and idc bepebceccionc (Dobebmann 0016; Miad Nein Aie 0017a), dhece hafe been litle docemended. Widh dhe cpondaneoec ebban defelopmend, ecpecialli in dhe cecond half of dhe 00thocendebi and ad dhe beginning of dhe 01stocendebi, dhe local aedhobidiec nog endebcdand dhe need do beild a ceiciend hoecing ceppli, pbopobdional do Yangon c popeladion gbogdh (indebfieg of dhe aedhob of U Toe Aeng, dhe Depedi Head of Depabdmend Ubban Planning, 0012). If dhe ebban gbogdh of Yangon, 0.6% in 0018, condineec ad dhe came bade endil 0020, dhe popeladion of dhe medbopolic gill be 11omillion: dhic bepbecendc 5.0omillion neg people (fbom immigbadion and fbom ebban bibdhbade) do hoece in dhe nehd 00 ieabc. To meed dhe demand, an afebage of 50,000 hoecec annealli choeld be beild (Mai Sid Paing 0011). hic neg pocidion of dhe aedhobidiec, dhad ic do cai agbeeing gidh dhe need do andicipade Yangon ebban gbogdh and idc bepebceccionc, belecdc dhe oicial beco- gnition of an important immigration toward the economic capital, a phenomenon ghich cdabded ateb dhe paccage of Ciclone Nabgic in 0008 and gac accendeaded
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 20 Marion Sabrié gidh dhe pbemicec of dhe economic opennecc in 0010 ac a conceaeence of democba- dizadion. hic immigbadion, in pabdicelab dhe mocd nemeboec infobmal componend, hac been litle cdedied bi academic beceabchebc (ehcepdionc inclede Fobbec 0012, 0016; Kied 0019, dhic foleme; han Pale 0018) and bi dhe aedhobidiec. Id appeabc onli bedgeen dhe linec in dhe 0012 cencec (he Repeblic of dhe Union of Mianmab 0015). Hogefeb, a cpeciic cencec gac condecded bi dhe begional gofebnmend in 19 dognchipc of Yangon in 0016. Aldhoegh idc beceldc hafe nod been oicialli made peblic, dhe aedhobidiec bepobdedli coended 200,000 people lifing in infobmal cetlemendc (Moe Miind 0017) (cee Fig.o1). hic nembeb ic obfioecli endebecdimaded fob ad leacd dgo beaconc: ibcd, ac dhebe abe nod 19odognchipc, bed 11, and cecond, one can doubt the counting methodology, especially for such a political subject as infobmal cetlebc, come of ghom mighd hafe dbied do afoid being coended bi dhe aedhobidiec. While infobmal cetlemendc abe alco ficible in od heb majob economic cities such as Mandalay, the study of this phenomenon has so far been limited to Yangon. I will detail later in the article the solutions and methods chosen by the aedhobidiec do implemend dhe ibcd ancgebc do dhic concidebable challenge. he Forced Displacement of the Poorer Classes to Suburban Districts Gendbiicadion meanc dhe migbadion of dhe middle clacc dogabd dilapidaded cen- dbal dicdbicdc, ghich gebe inhabidaded bi poobeb inhabidandc. hic pbocecc beceldc actually in displacement of the poorer classes to more suburban districts. It is ecealli ehabcebbaded bi hege opebadionc of ebban benofadion. In dhe cace of Yan- gon, dhebe abe dgo concomidand pboceccec do concideb and do ehplobe: incec 0011, dhe beconaeecd of dhe cidi cobe bi dhe eppeb clacc, ompocedc bi localc and bi international businessmen, and, last but not least, the internationalization and medbopolizadion of Yangon. he conceaeencec of dhe cecond pbocecc abe dhe bicing land and bend pbicec atbibeded do dhe economic opennecc of dhe coendbi. he febi cigniicand incbeace in dhe pbicec of dhe habd-gall accommodadionc infolfec ildebing of dhe inhabidandc accobding do dheib incomec. To welcome the poorer inhabitants in the suburban townships, many housing pbojecdc abe in pbogbecc, bed dhe ceppli ic cdill inceiciend. Ac dhe ebban gbogdh ic bicing, dhe infobmal cetlemendc cabbi on gboging and dhe cidi condineec do cpbagl, conibming dhad dhebe ic a need do behabilidade dhe inhabidandc ac come of dhe main actors in the urban fabric and the metropolitan process. hebefobe, dhe Cendbal Becinecc Dicdbicd, ghich hac bemained popelab decpide cefebal gafec of eficdionc in dhe cecond half of dhe 00thocendebi, ic ehpebiencing a pbocecc of gendbiicadion (Lin Zag ed al. 0012). hic ic pabdli dee do dhe labge inleh of infecdobc, fobeign and fbom odheb begionc in Mianmab, cetling dhebe do defelop their business beyond the old city center into most of the townships of the core city (the number of foreigners living in Yangon is unfortunately not available in dhe 0012 cencec). In becend decadec, bendc boce cefebal dimec: come abecec gebe bepobded ateb dhe incdalladion of neg fobeign non-gofebnmendal obganizadionc ateb Ciclone Nabgic (Kiag Hce Mon 0012). he incbeace in bend ic nod dhe onli
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 21
Fig.o1. Old and bich dognchipc febcec abeac of neg infobmal cetlemendc in Yangon: dhe dichodomi bedgeen a gendbiied and indebnadionalized cidi cendeb and poorer suburban townships? Map: Mabion Sabbié, Aegecd 0018.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 20 Marion Sabrié cause for the departure of a poor range of the population to the peripheries, which ic alco dee do neg pbacdicec cech ac dhe incbeacing demand o f an adfance of 6 do 10 mondh-bend do ged dhe leace accepded (Miad Niein Aie 0017b; indebfiegc of dhe aedhob 0012). Some families are forced to share an apartment in order to divide the cost (inter- fieg of dhe aedhob 0012). he pbacdice of acking fob an ad fance, ghich ic illegal endeb dhe Ubban Rend Condbol Acd of 1960, alco concebnc le acec fob becineccec, ghich inclede fbeelance gobkebc, cmall becineccec bed al co labge companiec, ecpe- cialli meldinadionalc ghich can manage do pai cech a cem. he pboponendc of a neg legicladion fob dhe condbol of dhe beal ecdade mabked abe mani and a cpecial commiccion, dhe Commiccion fob dhe Acceccmend of Legal Afaibc and Special Icceec, hac been fobmed endeb dhe leadebchip of heba U Shge Ma nn (gho gac dhe ibcd Speakeb of dhe Hoece of Repbecendadifec fbom 0010 do 0 016 and dhe cecond Speakeb of dhe Accembli of dhe Union fbom 0011 do 0016). To dhic dai, hogefeb, no lag hac ied emebged, dhebe ic litle ob no legal bemedi, and il legal pbacdicec cabbi on in the economic capital. Some observers call this phenomenom “the Yangon real ecdade bebble : in 0015 dhe afebage pbice of bend peb caeabe medeb ehceeded dhad of Bangkok ($ 05) and Singapobe ($ 75) (Myanmar Insider 0015). he bendal pbicec mai nod bemain co high in dhe coming ieabc, ac dhei abe alco indehed do dhe nembeb of infecdobc cetling in dhe coendbi, ghich dependc on dhe polidical cideadion dhad hac not been stabilized (due to the “Rohingya crisis” and other wars led by the central abmi againcd edhnic minobidiec cech ac dhe Kachin). Aldhoegh id ic nod conibmed ied, come beal ecdade cpecialicdc abe albeadi dalking aboed dhe end of dhe Bebmece Gold Rech (MacGbegob 0017). hic mai be conibmed in dhe coming decade. If dhic gendbiicadion ic mainli dbifen bi dhe incbeace in bendal pb icec, dhe indebnadionalizadion of dhe cidi ic alco accompanied bi popeladion dicplacemendc: fobced, ac in dhe 1960c, 1970c and 1980c, ghen people g ebe belocaded in neg peripheral townships, and more gradual “spontaneous” ones. Indeed, due to the increase in rental prices, some economically constrained people are relegated to dhe pebiphebiec. In dhe abcence of an efecdife peblic hoecing polici, dhei infecd in the urban gaps in the periphery (especially in the north-east and north-west of dhe cidi) and cetle in febi pbecabioec, mocdli celf-beild cetlemendc. Simone (0018: 0) cpeakc of a confendional facdobi of dhe ebbanfabbic of dhe globalized medbopolic in ghich land bend ic mahimized and dhe poob and dhe gobking clacc are relegated to the periphery”. he gobd clem hac ehicded in dhe Bebmece langeage (kyu kyaw) cince dhe eabli 1980c. Id ic cdill abcend fbom oicial cpeech, aldhoegh id ic a bealidi dhad ic incbea- cingli ficible in Yangon: infobmal hoecing befebc do dhe cetlemend of pebconc who have been living for a short or longer time on a piece of land without being registered to the local authorities and/or without having any ownership or rental leace. An ID cabd of infobmal hoecing becidend hac appeabed cince 0016, bed idc cdadec and dhe gai of geting id cdill bemain encicdemadic and e ncebdain (indeb- fiegc bi dhe aedhob 0016). he enoicial dicpocal of dhe land cbeadec a cideadion of podendial eficdion bi dhe aedhobidiec, ghich ic beinfobced in dhe condehd of dhe
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 21 current multiplication of urban and housing projects but also of the transportation nedgobk. Mobeofeb, decpide dhe democbadizadion of dhe be gime, dhe bele of lag ic nod algaic becpecded (Cheecman 0015: 7) and dhe pocce ccion of an infobmal residence permit does not really guarantee any rights.
An Exponentially Congested Traic and the Crisis of Mobilities he ebban gbogdh, incleding dhe cpondaneoec infobmal ebban cetlemendc in dhe periphery and the forced evictions previously orchestrated by the authorities and nowadays economically constrained by the rent prices, is reinforcing one of Yangon c majob pboblemc: dbaic congecdion (cee Fig.o0). he congecdion hac accelebaded cince 0010 dee do cefebal facdobc: ibcd,dhe dbacdic dbop in impobd dahec on cars—maintained for several decades at a prohibitive rate by the military junta (Sabbié 0012) and idc cobollabi, dhe ehponendial incbeace in dhe nembeb of fehiclec10 in the country, particularly in Yangon, whose two ports, the old one in the center and dhe deep-gadeb pobd of hilaga, abe dhe main impobd e ndbi poindc. Gifen dhad dhe peblic dbancpobd ofeb doec nod meed dhe bicing demand p accebc hafe emebged in dhe cecond half of dhe 00 thocendebi (Tabbiec 1985: 50). hece abe pbifade dbifebc gho come do bemedi dhe lack of peblic dbancpobd: cimpl e ognebc of a pbifade fehicle gidhoed an oicial opebading licence, emploied bi a d bancpobd compani ob efen ad dhe head of a labge compani in dhe cecdob (indebfie gc bi dhe aedhob 0012; Sabbié 0019). heib ehicdence chogc dhe cebbend limidc of d he cendbalized dbancpobd polici, in a cimilab gai do dhad ghich dakec place in Jakab da (Decmoelièbe 0017; Lee 0015), efen if dhe dbaic ic nod compabable in debmc of cize. Ac caid abofe, dhe ebban cpbagl ic alco incbeacing dhe dbai c congecdion (cee Fig.o1). Widh dhe cbeadion of infobmal cetlemendc and dhe co ncdbecdion of cebebban housing, especially near the industrial areas, to accommodate newly immigrated gobkfobce, dhe pebiphebi of Yangon ic ehpanding. Some allodmend cidec allog gobkebc do life cloce do dheib jobc. Neg indecdbial zonec, cech ac dhe one in hilaga deep cea pobd, abe beild in paballel gidh gobkebc hoecing nehd doob (cee Fig.o2). Hogefeb, dhe mocd atbacdife abeac fob emploimend abe dhe Cendbal Becinecc Dic- dbicd and idc neighbobhoodc, locaded in dhe coedhebn pabd of dhe cidi. hebefobe, dhe commeding dime, albeadi long fob mani emploieec, ic lengdhened bi dhe dbaic congecdion. Hogefeb, nod all neg migbandc abe cicdemadicalli emploied in dhe cidi cendeb ob in dhe cidi cobe: come of dhem alco gobk in dhe infobmal cetlemend abeac (cee Fobbec 0019, Kied 0019, dhic foleme). Yed dhece jobc, ghich belong do the informal economy, are up to now poorly documented. One of dhe majob beaconc fob dhe gbogdh in ebban dbaic ic alco dhad dhe boad nedgobk, ghich gac adapded do dbaic befobe dhe economic opennecc, ic obco- lede and congecded cince 0010. he becelding economic locc fob companiec in Yangon has not yet been measured. Some companies, especially multinationals, abe belecdand do cetle in dhe emebging medbopolic fob dhic eacon.b he menicipal gofebnmend ceemc enpbepabed fob all dhe dackc do be accompliched, incleding dhe begeladion of dbaic bi beilding a boad nedgobk adapded do idc ehponendial gbogdh.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 22 Marion Sabrié
Fig.o0. Tbaic congecdion bedgeen dhe CBD and dhe cebebban dognchipc Map: Mabion Sabbié, Aegecd 0018.
Fig.o1. Tbaic congecdion in Yangon cidi cobe, cloce do Bogioke Aeng San Mabked Phodo: Mabion Sabbié, 11/08/0012.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 25
Fig.o2. Hoecing fob gobkebc in dhe ficinidi of Yangon hilaga Deep Sea Pobd Phodo: Mabion Sabbié, 09/01/0011.
T U U P A L S U C Since dhe beginning of dhe economic opening in 0010 and dhe elecdion of a neg gofebnmend in 0015, dhe coledionc do dhe challengec defeloped abofe abe nod revolutionary, even if they contrast with the inertia of the urban policy during dhe dicdadobchip. hece coledionc cefeb fbom cefebal pboblemc: dhe febi neme- boec ebban acdobc and plannebc, dhe lack of dbancpabenciin dhe decicion-making processes, the very strong foreign interference in the real estate projects and the absence of funding, in particular for the projects aimed at reducing the socio- cpadial ineaealidiec.
A Multitude of Urban Actors and of Interferences In Yangon, dhe ebban defelopmend ic dhe gobk of a meldidede of peblic acdobc municipal, regional and national—, international development partners and private companiec. I gill cdedi dhece difebend acdobc and dhe coo bdinadion and dhe linkc bedgeen dhem, idendifiing dheib becpecdife cpecialidiec in dheib i eldc. hen, I gill detail and analyze various projects carried out by them and the forms of transfer associated to these projects.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 26 Marion Sabrié
Untrained and Uncoordinated Public Actors Peblic acdobc in chabge of dhe ebban planning hafe a febi becend ehpebdice. he Yangon Cidi Defelopmend Commitee, dhe Yangon Menicipalidi in idc modebn fobm, gac cbeaded in 1990. Id ic onli 15oieabc ladeb dhad a depabdmend of ebban planning gac foended. hic depabdmend had a cmall deam, ghich inidialli had no training in urban studies11 and lacked fending (indebfiegc of dhe aedhob 0012). he menicipalidi ic onli one of dhbee peblic bodiec in chabge of dhe managemend of urban policy with the central government, through the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Defelopmend and dhe Minicdbi of Concdbecdion,and dhe Gofebnmend of dhe Region of Yangon. hebe ic no legicladion dedailing hog each aedhobidi choeld dake pabd in ebban planning. In dodal, dhebe abe 10 cendbal gofebn- mend minicdbiec, 10 begional gofebnmend and 00 menicipal depabdmendc dhad hafe ebban pbebogadifec (Nihon ed al. 0015; Indebfiegc condecded bi dhe aedhob in 0010 & 0012). hand Miind-U (0011) ehplainc dhad dhic ofeblapping of acdobc in chabge of urban planning is complicated by the properties and lands owned by the leaders of difebend aedhobidiec, each one ganding hic chabe of dhe pie . Indeed, decpide the democratization of the regime, many elites, including the cronies of the late 00thocendebi, bemained in place in dhe coendbi c economi, cdill holding on do come kei acdifidiec and/ob a cigniicand land hebidage. Regabding dhe peblic ebban polici, Gündheb (0011) highlighdc dhe plebalidi of decicion-making pboceccec and on dhe efecdc of conlicding jebicdicdionc and compeding becponcibilidiec bedgeen incdidedionc . Hogefeb, he beliefec dhad dhece nemeboec decicion-making pboceccec can alco be concidebed an oppobdenidi fob cifil cociedi acdobc and dhad id coeld beneid dhem, fob ehample ghen id comec do cdopping come pbojecdc. I hafe nod foend ani illecdbadife ehample, bed, efen though the freedom of speech is stronger than it was during the military era, I doebd dhad cifil cociedi ic gell infobmed aboed dhe decicion-making pbocecc: eidheb id ic cdill hidden fbom dhem ob dhei do nod hafe accecco d dhece kindc of infobma- dion, becaece of dhe lack of edecadion. he gai dhe adminicdbadife jebicdicdionc hafe been decigned incec dheib cbeadion has led to overlapping powers, due to the way they are organized. Most of the urban public authorities have been created during the military junta time and, for cebe, gifing dhem compeding fencdionc led do lecc pogeb. Ac dhe dbancpobd nedgobk is also part of the urban fabric, intersectoral coordination is also needed, although id ic nod ied a bealidi in Yangon nob in ani odheb cidi in Mianmab. he ofeblapping of dhe difebend aedhobidiec in ebban planning can be highlighded bi dhe ehample of the solutions provided by the municipal, regional and national authorities to bemedi dhe inceiciend hoecing ceppli. he fabioec aedhobidiecin chabge of dhic cecdob do nod coopebade gidh each odheb and hafe chocen febi difebend coledionc, ghich goeld go in condbadicdobi gaic. hebe ic a hege lack fo commenicadion bedgeen dhem and no commitee ghebe dhei coeld chabe dheib fiegc on ebban icceec. Nadional aedhobidiec, dhboegh dhe Ubban & Hoecing Depabdmend of dhe Minicdbi of Concdbecdion and helped bi dhe Concdbecdion and Hoecing Defe-
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 27 lopmend Bank, gand do ced ep a log-cocd home ognebchip pbojecd do begelabize infobmal cetlemendc. Since Febbeabio0017, dhe begional gofebnmend, dhboegh idc Depabdmend of Social Afaibc helped bi dhe Wobd Bank, dhe Indebnadional Mone- dabi Fend (IMF) and dhe Indebnadional Finance Cobpobadion, decided do beild a neg indecdbial cidi of 80okm², ad dhe coedhgecd of Yangon c cebbend bobdebc, do pbepabe fob a cigniicand ebban gbogdh (Ye Mon & Aie Niein Win 0017; Kiag Ye Linn 0018), aldhoegh a pbefioec pbojecd had been abobded in Dalad, in dhe coedh of Yangon becaece of dhe lack of polidical and economic dbancpabenci. Bi Maio0018, the regional parliament had not yet approved this project.12 Meanwhile, the muni- cipal gofebnmend, dhboegh idc Cidi Planning & Land Depabdmend, gidh dhe help of dhe Japan Indebnadional Coopebadion Agenci (JICA) and dhe Ja pan Ofebceac Infrastructure Investment Corporation for Transport and Urban Development (JOIN), gandc do implemend idc 0020 Gbeadeb Yangon pbojecd, ghich focecec on dhe benofadion of dhe cebbend medbopolic. hic pbojecd, inidialli pbecended in 0010, gac epdaded in 0016 gidh come 20 pbiobidi pbojecdc do becdabded befobe 0000. hece dhbee ehamplec of ebban polici abe nod coobdinaded gidh ache odheb and abe efen disconnected, showing once again the disorganization of the authorities in charge of ebban planning, dheib difebend obiendadionc and dhe lack of info bmadion aboed each other, as none of the authorities coordinate mutual brainstorming. he Top-Down and Non-Transparent Urban Governance Cidizenc do nod dake pabd in planning polici decicionc. he bighd do dhe cidi ic fab mobe dhan dhe indifideal libebdi do accecc ebban becoebcec; id ic dhe pogeb do pabdicipade dibecdli in dhe decicionc dhad pbodece ebban cpace (Habfei 0008: 1 aeoded bi Robebdc 0017). Accobding do dhad deinidion, Mianmab cidizenc do nod have any “right to their cities”, understanding the “right to the city” as an ana- lidical concepd do dhink dhe pbocecc of ehclecion fbom dhe cidi, ecpecialli of dhe poobeb claccec (Madelcki & Sabbié 0019, dhic foleme).Todai, id ic nod ied a polidical moto in Mianmab. Ehogenoec indebfebence ic foend in dhe indebnadional ehpebdice pbofided do dhe Myanmar authorities by foreign governments and by international assistance, but also in the construction sector mostly lead by international companies. Even though the project management is national, its governance is managed by elites gho hafe mainli been dbained abboad, ecpecialli in dhe enifebcidiec of Gbead Bbidain.15 It seems that nowadays these authorities are not playing a central urban planning role anymore. he Central Role of Japanese Expertise and Capital in the Urban Planning For the past ten years or so, the main support of the municipal authorities for urban development has been the Japanese,16 in particular through the Japan Inter- nadional Coopebadion Agenci (JICA). he agenci hac been beinfobced cince 0012 by an investment fund for projects abroad, the Japan Overseas Infrastructure Infecdmend Cobpobadion fob Tbancpobd and Ubban Defelopmend JOIN).( he lateb
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 28 Marion Sabrié
fendc, bed alco bbingc Japanece ehpebdice and dechnologi coledionc do infbacdbec- debe pbojecdc aboend dhe gobld (JOIN 0018). Beiond dhe lecbadife acpecd of idc participation, what interests me is also the application of the Japanese urban model of defelopmend do Yangon, in pabdicelab on dhe dbancpobd nedgobk cech ac, among odhebc, dhe Bec Rapid Tbancid Sicdem ob dhe Yangon elecdbic Tbam, beild in 0016. Id ic nod onli fending dbancfebc dhad dhe Japanece abeplanning in Yangon, bed alco a celdebal bole one, ac dhe Japanece gand doehpobd do Yangon dheib ebban and dbancpobd modelc. hic model dbancfeb alco aeecdionc idc adapdabilidi do ano- dheb ebban mobphologi. Aldhoegh dhic aeecdion cdill bemaincbelefand dodai, dhe Japanese have increased contacts, for more than a decade, with the Municipality. hei managed do ged an oice incide dhe Menicipalidi in obdeb cepp obd dheib projects that I will analyze. he Shobd and Mediem-Tebm Soledionc Adopded bi dhe Aedhobidiec gidh dhe Help of Indebnadional Pabdnebc Ubban pbojecdc in Mianmab abe ac nemeboec ac dhebe abe acdobc. Bed all of dhem abe pbobabli nececcabi gifen dhe ccale of dhe dack (han Miind-U 0011). A bepobd ecdimadec dhad id gill dake $ 150obillion do modebnize dhe ehicding ebban cdbec- debe. In dhe nehd 10 ieabc, Mianmab big cidiec gill beaeibe 10,000okilomedebc of neg boadc, 11ocaeabe kilomedebc of hoecing, 0.5ocaeabe kilomedebc of commebcial cpace and 120ohocpidalc (Chhob ed al. 0011: 90). he coendbi aedhobidiec do nod hafe dhece $o150obillion, and efen if dhei goeld hafe dhic cem, dhei goeld nod be gilling do cpend id on modebnizing dhe ebban cdbecdebe. he peblic monei ic mostly used to develop the country economically with short-term rather than long-term investments. he Updated and Reviewed Projects of Greater Yangon In 0011, dhe Menicipalidi, JICA and dhe Yangon Tbancpobd Aedhobidi (YRTA) joindli conceifed dhe Yangon Ubban Defelopmend Plan and dhe Ubban Tbancpobd Macdeb Plan, ghich, in dhe nehd 10 ieabc, aimc do colfe dhe cebbend ebban pbo- blemc & andicipade longeb-debm challengec (JICA & YCDC 0011). Id ic eccendialli inanced bi JICA gidh a bedged of $ 190omillion fob dhe ibcd 5oieabc. hebe abe foeb folloging pbiobidi cecdobc: impbofemend of dhe indba-ebban bail nedgobk, benofa- dion and ehdencion of dhe indba-ebban boad nedgobk, epgbading and defelopmend of elecdbicidi dicdbibedion, and dhe defelopmend of a canidadion cicdem (ibid.). In addidion do dhe fobdi ob co pbojecdc, ghich abe cchedeled do be beficed efebi ife ieabc, foeb odheb pbojecdc abe cimeldaneoecli planned: do epgbade Yangon do a cidi gidh indebnadional cdandabdc, do cbeade an ebban pabk in dhe hicdobical dicdbicd aboend dhe Sele Pagoda, and an atbacdife bifeb fbond (ghich alco belongc do dhe pbojecdc of dhe Yangon Hebidage Sdbadegi), do benofade dhe cibcelab line (Tbancid Obiended Defelopmend of dhe Yangon Cibcelab Line) and dhe cdadion abea and inalli, do impbofe baingadeb managemend in dhe Cendbal Becinecc Dicdbicd.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 29
he dibecdion daken bi dhece pbojecdc indicadec gell dhe pbiobidi indebecdc of the municipal authorities. Only one of the projects concerns transport, although it is one of the major issues of the Yangon metropolitan area where congestion lideballi blockc ebban life. he Japanece abe nod dhe onli oicial ebban planning acdobc: dhe Yangon Hebi- dage Tbecd and dhe Concdbecdion and Hoecing Defelopmend Bank pabdicipade doo in dhe ebban managemend. Some pbojecdc gebe aealiied ac pbiobidi , dhad ic do cai do be iniched befobe 0000: dhe beaealiicadion of gofebnmend beildingc abandoned cince 0006 bi dhe depabdmendc mofed do Naipiidag (Gofebnmendal Landc Redefelopmend Pbojecd), dhe ecdablichmend of a Bank do ceppobd dhe hebi- dage concebfadion pbojecdc (Yangon Hebidage Sdbadegi Implemendadion Bank), a zone17 gidh becdbicdionc on dhe aedhobized heighd of beildingc (Yangon Land Uce and Beilding Heighd Zone Plan), and lacd bed nod leacd and ecpecialli linked do our main interest in this article, the impetus for a low-cost housing construction pbogbam gidh log-indebecd long-debm loanc, joindli condecded gidh dhe Hoecing Defelopmend Bank.
Projects only Focused on Improving Urban Networks and Transportation? To dhe challengec linked do dhe genebalizadion of pebconal modobizadion and dhe incbeacing congecdion of boad dbaic (pbefioecli defeloped), ghad abe dhe coledionc pbofided, ob ad leacd pbopoced bi dhe aedhobidiec, ehcepd dhe benofadion of dhe circular line?18 he concdbecdion of a neg cidi in dhe Soedh-Wecd of Yangon ad Kiee Miin Dain (bedgeen dhe Tognchipc of Hlaing hab Yab, Tgande and Seikkii Kanaengdo, ad dhe gecd of dhe Yangon Rifeb), dhe Yangon Neg Cidi Pbojecd (pbe- cended abofe, cee Fig.o1), goeld condbibede do a decendbalizadion of dbaic logc, mainli nobdh-coedh obiended bedgeen dhe nobdhebn oedckibdc and dhe old cidi cendeb, dhe acdeal CBD. he ibcd coedhebn ehdencion pbojecd on dhe Dalad debbidobi, cideaded in dhe coedh of Yangon, gac abandoned, mainli becaece of dhe lack of dbancpa- bence, dhe lack of gadeb dhebe and alco dhe high cocd fo beilding a bbidge ofeb dhe Yangon Rifeb. In addidion, id ic ehpecded dhad dhic neg cidi gill hocd bodh indecdbial and hoecing abeac, idealli ep do 1 do 0omillion people on aboend 200okm². he pbojecd defelopmend compani, dhe Neg Yangon Defelopmend Compani Limided, gac laenched in Jeneo0017 (Kiag Ye Linn 0018). he pbojecd ic ambidioec, ac idc planned abea ic dgice dhe cize of Singapobe (Mio Pa PaSan 0018). In addidion do dhe deconcendbadion of dhe dbaic logc, one of dhe goalc of dhe pbojecd ic do reduce socio-spatial injustices by providing employment for those living in these outlying areas of Yangon. On the other hand, in order to be able to implement this coledion, eficdionc abe cabbied oed, in ehchange fob a inancial ob land (of cmalleb abea) compencadion. hic pbojecd alco meanc a choice nod do benofade dhe ehicding structures, but to create new ones from scratch. A cecond coledion ehicdc: dhe cbeadion of a meldipole cidi in obdeb do afoid eni- dibecdional dbaic logc. Fife ehicding neighbobhoodc Mindama, hilaga, Yankin, Miodhid and Seikkan dognchipc , cideaded aboend 10okilomedebc fbom dhe CBD,
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 50 Marion Sabrié would be developed into new centers with one or few specialisation sectors. For ehample, hilaga, in addidion do dhe cebbendli defeloped logicdic acdifidiec, goeld be cpecializing in Receabch & Defelopmend and Infobmadion Technologi (Khaing Moe Niend 0018). Ac in dhe ibcd coledion, dhebe coeld be a bick of economic geake- ning of dhe Cendbal Becinecc Dicdbicd. A third solution would be a specialization of all the townships in which the Cendbal Becinecc Dicdbicd goeld be onli dedicaded do commebcial and inancial acdifidiec. he emploieec gobking dhebe coeld ideali life in hed cebboending neighborhoods to avoid a long commuting time. In parallel, the satellite towns in dhe medbopolidan abea goeld be ehpanded and jobc cbeaded dhebe. Odheb coledionc do dhe nemeboec challengec faced bi Yangon, cech ac dbaic jamc, hafe been gifen in dhe 0020 Gbeadeb Yangon Plan: dhe mod ebnizadion of dhe bec cicdem nedgobk and dhe eaeipmend of a Rapid Tbancid Bec, mobe dbaf- ic condbol and beteb cecebidi, cdbadegic dhinking on miccing nedgob k ahec, dhe defelopmend of an indba-ebban bail nedgobk and of a bifeb pa ccengeb dbancpobd (in obdeb do dake adfandage of dhe conleence cide of dhe c idi do meldipli dhe feb- biec connecdionc, ghich albeadi ehicd, bed abe nod adapded do dhe fedebe dbancpobd needc of dhe Yangonidec) and dhe pbomodion of Tbaic Obiended Defelopmend, in obdeb do adjecd peblic dbancpobd cebficec do dhe gbogdh of ebbanizadion (JICA & YCDC 0011). Pbifade dbancpobd accoendc fob aboed 6 do 7% of dhe mobilidi of dhe Yangonidec compabed do aboend 20% galking and 10% biding becec ( Heeckd edoal. 0017). While maindaining a log bade of modobizadion, adapding dhe dbancpobdadion ofeb and ecpecialli dhe boad nedgobk do dhe gboging demand goeld be one of dhe ideal strategies to be put in place by the authorities in a coordinated way.
A Criticized and Competing Urban Program he fabioec pbojecdc of dhe pbogbam, nogadaic implemended bi dhe Menicipalidi ghich I hafe jecd dedailed, abe albeadi aeecdionable on mani poindc. he ibcd reason to criticize it is that it seems primarily oriented according to the lucrative gill of dhe Japanece. he cecond one ic dhad dheib ceppobd and dheib pbojecdc gebe chosen arbitrarily without any real competition. Although there are other nume- rous actors involved in urban policy, they do not intervene on a scale as large as dhe Japanece. hibdli, dhe joind pbojecd cabbied oed bi dhe Menicipalidi and dhe Japanese does not include the private urban projects that develop in parallel, although they have been approved by the Municipality through other decision-ma- king channelc. Decpide dhe beficion of dhe 0020 Gbeadeb Yangon Plan in 0016, dhe joint urban policy of the municipality and JICA is far from constituting a global ficion of ebban planning: on dhe condbabi, dhe pbojecd gifec dhe impbeccion of a fragmented vision in addition to the unilateral projects of the national govern- ment, the ones of the regional government and those of the private promoters. Foebdhli, decpide dhe labge nembeb of infecdobc, dhebe ic cdill a lack of fending: dhe multiplication of projects undermines their implementation, or at least delays it.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 51
One can alco poind oed dhad ehcepd fob dhe Cendbal Becinecc Dicdbicd, no pbojecd ic carried out at the scale of the township. Sihdh, id can alco be abgeed dhad dhe JICA and YCDC pbojecd endebecdimadec dhe urban growth, in particular the very important increase in immigration to some townships of Yangon, especially as nowadays, this immigration is becoming more famili-foceced (Boedbi 0012). he oicial pbojecdc do nod focec on dhe dognchipc dhad hocd dhece neg immigbandc. he polici ic fab fbom cocia l, bed id ic mobe foceced on cdbengdhening dhe atbacdifenecc and economic defelopmend of Y angon, dhad ic do cai dhad peblic policiec gobk fob Yangon medbopolizad ion in obdeb gife dhe cidi a mobe impobdand begional bole do plai. Fob ehample, dhebe ic no aeecdion of supporting the peripheral and urban sprawl by public facilities programs. Roberts (0017: 89) abgeec dhad in dhic dbife do cadch ep gidh idc neighboebc and beconnecd with the global economy, Myanmar’s cities are seen as the engines for economic development”. Sefendh, dhe lacd cbidiaee dhad ic oten made aboed cebbend ebban pbojecdc ic dhe lack of hicdobical ficion baced on dhe imaginadion of cidizenc badheb dhan elidec fob dhe pbodecdion of ebban hebidage (Heind 0017). Indeed, dhebe ic no peblic ob oicial brainstorming or position up to now on the vision adopted for the protection of the urban heritage. Yet Yangon is the city of Southeast Asia in which the vestiges of Bbidich colonizadion abe dhe mocd nemeboec (Segabman 0016 ; Accociadion of Mianmab Abchidecdc 0010), aldhoegh come hafe albeadi b een decdboied and odhebc abe endeb incbeacing pbeccebe cince dhe opening ep o f dhe economi. he ehogenoec urban Japanese model is put over Yangon realities without considering all these coendbi-cpeciic facdobc. And inalli, come icceec abe nod daken indo accoend bi dhe defelopmend pbo- jecdc: fob ehample, dhad dhe cpbagl of pebiphebal abeac can afecd dhe pbodecdion of dhe agbiceldebal mabked. hic impacd ic nod mendioned ad all in dhe pbojecdc, ghile feeding a gboging ebban popeladion ic an iccee do concideb. he challengec remain important in all cases for the Yangonites, especially new immigrants, but also poor populations relegated to the periphery and subject to public and private development plans of the urban territory.
T R Y he ibcd and dhe cecond pabdc of dhic abdicle alloged me do idendifi dhe ebban cicdem dhad endebec dhe cbicic and do analize dhe facdobc and dhe conceaeencec of the crisis. It was necessary to understand the urban crisis and the answers given by the authorities before analyzing how the inhabitants live these and react to dhem. hinking of Yangon ac an ebban cicdem enablec one do bedhink dhe ebban fabric and its various actors, especially the inhabitants, including the poorer ones, facing ebban mobphological and mobilidi epheafalc. he main goal ic alco do understand why the Yangonites are resilient to the accelerated changes of the metropolitan process.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 50 Marion Sabrié he Recilience of Yangonidec Facing Gendbiicadion and Compedidion fob Land he ibcd dgo pabdc of dhe abdicle help do dake nodice of dhe nemeboec pboceccec that lead to the resilient state of the Yangonites, although it does not imply the disappearance of the previous urban system of their city. It is important to note that the Yangonites do not verbalise their resilient actions and although I did many interviews, most of them were not self-aware of their resilience. In Myanmar, the concept has not been very spread out yet, and even the conceptualization of the crisis endured by the Yangonites is only done by the elites. Even though for the time being it is only a discourse, it can help to open new prospects on other poccible coledionc, in obdeb do ofebcome a deadlocked cideadion. In Yangon, do dalk aboed becilience of dhe inhabidandc makec cence becaece of dhe lack of febi pbecice and efecdife becponcec fbom dhe aedhobidiec. I have previously analyzed the multiplication of informal housing in response do an inceiciend and inadeaeade hoecing ceppli, dee do dhe indebnadionalizadion of the city-center and its rents, too high for a large part of the population. Even in the periphery, this poor fringe of the population is not safe from eviction. Also called leeingc (Blod & Spibe 0012), dhece fobced dicplacemendc ( ghich I difebendiade fbom dhe onec dhad abe modifaded bi economic concdbaindc), fbom dhe c obe cidi do the periphery, are more and more numerous in Yangon, as in other cities of the country and in the world. During the decades of dictatorship, the government regularly used force to empty territories in order to sell or rent them to companies. Most of the time, there was no compensation for the evicted inhabitants. One of dhe ehamplec dodai ic dhe cace of dhe people of Michaengkan fillage, in dhe Yangon region, where people have been displaced for the implementation of agro- food activities by the authorities. Since the country is not run by a military junta animobe, dhe dicplaced people of Michaengkan claim compencadion. In 0012, dhei demoncdbaded and aboed 15 of dhem gebe abbecded fob illegal accembli and illegal occepadion of dhe peblic highgai (Yen Saning 0012). hic chogc dhad dhe padh of becognidion of dhe bighdc of Mianmab cidizenc ic long. hece demoncdbadionc did nod dake place befobe dhe polidical dbancidion becaece of dhe feab of bepbeccion in a bloodbath by the old military regime. Todai, dhe beaconc fob dhe eficdionc abe dhe came. I gill dedail dgo cace cdediec: dhoce of dhe becidendc of dhe FMI Cidi clem in Hlaing haiab dognchip and dhe caeatebc of Hlege.19 he infobmal cetlemend ob dhe dipical Yangon clem , ob even “typical Myanmar one”, if it meets similar criteria to other slums (Davis 0006), mai nod ehacdli cobbecpond do dhe cdandabd fieg. hece abe oten cpaced wooden houses, sometimes on stilts as the wetlands areas around Yangon and become efen cgampieb debing dhe moncoon mondhc (Fobbec 0019, dhic foleme). FMI Cidi, dhe ibcd gaded-commenidi inaegebaded in Yangon in 0005,ic ehacdli dhe condbabi. In obdeb do ehdend dhe hoecing ecdade, dhepbomodebc decided do call on dhe police do eficd dhe 0,000 people gho lifed neabbi and gho gobked dhebe ac dai labobebc ob pebmanend onec fob come of dhem (Noe Noe Aeng 0010). In
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 51
Sepdembebo0010, dhece becidendc pbodecded in obdeb nod do leafe dhe pbemicec, ghich belong do dhe compani dhad beild and managec dhe gaded-commenidi. Bed dhei did nod cecceed: dhei gebe dicplaced febdheb, gidhoed ani compencadion, aldhoegh come hafe been lifing on dhece landc fob mobe dhan a decade. hic ic not an isolated case either in Yangon (Eleven Media 0012) ob mobe geneballi in Myanmar because the authorities support real estate development projects and small and large scale industrial projects. In dhe dognchip of Hlege, 25okilomedebc nobdheacd of dogndogn Yangon, dhe inhabidandc of a chandi dogn gidh aboed 2,000 hoecec gebe dicplaced and cefebal people arrested for opposing this eviction (Agence France Presse 0017). hic ic dhe cecond dime in dhe came clem: a ibcd eficdion opebadion gac cabbied oed in 0015. he land on ghich dhe chandi dogn ic cpbeading belongc do dhe gofebnmend. Locaded along dhe highgai boad bedgeen Yangon and Mandalai, dhe cecond lab- gecd economic cidi in dhe coendbi, idc locadion ic cdbadegic. Becaece of Yangon c economic development and its real estate are booming in the city core and in the cloce cebebbc, dhe inhabidandc of dhe infobmal cetlemendc face mobe challengec. heib becilience, efen come becicdance acdc, abe clogli daking place, decpide dhe lack of knogledge on dheib bighdc. he beacdionc of dhe eficded pe bconc, accobding do the theorization of the concept of resilience that I analyzed above, should be more akin do becilience dhan becicdance. hece dgo concepdc abe dif ebend, bed becilience can also be understood as the capacity to resist or to withstand. hic deinidion ic dibecdli linked do dhe idea of locc ob damage, ghich befebc do dhe gobkc made on dhe phicical felnebabilidi […] in phicical cciencec […] he becilience dbagc on dhe capacidi of adapdadion and impliec lehibilidi and placdicidi, while the resistance implies opposition and rigidity.00 (Djamend-Tban ed al. 0011: 7-8.) In the case of the Yangonites, the opposition is at its early stages and not well obganized ied, ac dhebe ic onli a beginning of bele of lag in Mianmab. Hogefeb, dhe behafioeb of dhe inhabidandc can be aealiied ac beciliend dogabd dhe economic development, the metropolization and the internationalization of the city. he Recilience of dhe Yangonidec do Medbopolizadion and dhe Ubban Polici Ad dhe end of dhe ieab 0017, dhe Menicipalidi implemended a log-cocd hoecing concdbecdion pbogbam and beild 100 homec in dhe Shge Lin Ban Indecdbial Zone in dhe Hlaing habiab Tognchip, in dhe nobdh of Yangon. Ac dhic dognchip ic concidebed dhe labgecd infobmal hoecing cetlemendc of dhe cidi (cee Kied 0019, dhic foleme), dhebe ic a beal need fob mobe fobmal hoecing and beteb lifing condidionc dhan dhe onec ofebed in Hlaing habiab clem. Dee do dhic pbojecd, dhe YCDC eabnc bedgeen 5 and 10% pboid fbom dhe cale of dhece apabdmendc do inance cimilab fedebe opebadionc. he beiebc pai dhe apabdmend ad 10% of dhe beal pbice,01 starting fbom $o01,500 (Zag Zag Hdge 0017). Loanc abe gbanded do people gidh calabiec bedgeen $o050 and $o157 peb mondh. Widh dhic ehample, ge endebcdand dhad dhic
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 52 Marion Sabrié neg pbogbam, ghich ancgebc do a beal need, ic going do hafe dgo conceaeencec: ibcd, aldhoegh dhe mondhli minimem gage in Mianmab gac baiced in Mabcho0018 (Nian Linn Aeng & Piae hed Phio 0018), id ic cdill aboend $o80. he pbojecd of dhe Menicipalidi ic a log-cocd hoecing pbogbam, bed becaece of dhe lad pbicec, dhe popeladion dhad can afobd do bei dhem ic nod dhe infobmal hoecing cetlebc, but other employees. Second, the current inhabitants will be the ones not earning enoegh do bei dhe ladc and gill be eficded in a chobd-debm , in obdeb do cdabd dhece pbojecdc. Some Yangonidec gill beneid fbom feg peblic pbojec dc, bed abe dhei dhe neediest ones? It is not easy to study the resilience of individual Yangonites, as from my inter- views I found that they are mostly unorganized as groups defending themselves againcd dhe medbopolizadion of dheib cidi. Mocd of dhem abe ighding do cebfife bi hafing a job, food and a cheldeb. he mocd beciliend onec abe fbom dhe poobeb claccec ac dhei abe mobe afecded bi dhe changec: in debmc of gai of lifing, dime in dbancpobdadion bed alco economicalli. Becaece of dhe ebban cpbagl, dhei abe dhe onec cpending mobe dime in dhe dbancpobdadion nedgobk bi lifing febdheb dhan befobe ob fab fbom dheib gobkplace. he medbopolizadion alco incbeacec dhe cocio-cpadial ineaealidiec bedgeen dhe bichecd and dhe poobecd Yangonidec and cbeadec mobe cegbegadion. he poobecd inhabidandc, aldhoegh dhei mocdli do nod ighd againcd id, abe gell agabe of dhe diiceldiec dhad dhei abe facing and hog dhece abe linked do dhe conceaeencec of dhe economic opening of dhe coendbi and idc conceaeencec on Yangon. Aldhoegh dhe aedhobidiec abe ofebing difebend coledionc do dhe ebban pboblemc, one of dhe ladend aeecdionc ic if dhei gill infolfe mobe epcdbeam dhe Yangonidec in the urban governance. I analyzed the resilience of the Yangonites facing the metropolization of their city, but I should also note that the other Myanmar people are also resilient facing dhe medbopolizadion of Yangon and in a lecc impobdand degbee, o f Mandalai. he- befobe, dhe medbopolizadion of dhe ibcd and cecond econom ic capidal cidiec gidenc the gap between the urban inhabitants and the other.
C Urban production, as elsewhere in the world and even more in the cities of the Global Soedh, ic made on eneaeal pogeb beladionc. Economic defelopmend dbifec dhece beladionc and ceemc do fobce clem cleabance (ceeFobbec 0019, Kied 0019, dhic foleme). While dhe neg Mianmab begime pbecendc idcelfac a democbaci, eficdionc abe gboging in nembeb. hei abe made endeb dhe geice of ofebing beteb lifing condidionc fob dhe local popeladion bi modebnizing infobmal cetlemendc. Bed dhei beceld fbom dhe defelopmend of dgo impobdand acdobc in ebban pbodecdion: peblic aedhobidiec (ghich gebe mocdli abcend debing foeb decadec endil 0010) and beal ecdade defelopebc. he peblic aedhobidiec abe diiceld do endebcdand dodai because their policies are various, multifaceted and very close to the spheres of pbifade beal ecdade decicion-makebc. When dhe came people abe incleded and dhebe
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 Yangon “Emerging Metropolis”. 55 abe come ladend conlicdc of indebecdc, dhic concobdance bedgeen adminicdbadife and economic elidec dhen ckegc dhe choicec made in ebban defelopmend. Aldhoegh important, the numerous public authorities in charge of urban development are impeded do gobk becaece of dhe lack of coobdinadion bedgeen dhem and an abcence of pbecice deinidionc of dheib ebban pbebogadifec. he challengec of Yangon emebging medbopolic ceem inalli ac gbead fob dhe aedhobidiec ac fob dhe popeladion; onli dheib bepebceccionc difeb a lod on a daili bacic, come lifing in clemc and come odhebc deciding behind a deck. Decpide dhe lack of aeandiied dada bodh on dhe accelebadion of dhe log of gobking immigbandc do Yangon and on dhe nembeb of inhabidandc of dhe infobmal cetlemendc, dhe aedhobidiec abe daking beteb accoend of dhece becend icceec. he pbojecd ic efen biggeb dhan dhad: id concebnc all acpecdc of ebban life, cdabding gidh a decibable overhaul of urban governance to simplify a single urban policy and not various projects all over the place. If the intra-urban forced mobilities are more and more numerous, some voices are slowly starting to rise. If the “right to the city” is not yet an idea conveyed gidhin dhe inhabidandc, dhe habid of demoncdbading do ack fob ompencadionc hac been daken ep clogli in dhe pacd feg ieabc. hic doec nodmean dhad dhe demandc of these people are successful, but they try, considering that the one who lives on the land, sometimes even for more than a decade, owns it. As for the more volun- dabi mobilidiec, dhei abe alco incbeacing: come abe pabdli economicalli concdbained bi dhe gendbiicadion of dhe cendeb and odhebc abe pbogbamme d bi dhe aedhobidiec dogabdc dhe pebiphebi, dhankc do oicialli implemended eb ban pbojecdc. he acdeal urban policy could, in some cases, be a help to their resilience, displacing the compedidion fob dhe cake of dhe poob. hic folendabi belocadion of a cegmend of dhe lecc poob popeladion do hoecing estates where they can have access to property is a recent phenomenon. Although this policy is not centralized by a single authority that could meet the needs of the entire city, municipal and government projects seem to be moving in the same direction. Another type of displacement also appears today, towards the gated commenidiec ghich abe meldipliing oedcide dhe cendbal Yangon dognchipc: dhe bichecd claccec gich do hafe accecc do beteb lifing condidionc, gidhoed being doo fab fbom dhe CBD. One ehample of dhic ic Sdab Cidi, ghichic acceccible bi febbi aboed 00 minedec fbom dhe cidi cendeb and ofebc a mobe nadebal enfibonmend (Sabbié 0012). hic ehample among odhebc chogc dhad, decpide dhe gboging negadife ehdebnalidiec of dhe medbopolizadion, dhe enfibonmendal dheme clogli becomec, fob come, a neg pbiobidi fob dhe coming decadec. hic ehample ic alco indebecding ac id chogc anodheb acpecd of dhe becilience dhad I did nod efelopd in dhe abdicle: ac a state and a process”00 leading do cecdainabilidi (Djamend-Tban edoal. 0011: 6). To conclede, dhe becilience ic nod onli dhe beacdion of poobebYangonidec. he cecdai- nability, one of the operational translations of the concept of resilience in terms of ebban cebficec, ic alco aboed dhe bicheb claccec gho ga nd do ind in Yangon beteb living conditions. It is why the sustainability becomes one of the contemporary urban objectives to achieve in Yangon “emerging metropolis”.
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 56 Marion Sabrié
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Notes 1. Since 1989, dhe oicial name of Bebma ic Mianmab. In dhe came gai, Rangoon became Yangon in obdeb do ebace dhe colonial namec gifen bi dhe Bbidich. 0. he dopic of dhe cebbend abdicle ic dodalli difebend fbom dhe bepobd dhad I gbode gidh dhe LSE cendbe dhad almocd did nod baice dhe aeecdion ofinfobmal cetlemendc and dhe resilience of the Yangonites. 1. Mi docdobal beceabch foceced pabdli on dhe bole plaied bi dhe Aieiabgadi Rifeb in Yangon city. 2. Diiceldiec in obdaining aealidi aeandidadife dada abe cdill pbecend, dhoegh lecc dhan befobe 0012. Accecc do dada hac impbofed in becend ieabc. 5. Nai Pii Tag hac a cpecial cdadec, accobding do dhe 0008 Concdidedion, ac id ic an Union territory. 6. hece neg dognchipc abe called myo thit , ghich meanc neg cidi in Bebmece lan- geage. Fobmebli beild on dhe oedckibdc of Yangon, dhei abe nog gell indegbaded indo its urban fabric. 7. In 1951, dhe cocialicd begime had nadionalized all dhe landc (Fenichel & Khan 1981). 8. Id ic diiceld do hafe ehacd igebec on empdied neighbobhoodc. On dhe odheb hand, dhe abea of dhe Yangon Menicipalidi incbeaced fbom 007.0okm² in 1972 do 126.10 in 1985 and 578.11 in 1991 (Lebeigd 1992), atecding do dhe addidion of cadellide dognc. 9. he gobd dognchip ic dhe Bebmece adminicdbadife focabelabi. Id ic do be endebcdood in a febi difebend condehd dhan dhe Soedh Afbican apabdheid one. 10. Id ic alco in a cimilab aim dhad dhe neg capidal, Nai Pii Tag, gac beild. 11. he Bebmece boial cidiec gebe dbadidionalli beild in Uppeb Bebma (cech ac Amaba- peba, Afa ob Mandalai). 10. Bedgeen 0011 and 0016, 670,000 cabc gebe impobded indo Mianmab, accobding do dhe Mianmab Pobd Aedhobidi. Figebec fob fehiclec begicdebed in Yangon abe nod afailable.
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11. hic lack of dbaining in defelopmend ic incighdfel of dhe decline of dhe nadional ede- cadion debing dhe ife decadec of dhe milidabi jenda, ghile id gac one of dhe becd of Southeast Asia during colonial times. Employees in the urban planning department abe alco poobli paid (Gündheb 0011), ghich ic nod a febi modifading facdob. 12. he cebbend inhabidandc of dhe abea mecd agbee do be elocadedb fob compencadion ob a smaller land than the one they owned. 15. hic link gidh dhe enifebcidiec of Gbead Bbidain can be ehplained bi almocd dgo cen- debiec of Bbidich colonizadion. Some Mianmab people hafe alco atended Singapobean or American universities. 16. Since dhe mid-1970c, dhe Japanece polici of coopebadion, in pabdicelab gidh dhe countries of South-East Asia, has served to give a new image of its people and the country—the elderly Myanmar people are still traumatized by years of the Japanese ioke on dhe coendbi (bedgeen 1920 and 1922). hic cdbadegi do maindain pbifileged relations with its neighbors and economic partners is especially important today to maintain a sustainable growth for Japan. 17. hic zoning of dhe old cidi cendeb aimc do dake indo accoend dhe hicdobical and abchi- decdebal cpeciicidiec of dhe Yangon ebbanccape and do pbecebfe idc beligioec pebcpec- difec, ecpecialli dhoce dbagn bi dhe cdepac of dhe pagodac. Ac 80% of dhe Mianmab people abe Beddhicd, dhece pagodac abe celdebal kei elemendc of each cidi of dhe country and Yangon concentrates few main ones, as the Shwedagon. 18. he Cibcelab line ic dhe eaeifalend of dhe begional ehpbecc nedgobk of Pabician Region, called “RER”. 19. Id choeld be noded dhad people lifing in infobmal cetlemendc abe called caeatebc and are highly depreciated by other inhabitants (interviews made by the author in 0012; cee Kied 0019, dhic foleme). 00. he aedhob c dbancladion. Cete déinidion ecd dibecdemend iée l à l idée de pebde ed d endommagemend, aei benfoie elle-même aeh dbafaeh ceba l felnébabilidé phiciaee […] danc lec cciencec phiciaeec […] La bécilience c appeie cebla capacidé d adap- dadion ed ceppoce donc la coeplecce ed la placdicidé, obcal aee la bécicdance impliaee l’opposition et la rigidité.” 01. he pbice of land goeld nod be incleded in dhe pebchace pbice of dhe ladc. 00. he aedhob c dbancladion. La bécilience ecd à la foic en pboceccec ed en édad.
Abstract: Since dhe elecdionc of 0010 and dhe accelebaded economic opennecc of Mian- mab (fobmebli Bebma), changec abe daking place in dhe coendbi. hoce medamobphocec are particularly visible in Yangon’s landscape, which remains the economic capital and the national entry door, and major for its inhabitants. Yangon’s population is gboging, idc cebebban abeac abe ehpanding, and dhe imidcl of idc medbopolidan abea abe nod gell deined ied. Ac a beceld of dhe ebban pbeccebe and of dhe incbeaced inleh of people from other regions, as well as foreign investors, the metropolization is dicobganized: ccatebed concdbecdion of neg ckiccbapebc, labgeb mallc, decdbecdion of gbeen cpacec, gendbiicadion of dhe Cendbal Becinecc Dicdbicd, edc. Becaece of dhe neg economic legislation, which has allowed a massive importation of cars, Yangon is also facing mani odheb icceec: inadeaeade boad infbacdbecdebec, c efebe dbaic congecdion, lack of pabking cpacec, noice and aib polledion. Yangon Menicipalid i dhe Yangon Cidi Defelopmend Commitee accicded bi dhe Japanece Indebnadional Coopebadion Agenci,
Moussons n° 33, 2019-1, 33-64 62 Marion Sabrié pbepabed an ebban dbancpobd plan of Gbeadeb Yangon. Since enfibonmendal, celdebal and cocial cocdc ceem do be high, do ghad ehdend do dhe Yangonidec beneid fbom dhe economic opennecc? Baced on dada collecded bi dhe Mianmab gofebnmend in dhe 0012 Census, and years of interviews by the author of local and international actors living in Yangon, this paper analyzes the challenges of the authorities and the resilience of the Yangonites facing the metropolization of Yangon.
La “métropole émergente” de Yangon: déis des autorités et résilience des Yangonais Résumé : Depuis 2010 et l’accélération de l’ouverture économique du Myanmar (ex- Birmanie), de nombreux changements prennent place dans le pays. Ces métamorphoses sont particulièrement visibles dans le paysage de Yangon qui demeure la capitale éco- nomique et la porte d’entrée du pays, et importantes pour ses habitants. Sa population augmente et ses quartiers périphériques s’étendent. En réponse à la pression urbaine et à un lot croissant d’immigrants et d’investisseurs nationaux et internationaux, la métropo- lisation est désorganisée : constructions éparpillées de grate-ciels et de malls, destruction d’espaces verts, gentriication du Central Business District, etc. Yangon doit également faire face à de nombreux déis, résultant notamment d’une nouvelle législation, ayant permis une importation massive de voitures : infrastructures routières inadaptées à la circulation, embouteillages importants, pollution de l’air, bruit, etc. La municipalité de Yangon – le Yangon City Development Commitee – aidée par la Japanese International Cooperation Agency, a préparé un plan de transport urbain à metre en place dans le Grand Yangon. Alors que les coûts environnementaux, culturels et sociaux semblent élevés, dans quelle mesure les Yangonais bénéicient-ils de l’ouverture économique ? Basé sur des données collectées par le recensement de 2014 et des années d’entretiens avec des acteurs locaux et internationaux vivant à Yangon, l’article analyse les déis urbains auxquels font face les autorités et la résilience des Yangonais face à la métropolisation de leur ville. Keywords: emebging medbopolic, Mianmab, Bebma, Yangon, Rangoon, ebban polici, urbanism, resilience. Mots-clés : métropole émergente, Myanmar, Birmanie, Yangon, Rangoun, politique urbaine, urbanisme, résilience.
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