COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Working Paper
Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 7.
GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR
Formulation and Operationalization of National Action Plan for Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development through Agriculture (NAPA)
Working Paper - 6
COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Yangon, June 2016 5.
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management
TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS...... i 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 2. BACKGROUND ...... 1 2.1. Basic principles for the National Action Plan for Agriculture ...... 1 2.2. Coastal resources management ...... 1 2.3. Myanmar ...... 2 2.4. Coastal regions of Myanmar ...... 3 2.5. Topography of the coastal regions of Myanmar ...... 3 2.6. Special economic zones in Myanmar ...... 3 2.7. Dawei Special Economic Zone ...... 4 2.8. Thilawa Special Economic Zone ...... 5 2.9. Kyaukpyu Special Economic Zone ...... 5 2.10. Sector history ...... 5 2.11. Overall sector scope, status and performance ...... 6 2.12. Contribution to overall economy and livelihoods ...... 8 3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ...... 9 3.1. Integrated coastal management ...... 9 3.2. Coastal vulnerabilities ...... 11 3.3. Water resource management ...... 13 3.4. Water quality, water demand and supply ...... 14 3.5. Waste management and sanitation ...... 15 3.6. Integrating environmental management ...... 18 3.7. Environmental education and awareness...... 20 3.8. Management of information and knowledge ...... 21 3.9. Multilateral environmental agreements ...... 23 3.10. Access to financial resources ...... 24 4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 25 4.1. Government institutions ...... 25 4.2. Research and education ...... 27 4.3. International non-governmental organizations (INGOs), bilateral aid agencies and international organizations ...... 28 4.4. Non-government organizations ...... 29 4.5. Regional bodies ...... 30 4.6. Private sector ...... 31 5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT ...... 31 5.1. Coastal development – major sectors ...... 31 5.2. Infrastructure development, industries, port and harbour development and transport sectors ...... 32 5.3. Mining sector ...... 33 5.4. Hydropower and coal-fired power production sector ...... 33 5.5. Oil and gas sector ...... 33 5.6. Tourism and recreational sector ...... 34 5.7. Coastal agriculture ...... 34 5.8. Coastal livestock and farming ...... 35 5.9. Coastal forestry ...... 36 5.10. Fishing and aquaculture industry ...... 37 5.11. Community co-management ...... 39 5.12. High priority marine corridors ...... 39 5.13. Water quality ...... 39 5.14. Natural hazards ...... 40 5.15. Offshore resources...... 41 5.16. Coastal issues ...... 42 6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS ...... 42 7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT ...... 43 8. RELATION TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS ...... 43 8.1. Improving management of rural and coastal areas ...... 43
i
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 8.2. Rural development and enterprise ...... 44 8.3. Other rural renaissance initiatives ...... 44 8.4. Forestry ...... 45 8.5. Aquaculture ...... 46 8.6. Diversification of agricultural activity ...... 47 8.7. Coastal zone management ...... 47 8.8. Fishing ...... 48 8.9. Mariculture ...... 49 8.10. Marine/coastal mineral extraction ...... 50 8.11. Coastal protection ...... 50 8.12. Nature conservation in coastal areas ...... 51 8.13. Recreation and tourism ...... 51 8.14. Wind and wave energy ...... 52 8.15. Legal mechanisms to achieve coastal region management ...... 53 9. CONCLUSION ...... 55 ANNEX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 57 ANNEX 2: OVERVIEW OF STATES/DIVISIONS AND TOWNSHIPS IN MYANMAR ...... 59 ANNEX 3: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS ...... 60 Intervention 1. Land-use policy ...... 60 Intervention 2: Integrated coastal management authority ...... 63 Intervention 3. Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR) technique ...... 64 Intervention 4. Small-scale entrepreneur development ...... 66 Intervention 5. Developing fodder and woodfuel farms using native grasses and trees ...... 68 Intervention 6. Harvesting rainwater ...... 69 Intervention 7. Alternative fuel and energy options ...... 71 Intervention 8. Skills assessment and capacity building ...... 73 Intervention 9. Natural resource mapping ...... 75 Intervention 10. Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems ...... 76 Intervention 11. Coastal resources management, research and extension ...... 78
ii
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management
iii
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management ACRONYMS
ADB Asian Development Bank ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BANCA Biodiversity and Nature Conservation BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem project CB Cooperative Bank CBM Central Bank of Myanmar CCS Central Cooperative Society CSO Central Statistics Office CSO Civil Society Organization DAP Department of Agriculture Planning DAR Department of Agricultural Research DICD Department of Industrial Crops Development DOA Department of Agriculture DOF Department of Fisheries DFID Department for International Development DRD Department of Rural Development FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FD Forest Department FY Financial Year GAD General Administration Department ICAM Integrated Coastal Area Management IUU Illegal, unreported and unregulated (fishing) LIFT Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund MADB Myanmar Agriculture Development Bank MoAI Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation MLFRD Ministry of Fisheries, Livestock and Rural Development MOC Ministry of Cooperatives MOECF Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry MPA Marine Protected Area MSAM Marine Science Association of Myanmar NCEA National Commission for Environmental Affairs NGO Non-government Organization NAPA National Action Plan for Agriculture NSPARD National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SEE State Economic Enterprises SEZ Special Economic Zone SPDC State Peace and Development Council TBD To Be Determined
iv
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management VFV Virgin, Fallow, and Vacant WRUD Water Resources Utilisation Department YAU Yezin Agriculture University
v
1. INTRODUCTION
The Myanmar Government has given high priority to rural development and poverty alleviation and articulated a National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development (NSPARD). This strategy has recognized the need for formulating several sectoral strategies and plans, of which one would be for agriculture and rural development. It is in this context that the Government of Myanmar requested the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN) to provide technical support for the formulation of the NSPARD’s National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA). This programme is multifaceted and includes coastal resources management.
2. BACKGROUND
Myanmar, since ancient times has been famous for its wealth of natural resources. The Sanskrit name Suvarnabhumi, meaning ‘Golden Land’ has been associated with Myanmar for over two millennia. Myanmar’s natural resources include pristine ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs, sea-grass beds, sandy beaches and intertidal mudflats, mountains, terrestrial and wetland forests; fishery, oil and gas, various minerals, precious stones and gems, timber and forest products, hydropower potential and so forth. Of these, natural gas, rubies, jade, paddy, fishery and timber logs are the most valuable and currently provide a substantial proportion of national income. Unsustainable development in Myanmar has been damaging the coastal ecosystems (particularly mangrove forests), which provide resilience against sea-level rise induced by global climate change and exacerbating rural poverty in coastal areas. Exploitation of coastal resources has increased to such an alarming rate that it is now time for their improved management and sustainable utilization. Therefore, an overall strategy, particularly for coastal resources management, is imperative and the NAPA is an ideal tool to pursue this.
2.1. Basic principles for the National Action Plan for Agriculture The formulation process for the NAPA will strongly encourage the participation of stakeholders at all levels to ensure a diversity of inputs to the plan and to foster ownership by a wide range of stakeholders and the government. Poverty alleviation will be an overriding focus of the NAPA and this will be reflected through the integration throughout the plan of such key aspects as social protection, rural employment, women’s economic empowerment and the strengthening of rural institutions and services as well as equitable access to resources. As a result of the fundamental shifts in priorities and policy orientation currently taking place in Myanmar, the scope of the NAPA must also be broad enough to cover all important segments and interlinkages within the agriculture and rural development sectors. Agriculture in NAPA is defined broadly to include crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry as well as several subsectors of the rural economy closely linked to agriculture such as agro-industries, product value chains, markets, finance etc. 2.2. Coastal resources management Coastal resources management includes a wide array of management practices such as: land- use planning; legal, administrative and institutional execution; demarcation on the ground; inspection and control of adherence to decisions; solution of land tenure issues; settling of water rights; issuing of concessions for plant, animal and mineral extraction (e.g. wood and
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management non-wood forest products, fishery resources, hunting, peat); and safeguarding the rights of different interest groups (e.g. traditional and indigenous people, women). Coastal area management is too complex to be handled by traditional sectoral planning and management. To be effective, planning for integrated coastal area management (ICAM) must be coordinated between sectoral implementing agencies. A balanced management perspective is needed in which intersectoral relationships are fully understood, trade-offs recognized and anticipated, benefits and alternatives critically assessed, appropriate management interventions identified and implemented, and necessary institutional and organizational arrangements worked out. This is the essence of ICAM. 2.3. Myanmar Myanmar is situated in Southeast Asia and is bordered to the north and northeast by the People’s Republic of China, to the east and southeast by Lao PDR and Thailand, to the south by the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal and to the west by Bangladesh and India It is located between 09 32' north and 28 31' north latitudes and 92 10' east and 101 11' east longitudes. The country covers an area of 677 000 km2 ranging 936 kilometres from east to west and 2 051 kilometres from north to south. It is a land of hills and valleys and is rimmed in the north, east and west by mountain ranges forming a giant horseshoe. Enclosed within the mountain barriers are the flatlands of the Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin and Sittaung River valleys where most of the country's agricultural land and population are concentrated. Climatically Myanmar has summer, rainy, and winter seasons. Summer lasts from the end of February to the beginning of May, with the highest temperatures occurring during March and April, in Central Myanmar sometimes exceeding 43.3°C, in Northern Myanmar about 36.1°C and on the Shan Plateau between 29.4°C and 35°C. The rainy season extends from mid-May to the end of October with annual rainfall of less than 40 inches in Central Myanmar while the coastal regions of Rakhine and Tanintharyi receive about 200 inches. Winter starts in November and lasts to the end of February with temperatures in hilly areas of over 3 000 feet dropping below 0°C. Myanmar's population of approximately 54.6 million makes it the world's 25th most populous country (ADB 2012); it is the second largest country in Southeast Asia. Rice, pulses, beans, sesame, groundnuts, sugar cane; fish and fish products; and hardwood are the major agricultural products. Currently, agricultural processing; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; cement and construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer; oil and natural gas; garments; jade; and gems are the industrial outputs of the country. Natural gas, wood products, pulses, beans, fish, rice, clothing, jade and gems are the major export commodities and fabric, petroleum products, fertilizer, plastics, machinery, transport equipment, cement, construction materials, crude oil, food products and edible oil are imports. Myanmar claims to have three national parks and 17 wildlife sanctuaries (including two marine and three wetland environments), which together protect about 1 percent of the nation's total land surface; the government reports plans to raise protection to 5 percent by the end of the century. Since the transition to a civilian government in 2011, Myanmar has aimed at attracting foreign investment and reintegrating into the global economy. The government’s commitment to reform and the subsequent easing of most Western sanctions, has begun to pay dividends. The economy accelerated in 2012 and 2013. Myanmar’s abundant natural
2
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management resources, young labour force and proximity to Asia’s dynamic economies have attracted foreign investment in the energy sector, garment industry, information technology and food and beverages. Foreign direct investment grew from US$1.9 billion in FY 2011 to US$2.7 billion in FY 2012 and stood at US$4.11 billion during the fiscal year to March 2014 (Central Statistics Organization, Myanmar 2014). Despite these improvements, living standards have not improved for most of the people residing in rural areas. Myanmar remains one of the poorest countries in Asia − more than one-fourth of the country’s estimated 54.6 million people live in poverty. Key benchmarks of sustained economic progress would include modernizing and opening of the financial sector, increasing budget allocations for social services and accelerating agricultural and land reforms 2.4. Coastal regions of Myanmar Myanmar has a rich and diverse coastline, a fertile coastal plain, productive offshore waters and a tropical climate that provides a strong basis for integrated sustainable development that will support both a prosperous society and healthy ecosystems and biodiversity. One-third of Myanmar’s total perimeter of 1 930 kilometres forms an uninterrupted coastline along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. Myanmar’s coastline can be divided into three major coastal regions and portions of the three divisions viz., Yangon, Bago and Mon also fall under the coastal region: The Rakhine coastline is about 740 kilometres long and extends from the Naff River to Mawtin Point. It is shallow and deltaic in the northern section and rocky in the southern part. The Deltaic coastal region extends about 460 kilometres from Mawtin Point to the Gulf of Mottama (Martaban) and consists of the entire river-mouth areas of three major rivers, the Ayeyarwaddy, Sittaung and Thanlwin. Sedimentation at a rate of about 250 million tonnes per year results in seaward delta growth at a rate of about 50 metres per year. The southeastern portion of the central deltaic area comprises the coast of Mon State. Here, the Thanlwin River opens into the Gulf of Mottama (Martaban) and ‘Balu- Kyune’ (Giant Island) lies at its mouth. The 900 kilometre-long Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) coastline extends from the Gulf of Mottama south to the mouth of the Pakchan River. It is fringed in the southern part by the Myeik (Mergui) Archipelago island chain. There are many estuaries and islands along these coastal regions. 2.5. Topography of the coastal regions of Myanmar In the northwest, the coast has rocky ridges with deep channels. South of Cape Negrais, the southern delta coast is formed by silt from the Ayeyarwaddy and other rivers. From the mouth of the Sittang River, the coast stretches to the south, studded with inlets, rocky cliffs and coral reefs. The Rakhine coastal plain forms a narrow strip, mostly between 5 and 20 kilometres wide, but up to 60 kilometres in places, rising to the Rakhine Yoma mountain range parallel to the coast to the east. It is traversed by a number of short, fast-flowing rivers. The Ayeyarwaddy Delta and its adjoining coastal plains form an expanse of fertile alluvial land with a network of small rivers and streams extending northward inland to varying distances of some 80 to 320 kilometres. The Tanintharyi coastal plain in the south is similar to the Rakhine plain,
3
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management being narrow, crossed by short rivers and rising to the Tanintharyi Yoma mountain range parallel to the coast. Many rivers flow into the coastal zones such as the Mayu and Kaladan rivers in the Rakhine coastal area, the Ayeyarwaddy, Sittaung and Thanlwin rivers in the Delta coastal area and the Ye, Dawai, Tanintharyi and Lenya rivers in the Tanintharyi coastal area. Offshore, there are many large islands and hundreds of smaller ones. The islands off Myanmar's western coast and delta have been formed by erosion of the shoreline. Just off the northwest (Rakhine) coast, the large islands of Ramree (1 350 km2) and Cheduba (523 km2) support volcanic activity. Bilugyun is a large island on the southwest coast. Also in the southwest is an undersea ridgeline that forms the Myeik (Mergui) Archipelago, with islands ranging in size from Kadan Island (440 km2) to small rocks. The Myeik Archipelago extends from Mali Island to Similan Island and includes about 800 islands covering an area of about 34 340 km2 lying up to 30 kilometres offshore. Coral reefs surround the outer islands and mangroves cover many of the inner islands. In terms of Myanmar’s territorial sea zone, it has limits of 12 nautical miles (nm), the contiguous zone is 24 nm and the continental shelf is 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin (0-200-metre depth), covering an area of approximately 2 30 000 km2; it is relatively narrow off the Rakhine coast, widest (and still growing) off the central delta and there is a relatively wide portion off Tanintharyi to the south. The oceanographic conditions of Myanma marine waters are governed by the monsoon regime and the influence of the Ayeyarwaddy River reaches far out to the coastal waters around Myanmar. Inland waterbodies like natural lakes, reservoirs, river systems and ponds cover a total area of about 13 327 km2. Inland water systems together with the high annual rainfall provide vast water resources for the country. Wetland fauna and flora are found in many parts of the country. The principal wetlands are mangroves, swamp forests, lakes and marshes. Information on corals is scare mainly due to limited funds and tools essential to access present coral status. Rakhine, and Tanintharyi coastal areas are favourable grounds for both hard and soft corals. In particular, the offshore islands of the Myeik Archipelago are most abundantly distributed with diverse coral communities. The reef formation in the Ayeyarwaddy coastal zone is restricted to Coco and Preparis islands which lie far off the influence of river runoff. The mangroves are still relatively pristine compared to those in the neighbouring countries such as Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Estimated total mangrove forest cover was 531 000 ha in 1980, but in 2010 it was around 312 000 ha according to Forest Department statistics. Again in 2010, Forest Statistics indicated it was 659 033 ha, however this also included encroachments by agriculture, fisheries and others inside the mangrove forests of around 346 590 ha. Mangrove forests in Myanmar cover 494 584 ha, that is 3.6 percent of the global total (Giri et al. 2011), using earth observation satellite data.
4
Table 1: Description of the coastal regions of Myanmar Coastal region Agriculture Resources Tourism Rakhine State* Agriculture is Oil exploration is in progress The famous the main along Rakhine offshore. unspoiled Ngapali Rakhine State is economic Rathetaung Township, beach is in Rakhine located between activity: Baronga Island, Cheduba State, stretching 17o 21'N and principal crops Island, Ramree Island and along the Bay of 21o 24 'N being paddy, Muwe island produce some Bengal. It is famous latitudes and chili, Myanmar oil. Coal is found in Sittwe for its clean aqua 92o 10 'E and tobacco, Township and marble in blue water and the 94o 54 'E coconut, betel Taungup Township. There is sandy beach. There longitudes nut and dhani. a four-mile-long limestone are many luxury bordering Groundnut, hill on Ramree Island. Half hotels for tourists Bangladesh to maize, rubber, of the state is covered with and locals for the northwest, matpe, bocate forests that yield valuable accommodation. The Chin State to the bean, soybean, woods and bamboos. Solar southern beach of north, Magway and gram are salt making is another Kanthaya is reached Division, Bago also cultivated. occupation in Thandwe, from Ayeyarwaddy Division and The Taungup and Kyaukpyu Division by road. Ayeyarwaddy Kissapanadi townships Division to the River runs The main lines of Mrauk U, or the east and the Bay through the communication to Rakhine ancient city of the of Bengal to the state, giving State are by sea and by air. Rakhine Dynasty is west and south water for Kyaukpyu port is a good also a popular plantation international freighter port destination in this state Ayeyarwaddy The division is The division is criss-crossed Relaxing spots like Region* the top paddy with rivers and lakes and is a Ngwe Saung Beach producer in the major producer of fish paste, and Chaung Thar The country and is dried fish and dried prawns. beach are in this Ayeyarwaddy commonly The Inyegyi Fishery is division. These Region covers known as ‘the famous for its scenic beauty. beaches are along the the deltaic coast granary of In addition to freshwater coast of the Bay of of the Myanmar’. fishery, the division is also Bengal. It is about Ayeyarwaddy Agriculture is engaged extensively in sea- only 4 hours’ drive River. On the the main fishing and salt-making from Yangon, and northwest and occupation of industries easily accessible by west of this the people. car. division are the The fertile The capital city of Bay of Bengal alluvial soil of Ayeyarwaddy Region is and Rakhine the delta Pathein, which is famous for State, on the enables the Pathein umbrella and north and east is cultivation of Pathein Halawar (greasy rice Bago Division, paddy, cakes). Now the new road on the east is the groundnut, linking Pathein to Sagaing Yangon Division, sesame, division (Monywa, Kale, and on the south coconut, etc.) has been developed. is the Andaman banana, jute, The road passes the plain of Sea tobacco, chili, Magwe Division between the onions, pulses Ayeyarwaddy River and the and tapioca western hills of Rakhine and Chin states Yangon Region Yangon Region For regional development, Yangon is the main is one of the 272 state-owned factories port by air and sea. Yangon Region major paddy have been built and four are All other places can has the main port production under construction. The be visited from Yangon. The city areas. Main Myanma pharmaceutical Yangon. The main
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management lies where crops are industry, steel mills, landmark of Yangon 16o 19'N latitude paddy, tarpaulin, aluminium, tile, is the Shwedagon intersects groundnut, jute, soap, glass, rubber ball, Pagoda. Other 96o 52'E pulses, rubber shuttle-cock, umbrella and famous pagodas are longitude. and sugar cane. footwear factories are Sule, Kabaraye, Ko Yangon Region The whole located in Yangon Region Htat Gyi, Chauk Htat is located at the region is Gyi and so on. The eastern extremity engaged in Yangon Region is Bogyoke Aung San of the implementing a economically developed as it Market is a tourist Ayeyarwaddy special high- is at a strategic spot in the destination. There Delta area with yield paddy communications network. are over 40 colonial the Andaman Sea cultivation Roads, railways, waterways buildings in Yangon. to the southeast, project and airways connect Yangon Nearby places such Bago Region to City with the whole country. as Thanlyin, Dalla, the north and the Yangon's ports are always Twante, Bago can be Ayeyarwaddy busy with international sea accessed easily from Region to the and air traffic Yangon west Yangon Port is the main gateway to the country for all imports and out of the country for all exports. It is handling 85 percent of the nation's overseas trade
There are microwave stations with automatic telephone exchange for inland communications. Twenty-four-hour overseas telephone and telex services connect Myanmar with 114 world nations via a satellite ground station. The national TV stations and radio stations are in Yangon Bago Region Its main Bago Region's forests Bago Region is an occupation is produce valuable woods economically Bago Region is agriculture, such as teak, pyinkado, strategic region with located between growing paddy, ingyin and the plywood mill a network of roads Mandalay Region sesame, in Swa produces high- and railways. Bago and Magwe groundnut, standard plywood. Shwemawdaw Region in the pulses, jute, Pagoda is one of the north, Rakhine rubber, tobacco Zeyawaddy Sugar Mill, No. most famous State and and sugar cane 3, the Heavy Industries reclining Buddha Ayeyarwaddy Corporation Mill at Sinde of images in Myanmar. Region in the the Ministry of Industry (2), The Kanbawza west, Yangon the textile mill at Shwe Thardi Royal Palace Region in the Daung, Jute Baling Mills at of the Bago Dynasty south, Kayin Taungoo, Pyay and is not far from State and Mon Tharyarwaddy, Ceramics Yangon State in the east. Factory at Tharyarwaddy are Its capital is well known factories. The Bago City North Nawin Dam on Nawin Chaung in Pyay Township is the biggest dam in Myanmar 2
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management
Mon State Principal crops The state is the top producer Kyaikhtiyo Pagoda are paddy, of rubber. Tin, antimony and or the Golden Rock Mon State is groundnut, white clay are some of its is located in the state located between pulses, rubber, natural products. 14o 52'N and sugar cane, Manufacturing-wise, there 17o 44'N latitudes coconut, betel are the Sittang Pulp and and 96o 53'E and nut, dhani, Paper Mill, Billin Sugar 98o 13'E durian, Mill, Thanbyuzayat Rubber longitudes rambutan and Factory, Mudon Textile Mill bounded on the mangosteen and Mupon Ceramics north by Bago Factory Division, on the east by Kayin Tobacco pipes, hot water State, on the bottles, rubber balloons, south by plaster figurines, feather- Tanintharyi brooms, coconut-shell Division and on handicrafts are successful the west by the products in Ywalut village of Gulf of Martaban Belugyun. Zeebyuthaung is Myanmar's first sea-fishing cooperative village. Salt- making is another reliable economic activity. Tanintharyi The main crops The region is rich in natural The Salone tribes Region* are paddy, betel resources. The famous mines inhabit the Myeik nut, coconut, of Heinda, Hamyingyi, Archipelago, and Lies at the rubber and Kanbauk, Yawa, yearly there are southern end of dhani. Tapioca, Kyaukmetaung, Nanthida festivals. Diving trips Myanmar. The rambutan, and Yadanabon produce can also be arranged. region has durian and many metals. Pearls cultured Kawthaung is the common borders mangosteen are at Pearl Island earn a great southernmost point with Thailand to also grown on a amount of foreign currency of Myanmar and the the east and large scale. Oil- at the Myanma Gems border check point to southeast, Mon palm is being Emporia. Arrangements are enter Thailand State to the north, grown under a being made for the sea- and the Andaman special project fishing industry along Sea to the west. Tanintharyi coast to supply Out of about 1 domestic consumption and 000 islands along exports. Birds' nests are also Myanmar's being gathered from offshore coastline over islands. This part of the 800 are off the country is the main fishery Tanintharyi product market of Myanmar coast. Dawei is the capital
2.6. Special economic zones in Myanmar The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is about 486 000 km2 (World Fact Sheet 2014 and http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/nat_Myanmar.pdf). Following economic reforms, Myanmar soon began to further facilitate the establishment of special economic zones (SEZs). In 2011, Myanmar established the Central Body for the Myanmar Special Economic Zone, a regulatory body responsible for overseeing foreign 3
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management investment in the country. The Myanmar SEZ Law and the Dawei SEZ Law were also passed in 2011, which established several SEZs throughout Myanmar to encourage economic growth and foreign investment (ASEAN Briefing, June 28, 2013). A primary draw of the SEZ laws includes several incentives, such as: A five-year tax holiday; 50 percent income tax relief on items exported overseas for five years; 50 percent income tax relief on reinvested profits from overseas exports for five years; A five-year exemption on customs duties on approved products; The granting of 30-year land leases; SEZs which offer tax exemptions for different sectors (five years for production, eight years for high-tech, two years for agriculture, livestock breeding and forestry, and one year for banking) are undergoing preliminary establishment in Sittwe Township and Kyaukpyu Township in Rakhine State. The six free trade zones will be Thilawa Port in Yangon, Maw-la-myine in Mon State, Myawaddy and Hpa-an in Kayin State, Kyaukphyu in Rakhine State and Pyin Oo Lwin in Mandalay Region. According to the country's Special Economic Zone Law's Act 7, Section 36, homes and farming properties located on a proposed SEZ must be duly relocated and reimbursed. There are currently three SEZs under development in Myanmar: Dawei SEZ, Thilawa SEZ and Kyuakpyu SEZ. An international-standard airport is also to be constructed. Investment into Myanmar’s SEZs has been steady; with companies hoping to take advantage of the burgeoning economy and friendly investment incentives it offers. Despite some worries over existing infrastructure deficiencies in Myanmar, investors continue to see a positive outlook for the region. Most recently, India has offered US$150 million to begin establishing a fourth SEZ in the city of Sittwe. India has completed Kaladan Port and shortly will hand it over to the government. 2.7. Dawei Special Economic Zone A deep-sea port and industrial estate spanning 250 km2 are currently being built in the Dawei SEZ located in Southeast Myanmar along the Andaman coast. The area will be home to several industries, including steel, fertilizer, power and petrochemical plants. There will also be a shipyard for construction and repair of vessels using the port, which is expected to see 100 tonnes of freight each year upon completion. The project has received funding and support from several nations and international companies. Most recently, Thailand has joined Myanmar in contributing capital to the Dawei SEZ project, and it has taken part in an infrastructure development plan for the area. Thailand will contribute 35 percent of the costs for the construction of the deep-sea port. Also, the Italian-Thai Industrial Group will contribute US$300 million to develop the industrial estate project, and will be given a 25 percent share of the project’s management in return. Japan, China, and Republic of Korea (ROK) will also participate in the development of the SEZ. Tourist, recreational, and residential developments are also planned.
4
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 2.8. Thilawa Special Economic Zone The Thilawa SEZ project is located in Myanmar’s southern Yangon region and shares its border with Dawei. The project is in the early stages of development, but has already received significant financial commitments from Japanese companies. The SEZ will be home to textile, manufacturing and high-tech industries, as well as a deep-sea port. Myanmar and Japan will jointly develop the area, with Japanese companies holding a 49 percent stake in the project. The Thilawa project has been attractive to investors due to its proximity to Myanmar’s commercial hub and existing ports. The first phase of construction is expected to cost US$205 million, and it will be completed in 2016. 2.9. Kyaukpyu Special Economic Zone The Kyaukpyu SEZ is located along the central western coast of Myanmar on Ramree Island. The area already serves as a port for export and transportation of Myanma goods, such as rice. An oil and gas terminal financed by the China National Petroleum Corporation is in the final stages of construction, and a pipeline linking Myanmar and China is in the works in the area as well. Furthermore, a container port and gas-turbine power plant are also under development. Plans for the SEZ are being finalized this year, and completion of the first phase is expected in 2016. The area will be home to industrial, logistics and service industries, and will focus on processing local resources, such as agricultural goods and minerals. The Kyaukpyu SEZ has been attractive to Chinese investors due to its strategic location as the quickest trade route by sea between India and China. Also, extensive rail and air infrastructures are currently being developed in the region to increase linkage between China and Kyaukpyu. The area is expected to rival Singapore as the region’s petrochemical hub upon completion. 2.10. Sector history Coastal regions, which are home to a large and growing proportion of the population, are undergoing environmental decline. Because there is no common definition of what constitutes a coastal region, estimates of coastal populations vary. Most are based on an area within 60 to 200 kilometres of the shoreline and may include evergreen forests, coastal floodplains, mangroves, marshes, and tide flats (coastal areas affected by the rise and fall of the tide), sandy beaches, dunes, sea-grass beds and coral reefs. The term ‘coastal regions’ also covers marine fisheries because the bulk of the world's marine fish harvest is caught or reared in coastal waters. Coastal areas help to prevent erosion; filter pollutants; and provide food, shelter, breeding areas, and nursery grounds for a wide variety of organisms. Coastal regions also provide critical inputs for industry, including water and space for shipping and ports; opportunities for recreational activities such as fishing and diving; and other raw materials, including salt and sand. The challenge for policy-makers and coastal resource managers is to figure out how to reap the economic benefits of coastal resources while preserving them for future generations. Addressing population issues is key to achieving such balance.
5
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 2.11. Overall sector scope, status and performance The coastal waters of Myanmar have been heavily exploited since the introduction of trawling in the 1970s. Several signs of overfishing are visible and there is considerable concern, particularly because of demand for fish for local consumption and because the vast majority of fishers are artisanal fishers dependent on coastal waters for their livelihood. The trawl fisheries are considered the most destructive. The need for managing the coastal fisheries has been recognized and several efforts have been undertaken. Licensing of vessels and banning trawl fishing within a five-mile limit in Rakhine and Tanintharyi coastal regions and a 10-mile limit in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta coastal region have not been successful due to inadequate monitoring and enforcement and this needs to be addressed. Environment degradation, especially in the estuarine regions, is also a concern. The role of the government in coastal wetland ecosystems’ destruction cannot be ruled out. The Ayeyarwaddy Delta consists of the extended and fertile plain of the southern part of Myanmar, around 180 miles long and 150 miles wide. When the British occupied the lower part of the country in 1852, the delta was tall jungle and high grass. During the period, native colonists from the parched fields in the formerly Upper Burma became attracted by the delta and started clearing the jungle because of the regularity of its fertilizing rain and unfailing monsoon. Many of those pioneers died due to harsh conditions but their descendants benefited by staying. The colonial government encouraged the immigration from Upper Burma by adopting the ‘dama-u-gya’ system, which had allowed any person to clear and cultivate any land to which no previous occupant laid claim. Thus, the cleared mangrove land became the private property of the cultivator, which could be mortgaged, sold or bequeathed to descendants (Furnivall 1957). Two dominant types of land system out of the five introduced during the period of British rule were the patta system and squatter type (Furnivall 1957). Under the patta system, the government granted tenure before the cultivator cleared the land. On the other hand, ‘squatter’-type land was similar to the dama-u-gya system in the feudal days in which most cultivators became landholders by clearing and cultivating a patch of jungle or scrub. Either form of tenure gave the landholder a permanent and heritable title to the land, which could be sold, mortgaged or transferred. To promote immigration into the Delta, the government waived payment of the capitation tax for the first two years after a migrant’s arrival. The cultivated land in the Delta increased from 600 000 acres in 1852-1853 to 6.7 million acres in 1902-1903 and then to 8.9 million acres in 1922-1923, therefore, 8.9 million acres of mangroves were reclaimed for paddy cultivation in 70 years’ time. The area of rice by clearing mangroves grew to 11.6 million acres in 1926. The density of population clearing mangroves in the Delta rose from 45 per square mile in 1852 to 152 in 1930 (Christian 1942). The Working Plan, 1958-1970 states that in the past the yield from mangroves was 1.68 tonnes/acre/annum from the annual coupe of 33 280 areas, but the out-turn was fixed conservatively at 50 000/tonnes/annum. In the Ayeyarwaddy Delta on average there were 11.66 trees per acre of 2.0′ girth that yielded 4.42 tonnes/ha; however, in the mangroves of Rakhine there were only 9.5 trees per acre. Ayeyarwaddy Delta mangroves were then destroyed to accommodate 62 percent (432 200 hoppus tons of charcoal) of the demand for charcoal by Yangon (700 000 hoppus tons of charcoal).1
1 1 hoppus ton = 1.8027 m3.
6
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management The military government (1962-2011), since 1963 introduced four laws and decreed the abolition of landownership by tenanted owners. As in the 1948 Constitution, the 1974 Constitution confirmed that ownership of the land was vested in the state. However, the slogan of the agrarian reform in the military government changed from ‘Land to the tiller’ to ‘Right to cultivate to the tiller’ as the land belongs to the state (Mya Than 1984). The government started the land reclamation programme in 1998 to develop large tracts of land of about 22 million acres to be farmed by private entrepreneurs. The land includes deep water or wetland, coastal land and Dry Zone land not under cultivation. In the Delta, which comprises Ayeyarwaddy Division, Yangon Division and Bago Division, there are two types of such land, wetland and coastal land. As of June 1999, a total of about 1.2 million acres had been allocated to some 80 business groups in the whole country and 35 percent of the total leased land was in the Delta, mostly in Yangon and Ayeyarwaddy divisions. Most holdings were around 3 000 to 5 000 acres and the largest was 72 000 acres. Under the Myanmar’s Land Reclaiming Scheme (Warr 2000) in the Ayeyarwaddy Division the total coastal wetland forests leased out for land reclamation was 246 366 acres and total land developed was 65 456 acres in June 1999. From the mid-1970s most of the coastal forests were completely cleared for paddy cultivation. Until 1978 fishery was also plentiful in mangroves and later in 1982 the decline in fishery was realized by the fishing stakeholders. In 1995 the introduction of the Community Forest Instruction (CFI) paved the way for overexploitation of particular allotted patches and subsequent degradation. Under the CFI mangrove areas were demarcated and handed over to the community for utilization and management. Up to 1999, 3 500 acres of mangroves had been handed over to communities under the CFI scheme. However, in several cases only degraded mangrove patches and shrubby secondary vegetation mixed with invaded or introduced terrestrial tree stands were evident in the mangroves of the Delta. The Forest Department now needs to provide attention and technical support to these communities; it should also have regular short- and long-term monitoring schemes to follow up on the CFI programme and rectify shortcomings, if there are any. No periodic monitoring will doom the unique concept followed by the Forest Department to failure. It was understood from the director-general that the Ministry of Forests is developing a management plan and committee to follow up evaluation and monitoring of CFI-allotted forest land. From 1979 to 1985 the World Bank funded land reclamation for paddy which resulted in blocking of several canals inside the mangroves which helped the ecosystem to survive through long peripheral tracts of earthen bunds. Disruption of hydrology has destroyed and is still destroying larger expanse of mangroves in the Delta and Rakhine Region. From 1979 to 1985 the World Bank funded a land reclamation project for paddy cultivation; it constructed long peripheral bunds which resulted in obstruction of several canals flowing inside the mangroves, destroying the mangrove vegetation. Disruption of hydrology has destroyed and is still destroying larger expanse of mangroves in the Delta and Rakhine Region. In Myanmar aquaculture in mangroves has been introduced since 1980 on a pilot scale. The expansion of aquaculture has increased fisheries production. Based on shrimp pond operations in 2000, this was about 28 000 ha then, increasing to 49 000 ha in 2003 and a significant leap in 2013 to 87 248.84 ha with shrimp production of 56 982.02 tonnes. In 2003 about 16 400 acres were expanded for shrimp farming in Ayeyarwaddy mangroves damaging sensitive ecosystems like mangroves and wetlands. 7
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management During the last 15 years, many reefs south of latitude 11 north have suffered much destruction. Especially within the island ecosystems of Tanintharyi coastal zone, coral reefs, mangroves and fisheries resources have been heavily exploited. Stringent rules and strict enforcement cannot control the resources of Tanintharyi coastal and marine areas because the coast is about 1 200 kilometres long. In addition, the huge area of approximately 34 34 km2 of the Myiek Archipelago that consists of about 800 islands makes any effective administration and law enforcement almost impossible under the present situation. Myeik Public Corporate Limited and Myeik Future Development Public Company Limited have plans to destroy thousands of acres of mangroves and Nypa colonized areas for development activities. The land-use policies, utilization and management practices conducted from 1852 to 2014 are detrimental to the huge areas of mangrove wetlands in the country and have resulted in total destruction of mangrove ecosystems, with untold damage to brackishwater ecology and coastal fisheries, as well as heavy erosion of Delta lands due to the constant shift of the river’s channels. 2.12. Contribution to overall economy and livelihoods Marine and coastal ecosystems are a vital economic resource and their health and sustainability depend on good governance, sound environmental policies and effective management. Coastal ecosystems generate a variety of goods and services that benefit people. Myanmar has an estimated population of 54.6 million (73 people/km2). Approximately 66 percent of the population lives in rural areas with 33 percent living in urban areas. The population that lives within coastal villages is yet to be estimated for ideal planning and management. However, quantifying the economic contribution of Myanmar’s coastal resource remains a challenge because this ecosystem lacks official boundaries and definitions. These goods and services, often referred to as ecosystem services, provide outputs that are commercially important (e.g. commercial fish stocks, tourism that depends on wildlife viewing) and some that are both commercially important and that provide important recreational opportunities (e.g. recreational fishing). These ecosystems also support many ecological functions that are essential in the support of human life (e.g. oxygen production and carbon capture and storage). Coastal ecosystems have proved to be places that abound in genetic diversity and biological compounds that may yield new chemical and medicinal products. The total marine fishery catch from Myanmar’s coastal zone was reported to be 2 702 240 tonnes per annum, worth US$10.27 billion or 10.81 trillion kyat and aquaculture produced up to 964 260 tonnes worth US$2.00 billion and 2.11 trillion kyat in 2014 according to the Department of Fisheries. Fishing and carbon sequestration are two of the 15 ecosystem services (ES) associated with seas and oceans, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment by the Global Ocean Commission for 2014. In the case of carbon sequestration, the Global Ocean Commission estimates its global economic value ranges between US$74 billion and US$222 billion per annum, which underlines not only its economic benefit but also shows its essential role in efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Basic information about the potential economic magnitude or nature of ES is lacking from Myanmar and highlights critical knowledge gaps that need to be filled to help inform management of coastal zone.
8
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
3.1. Integrated coastal management The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) provided significant support for integrated management of coastal areas. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, ‘Protection of oceans, all kinds of seas including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, coastal areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources' outlines a commitment by coastal nations to ‘integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment under their national jurisdiction'. Paragraph 17.5 of Programme A of Chapter 17 sets out the objectives of integrated coastal area management as being to: Provide for an integrated policy and decision-making process to promote compatibility and a balance of uses; Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their interactions; Concentrate on well-defined issues; Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in planning and implementation; Promote the application and development of methods that reflect changes in value resulting from uses of marine and coastal areas, including pollution, marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction; and Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals, groups and organizations to relevant information and opportunities for consultation and participation in planning and decision-making at appropriate levels. Sustainable development has been defined as development that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (The World Commission on Environment and Development 1987). The distribution or redistribution of rights to own and use coastal resources can have a significant impact on coastal management. Some of the legal mechanisms used in this regard include: Reasserting public ownership and control over coastal areas or initiating expropriation or acquisition programmes to bring important areas under public ownership or control; Recognizing customary or indigenous rights over resources and devolving certain powers to manage those resources to traditional authorities or local organizations representing users; and Imposing restrictions on private ownership rights, for example, by providing for public servitudes or easements over private land to facilitate access to the seashore and requiring landowners to obtain official authorization for undertaking certain activities, particularly where these are likely to have a significant impact on the coastal landscape and environment. The present status of integrated coastal management is as follows: Existing legislation and policy frameworks for management of coastal resources are fragmented, ineffectively implemented and only provide limited
9
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management mandates to regulate or control activities that may impact upon the coastal zone; Poor implementation and enforcement of management regimes within the coastal zone; Lack of clarity of existing mandates and delineation of responsibility between agencies and ministries related to coastal zone management; Little plan of action to bring together all the parts of government for integrated coastal management together and to work in a cohesive fashion; Human, financial and technical resources available for coastal resource management, particularly enforcement and monitoring of activities, are overburdened with multiple responsibilities and insufficient to support a more coordinated framework for coastal zone management; Absence of effective, routine intergovernmental coordinating mechanisms for information sharing, alignment of programmes and collaboration for overall environment management; and Limited capacity of staff to provide sound legal, social, economic and biological advice to support well-informed decision-making related to coastal zone management The following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to ensure sustainable and community-based coastal management: The government is currently involved in the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Programme, which promotes sustainable marine ecosystem management and sustainable coastal livelihood development. The programme aims to improve the lives of coastal populations through effective regional management of marine biodiversity and fisheries; Four Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been established along Myanmar‟s coast, including i) Moscos Island; ii) Thamihla Kyuun; iii) Mainmahla Kyuun; and iv) Lampi; The Department of Fisheries in collaboration with the Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA) and Fauna and Flora International (FFI) are planning to establish an MPA Network System that will incorporate existing MPAs, for example, the Shark Reserves in the Myeik Archipelago (Lampi MPA); A number of different agencies and organizations, including Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Forest Resource Environment Development and Conservation Association (FREDA) and UNDP’s Mangrove Environmental Rehabilitation Network (MERN) are undertaking mangrove and coastal forest restoration efforts following damage from recent cyclones in Myanmar’s coastal areas; and The Department of Marine Science within the University of Maw-la-myine has established an aquaculture research centre. Actions required are: Clarify and evaluate roles and responsibilities, institutional arrangement options and coordination mechanisms among relevant ministries, 10
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management organizations and the private sector in order to develop a harmonized approach to coastal zone management; Within the context of an integrated resource management framework, establish an appropriate legal and institutional framework, including integrated and consolidated legislation with clear delineation of mandates and responsibilities, focused on the sustainable use of limited resources in coastal areas and managing human activities in coastal and adjoining areas to maintain, restore or improve the quality of coastal zone ecosystems and the societies they support; Ensure that development activities within the coastal zone are coordinated amongst responsible agencies, meet clearly defined standards, do not cause harm to human health or the environment and that all activities are within the ‘carrying capacity’ of fragile coastal resources; Legislation developed or amended should empower appropriate agencies to undertake by a specified date, and regularly update a comprehensive inventory of marine and coastal resources and conditions, which should provide baseline information for coastal zone management and development decisions; Strengthen working relationships of MOECAF with other organizations responsible for environmental health and quality issues; Develop Coastal Atlases and an Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) Plan to address land and water management problems affecting the coastal zone, through broad-based consultation at the community level, and ensure necessary legislative frameworks to implement and enforce the management plans; Establish guidelines and standards for the siting, construction, development and operation of residential, tourism and industrial structures in the coastal area; Develop human technical capacity to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate ICM programmes and activities; Develop training manuals and courses related to coastal management at different levels, drawing on institutional knowledge from experienced staff for capacity development and empowerment of relevant agencies, organizations and communities; Develop capacity of relevant ministry and agency staff to provide sound advice (legal, social, economic, biological) for coastal resource and environment management; and Establish or identify appropriate intergovernmental mechanisms to facilitate regular information sharing and coordination of activities related to management of the coastal area. 3.2. Coastal vulnerabilities Coastal infrastructure is extremely vulnerable to coastal erosion, and the impacts of climate change such as sea surge, sea-level rise and extreme events. Current planning procedures and the environmental impact assessment process look at the impact of development on the environment but do not sufficiently take into account the impact of the environment on a project or development. An integrated approach to adaptation and coastal resource 11
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management management is lacking, including preventative infrastructure planning to adjust to the possible increased risks from climate change impacts. Data gaps and technical capacity issues limit detailed information about coastal vulnerabilities including the impacts of climate change, extreme events and sea-level rise, and the lack of consensus on appropriate or suitable technology to use. The present status of coastal vulnerability is as follows: Outdated or unenforced policies and legislations regarding land zoning, infrastructure and building standards; Limited capacity of regulatory agencies to incorporate climate change considerations into the development approval process; Limited information available for preventative infrastructure planning and climate proofing of infrastructure and development to accommodate climate change impacts; Vulnerability and adaptation assessments carried out were restricted and did not have national coverage; Limited studies on, or vulnerability assessments of, existing infrastructure and properties along coastal areas likely to be affected from natural hazards and climate change; Limited available data or access to data for mapping of coastal vulnerabilities including of coastal infrastructure to flooding and sea surge, or the vulnerability of inland and all islands to periods of drought and flooding; Limited capacity, including technical expertise and equipment to properly assess hazards, risks and vulnerability; Solutions or technology for coastal protection can be site-specific and need to be tailored to suit local conditions; Insufficient data and research to identify appropriate adaptation technologies that can be employed at suitable locations to mitigate coastal vulnerabilities, including coastal protection mechanisms; Lack of programmatic approach and mandate for the collection and collation of data on coastal resources to support scientific research and decision- making; Limited local capacity to conduct studies of risks and locally appropriate adaptation technologies including coastal protection mechanisms; Inadequate capacity of vulnerable communities to cope with onset of droughts and flood events; and Awareness about the future risks to property from climate change and coastal erosion or potential climate- and cyclone-proofing best practices are limited at best. Actions required on coastal vulnerability are: Ensure as an urgent priority that assessments of the possible impacts of the environment, including climate change, on a project are a formal part of all development planning processes, and appropriate changes should be made in the relevant legal and institutional structures to facilitate such considerations; 12
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Incorporate design, construction and building technologies related to climate change, extreme events and future conditions into current building control codes and standards, and develop inspection guidelines and regulatory enforcement systems with appropriate capacity building and training in implementation, to support preventative planning at the development stage; Develop and disseminate guidelines and best practices for preventative infrastructure planning and climate proofing of infrastructure and developments to accommodate climate change impacts; Establish and develop effective climate monitoring capacity to provide for effective climate change risk management physical planning; Develop a coordinated programme and technical capacity to carry out vulnerability and adaptation assessments for all islands in the Tanintharyi Region; Source necessary data and develop data-sharing arrangements needed to undertake vulnerability and adaptation assessments for all islands; Develop a ‘vulnerability atlas’ which identifies areas that are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, land degradation and biodiversity loss; Appropriate risk management regimes should be established to reduce the risks of extreme events associated with climate change/variability; Assess options to identify appropriate adaptation technologies and solutions that are suitable and can be employed at specific locations to mitigate identified coastal vulnerabilities, including technologies such as coastal protection mechanisms; Undertake awareness programmes of risks to coastal area property and development from climate change and coastal erosion and promote and encourage the incorporation of adaptation technologies and consideration into the future and, where possible, existing coastal development to mitigate coastal vulnerabilities; Develop and update of best practices and lessons learned on technologies applied and utilized for coastal protection and coastal resource management; Develop local capacity for risk analysis and research into locally appropriate adaptation technologies, including coastal protection mechanisms; and Develop capacity of vulnerable communities to cope with onset of droughts and flood events though emergency management plans and promotion of water conservation practices. 3.3. Water resource management Effective care and management of water resources, which include lagoons, surface and groundwater, are critical for the economic and social well-being of the coastal regions of Myanmar. Yet the sector is the most fragmented, is supply-driven and lacks coherent policies, strategies, legislation, regulation and monitoring. The lack of clarity of the roles and responsibilities of relevant agencies and organizations related to various aspects of water resource management is a major contributing factor towards this fragmentation. The lack of a legal and policy framework to support water resource management in the Myanmar is a key gap. 13
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 3.4. Water quality, water demand and supply Currently, there is insufficient information and resources (including climatic data) to enable effective preparation and planning for the impacts of climate change and natural disasters on the sustainability of water supplies. Limited technical capacity and funding issues are major constraints to the implementation of activities and maintenance of water infrastructure in the country and need to be addressed. At the community level, little action is being taken to conserve the available drinking water. There is limited individual awareness of the long-term potential consequences of water wastage, and water conservation measures, including traditional knowledge and practices, are not promoted with any vigour. Pilot projects for water demand management may provide valuable information to improved water resource management. However, the lack of determination of the full extent of water resource demand and supply hinders well-versed decision-making and planning. A number of agencies and organizations is conducting various aspects of water quality testing and monitoring with different testing parameters. There is a need to develop coordinated programmes amongst these agencies, and to ensure that information is comparable with appropriate facilities and capacity to support testing and analysis. The present status of water quality, water demand and supply is as follows: Ownership and management of water resources is unclear and need to be determined at the national level; Lack of an integrated national water resource management policy; No comprehensive national legislation to manage water resources and the scattered legal provisions that address the supply and quality of water to the public are conflicting or do not provide sufficient direction; No management framework for integrated water resource management or to control pollution of water supplies, or encroachment into water catchment areas; Disjointed activities and coordination processes for forestry, water catchments, wetlands, lagoon environments, water supply, wastewater and solid waste disposals have also produced mixed results; Limited coordination and collaboration amongst all agencies/stakeholders responsible for management of different aspects of water resources; Limited understanding of the close relationships between water resources and the total environment at all levels, and the importance and principles of sustainable water resource management; and Technical and human capacity for water resource management is insufficient, staff retention is a problem and retraining is required every time capacity is lost. Actions required in the area of water quality, water demand and supply are as follows: Undertake a comprehensive inventory to determine the current state of water resources in Myanmar including all freshwater resources (surface and underground), water intakes, watersheds and water catchments to provide sound information with a view towards the formulation of plans, policies, programmes and projects to ensure that freshwater resources are available to 14
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management facilitate the sustainable development of the country, and to serve as a basis for planning approvals and environmental impact assessments; Conduct a legislative review of various acts and regulations that regulate water resource, water supply or water quality management and implement appropriate recommendations to address key issues and promote integrated approaches and institutional structures for sustainable management of water resources and watersheds; Develop and implement policies for water governance as an immediate step towards an overarching policy for integrated water resource management; Develop and strengthen local capacity for sustainable water resource management at the national, institutional and community levels, including capacity to monitor and enforce water resource policies; Reassess levels of current demand and supply of water resources and the dynamics of supply; Investigate alternative water sources and viable options to supplement water supply, including groundwater and rainwater harvest; Develop innovative community and educational awareness programmes, highlighting the finite nature of water resources, the need to protect water supply sources and promote water conservation awareness programmes discouraging water wastage or excessive use as well as judicious water-use technologies such as dual flush toilets and reduced-flow shower heads; Develop economic incentives to encourage the use of water storage facilities, including the installation of water tanks and low-energy pumping equipment, and to encourage investments in alternate water catchment technologies and equipment, including the installation of roof spouts and gutters for rain catchment; Ensure that any regulatory regime for water resource management incorporates appropriate adaptation strategies to address likely impacts from climate change/variability; Strengthen capacity for monitoring the effects of climate change on water resources including early warning systems for water resource supply and ongoing monitoring for the onset of drought; Improve access to relevant regional and national climatic data, including through the establishment of networks with regional meteorological centres for information sharing on climate change and regional weather patterns; Improve preparedness for natural disaster events that could have significant impact on water resources and water supply; and Develop capacity and resources for the integration of traditional and modern water resource management, including water conservation practices, across all subjects and levels of the school curriculum. 3.5. Waste management and sanitation Waste management is widely recognized as a major concern for Myanmar with the potential to cause negative impacts on national development activities, including tourism and trade, food supplies, public health and the environment. The generation and disposal of waste has 15
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management direct and indirect linkages to economic development. Poorly managed waste can have negative effects on tourism, by damaging its image and by association with health warnings about infectious and vector-borne diseases. There is the potential for contamination of food supplies, which can have impacts on local markets or revenue from export crops. And there are numerous health and environmental hazards that arise when waste is poorly managed and disposed. In addition, Myanmar lacks the capacity and knowledge to deal with new or non-traditional wastes, especially hazardous wastes, electronic wastes and white-ware materials. Options for the application of viable economic incentives to encourage waste management have not been adequately explored. Public awareness, self-compliance, community cooperation and appropriate economic incentives are central to the effective management of waste. There is a gap in current legislation and institutional arrangements in some aspects of solid waste management, whereby legislation or institutional arrangements are either conflicting or do not provide sufficient direction. Options for waste minimization should be widely promoted as part of the solution. The present status of waste management and sanitation is: Limited management of activities in water catchment areas and water supply systems; Limited plan of action to guide the actions of agencies involved in water testing; Definition of roles of individual agencies involved in water testing is unclear; Institutional arrangements for the monitoring of water resources are fragmented and lack coordination or a consistent monitoring regime; Insufficient capacities and resources for ongoing water testing, monitoring and analysis; Baseline assessment of in-country laboratory capacity is poor in terms of technical capacities, resources, data storage and monitoring programmes; Different testing locations are utilized by the various water-testing agencies leading to inconsistent results for quality assurance; Limited research into the causes of high faecal coliform counts in water intakes and water supply systems; Lack of acceptable standards for water quality; Results of water quality tests are not made readily available to the public; Overlap and lack of clarity in the functions and roles of the respective agencies in the collection and management of waste, operation of sanitary landfills and the licensing of waste transporters; No legal requirement for operators handling and transporting waste to be licensed; No waste reception facilities legally established for disposal of solid waste (or sewage or oil) from visiting vessels; Recycling and disposal options for motor vehicles, white-ware, computers and other household appliances have yet to be implemented fully; and
16
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management No comprehensive assessment of the management and disposal regimes for solid and hazardous waste on the islands. Actions required for waste management and sanitation are: Implement a coordinated monitoring regime for water quality with all relevant agencies and a centralized testing facility for all environmental testing, and develop a coordinated monitoring programme to guide water-testing activities; Strengthen capacity for conducting testing, monitoring and result analysis of drinking water quality amongst relevant agencies, including the determination of agreed testing parameters, and the surveillance and monitoring of public water supplies and source waters; Undertake capacity building and development for water quality monitoring programmes; Involve communities in decision-making regarding water resource management, including conducting workshops to empower communities to take more ownership and responsibility of their drinking water; Prepare annual reports on drinking water quality status and share them among key stakeholders; Establish and enforce water quality standards (based on World Health Organization standards for drinking water, recreational water and irrigation water) by the Ministry of Health and Rural Department; Encourage the use of low cost water filters within water intakes and individual households to increase the quality of water supply technology, infrastructure and equipment for water supply and to strengthen ongoing monitoring of drinking water quality; Revive traditional knowledge and systems for clean water management; Designate an appropriate existing board or committee to coordinate and implement the National Waste Strategy and expand its mandate to cover this if necessary; Promote the National Waste Strategy to the private sector for private sector involvement; Produce island-specific management plans for waste, particularly with an emphasis on waste minimization; Ministry of Health and other relevant agencies to continue to update and implement communication strategies to promote effective management of waste including public and community engagement; Strengthen relationships between agencies and organizations involved with waste management for improved collaboration and coordination of activities; Clearly define regulatory, management and enforcement roles and responsibilities for various agencies and councils related to waste regulations; Establish appropriate legal and institutional frameworks and operational plans for the management of solid waste; Recommend that consideration be given to providing other economic incentives to support the fledgling recycling industry; 17
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Recommend that appropriate economic incentives be established to promote the reduction and recycling of aluminium cans, glass and plastic bottles, and plastic shopping bags; Encourage reduction of solid waste generation to the minimum practicable level using the principles of reduce, reuse and recycle and ‘polluter pays’; Encourage at-source separation to minimize waste accumulation and ensure the life of the landfill is extended; Support the private sector goal of ‘Zero Waste’ as an overarching goal for waste management in the coastal regions; Strengthen and support education and awareness activities related to waste management and pollution; Establish regulatory instruments which will create appropriate economic incentives to promote the sound management and disposal of hazardous substances; Provide fiscal incentives for promoting the phasing-out of pesticides and chemicals and to encourage the importation of ‘environmentally friendly’ alternatives; Develop mechanisms to encourage ‘life cycle management’ and the recovery and recycling of hazardous substances; Provide incentives for industries to establish sound hazardous substance management plans and provide training in hazardous substance management, recycling and disposal; and Identify and promote alternatives for current chemicals and pesticides that are effective and proven to be environmentally friendly. 3.6. Integrating environmental management Outdated legislation on environmental issues has resulted in stakeholders working in isolation of each other with no clear policy directions. Environmental and economic policies have not yet been fully integrated, which is a major obstacle as the integration of environmental issues at the forefront of strategic economic and policy planning is essential in order to achieve positive environmental outcomes in Myanmar. The mainstreaming of environmental management issues into national economic and development planning processes has improved over the years however implementation of such plans still remains weak. Environmental management is the responsibility of all stakeholders and it is therefore important to strengthen capacity to develop partnerships between stakeholder agencies and the community for implementation and advocacy. The present status of integrated environmental management is: Limited capacity to develop and implement national monitoring and evaluation processes, including tools such as state of the environment reports; Currently, it is not a legal requirement of responsible ministries and departments to produce regular state of the environment reports;
18
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Lack of local expertise in several areas, most notably in the areas of environmental accounting and economics, environmental law and economic valuation of resources and ecosystem services; Weak reporting and monitoring capacities for climate change, biodiversity, land degradation and cross-cutting environmental issues at all levels; Insufficient staff, staff expertise and resources within relevant ministries and organizations to support the implementation of national plan activities; and Limited awareness and promotion of the limitations of donor funding for national implementation of environmental management-related activities. Actions required in integrated environmental management are: Strengthen local capacity for the development of policies and strategic planning to support the integration of environmental management activities within ministries; Work in collaboration with national and regional agencies to provide focused training in project proposal report writing, project design, project implementation and management at all levels; Increase awareness and understanding of the limitations of donor funding to project outputs and the need for national-level support for national and local implementation of environmental management activities; Improve government capacity to implement environmental-related strategies and policies in a coherent and effective way, including through training in planning and programmatic approaches for improved environmental management; Combat insufficient capacity within agencies for implementation of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) and environmental activities by forming partnerships or resource-sharing agreements where possible among ministries, the private sector, NGOs and community groups for the implementation of MEA projects where goals align or are complementary; Strengthen the partnerships between environmental NGOs, the private sector and the government including through collaborative efforts on advocacy and capacity-building programmes; Utilize existing mechanisms (such as for Head of Ministry meetings), for information sharing of planned activities and projects within and among ministries and agencies to promote cooperation and collaboration, sharing of resources and to avoid duplication of efforts; Consideration should be given to strengthening the role of customary practices in environmental and resource management; Encourage the participation of members of the general public (through education/awareness and providing simple tools) to undertake systematic observations of their environment, as part of efforts towards monitoring for environment management; and Activities that monitor the environment such as beach profiling and coral monitoring should be supported and extended to cover all regions of Myanmar. 19
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 3.7. Environmental education and awareness Formal environment education continues to be limited. Resources and capacity to support the integration of environmental issues into formal education are limited. Strengthening integrated biophysical and socio-economic research is a prerequisite to improving the long-term protection and management of the Myanmar coastal zone. The difficulties in inducing and measuring behavioural change also highlight the lack of formal mechanisms for feedback and evaluation of the effectiveness of environmental programmes and various forms of media. Linking education at schools with information and actions at home and within communities is weak and will need to be focused on in order to achieve education awareness goals and meaningful change towards sustainable environmental management. Present status of environment education and awareness: Technical environmental data and information need simplification and translation into local languages for broader understanding at all levels; There is a shortage of training programmes and opportunities for education planners and environmental educators; Limited teachers’ professional development programmes to enhance the education of students on environmental issues; Localized information in an easy-to-use format is not readily available for educators, media or the general public; Limited use of practical applications and fieldwork for environmental monitoring and education to foster awareness and engage students’ interest at all levels; and Lack of effective mechanisms or processes to improve the exchange of data and information among relevant government agencies, NGOs and academic institutions undertaking environmental awareness and education activities for improved coordination and collaboration of activities and resource sharing. Actions required: Develop a systematic approach to environmental education and awareness including development of specific communication strategies, effective measures at different levels (e.g. national or community), and partnerships among stakeholders in order to achieve positive behavioural change towards the environment; In collaboration with the Ministry of Education, incorporate environmental education into targeted professional development programmes for educators and develop curriculum resources, expertise and support to strengthen capacity to undertake environmental education; Biodiversity, climate change and land degradation experts need to provide more assistance to formal educators, especially to help teachers develop and fully understand their environmental programmes in an educationally useful format; Develop capacity of appropriate staff within relevant agencies to act as information brokers or communicators who are able to undertake the translation of scientific and technical environmental-related information from 20
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management conventional texts, international and regional resources into simplified clear language for dissemination; Work with appropriate authorities and individuals to develop the Myanmar language for new environmental information and scientific terms; Develop capacity to undertake evaluations of education and awareness programmes and cost-benefit analysis of various mediums for communications to determine the effectiveness of messages and mediums in disseminating environmental information for different target audiences; Continue to support the production of media and educational packages featuring locally relevant information in a simplified bilingual format, ensuring that materials for islands are in an appropriate language/dialect; Establish formal mechanisms to access international, regional and national expertise and resources to improve availability of resources and local capacity at government and community levels to produce quality localized media productions, awareness and educational materials, including through development and implementation of targeted training programmes; Develop closer working relationships among government and environmental NGOs, community-based organizations (CBOs) and academic institutions involved in environmental awareness and education activities and utilize effective mechanisms to improve the exchange of data and information for improved coordination and collaboration of activities and resource sharing; Develop partnerships, cost-sharing initiatives and innovative communication tools where possible for the production and distribution of resources to maximize national coverage; Identify and source resources that can be shared amongst communities/villages for access to environmental information; Where practical, utilize existing events such as expositions, science fairs and competitions to promote the environment to students and encourage students to participate in environmental events This is based on the assumption that these events are actually effective, and this would follow the need to strengthen capacity in monitoring or evaluation; Develop and implement programmes to involve students, youth and communities in environmental monitoring and encourage the dissemination/extension of similar programmes; and Continue to support the capacity development of community groups and youth to act as facilitators and peer educators in community awareness programmes on environmental issues and conduct training and conservation initiatives for young people to enhance their skills in environmental management. 3.8. Management of information and knowledge Inadequate management and exchange of information, including traditional knowledge and practices in environment management, continue to be a major gap. Technical capacity for the development and management of information management systems, such as databases and GIS, is well developed in some organizations but not all. Available datasets are limited to those produced as part of that organization’s programme of work and therefore sectoral in nature, or those produced from a project which means they have limited scope. Mobilizing 21
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management appropriate data for dissemination to all levels of users is poor and this is not helped by the limited awareness of and access to some sources of data. Appropriate policies, programmes and mandates to support data collection and information management activities are limited. Data collation, analysis, data basing and management capabilities in most government agencies are weak and there is limited support to develop and maintain data and information management systems. Most government agencies have very limited capacity to utilize GIS, which can be useful in managing data. There is limited ownership of information and retention of data collected for project activities and research in Myanmar and no effective mechanism to maintain information in a cohesive manner. Some of the current data collection programmes are wasted as information gathered is not being used to aid analysis and decision-making and highlights the need to reassess the rationale for collecting data and their usefulness. The ability to interpret and practically use information and data is an area that needs further development in Myanmar. Limited local capacity in data collection, data basing, analysis, mapping, maintenance and utilization of environmental-related data and information; Lack of policies to support the development and housing of environmental and natural resource data in national databases/clearing houses; Limited legal and policy recognition of the need to organize proper information in a central repository; Limited number of individuals nationally with the technical background in databases and IT development activities; Limited capacity to utilize GIS technologies of benefit to relevant ministries including insufficient GIS resources such as relevant equipment and software; and Limited coordinated and ongoing programmes to collect information for the creation and maintenance of GIS data layers and maps necessary for biodiversity, climate change and land degradation planning and monitoring Actions required: Integrate into the national policy and make provisions for enforcement; Promote mechanisms to involve communities and schools in the collection of environmental data; Provide training and training resources for national institutions, NGOs and community groups on data collation, administration and management of databases and data analysis; Develop a multisectoral approach to data analysis as well as mechanisms to seek advice from other sectors or relevant expertise; Encourage all ministries/organizations to promote awareness of available data through the use of mechanisms such as Web sites, newsletters and information expositions; Strengthen the capacity of existing agencies responsible for natural resources in data collection, analysis, reporting;
22
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Undertake an assessment of available data to determine data gaps and information needs for natural resources, ecosystems and sustainable land management; Develop and implement monitoring and data collection programmes for natural resources, ecosystems and land information; Include identification of appropriate personnel and training as part of a programmatic approach to database and inventory development, data collation and analysis, mobilizing information and dissemination; There is a need to develop cooperation in sharing database development expertise among government agencies; Investigate the potential for individuals in key ministries to collaborate and develop their skills in database development and support this collaboration; Designate an agency to facilitate and manage a central land and resource information system that is accessible by all stakeholders; Formal and informal training and skills development of national- and community-level personnel for resource-use planning methods, techniques, approaches and systems; GIS development; resource inventory methods; multicriteria- and objective-based planning; ecosystem approaches to land-use planning; land capability/suitability methods; and integrated catchment and coastal zone approaches; Identify data needs and benefits or desirable outputs for individual ministries from a GIS, develop a targeted programme for practical utilization of GIS data; Develop training programmes for practical training of relevant agencies and organizations in data collection, databasing, analysis, mapping, maintenance and practical utilization of GIS; and Draw on existing national GIS expertise and experience where possible to support training and resource-sharing initiatives, particularly for the islands 3.9. Multilateral environmental agreements A key weakness is the current levels of awareness and participation amongst many stakeholders in relation to the obligations within each of the UN conventions. It will also be important to improve awareness of MEA issues in the local context if Myanmar is to build support for MEA activities at all levels. Having sufficient capacity for monitoring and evaluation of MEA progress in-country, including good data collection and management programmes in place, will also be necessary if Myanmar is to fulfill its MEA obligations for national reporting. The status of MEAs is as follows: Limited human and technical capacity to undertake MEA implementation, monitoring and evaluation; General deficiency in planning and policy development capacity within key government agencies; Weakness of project management skills, as well as limited opportunities to develop capacity in these areas;
23
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Lack of clear national training strategies and human resource development paths for environmental management capacity; A number of environmental NGOs operating in Myanmar may undertake community conservation and education projects in isolation of the implementation of particular MEAs; Limited community involvement in MEA implementation, monitoring and evaluation; and Information provided by MEA Secretariats for education and awareness tends to use language that is too technical and of generic global relevance lacking any localized context through which to engage communities and stakeholders. Actions required: Strengthen national reporting capacity and evaluation processes, including development of a regularly updated, centralized information management system for biodiversity, climate change and land degradation to reduce the efforts required to produce national reports to the UN conventions; Improve the ability of the government and institutions to intervene on matters of national environmental importance; Review the legal and institutional framework to carry out legal and institutional strengthening for environmental management in Myanmar; and Promote and improve the awareness of politicians, decision-makers and government ministries of MEAs, particularly those that Myanmar is a signatory to, the environmental issues they are trying to address and how this affects Myanmar in a local context. As a recommendation, Myanmar should take the necessary steps to further obtain advisory services in the areas of (i) interagency coordination mechanisms for environmental system management with the goal of incorporating the environmental dimensions in the development efforts of the country; and (ii) effective implementation of its commitments to MEAs, in particular, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. 3.10. Access to financial resources One of the critical constraints to the implementation of environmental management activities and meeting Myanmar’s obligations and commitments to the UN conventions continues to be access to financial resources to support such programmes. This is an area that needs to be addressed as resource mobilization strategies to implement the NAPA, at least in the foreseeable future, are likely to rely on external financial mechanisms though efforts to access limited national financial resources will continue. The capacity, time and resources necessary to identify, develop and access international funding mechanisms are limited at all levels. Many government departments, NGOs and community groups do not have the experience and skills to aggressively pursue external funding options. The preparation of project proposals is usually outsourced to consultants as application processes can be lengthy and arduous, and place intensive time and work pressures on staff within government agencies that are often already overextended. Limited awareness of funding opportunities available to NGOs and communities;
24
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Limited technical assistance to identify Small Grants Programmes (SGP) projects for communities; and Limited local capacity at all levels to identify sources of funding and develop quality project proposals essential for accessing funding opportunities. Actions required: Training of planning officers and stakeholders in identification of environmental funding opportunities, proposal writing and project management; Continue to maintain strong working relationships and networking opportunities with UN convention Secretariats, convention funding mechanisms such as the Global Environment Facility and regional Council of Regional Organisations (CROP) agencies to keep up-to-date with funding opportunities that may be available for environmental projects, activities, training and capacity building in Myanmar’s coastal states; Increase capacity of NGOs and community groups in project proposal writing and reporting (including financial reporting) in order to better access funding opportunities, including GEF SGP funds; Utilize GEF operational focal points and local SGP focal points to assist communities in accessing technical assistance in identifying locally relevant projects that fit under the SGP funding criteria; Raise awareness of known funding opportunities for community-based environmental management activities and projects; and Strengthen capacity for financial responsibility and accountability in the management of donor funds, including through the provision of resources and training opportunities.
4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT
The establishment of coordinating mechanisms among agencies principally charged with environmental-related administration, e.g. the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Works and Communications, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Local Governments aside from the MOECAF, MoAI and MLFRD, is imperative to ensure effective environmental resource management, including that of wetlands. 4.1. Government institutions Department of Fisheries (DoF): The DoF is part of the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development (MLFRD) and is responsible for the management of Myanmar’s fisheries and coastal resources. As of 2010, livestock and fisheries accounted for 7.6 percent of the country’s GDP (Department of Fisheries 2010). The DoF has a number of directorates including Capture Fisheries, Aquaculture, Research and Development and Administration. The DoF national headquarters are based in Nay Pyi Taw and states/regions and districts have smaller administrative offices. The DoF’s activities are guided by six key responsibilities, namely: 1. The conservation and rehabilitation of fishery resources; 2. The promotion of fishery research and surveys; 3. Collection and compilation of fishery statistics and information; 25
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 4. Provision of fishery extension services; 5. Supervision of fishery sectors; and 6. Ensuring the sustainability of fishery resources (Myanmar Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries 2008b) The DoF issues licenses, evaluates sites for aquaculture, produces fingerlings for sale to the aquaculture industry, advises the MLFRD on fishery matters, acts as an inspection body for trade, administers auctioning of leasable freshwater fisheries and waterbodies for aquaculture, provides training and communicates with stakeholders. A Monitoring, Control and Surveillance programme for fishery management generates statistics that are published in national reports by the Myanmar Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries (2008 a,b), Myanmar Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development (2010) and the Department of Fisheries (2010); these are shared with global organizations who can collate and share the data more broadly (see FAO 2013). The DoF is involved in research programmes on endangered species and ecosystems such as marine turtles and Irrawaddy dolphins. They oversee some conservation areas such as the marine component of the Thamihla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary and the Khaing Thaung Island Reserve Forest and work closely with stakeholders in managing these areas. They are also the management authority for two shark protected areas. Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC). In 2012, the Ministry of Forestry was reorganized to become the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry (MOECAF) reflecting a growing awareness of the importance of addressing environmental issues in the country. Soon after, a new department, the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) was created. The DEC will be responsible for an ambitious range of activities including implementing environmental conservation policies, designing and implementing monitoring programmes, prescribing environmental quality standards, conducting activities relating to waste management and conducting environmental impact assessments (EIAs). Fishery law enforcement agencies are: Inspection at sea: Myanmar Navy; and Inspection authority at shore: DoF; Myanmar Port Authority; Myanmar Customs; Immigration Department; Department of Marine Administration; Myanmar Police Force. Forest Department (FD). The FD also falls under the MOECAF and is responsible for the management of forests, including mangrove forests, though some mangroves are ceded to the DoF for possible aquaculture development. The DF is also the key implementing agency for the designation and management of protected areas in the country. Ministry of Education (MoE). The MoE oversees all formal education in the country from basic to higher education. The ministry supervises the implementation of educational programmes and sets educational policies. Ministry of Hotels and Tourism (MoHT). The MoHT oversees and legislates aspects of Myanmar’s burgeoning tourism sector. The MoHT has worked with NGOs, such as the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), on developing ecotourism activities. Navy of the Union of Myanmar. The naval branch of Myanmar’s armed forces operates more than 122 vessels. The Navy patrols Myanmar’s water and enforces maritime laws for
26
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management the country. The Navy is mandated to enforce various marine fishery laws, in particular those relating to offshore fishing. State/region governments. Six of Myanmar’s 14 states and regions border the eastern edge of the Bay of Bengal and many who live there have livelihoods connected with marine systems. These are: Rakhine State, Ayeyarwaddy Region, Yangon Region, Bago Region, Mon State and Taninthayi Region. 4.2. Research and education Aware of the fact that the environment and development are interlinked, the government is paying more attention to environmental affairs. As a result, the National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) has emerged as a coordinating agency collaborating closely with government ministries and departments in matters relating to the environment. It also acts as the national focal point for environmental matters vis-à-vis other countries and international organizations, coordinates the work of various relevant ministries and departments and reports directly to the Cabinet. The NCEA was established with the following objectives: To develop sound environmental policies in order to safeguard the environment and prevent its degradation; To set environmental standards, rules and regulations for pollution control; To formulate environmental plans, programmes and strategies; and To promote environmental awareness and public participation in environmental activities. There is neither a specific protection and management body or coordination unit that has a multidisciplinary approach for coastal and marine ecosystems. However, separate indirect responsibilities on protection and management of the marine environment are scattered amongst different ministries. At the ministry level, the Ministry of Science and Technology is empowered to designate its directorate to carry out environmental research activities while the Ministry of Forestry oversees the conservation and management of forest, biodiversity and wildlife. Protection, conservation and management of coastal and marine areas are under the responsibility of the DoF. Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science. The academy was created in 1999 under the MoE and comprises experts from a range of academic fields. The academy conducts regular seminars and publishes the Journal of the Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science. Universities. Under the Ministry of Education, the Marine Science Department of the University of Mawlamyine is the only educational institution in the country related to coastal and marine activities. The department carries out research and development activities on marine ecosystems. The country’s first marine biology programme was established in 1973 at the university. It was upgraded to become a Marine Science Department in 1986. Most of the senior marine scientists in the country were trained here. The university has a field station at Setse. This station was established in 1985 as a high-tech aquaculture facility through funding from the UNDP project, Strengthening of Marine Science Teaching at Moulmein College (UNESCO 1985). By 1995, the university was no longer able to support the high maintenance and electrical costs and the facility began its decline into disrepair. Tanks are now cracked and water filtration and pumping systems are beyond repair so aquaculture research can no longer be conducted. However, its facilities are still used by the university as a field station that hosts undergraduate field courses. 27
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Two more marine programmes stemmed from the original at Mawlamyine, which allowed research to expand to other areas of Myanmar’s coast. Pathein University in the Ayeyarwaddy Region has a Marine Science Department with a field station on the Rakhine coast just south of Shwe Thaungyan. This station has good access to a range of marine habitats and hosts seven- to ten-day courses at the end of each semester. Myeik University, also with a Marine Science Department, is on the Taninthayi Coast, close to the islands of the Myeik Archipelago. It has a large Marine Science Museum and hopes to host the future Marine and Coastal Resources Research Centre. Yangon is the oldest university in the country and its students and staff have conducted many of the original studies of Myanmar’s marine life. It is home to the Diamond Jubilee Hall that contains the national repository of PhD theses. Other universities have zoology, botany and chemistry departments whose staff and students are able to conduct marine- related research, including the universities of Bago, Dagon, Dawei and Sittwe. The Phuket Marine Biological Centre (PMBC). Thailand. The PMBC, established in 1966, is one of the older and more established marine research centres in the region. Regional workshops are often hosted there and, in recent years, Myanmar scientists have had the opportunity to attend training workshops at the centre. In 2010 and 2012, Myanmar teachers attended courses on coral and marine mammals. 4.3. International non-governmental organizations (INGOs), bilateral aid agencies and international organizations
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Myanmar: The WCS was the first international conservation NGO to work in Myanmar, establishing a programme in 1993. The WCS’s Myanmar Program has memorandums of understanding with both MOECAF and MLFRD and has worked with the DoF for over 10 years to develop and manage the DoF’s first aquatic protected area, the Ayeyarwaddy Dolphin Protected Area on the mainstream Ayeyarwaddy River upstream of Mandalay. The WCS Myanmar Program has worked with the Marine Science Association of Myanmar (MSAM) and the WCS Global Marine Conservation Program to conduct this review. Fauna and Flora International (FFI): The FFI works in Myanmar through collaborations with the local NGO, BANCA. Projects have focused on conducting biodiversity assessments and conservation status reviews and strengthening local civil society organizations (CSOs) to protect biodiversity through protected area management. The NGO recently conducted surveys of reefs in the Myeik Archipelago using the protocols of another international NGO, Reef Check. Istituto Oikos: This is an Italian NGO that works in developing countries to promote environmental conservation as a tool for socio-economic development. In 2011, Oikos has worked in collaboration with the FD and BANCA at Lampi Marine National Park and recently published a detailed review of Myanmar’s Protected Areas (Isituto Oikos 2011). International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN): IUCN hopes to start working in Myanmar in the near future alongside the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) project and in collaboration with the MFF on a multistakeholder coalition to support and guide national and international conservation efforts in the Myeik Archipelago. In 2012, IUCN, MFF and MERN hosted the workshop Conservation and Sustainable Management of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in Myanmar. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA): JICA has worked in Myanmar on a range of projects relating to environmental health and economic development. Relevant to
28
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management the marine realm, the organization collaborated with MOECAF on the Ayeyarwaddy Delta Integrated Mangrove Rehabilitation and Management Project. Mangroves for the Future (MFF): MFF promotes investment in coastal ecosystems for sustainable management and uses mangroves as a flagship ecosystem because of their important roles in coastal livelihood and security. MFF has not yet started to work in the country but, as one of its ‘outreach countries’, Myanmar is invited to regional events and meetings. MFF plans to work alongside IUCN on coastal management issues in Myanmar. The Wetlands Alliance: This is an association of agencies that view wetlands and aquatic resources as an entry point for poverty alleviation initiatives in Southeast Asia. It engages with partner organizations in Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia and, in recent years, has visited projects in Myanmar with an aim to establish a presence in the country. WorldFish: In September 2012, WorldFish and the DoF commenced the four-year project Improving Research and Development of Myanmar’s Inland and Coastal Fisheries (MYFish). The project is first gathering data on the state of fisheries and aquaculture in Myanmar and then plans to develop management capacity and help develop fisheries and small-scale aquaculture to increase the productivity of this sector. 4.4. Non-government organizations Marine Science Association, Myanmar (MSAM): MSAM is open to all graduates of marine science in Myanmar. MSAM’s work focuses on research, conservation and the sustainable development of coastal areas. MSAM collaborates with marine science departments at Mawlamyine, Pathein and Myeik universities along with marine science alumni. MSAM collaborated with WCS Myanmar in producing this review. Myanmar Environment Rehabilitation-conservation Network (MERN): MERN is a network of 16 Myanmar local NGOs with a range of foci and experience including forestry, environment, community development, capacity building and social mobilization, agriculture, livestock & fishery and social infrastructure. The projects implemented by MERN are implemented jointly by member NGOs and focus mainly on environmental conservation and rehabilitation linked with community development relating to food security and livelihood development. Member NGOs may collaborate within the MERN network or run their own projects independently. In the marine realm, MERN instigated the Coastal Livelihood and Environmental Assets Restoration in Rakhine (CLEARR) project to improve mangrove forests and livelihoods in villages in the Thandwe District of Rakhine State. Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA): BANCA conducts a range of projects relating to nature including surveys, watershed development, establishing forest plantations and access to drinking water. Currently BANCA is partnering with FFI to conduct surveys of coral reefs in the Myeik Archipelago. Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT): LIFT aims to improve the food and livelihood security of poor and vulnerable people in Myanmar. LIFT works in areas where food poverty is high, including the Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Rakhine State. Rakhine Coastal Region Conservation Association (RCA): The RCA conducts awareness raising for the conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable use of Rakhine’s mangroves and conservation of marine turtles. It also works on community forestry activities and wild elephant conservation. Rakhita: Rakhita is an environmental NGO based in the Rakhine coast. In recent months, it has run a five-day land-planning workshop in Ngapali of Thandwe District.
29
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Forest Resource Environment Development and Conservation Association (FREDA): FREDA is an NGO with a focus on the forestry sector of Myanmar. FREDA is composed of more than 400 members including foresters, botanists, agronomists, zoologists, veterinary scientists, hydrogeologists, engineers, timber entrepreneurs, journalists and artists. In the marine realm, FREDA has worked with communities that rely on mangrove resources. Myanmar Environment Institute (MEI): The MEI provides training courses in environmental science and management and in conducting EIAs. The Ecosystem Conservation and Community Development Initiative (ECCDI): The ECCDI works on sustainable forest ecosystem management, which includes the establishment of mangrove plantations.
4.5. Regional bodies Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) project: The BOBLME project engages all eight nations that rim the Bay of Bengal, namely the Maldives, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. The project aims to lay the foundations for a coordinated programme of action designed to improve the lives of the coastal populations through improved regional management of the Bay of Bengal environment and its fisheries. The executing agency is the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, based in Bangkok, and FAO is also involved in project components directly relating to fisheries and resource management. Principal funding is from the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Government of Norway, the Swedish Internal Development Agency, FAO, participating governments and the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration (NOAA). The project had a total estimated budget of US$31 million for an initial period from September 2008 to August 2013, though a no-cost extension has been requested to an anticipated date of 31 March 2015. The National Inception Workshop was held in Myanmar in early 2010 and since then Myanmar experts have attended and contributed to a number of workshops focusing on a range of topics including policy reviews, transboundary issues, Hilsa fisheries, fisheries and aquaculture assessments, fishery statistics, coastal management, responsible fisheries training and climate change. Partners to the project who are active in Myanmar include the Government of Myanmar, IOSEA, SEAFDEC, and WorldFish. A vast number of project reports are available through its Web site. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC): Myanmar is one of 11 SEAFDEC member countries, joining in 1999. The centre, established in 1967, is mandated “to develop and manage the fisheries potential of the region by rational utilization of the resources for providing food security and safety to the people and alleviating poverty through transfer of new technologies, research and information dissemination activities.” The centre supports training activities, technical assistance, research and publications relating to fisheries development in the region through four technical departments: the Training Department, the Marine Fisheries Research Department, the Aquaculture Department and the Marine Fisheries Resources Development and Management Department. The centre also aims to be a unified voice for fisheries issues in the region (Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center 2013). Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): APFIC is FAO’s regional fisheries body. APFIC was founded in 1948 and merged with the Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission in 1999. Its main objective is “to promote the full and proper utilization of living aquatic resources of the Asia-Pacific area by the development and management of fishing and culture operations and by the development of 30
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management related processing and marketing activities in conformity with the objectives of its members.” The commission reviews the state of resources and makes recommendations, carries out programmes and conducts training to increase the efficiency and sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture. Myanmar is among its 21 members. Many of the statistics collected by Myanmar’s DoF on the country’s production from marine and freshwater fisheries and aquaculture are processed, housed and shared through APFIC and FAO (see FAO 2013). Myanmar is in FAO’s Fishing Area 57 and the subarea 57.1 that encompasses all of the Bay of Bengal. 4.6. Private sector Myanmar Fishery Federation (MFF): The MFF, a national-level organization with a membership of over 700 companies and 27 000 individuals, is mandated to encourage and promote fishing industries. MFF aims to promote the socio-economic life of member entrepreneurs and fishery communities, share information on economic policies and fishery technologies and advocate on behalf of the fishing industry, among other objectives. There are nine associations under the MFF that deal with particular industries, namely, shrimp, fish, exporters, aquaculture feed, marine fisheries, freshwater capture fisheries, crabs, eels and ornamental fish.
5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT
5.1. Coastal development – major sectors Coastal ecosystems are highly productive containing high biological diversity, rich fishery resources and significant sea bed minerals. Coasts also support a diverse array of related industries (e.g. fisheries and aquaculture, tourism, shipping, oil and gas industries), which provide enormous economic productivity. However, the shared demands placed by densely populated coastal regions impose stresses on finite coastal systems and resources. Major development activities and opportunities come from the agriculture, forestry, mining, livestock and fishery, dairy farming, transportation, hydropower, coal-fired and solar power production, oil and gas, tourism and recreation, infrastructure and construction development sectors. The expansion of the Myanmar economy will further increase pressure on the coastal marine area and its resources. Development of hard structures along the coastline restricts the ability of intertidal habitats to move landward as sea level rises. Development will impact on seascapes and landscapes, and will limit traditional public access to the foreshore. Coastal industries such as fishing, aquaculture, tourism and shipping play significant roles in support of Myanmar’s large coastal population. However, the many activities associated with these industries can also have a detrimental effect on coastal habitats and water quality, in addition to creating conflicts of use among stakeholders. Developmental pressure on the coastal area continues as a result of socio-economic driving forces such as urban expansion, retirement, secondary home establishment and the tourism industry. For example, coastal tourism has led to increases in the numbers of marinas, golf courses and residential buildings near the coast. There is insufficient information to judge the current rate and long-term environmental implications of coastal development (EPA 2000).
31
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 5.2. Infrastructure development, industries, port and harbour development and transport sectors There is an urgent need for building and upgrading of most infrastructure sectors in Myanmar. Myanmar’s construction industry is expected to grow at an annual minimum of 7.8 percent over each of the next five years. The government also recently announced the construction of over 120 000 apartments in the Yangon area, with the help of local and foreign investors and developers. The Yangon City Development Committee (YCDC) is aiming to finish the construction of over 9 500 affordable apartments by 2015. The increase in the number of investment opportunities in energy and public infrastructure projects includes: Development Project for Greater Yangon – 39 townships; Affordable Housing Project – by The Department of Human Settlement and Housing Development (DHSHD); Urban development projects – such as Mindama Secondary CBD Development; Thilawa Social Economic Zone Development and Urban Spatial Control Management projects; Investment opportunities for foreign firms based on the Build-Operate- Transfer (BOT) and other suitable public-private partnership (PPP) models; and In Myeik two public companies are also involved in development and infrastructure development. Myanmar has about 142 395 kilometres of road networks; the lengths of various categories of road are: Union highways − 18 740 km; Township network roads – 19 045 km; Major city roads & other roads – 26 472 km; and Village & boundary area roads – 78 183 km. Demand for port expansion has resulted in loss of various habitats in harbours around the country. There is increased competition between leisure activities and commercial shipping in ports. Maintenance dredging in ports can also lead to disturbance and dispersal of contaminated sediments. The Ministry of Construction is promoting private sector participation in infrastructure development, on the basis of BOT and other suitable PPP models for the construction of roads, inland cargo depots, ports and airports. The governments of India and Myanmar are working on a US$500 million, Kaladan Multi- modal Transit Transport Project that will facilitate trade between the two nations. The project includes the construction of the US$120 million deep-water Sittwe Port at the mouth of the river, dredging of the Kaladan River to enable cargo vessels to navigate the river from Sittwe to Mizoram, the construction of a river port at Paletwa, as well as the widening and upgrade of highways between Paletwa and Myeikwa on the Indo-Myanmar border. The project will open up not only Mizoram but all of India's northeastern states as hinterland for Sittwe Port. Construction for the port started in 2010 and will be completed and handed over in 2015.
32
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Dawei is also getting a proposed SEZ plus a deep-sea port called the Dawei Port Project. It is undergoing construction with companies providing road links to Thailand, port construction and rail connection. It is partly being developed by Italian-Thai Development. The proposed completion date is set for 2014. 5.3. Mining sector Myanmar has a considerable deposits of gold, copper, lead, zinc, silver, nickel, coal and dimension stones, such as granite, marble and limestone. In 1989, Myanmar embarked on a policy of encouraging foreign investment and invited foreign companies to participate. The policy and objective of the Ministry of Mines is to encourage responsible and environmentally sound commercial exploitation, and the development of abundant but underutilized mineral resources in the country. Six granite deposits are located in the country and the estimated ore reserve of deposits in Mon State is 3.7 billion tonnes. Regarding ornamental stones, the estimated ore reserve in the whole country is about 563 million tonnes. Rubies, sapphires, coloured gemstones and jade are being exported. Myanmar is the primary source of top grade Jadeite, with Hpakant region being one of the richest deposits in the world. 5.4. Hydropower and coal-fired power production sector Hydropower is a major electricity generator; in this context Myanmar has rich water resources to feed supply. In December 2009, the government added three hydropower plants, Saidin, Thahtay Chaung and Laymromyit, at a cost of over US$800 million. The three plants together can produce 687 MW but the surplus electricity will be distributed to other states and divisions. In 2007, Myanmar signed an agreement for the construction of seven hydroelectric dams, yielding a total 13 360 MW, in the N'mai and Mali Rivers, including the 3 600 MW Myitsone Dam at the confluence of both rivers. Eight of 12 planned coal-fired power plants, with combined capacity of 12 780 MW, will be located in Yangon and Tanintharyi regions, with four projects each. Yangon's Thilawa area will become home to three new coal-fired power plants − one in Thilawa, one in Kyauktan and one in the Thilawa SEZ. The fourth coal-fired power plant in Yangon Region will be established in Kyunchankone and is expected to generate 3 270 MW. The Thailand-based Ratchaburi Electricity Generating Holding recently signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) for the feasibility study and development of the 2 640 MW Myeik clean coal-fired power plant project in Tanintharyi Region. For the generation subsector, foreign direct investment can be made in the form of joint ventures, BOT and other suitable PPP models for suitable power generation projects. Local investors are also allowed to participate in schemes of independent power producers for hydropower projects. 5.5. Oil and gas sector Myanmar’s petroleum sector is administered by the Ministry of Energy, which takes the leading role in the coordination, discussion and negotiation of the development of programmes in the energy sector. Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) under the Ministry of Energy, is responsible for conducting exploration and production of crude oil and natural gas, in both onshore and offshore areas. The Ministry of Energy has invited multinational companies to participate in the exploration and production of crude oil and natural gas in cooperation with MOGE, on a production- sharing basis. In the onshore sector, a total of 47 blocks have been demarcated; they comprise 18 production sharing contract blocks, five exploration and production blocks, 10 33
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management reactivation of suspended field blocks, seven improved petroleum recovery blocks and seven MOGE blocks; 26 blocks have been demarcated in the offshore sector. Investment opportunities include: Exploration and production in petroliferous onshore and offshore Myanmar; Rehabilitating marginal fields and enhancing declining and suspended fields; New plant commissioning; refineries, LPG, LNG, fertilizer plants; Floating storage units, floating storage and offtake facilities; Compressed natural gas refuelling stations and necessary parts and kits; Research and development; Trading, marketing and retailing of petroleum products; and Indispensable equipment to revamp and renovate drilling rigs, refineries and plants. 5.6. Tourism and recreational sector The hotel and tourism sector has been booming in recent years and the country’s unspoiled scenic and historic places and of course extremely nice local people and very safe travel experiences are attracting global tourists. Hotel business in Myanmar is allowed 100 percent foreign direct investment for the development of 3-star + rated hotels. However, tourism is only allowed under a joint venture system. Myiek Public Corporation Limited and Myiek Future Development Public Co Ltd have major plans to develop island- and mangrove-based tourism by building quality hotels, adventure sports complexes, residential complexes and other facilities in Tanintharyi Region. Coastal tourism depends on the quality and diversity of the coastal environment; increase in tourist numbers will have impact and threats on areas of high ecological and resource value in coastal marine environments. Furthermore, tax relief on property investment schemes or economic zones aimed at generating economic activity in seaside resorts would also result in increased ad hoc development without significantly boosting tourism revenues in coastal locations. 5.7. Coastal agriculture Myanmar is an agrarian country and the agriculture sector is the backbone of its economy. The agriculture sector contributes 34 percent of the GDP, 23 percent of total export earnings and employs 63 percent of the labour force. About 75 percent of the total population resides in rural areas and is principally employed in the agriculture, livestock and fishery sectors to sustain livelihoods. Agriculture has been identified as the biggest source of pollution in Myanmar rivers and lakes, which has implications for coastal water quality. Intensive agriculture will also lead to a reduction in seminatural habitats and to a decrease in biological diversity. Tangible progress has been achieved in the sown acreage, production and exports of certain crops, especially paddy and pulses, however, the performance of agriculture as a whole is far short of its true potential. Dawei produces rubber, dried fish and teakwood. It also produces cashew nuts and betel nuts and exports them through local traders to China, India and Thailand. Dawei is also well known for its variety of tropical fruits such as pineapples, a variety of mangoes, mangosteens and durian.
34
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management In the coastal regions, the agriculture sector is extremely mechanized and people wanted to mechanize the sector. Dependency on cattle for draught power and manure has been lost, as countries like Thailand and Japan have intervened with mechanized agricultural technology and people have lost jobs as agricultural labourers. Myanmar has a land area of 676 577 km2 and around 50 percent is available for growing various crops that are in line with tropical weather conditions. The government has invited both local and foreign investors to invest, under joint venture schemes or 100 percent investment, in the following areas: Establishing agro-based industries; Assembling and manufacturing light agricultural machinery and small farm implements; and Manufacturing agricultural inputs and related support products. Rakhine Region’s agriculture department has provided a development needs road map for immediate implementation. 5.8. Coastal livestock and farming In the coastal regions of Myanmar, there is great potential to develop the dairy farming sector and Myanmar has been striving to boost production of milk products to meet rising demand as it imports US$40 million worth of products annually. To reduce the amount of total imports, the authorities are calling for an increase in the breeding of milch cows. In the coastal regions there is a demand for the expansion of imported species of cattle such as Indo-Brazilian, American Brahman and Holstein-Friesian. The local breeds are almost neglected and forgotten. Water buffalo support agriculture as draught power in agricultural areas where mangroves have been destroyed or converted in Rakhine State for paddy farming. Ra They Taung, Pu Ma Kyun and five more districts are in the livestock expansion zone identified by Rakhine State Livestock Department. However, there are limitations concerning artificial insemination of cattle and organized fodder supply. Opportunities for developing livestock are allied with small-scale and major industries such as pharmaceuticals, feed, fodder, liquid nitrogen production and others to cater to the expansion of cattle and poultry farms. Training the local community in veterinary technical skills was also identified as a critical need to support the industry. Myanmar produces annually about 1.5 billion kilograms of milk, and over 226 570 kilograms of condensed milk from about 500 000 milch cows. The industry needs to upgrade in terms of planning, technology and financing, the limitations of which handicap the industry. The government is promoting the development of breeding dairy cattle in order to boost dairy production locally. Presently, Myanmar has 14 million cows and steers, and some three million buffalo. Local and foreign dairy firms have been invited to invest in raising dairy cattle, and the Myanmar Livestock and Fisheries Federation will render necessary assistance, such as land lease and allocation. Because of growing export demand and high prices, soft shell mud crab farming has become a booming industry in the Yangon and Taninthayi regions of Myanmar. Small juvenile crabs (60 to 80 grams) are collected from the wild and stocked individually into plastic basket boxes. In one 6 000 m2 pond, 40 000 crabs were stocked, and production was from 35
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 2.0 to 2.5 tonnes a month with continuous harvesting of 100- to 120-gram crabs. The farming system is labour-intensive. Scylla serrata and S. olivacea are the dominant species. Recently, a new government policy on shrimp farming has renewed interest in the industry. A trial using semi-biofloc technology has been successfully implemented south of Yangon within a soft shell crab farm. It is a high-risk venture because crabs are known to be carriers of the white spot virus, but it was the only location with good, clean, earthen ponds and a stable power supply. Shrimp and prawn farmers in Myanmar are pleading for financial support to save their businesses, which are going downhill rapidly because of erratic power supplies and shortages of ice, cold storage facilities, transportation and laboratories. Hatchery production of postlarvae dropped from 300 million in 2012 to 30 million in 2013 and will probably drop to 20 million in 2014, mostly because of diseases (recent data unknown). The number of hatcheries has also fallen from about 20 in 2012 to 15 currently, and only four or five of them are operational. According to DoF data, Myanmar has 120 plants that process farmed and wild-caught shrimp, freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and fish. Twelve processing and cold storage facilities around Yangon are certified by the European Union. 5.9. Coastal forestry Myanmar’s forests have been affected by degradation, shifting cultivation and conversion to commercial oil-palm plantations (the latter is particularly relevant in the lowland forests of the Tanintharyi Region). Deforestation pressures include: Fuelwood consumption (the principle source of energy); Unplanned and unrestricted agricultural expansion; Aquaculture (e.g. shrimp farming in the Delta and Rakhine Region); Infrastructure development; and Commercial clear-cutting. The main cause of island ecosystem destruction in Tanintharyi coastal zone has been logging of the uplands and mangrove areas for charcoal production, but recently shrimp culture has emerged as a potential threat to mangroves despite the forest and fisheries laws that prohibit mangrove destruction and conversion to aquaculture. Poverty and lack of environmental awareness amongst indigenous and immigrants has given space for small- and medium-scale investors of neighbouring countries to harvest coastal marine resources in an unsustainable manner. Despite the rules (by the local administrative authority) and nominal penalties, illegal logging continues to thrive in the island ecosystems in Tanintharyi and estuary mangroves in Rakhine. In the case of Ayeyarwaddy mangroves, these natural barriers have been denuded and facing natural catastrophe. Therefore, there is an urgent need to change the resource management strategy as well as environmental protection law in order to achieve sustainable resource utilization and management in the coastal areas of Myanmar. About 85 species of native trees in Myanmar are recognized as being able to produce good quality timber. Development of the wood-based industry is a crucial aspect of the forestry sector, and besides, timber forests in Myanmar contain a wide range of NWFPs. Major forest products include teak and hardwoods such as Pyinkatoe, Paduak, Ingyin and many others. Also, minor products such as bamboo, rattan, charcoal, beeswax and bird nests. 36
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management The investment opportunity for the production of teak and hardwood furniture is the most prosperous area, especially with the input of good design and modern equipment, processes and packaging. Recently, raw wood has been banned from export; only value-added products can be exported. The government has provided opportunities for investors to grow plantations of wood trees and also in the value-added wood industry. 5.10. Fishing and aquaculture industry Myanmar has a long coastline of 2 832 kilometers, and the total area of swamps along the coast is about 0.5 million hectares, which provides a very good basis for the development of shrimps and prawn culture. Aquaculture expansion has led to the destruction of mangroves in Myanmar and irreversible damage to both estuarine and offshore fisheries by introducing biological, chemical, and organic pollutants (such as antibiotics and pesticides) and by modifying habitats especially in Rakhine and the Ayeyarwaddy Delta. According to recent surveys and research, the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is estimated at about 1.05 million tonnes per year. Environmental challenges in Myanmar include: High demand for fish and fisheries products will significantly increase pressure on living aquatic resources by investors, national and international, over the next years; According to stakeholders and recent stock assessments, the abundance and diversity of marine resources is already in decline; Offshore vessels (local and foreign), including bottom trawlers operating in inshore waters, will exacerbate negative impacts on the marine environment; Without adequate regulations and enforcement, the risk to critical habitats such as mangroves, mudflats, coral reefs and sea-grass beds will become greater than the current threat; Without effective management of coastal and marine resources and ecosystems, fisheries will become unsustainable; and Continued unsustainable use of resources could lead to the collapse of fisheries, damaging Myanmar’s economy and creating abject poverty on a dramatic scale. Political factors, issues and challenges of Myanmar fisheries are growth- and production- oriented. Focused on generating public revenue, i.e. licence fees and export duties, there is weak collaboration and coordination between different public stakeholders/policy-makers at central and state/division levels. Overall, sector policies target short-term economic gains at all levels rather than responsible and sustainable resource utilization and long-term management. Organization of the fishing sector indicates social cohesion, in particular in less-stratified villages; no visible or reported tensions between resident and immigrant fishers, many different ethnicities; emerging fisher organizations, e.g. gear groups, with group leaders who were elected democratically and legitimately and with representative leadership. But there are examples of organizations with non-transparent mandates and questionable inclusiveness.
37
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Offshore fishers in Myanmar include long liners that target pelagic fish all along the coast. Squid fishers are common along the Tanintharyi coast. Large commercial boats with crews of several men head out on multiday trips and use lights to lure squid. Bottom trawlers’ primary targets are prawns or finfish. Anchovy and sardine fishers using purse seine nets are common off areas of the Rakhine coast. The DoF estimated the number of offshore vessels in Myanmar at 2 205 in 2010 (Department of Fisheries 2010). Overfishing, including by foreign vessels, is contributing to the declining livelihoods of fishing villages. Myanmar’s fisheries law explicitly allows for the use of their marine resources by neighbouring countries. According to official data, from 2004 to 2011, 250 to 300 foreign boats per year fished in Myanmar bringing in an estimated US$12 million per year in taxes. Fishing rights for foreign boats are due to expire on 31 March 2014 and recently there have been suggestions in parliament to end these rights, allowing for more fishing opportunities and local employment in Myanmar (Anonymous 2013). As of 2010, an estimated 18 percent of the offshore fishing boats were foreign (Department of Fisheries 2010). Serious concerns exist regarding the sustainability of Myanma fisheries. Some fish stocks have been seriously overfished including cod and whiting from the Myanma seas. Some coastal communities have diversified by developing aquaculture industries (particularly inside the mangroves and converting the reserved forests to aquaculture ponds and soft shell crab farms by private entrepreneurs). Developments in aquaculture needs to be balanced with requirements for protecting coastal habitats. Loss of seascape due to the siting of aquaculture installations can cause potential conflict with the tourism industry. Economic factors affecting the fishery sector are directly related to sector policies. Sector policies favour larger scale offshore operations catering for affluent markets, domestic and/or export, largely excluding low-income consumers; however, the small-scale, artisanal subsector provides most livelihoods and income and employment, and is the major contributor of domestic food supplies, food security and nutrition, as well as being a major engine of local economies and growth. Social factors include social structure within fishing communities, social infrastructure and living conditions. Villages and communities visited varied in social structure, from highly stratified to significantly more homogeneous. In Mon State many villages are difficult to access, with negative implications regarding social infrastructure and living conditions. In Tandwe District, Rakhine State, villages were accessible but many were locked in spatial conflict with tourism. Technological factors regarding fish capture concern gear used in offshore and artisanal fishing; in the absence of enforcement of minimal mesh sizes, regulations all are unselective, with the exception of long lines. Illegal fishing methods reported were use of poison and explosives and ‘baby bottom trawls’. The main reason for declining resources appears to be overcapacity of the sum of all fleet segments (including illegal, unreported and unregulated [IUU] fishing). Processing technology at the artisanal level, i.e. salting and drying, is economically and technologically efficient (no discards, all catches are utilized including by-catch from offshore vessels, with low quality landings being preprocessed for animal feed); appropriate (no major capital outlays, energy and advanced technical expertise is required); and immensely valuable and irreplaceable in terms of income and employment creation and livelihoods for poor coastal dwellers of all ethnicities.
38
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Some management attempts target prohibition of dangerous fishing nets, temporary suspension of activity in spawning seasons and for target species, co-management plans and allotting marine corridors for protection. Suspension periods are listed below: Spawning season: June-August (started in 1993); Lobster and commercial fish spawning season: June-August (started in 2008); Grouper (2/2006): July-September in all fishing grounds; Sea bass (2/2006): January-March in all fishing grounds; Hard clam (9/2008): 20 acres in Myeik, Palaw, Kyae Chaung and Ta Bo Chaung point; Set bag net (Bom Kyaung Pike)-(1/2009): January-March; and Shark (2/2004): April-May in Myeik Archipelago. 5.11. Community co-management A major shift toward community management of forest resources occurred in the mid-1990s with the issuance of the CFI by the FD in response to widespread forest degradation and increased demand for forest products and services. The document guides participatory resource management and impacts management activities in mangrove and other forest systems. The term ‘fisheries co-management’ implies that communities and the state work together compared to other commonly used terms such as ‘community fisheries management’, which implies that communities are solely responsible for the management of their fisheries, within the boundaries of the law. 5.12. High priority marine corridors In January 2012, over 80 of the country’s environmental experts from civil society and government assembled to discuss the current state of Myanmar’s biodiversity and used international criteria to identify and prioritize 132 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs). These sites are defined as areas holding significant populations of species of high conservation concern. Because connectivity is required to ensure that the full range of environmental services continues to function, these KBAs were grouped together within ‘conservation corridors’. Fifteen conservation corridors were revised and updated taking into account connectivity among KBAs, safeguarding against the impacts of climate change and maintaining ecological processes, among other factors. These corridors allow for conservation planning that considers connectivity and resource impacts beyond the borders of nationally designated protected areas. Two marine conservation corridors were highlighted: The Tanintharyi Marine Corridor and the Rakhine Marine Corridor (Wildlife Conservation Society 2013). 5.13. Water quality There is a general lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation is a crucial issue in Myanmar as infrastructure is already extremely limited. Access to safe drinking water varies significantly among different states and regions in Myanmar. A UNICEF (2012) study indicated that just 68 percent of households had access to improved water sources, but only 17 percent of households had a safe way of extracting water from sources, thereby increasing the risk of contamination. Direct discharges into coastal waters include urban wastewater, domestic sewage and industrial (trade effluent) inputs. Non-source discharges such as agricultural runoff are also 39
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management known to have a detrimental effect on water quality. River and lake pollution from sewage, industrial waste and solid waste disposal in particular are serious problems in Myanmar, but the only control of water pollution in the country is through guidelines issued in June 1994 by the Myanmar Investment Commission (MIC), which require that new investment projects have wastewater treatment systems (Kyaw Thi Soe and Mon Mon Yin 2009). 5.14. Natural hazards Myanmar is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels as a result of its highly populated, low-lying coastline. An increase in sea level will provide a higher base for storm surges and other extreme climate events. Therefore, sea-level rise and associated impacts will threaten coastal ecosystems, agricultural land and infrastructure (roads, property, and businesses). Certain low-lying coastal zones will be at risk of complete inundation resulting in a loss of agricultural and residential land. The slope of the land will largely determine the extent of inundation. For example, the low-lying Ayeyarwaddy Delta is particularly at risk, as even a small rise in sea level will lead to a large portion of the Delta being inundated. Rising sea levels will also threaten water tables as saline water enters into groundwater supplies. According to the UN Risk Model, Myanmar ranks as the ‘most at risk’ country for natural disasters. Coastal regions, particularly Rakhine State and the Ayeyarwaddy Delta Region, are at high risk from cyclones, storm surges and tsunamis. Much of the country is also exposed to flooding and landslides during the rainy season in addition to drought and fire during the dry season. As Myanmar falls on one of the two main earthquake belts in the world, much of the country is prone to earthquake. Though fires make up 73 percent of reported disaster events, storms and cyclones have caused the greatest damage and loss of life. Poverty is both the cause and result of natural disasters. Villagers engage in deforestation, overcultivation and poor resource management, leading to flood, drought or landslides. On the other hand, natural disasters continually destroy people’s livelihoods, push them into poverty and prevent them from rising above the poverty line (Oxfam 2014). Weak infrastructure and poor housing conditions contribute to Myanmar’s susceptibility. High casualties and economic loss are often related to the collapse of non-engineered structures. Cyclones: Cyclones have historically caused the most destruction by natural disasters in Myanmar. Thirty-six cyclones have made landfall on the Myanmar coast since 1947. Strong winds and storm surges (flooding) associated with the cyclones have caused the most damage. Of the cyclones that caused the greatest disaster, 11 of them made landfall in Rakhine State and two in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta region. The most devastating cyclone by far was Cyclone Nargis of 2008. Cyclone risk is highest during the month of May, though, during the last 100 years, cyclones also have occurred during April, October, November and December. Floods: Flooding has always been one of the major hazards in Myanmar and floods account for 11 percent of all disasters, second only to fire. Myanmar has an intricate system of rivers contributing greatly to local economies and transportation of goods. Many cities and towns are located alongside these rivers, particularly the largest: the Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin, Sittaung and Thanlwin. The Ayeyarwaddy River Basin alone, the largest in the country, covering 404 200 km2, exposes over 2 million people to flood hazards. Between 1910 and 2000, there were 12 major floods. There is risk of flooding during the monsoon season, which runs from mid- May to October every year. Peak flood periods occur during June, August and late September to October.
40
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Floods that occur in Myanmar are classified into four categories. For mitigation of damage caused by floods, flood forecasting and warning systems are recommended as the responsibility of the central government. In addition, public awareness campaigns and community disaster preparedness training in flood-prone areas can help communities strengthen their resilience to floods. The impacts of climate change and global warming can reduce the water level in the Central Dry Zone (CDZ), while the water level in the Delta Region may rise due to the change of sea level. Climate change-related flood issues need to be addressed at the national level. Further research into climate change influences on flooding in Myanmar also need to be conducted. Drought: Drought-related hazards are a risk in Magwe, Mandalay and Sagaing regions. The CDZ includes 53 townships and covers about 10 percent of the country. Farmers in this zone are mainly commercial, cultivating a variety of crops in a double cropping and rotational system. Natural resources in this area have been depleted due to soil erosion and deforestation. Agricultural production is unstable as a result. The natural resources of the CDZ are being depleted more rapidly than they can be renewed. Flash floods occur in mountainous regions in the upper reaches of river systems. These occur in Karen, Kachin, Shan, Mon and Chin states; Riverine floods occur along major rivers. These are seen in northern and central areas as well as southern river delta areas; Flooding from storm surges during cyclones occurs in Rakhine State and the Delta Region; and Localized floods occur in urban areas due to heavy rainfall and poor infrastructure. Localized floods also occur in rural areas due to breakage or failure of dams, dykes and levees. 5.15. Offshore resources The coastal areas, where offshore oil and gas production already comes on shore in Rakhine and Ayeyarwaddy, are exposed to long-term climatic impacts such as sea-level rise as well as an increase in cyclones and storm surge/flooding. The country more generally is exposed to both geological and meteorological hazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, cyclones and tsunamis) as a result of the country’s southwest location within the Bay of Bengal and low- lying coastal zone. If not carefully managed, exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves can have negative impacts on the coastal regions where the reserves are brought ashore, through loss of landscape and seascape because of terminal developments, to potential for pollution as a result of accidental spills. Demands for sand and gravel for the construction industry have extended to offshore resources. The location of wind farm sites is being considered, particularly off the Tanintharyi coast. The potential impacts of such offshore developments may include impacts on spawning grounds, migratory routes, migratory birds and cetaceans. The coastal zone is one of the Myanmar’s greatest assets; its unique coastal values and resources are vital to the way of life. Within these areas, there is an interacting mix of terrestrial, estuarine and marine ecosystems that support a wealth of biodiversity. Coastal biodiversity supports the resource base for a broad range of commercial and non-commercial activities. Coastal activities dependent on healthy coastal environments include subsistence fishing and seafood gathering; tourism and recreation; urban development; shipping and
41
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management transportation; coastal agriculture; and trade. Equally the coastal zone has important social, cultural and indigenous values, including coastal landscapes, amenities and access. There are various substantial environmental pressures and symptoms of environmental decline affecting coastal resources due to development and conservation challenges in coastal areas. This includes ecosystem degradation (particularly for wetlands and inshore reefs), land degradation, such as soil and coastal erosion, and declines in marine and freshwater quality from pollution, sedimentation and saltwater intrusion. Inadequate local capacity to effectively manage coastal resources leaves the coastal regions of Myanmar vulnerable to the risk of loss of ecosystem services and the impacts of climate change, extreme events and sea-level rise. These risks are amplified a hundredfold for small islands like the archipelago islands in Tanintharyi. 5.16. Coastal issues Population growth, urbanization, industrialization and growing pollution are putting increasing pressure on Tanintharyi coastal zone. In addition, the state receives an average of 16 cyclonic storms every year – some of them quite severe. However, deforestation, large-scale mining, habitat and land degradation and diminishing water resources are all placing pressure on the environment. The expansion of agriculture and industry, pollution, population growth, along with uncontrolled use and extraction of resources, are causing severe environmental and ecosystem degradation. Rubber plantations have almost doubled from 1990 to 2010 and together with large-scale palm oil plantations are among the biggest threats to biodiversity. These environmental pressures in turn, increase the vulnerability of several socio-economic sectors including agriculture, transport and energy. Although accurate updated estimates are difficult to obtain, illegal wildlife trade in Myanmar is considered to be widespread. Together with illegal hunting, it is causing a general decrease of wildlife population. Many Myanmar citizens, and local and international CSOs, fear Myanmar’s rich biodiversity and natural habitats will be depleted and damaged by greater investment in the extraction of such resources. Furthermore, tsunamis in the Bay of Bengal are also of concern. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami greatly impacted the Delta Region of Myanmar. This highlights the importance of having an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan in place. 1. As part of the ICZM plan, Myanmar should: Conduct land-use, capability and vulnerability mapping developed through a Special Area Management Plan (SAMP) and an intersector impact assessment; and Prepare land-use, capability and vulnerability maps with high-resolution scale with land boundaries visible for the entire coastal stretch. All the maps should run from the coast to 2.5 or 5 kilometres inland, pinpoint village boundaries and include full administrative units. These maps will benefit various governmental departments and other stakeholders and help in future planning.
6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS
Women usually have different access to and control over land and water in coastal zones. Coastal rural women depend heavily on fish and fishing. They tend to fish close to the shore and use the catch to feed their families, whereas men typically engage in large-scale commercial fishing offshore or in major inland waterbodies. Operating on a smaller scale, coastal rural women earn only 40-50 percent of what men earn for fishing in Myanmar. 42
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Being less visible in their work, women are also less likely to have access to decision- makers or to be consulted about the management of natural resources. Gender issues are not evident, except that girls leave school as soon as they have learned how to read and write while boys mostly complete primary school; and In general, women are integrated in the production structures, in particular in processing and marketing, where they often take a prominent role. These findings are indicative as best and need more in-depth analysis/participatory appraisal.
7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT
The following high priority areas are recommended for intervention and investment: Mapping the existing land-use patterns and expected changes in coming years and evolve a land-use policy for the better management of natural resources; Establishment of an Integrated Coastal Management Authority; Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR) technique and other coastal ecosystems with stakeholder participation; Small-scale entrepreneur development support based on minor and major coastal forest produce, including that from fisheries; Expanding integrated farming of livestock, fisheries and forestry and development of livestock-allied industries; Developing large tracts of grasslands, fodder and woodfuel tree farms using native grasses and trees; Initiating systems for harvesting rainwater for potable and farming water demands and restoring waterbodies and catchments; Identification and implementation of alternative fuel and energy options to reduce dependency and pressure on the coastal forest; Skills’ assessment and capacity-building programmes in all sectors such as agriculture, fishery, forestry, livestock; rural employment options for all levels of stakeholders; Natural resource mapping, awareness and conservation initiatives through community participation; and Economic valuation of coastal and marine ecosystems.
8. RELATION TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS
8.1. Improving management of rural and coastal areas Land use in rural areas: The rural landscape is an invaluable resource for Myanmar, providing nature and biodiversity, in addition to economic activities such as agriculture, forestry, rural housing, recreation, tourism, mineral extraction, energy production (particularly wind farms), fishing and aquaculture. The interplay of these activities is important and it should be ensured that: Change in the landscape is managed, without detriment to its overall quality and character; 43
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Key resources are protected and maintained for future generations; The potential negative impacts of one activity over another are carefully considered at planning application stages; Efforts are directed towards landscaping with appropriate species and the retention of existing trees and hedgerows; also to screen and integrate new development in rural areas. A portion of the development costs may be allocated for complementary tree planting; and Existing landscape features such as local stone walls, stiles, hedgerows, field patterns, archaeological features, traditional building groups, native woodlands and copses are retained. 8.2. Rural development and enterprise In order to strengthen the provision of services, regenerate rural communities and promote the economic development of rural areas, there is a need to support rural and agricultural diversification through a variety of initiatives. These include rural and agritourism initiatives; promoting rural transport; developing telecommunications in rural areas; and promoting the development of small incubator units as an adjunct to other rural activities, such as agriculture, horticulture, forestry, mariculture and alternative energy production. Projects assisted by these bodies may include farmers’ markets, tourist attractions and rural incubator units promoting crafts, the arts, pottery, antiques, indigenous manufacturing and engineering, in addition to agribusinesses. The government has to work with the supporting bodies, and others, to promote rural development and enterprise. Support the active involvement of rural communities in the provision of local services and the development of resources – e.g. integrated organic farming, equestrian activities, wildlife and bird watching; Promote the continuance of the Rural Transport Initiative as an essential service to people in rural areas; Facilitate the development of e-commerce, IT and broadband telecommunications, as enablers of rural enterprise, which can counteract the effects of distance and remoteness; and Promote the development of appropriately-scaled second-home and holiday home development as a contributor to a more diversified rural economy. 8.3. Other rural renaissance initiatives These should offer funding for projects that make the most of opportunities for community and economic development arising from peace, and includes initiatives such as economic renewal, cross-border cooperation and locally-based regeneration and development strategies. Activities found in rural areas can be divided into three broad categories: On the farm: rice and other crops, fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, flowers, animal rearing (chicken, pigs, sheep), sericulture, apiculture, breeding turtles, frogs, aquaculture and others; Handicrafts: basket weaving, silk and cotton weaving, carpet weaving, pottery, painting, metal work and others; Other services include motorcycle repair, radio/television/mobile phone repair, barber shops, beauty salons, traditional massage parlours, food processing and sales of various products.
44
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Rural reform will consist mainly of increasing access to high-quality seeds, expanding credit through a new private agriculture bank and diversifying crops in villages. Farmers should be encouraged to cultivate a second crop, such as mangos, bananas, or any suitable crop to create another source of income. Factories should be built in rural areas to produce juice and other ‘value-added’ products from second crop produce Apart from agriculture there is a possibility to develop an industrial sector; there is also some fear that this may encourage big companies to drive small farmers off their land. Two new bills, namely the Farmland Law and the Vacant, Fallow and Virgin Lands Management Bill are already facing criticism from farm activists for creating more opportunities for the state to take over land in Myanmar. 8.4. Forestry Myanmar is rich in natural forests and approximately half (49 percent or ~317 730 km2) of the total land area is forested. Forest type and distribution is mostly dependent upon the landscape of the country (World Bank 2014). The delta and coastal regions comprise mangrove and estuarine forests; The arid and semi-arid regions comprise deciduous and dipterocarp forests; The low rainfall areas (particularly the CDZ and surrounding areas) comprise dry thorn and scrubland forests; The high rainfall regions comprise evergreen forests; and The subtropical high altitudinal areas comprise hill evergreen and subalpine forests. Already in the period 1990-2010 Myanmar had lost around 7 445 000 ha (19.0 percent of its forest cover). Myanmar still remains one of the 10 countries in the world with the largest annual net loss of forest area and among the five countries (Indonesia, Australia, Myanmar, Madagascar and Mozambique) with the largest net loss of mangrove area during the period 2000-2010. Similarly, soil erosion is a serious concern in the upland areas on about 10 percent of the country’s cultivated areas, with the government’s land rehabilitation schemes not keeping pace with new cultivation by upland farmers, sustained by high rates of population growth. There are currently 43 officially-recognized protected areas but so far information on their status has been poor, scattered and not updated; these currently cover 7.3 percent of the country (Myanmar Forest Information and Data 2014). The process of establishing community forests over the past decade has been slower than anticipated, with annual rate of establishment at only about 8 000 acres, despite a national target of 1.5 million acres by 2030. By 2010, just over 100 000 acres of community forests had been legally established (recognized and recorded by the central Forestry Department) in the whole country, over half of which is just in southern Shan State (192 community forests established by 2010). However, an evaluation and monitoring system is critical to sustain the objective. There is a need to support and promote forestry development in Myanmar, subject to the protection of, inter alia, scenic landscapes and views, water quality, heritage features, residential amenities and public safety.
45
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 8.5. Aquaculture Aquaculture relates to the commercial production of fish and shellfish species. The term is generally used to describe fish farming operations both on inland and coastal (marine) waters. Environmental concerns associated with aquaculture include: Protection of the aquatic environment; The need to guard against escapees; The avoidance of any genetic threats, potential disease and parasitic implications to local fish stocks (there is a need to source seed from certified disease-free stock); and Potential conflicts in relation to water supply, which can become critical during low-flow summer periods. Major aquaculture projects must be discouraged, unless the government is satisfied that such proposals will be environmentally sustainable and have a limited impact on the visual amenity of the area. Hatcheries and breeding techniques are also a major field of importance in Myanmar. Net cage culture is operated in the Myeik Archipelago and Gwa Township on the Rakhine coast. As of 2010 there were six marine net cage finfish culture farms on the Tanintharyi coast (Department of Fisheries 2010). Primary species for commercial culture are the duskytail grouper (Epinephelus bleekeri), the orange-spotted grouper, (E. coioides), the Malabar grouper (E. malabaricus) and the greasy grouper (E. tauvina) (FAO 2003) but other species of groupers and snappers may be opportunistically reared as well. Seabass (Lates calcarifer) is similarly farmed in some areas of the Ayeyarwaddy Delta. Grouper is one of the three main aquaculture exports of Myanmar (after shrimp and on par with crab). They are exported either live from Myeik for the live reef fish trade to Hong Kong S.A.R. or chilled. Juveniles are wild-caught by fishers, often around the full moon using feathered hooks or traps, while fry are lured and collected using rock mounds, brush piles, brush lures and fish traps. The fish are grown in floating net cages and ponds. Myanmar scientists have conducted seaweed culture experiments since the 1960s and the first factory to produce carrageenan and agar from Hypnea and Gracilaria was established in 1979 in Thandwe District of Rakhine coast. Enteromorpha, Catenella and Sargassum have been grown to produce Japanese nori. Currently there is seaweed farming in the Myeik Archipelago. Until 1989 it was estimated that at least 1 500 tonnes of dried, raw seaweed were produced in Myanmar each year, however, this was just 300 tonnes in 2014 according to the Department of Fisheries. Commercial seaweed farming near the pristine islands that make up the Myeik or Mergui Archipelago in southern Myanmar began six years ago. The ROK-based MSC Company invested millions of dollars in this project by providing technical expertise and agricultural equipment to growers. The endangered green species of seaweed was widely cultivated in Myeik Archipelago during previous years but currently only brown species are cultivated. Seaweed cultivation in the Myeik Archipelago has declined since 2013 because of an unknown disease. Many seaweed growers are being forced to abandon the cultivation of the once lucrative Eucheuma or ‘Cottonii’ seaweed and are turning to other sources of income.
46
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management 8.6. Diversification of agricultural activity It is recognized that agricultural diversification helps achieve food security and improved human nutrition and increased rural employment; it can also impact favourably on soil fertility and pest incidence. Myanmar’s agroclimatic regional planning has documented the zones of maximal opportunity for diversified agriculture on smaller farms. Planning (at local and regional scales) to utilize those opportunities, and to provide the supportive agroprocessing and market and communications facilities, must involve farmers’ representatives and cooperatives, administrators, extensionists, researchers, input suppliers (public and private), and NGOs; it must address on-farm and non-farm features. Other data from agricultural censuses and various regional microscale studies similarly demonstrate that smaller (< 2.0-ha) farms practise diversified farming. On quite small holdings, often fragmented, farmers nationwide allocate their land to seasonal crops, fruits, and vegetables, dairy cattle, and perhaps poultry to maximize their household-labour utilization and income. In this context, there is a need to: Promote agriculture and agricultural diversification, while seeking to protect and maintain biodiversity, wildlife habitats, water quality and nature conservation; Provide infrastructure to serve the needs of agriculture, in cooperation with the appropriate agencies; Provide support mechanisms to reduce agricultural pollution and the eutrophication of rivers and lakes; Promote and support secondary and tertiary economic activities associated with the primary activities of agriculture, forestry, mineral extraction, fishing, aquaculture and mariculture; Promote farm diversification and possible spin-offs (e.g. biomass and energy production, poultry, mushroom growing, flower growing, equestrian facilities), in association with vigorous and adequate environmental controls upon their development; Support farm families seeking to establish alternative and/or complementary economic enterprises to supplement their income from farming, subject to appropriate scale and intensity of development, taking into consideration traffic, environmental, landscape and residential amenity considerations. Where the enterprise is not dependent on a rural location, and the scale and intensity grow beyond family income needs, it may be encouraged, where appropriate, to relocate to a nearby town or village; and Promote the development of niche activities, such as those relating to food (particularly value-added products), forestry (e.g. wood products), crafts, ecotourism and agrotourism – e.g. farmhouse accommodation, pet farms, farm holidays, health farms, equestrian activities, wildlife or bird-watching holidays, painting or photography tuition, angling tourism, field studies and hill-walking (with the cooperation of the landowners). 8.7. Coastal zone management Overview: Information on the current state of the environment onshore and offshore is sparse to non-existent. From sheltered bays, unspoiled beaches, small islands and wild surf, Myanmar possesses a varied and spectacular coastline.
47
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management The coastline, however, is a finite resource that provides environmental, economic, recreational and aesthetic benefits and access to marine resources such as fisheries and aquaculture. The primary attraction of the Myanmar coast is its relatively unspoiled nature. Increasingly, the coastal zone is coming under pressure from: Holiday makers and/or surfers looking for unspoiled coastlines; Tourism providers who may seek to exploit scenic views in the provision of accommodation or other facilities; Individual homeowners; Maricultural developments; and Wind farm, solar plant operators who wish to avail coastal locations with high wind speeds and solar energy. Pressure for development needs to be examined in the context of a coastal environment undergoing fairly rapid change, as the coastal zone is subject to constant pressures from various agents of erosion, potential pollutants and conflicting user groups. Coastal zone management should aim to achieve more efficient and sustainable use of the coastal resource. The impacts arising from climate change, including changing weather patterns and rising sea levels, will be most readily discernible at the coast. Flooding of low- lying coastal areas is likely to become more frequent as a result of increased intensity and frequency of oceanic storms. This may also cause or exacerbate coastal erosion, which can have a devastating effect on existing development and infrastructure. The government should draw up a policy document on Coastal Zone Management, which stipulates “policies of limitation and curtailment on tourism and leisure development and use are, therefore, necessary to deal with the increasing pressure”. 8.8. Fishing Overharvesting to meet global consumers' growing demand for seafood can deplete many species and alter the biological structure of coastal ecosystems. Many species are overharvested because the world fishing fleet is larger than it needs to be. Other problems include destructive harvesting methods such as trawling (dragging weighted nets across the sea floor to catch shrimp and bottom-dwelling fish), and by-catch (unintended catch of non- targeted species). Modern trawling equipment scoops through sediment and rock and often kills the worms, sponges and other species that live on the sea floor. The present small-scale fisheries support some sport fishing in Thandwe, which has potential for expansion as a tourist activity: One of the localized unisectoral development activities that contradict with Myanmar Agenda 21 in coastal areas is capture fishery. For example, in the past few years, the Divisional Economic Development Committee has increased issuance of fishing licences in order to achieve local economic development and to obtain more foreign exchange in Tanintharyi coastal region, while studies reveal that there is a clear decline in overall fishery resources in the area. Recent re-estimation of the MSY by the Department of Fisheries clearly indicated overfishing in Tanintharyi coastal areas and has recommended revoking demersal fishery awarded to foreign fishing fleets but to allow expansion of local fisheries that have small individual fishing capacity (DOLF 1999). However, in Rakhine coastal region, the DoF has recommended increasing capture fishery production by allowing over 80 percent more fishing vessels based only on MSY obtained through the official fish landing.
48
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management If capacities of illegal poaching by foreign fleets were considered, it would be evident that current production far exceeds the MSY. Although the volume of illegal poaching is hard to estimate, already there is a clear indication of decline in fishery resources, according to unpublished data on the seafood-processing industry. In hot pursuit of economic development, sustainable marine resources management becomes paralyzed in the absence of proper infrastructure, sufficient resources and an effective management control mechanism that is enhanced by multisectoral coordination. Moreover, fishing of live marine organisms by artisanal fishery poses a great threat to marine and coastal biodiversity as well as coral reefs, apart from industrialized commercial fishing. Mud crab fishery and live fish export of coral fish, grouper and black tiger shrimp breeders would be a prominent example of this issue. According to the Tropical Ecosystem Research Project survey reports of DANCED (1998-2000), between 80 and 100 tonnes of live mud crab of both small and large sizes are being exported every month as Tanintharyi mangroves serve as a major mud crab seed source for soft shell crab farming of a neighbouring country. Similarly, in Rakhine State, 3 948 tonnes of mud crabs were exported in the 1998-1999 fiscal year alone through border trade (Latt 1999). Moreover, an unconfirmed source reported approximately 50 percent of shrimp breeds used in hatcheries of Thailand come from Myanmar. All these activities, although being operated by mostly artisanal fishers, have been significantly affecting the stability of coastal marine ecosystems. Dynamiting coral fish, trampling and boat anchoring by such fishers have contributed greatly to damaged coral reefs, quite apart from upland deforestation, littering and domestic sewage. Although the extent of coral reef destruction in the whole Tanintharyi Division has not been estimated yet, it is evident that large areas of coral reefs within the Lampi Island Marine National Park boundary have been seriously damaged. Thus, The legal and regulatory framework for fisheries needs to be reviewed and revised for central and division/state levels, to facilitate compliance and allow for co-management and community management of coastal resources; A National Plan of Action to manage Myanmar’s fishing capacity needs to be developed and implemented; and A National Plan of Action to combat and eliminate IUU fishing (including monitoring, control and surveillance) needs to be developed and implemented. 8.9. Mariculture Marine fisheries and aquaculture (the controlled cultivation and harvesting of freshwater and marine organisms) produce fin fish, shellfish and edible plants every year, providing a livelihood for the coastal community and allied stakeholder community. There are considerable opportunities for further development in aquaculture, especially mariculture, in Myanmar. Joint efforts of the government and the private sector would realize huge aquaculture potential. To do so without adverse side-effects and impacts on the environment and social harmony, the government is taking measures to encourage, with appropriate incentives and assistance, investors, farmers and other stakeholders to practise responsible production practices. The most common species in that area is E. coioides, but commercial-scale culture is not yet practised. Regarding Lates calcarifer or Asian seabass farming, improved hatchery management techniques are needed for its development into commercial culture. Inadequate seed supply due to lack of skills in hatchery technology is now the major constraint for the development of marine finfish aquaculture. There is a need to:
49
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Encourage and facilitate mariculture development associated with job creation, in a manner that is compatible with other uses of the Myanmar coast Work with the mariculture industry to increase environmental sustainability. 8.10. Marine/coastal mineral extraction A potential threat to coral reef ecosystems in Tanintharyi coastal zone is impact from oil, gas and mineral exploration. The development of natural gas production and mineral deposits in watershed areas and offshore could have a significant impact in coming years. No effective measures and sustainable management of coastal marine resources by concerned agencies exist to date apart from a ban on non-sustainable fishing practices, such as use of explosives, by the Department of Fisheries. Aggregate extraction from the coastal zone, particularly from beaches, estuaries and cobble storm berms, has created many problems in the past, resulting in increased levels of erosion and flooding in coastal areas. Any proposals for future coastal/marine aggregate extraction along the Myanma coast shall only be considered following detailed EIA and consultation with the MOECAF, if appropriate. The processing and storage of extracted aggregates on lands within the coastal zone shall be carried out in a manner that minimizes the impact on natural and residential amenities. 8.11. Coastal protection Mangrove forests, which are natural barriers protecting the coastal inland and inhabitants, are also being cleared for timber and to make room for fish and shrimp ponds, human settlements, and agricultural and industrial development. Coastal protection works aim to reduce land loss and the frequency of flooding. Hard structural/engineering options use structures constructed on the beach (seawalls, groynes, breakwaters/artificial headlands) or further offshore (offshore breakwaters). These options influence coastal processes to stop or reduce the rate of coastal erosion. Recent coastal protection works carried out by the government are limited. In the past, engineering works tended to impose armoured defences along the shoreline, whereas in recent times, there has been a preference for a ‘softer’ approach, i.e. working with natural processes rather than opposing them, where possible. The following actions are to be taken for further strengthening of the coastal region: Carry out the outlined coastal zone management and protection works; Identify, prioritize and implement additional coastal protection works within the coastal zone that are considered necessary, subject to the availability of resources; Monitor existing dune management schemes on an ongoing basis and secure appropriate repairs, improvements and extensions, subject to the availability of resources; Examine existing laws and make appropriate amendments, in the interest of protecting sand dunes from encroachment and damage; Continue to employ soft engineering techniques (i.e. dune stabilization and planting) as an alternative to hard coastal defence works, where appropriate;
50
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Ensure that regard is paid to visual and environmental considerations in the design of coastal defence works; Ensure that any developments permitted within the coastal zone are appropriately sited, taking into consideration coastal flooding and the predicted rise in sea levels; Establish development limits and natural buffers at the coast, particularly in conjunction with the preparation of local area plans and other land-use plans; and Strictly control the nature and pattern of development on all promontories and headlands, and ensure that, if development is permitted, it is designed and landscaped to the highest standards. Landscaping will be of a type that is predominantly native to the area and seasalt spray resistant. 8.12. Nature conservation in coastal areas Despite the country’s long coastline there are only four marine protected areas and there is little capacity to conserve and manage marine resources. The government has expressed its commitment, through international conventions, to put 10 percent of its marine areas under protection by 2020; however, a range of factors including the lack of biological and socio- economic data and a lack of financial and technical resources severely constrain the ability of the government and other actors to meet this target. Support the management of sites of conservation importance, including proposed natural heritage areas, candidate special areas for conservation and special protection areas; Take into account the potential conservation of all sites of interest within the coastal zone when assessing development proposals; and Promote the natural interest of the Myanmar coast as a sustainable tourism, conservation and educational asset. 8.13. Recreation and tourism Myeik Archipelago is rich in biodiversity and natural forest. Myanmar has three coastal regions namely Rakhine State (western Myanmar), the Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Tanintharyi Division’s coastal zone. The Myeik Archipelago located in the Tanintharyi Division, the most southern division of Myanmar, consists of over 800 islands across Myanmar and Thai national boundaries. This area is bestowed with abundant natural marine resources. The main business of local people is fisheries and allied activities. The Myeik Archipelago is increasingly becoming a major tourist attraction, particularly for recreational dive operations. Tourism can offer some environmental benefits, such as greater appreciation of the value of natural resources. In the Myeik Archipelago, for instance, diving tourism can help raise awareness about the need for coral reef and biodiversity conservation. But tourism can also have harmful effects. It can lead to unsustainable coastal development as infrastructure is built on the shoreline to accommodate tourists. Coral reefs are major storehouses for biodiversity, providing habitats for several species of marine animals and plants despite covering only a tiny fraction of the ocean floor. They also provide food, building materials, shoreline protection and many indirect benefits for people living near them.
51
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management More reefs are being degraded and threatened by dynamite fishing, coral mining and other human activities, as well as by bleaching caused by rising ocean temperatures. The reefs are also threatened by inadequate treatment of sewage in the surrounding area; and The high nutrient content of wastewater and water contaminated with human or animal faeces discharged into the sea and other waters adjacent to the reefs should be also kept in check. The benefits of marine tourism can be generally defined as economic, ecological and cultural. Income from accommodation, restaurants and souvenir shops and transportation services is the most direct economic benefit. There is a need to: Ensure that future caravan, camping and parking facilities in coastal areas will not be visually intrusive or impact on sensitive coastal environments (e.g. sand dune systems), by stipulating, inter alia, appropriate siting, layout, design and natural screening; Manage and control car parking and vehicular and pedestrian movements on beaches and within dunes and other vulnerable areas; Develop green parking areas in appropriate coastal locations, i.e. soft areas that can be left in their natural state during out-of-season months and used to provide overflow facilities during peak periods; Exclude unauthorized land-based and marine-based motor sports activities from beaches; Seek continued compliance on water quality for all bathing beaches; Provide a number of designated facilities and access points for controlled water sports activities, in a manner that avoids conflict with nature conservation activities such as swimming, sailing, fishing and mariculture; Maintain and develop small piers and harbours along the islands, subject to funding; Ensure that golf course development does not damage or encroach upon vulnerable dune systems; Give priority to coastal areas within country-wide programmes to signpost and improve public rights of way; and Promote awareness of the sensitivity of the coastal environment, amongst visitors and residents alike, through the provision of educational/heritage appreciation programmes, public information boards and other appropriate means. 8.14. Wind and wave energy The Myanmar coast is endowed with strong winds and is therefore economically suitable for wind farm development. Most of the coastal zone is relatively flat, providing long open views. Development proposals should therefore avoid locations that are immediately adjacent to coastal settlements or significant tourist attractions. There is also potential for the development of offshore wind farms and energy generated from the movement of waves. Detailed visual, ecological, archaeological, heritage and social 52
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management impacts of such proposals should be assessed in determining their acceptability. There is a need to: Restrict the location of industrial development within the coastal zone to resource-based activities that have a clear and demonstrable need, i.e. those dependent on resources offered at the sea or coast (e.g. maritime industries, mariculture); All such proposals should be subject to the strict application of location, siting and design criteria; Control and minimize sources of water and land pollution; Maintain and update the Coastal Emergency Response Plan for Myanmar; Generally, restrict development in the coastal zone, specifically between coastal roads and the sea, except where it can be demonstrated that it does not detract from views or impact on environmentally sensitive areas. Exceptions will be considered for sustainable tourism development, public infrastructural works and development that is contiguous with existing towns and villages; Promote existing degraded coastal areas, i.e. those where quarrying or other deleterious activities have taken place, as significant development sites, subject to appropriate environmental mitigation measures and the strict application of location, siting and design criteria; and Consider the establishment of a local forum for each of the coastal villages; involving landowners, local communities and relevant interest groups, to explore and resolve coastal zone management issues that are specific to each area. 8.15. Legal mechanisms to achieve coastal region management Laws related to coastal and marine environments are described in different sectoral laws under two ministries: the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, and the Ministry of Forestry. For instance, the Marine Fisheries Law (1990), the Freshwater Fisheries Law (1991), the Fishing Rights of Foreign Fishing Vessels Law (1989) and the Aquaculture Law (1989) prohibit causing water pollution; harassing fish and other marine organism and using explosive substances, poisonous chemicals and dangerous material in fishing. In addition, the Territorial Sea and Maritime Zone Law (1977) provides measures for protection of the marine environment, prevention and control of marine pollution. It also endorses conducting scientific research and management of the marine environment. The Pesticide Law (1990) prohibits the use of pesticides to catch or kill land or aquatic animals. The Pearl Law of 1995 protects and conserves the water area of oyster fishing grounds from destruction and safeguards oysters from local extinction. The Forest Law of 1992 and the Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994) cover protection and management of mangrove forests in the coastal zones. In the fisheries sector, while some of the directives and regulations emphasize assurance of fishery revenue, others prevent overfishing by declaring closed seasons and territories, restriction of fishing gear etc. However, those laws and regulations are weak in conservation measures including protection of aquatic resource habitat. Apart from the laws mentioned above, there are also several directives from the ministry for protection of marine resources however, these are more on an ad hoc basis.
53
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Appropriate laws promulgated to protect various coastal resources are the Forest Law of 1992 and the Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994). These laws are considered quite comprehensive in protection and management of mangrove forests as well as wildlife in Myanmar. However, the Ministry of Forestry declared Lampi Islands as a Marine National Park under these laws although the island ecosystem has coral reef ecosystem domination. Logically, the park should be under the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries; the Ministry of Forestry has no administrative power to manage the park. In addition, there is no regulation or coordination mechanism to allow collaboration between the two ministries in this case and hence one needs to be created. Moreover, fishery laws, protection and management systems of other coastal marine ecosystems such as coral reefs, sea-grass beds and sand beaches are not prioritized. Therefore, there is an urgent need to introduce new fishery laws that would ensure the protection, management and sustainable utilization of coastal marine resources. Aquaculture can affect land, waterbodies, seed quality and availability but in general, the level of impact depends upon the type of aquaculture system and level of intensification. Therefore, regulating aquaculture is also important for coastal and marine environments. In this case, the Aquaculture Law of 1989 prohibits obstruction of waterways and prevents water pollution from aquaculture activities. The directives of the Directorate of Fisheries have more specific regulation on pollution control as aquaculture effluent can have negative impacts on the water environment. One of the regulations also prohibits clearance of mangroves for aquaculture. However, currently no specific regulation prohibits mass collection of natural fish seedlings. Wild shrimp seedlings (postlarvae of shrimp) that supply almost the entire traditional shrimp farms in Rakhine State are collected from estuary areas because shrimp hatcheries in Rakhine State have very low production capacity. The Directorate of Fisheries is trying to regulate the collection of wild seeds with limited success. Although no direct coastal resource management legislation could be found in the country’s corpus of environmental laws, a close examination of its natural resources and environment related legislations revealed that the legal backbone of wetlands management could be found in, among others, the Forest Law (Law No. 8/92, 1992), Myanmar Forest Policy 1994, Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (Law No. 6/1994), Aquaculture Law 1989, Marine Fisheries Law (Law No. 9, 1990), Freshwater Fisheries Law (Law No. 1/91 1991), Pesticide Law 1990, Agricultural Policy 1992 and Conservation of Water Resources and River Law 2006. Relevant to coastal resource management are Myanmar’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) and the National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS). In fact, they could serve well in formulating a national integrated coastal resources management plan. Myanmar is currently in the process of revising its policies and laws on environmental protection. The Environmental Conservation Law requires MOECAF to put in place a comprehensive waste and pollutant monitoring scheme. MOECAF has just adopted the Environmental Conservation Rules 2014 and is in the process of developing environmental quality, starting with effluent standards. The updated 2012 Environmental Conservation Law and 2014 Rules, empowers MOECAF to act as a ‘nodal point’ for business activities. It confers powers on MOECAF to regulate and to establish a ‘prior permission scheme’ for a range of business activities that “may cause impact on environmental quality”. Other government departments authorized to approve business activities may do so only after obtaining relevant permission from MOECAF. MIC Notification No. 1 sets out the list of economic activities that require an 54
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management environmental and social impact assessment, and approval by MOECAF, which include the exploration, drilling and production of oil and gas, although the EIA Procedures under the Environmental Conservation Law will refine them. In addition, there are basic provisions in this law, as there are in the Foreign Direct Investment Law that requires basic pollution control. The Environmental Conservation Law is based on the ‘polluter pays principle’, with compensation for environmental impacts to be paid to a fund to be set up by MOECAF. In addition, the law requires that any business that requires prior permission (which includes oil and gas operations), must have insurance cover for impacts on the environment. The law provides for criminal penalties (although it is unclear if these apply to business entities) and payment of compensation for damages (Myanmar Constitution and Foreign Investment Law). In addition to the framework Environmental Conservation Law, there are currently 44 existing laws with some form of obligations on operators with respect to pollution, disposal and other harmful impacts on the environment and local society. The 2006 Conservation of Water Resources and Rivers Law provides a general prohibition on polluting watercourses or rivers. The implementation of these laws needs to be factored into new and forthcoming rules to be developed under the 2012 Environmental Conservation Law. Special courts are separately constituted by the Supreme Court to achieve swift and effective trials and they have the power to establish environmental courts or tribunals if it they are required. However, even the township courts could play a very important role in implementing environmental-related laws by cooperating with various administrative institutions where administrative actions are recognized under some laws. Legal and regulatory issues: The present legal and regulatory framework is in need of review and revision to facilitate the: Effective capacity management of all fleet segments; Enforcement of regulations and to combat IUU fishing; Co-management; and Ecosystem and/or depth-specific zoning of territorial waters. At present, non-enforcement of existing legal and regulatory provisions makes most of the fishing in Myanmar marine waters IUU fishing by the FAO/UN definition.
9. CONCLUSION
This review of coastal sectors will provide a framework for implementing priority actions to strengthen capacity for the implementation of activities related to agriculture, fisheries, forestry, livestock, biodiversity, land degradation and cross-cutting areas while strengthening the coordination and collaboration of efforts for environmental management and diversification of livelihood options will ultimately provide sustainable food security and poverty alleviation Development of national land-use planning that considers multisectoral aspects and a sustainable development vision in its concept needs to start with a land-use policy. At the same time, a more appropriate and workable institutional mechanism that describes detailed responsibilities for various sectors should be created. In addition, development of an ICZM body and rapid implementation in cooperation with related sectors of local and international agencies should also be done.
55
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management In the case of Myanmar, development of human resources appears to be one of the most important factors in management strategy. Such resources for protection and management of coastal marine ecosystems could be acquired by collaborating with NGOs and institutions of both local and international entities. Using skilled human resources, a wide range of environmental education activities can be promoted while sustainable development extension services can be provided in collaboration with all stakeholders. After promotion of environmental awareness, further steps such as sustainable utilization, protection and management can properly be taken. Moreover, as most coastal and marine boundaries are inseparable, transboundary collaborative efforts in research, development and enforcement activities are necessary at both local and national levels. Concerned governments should allow simpler and easier activities at local/microlevels of transboundary nature so that the most urgent issues can be properly addressed and tackled by the stakeholders; appropriate guidelines and mechanism are warranted. In pursuing such constructive efforts to protect coastal and marine ecosystems in Myanmar, political differences amongst all stakeholders should be dropped with a broader vision in place.
56
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management
ANNEX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2012. Asian Development Bank and Myanmar fact sheet, 30 April 2012. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
Christian. 1942. Changing faces of the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) Delta (1850-2000).
Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries (DOLF). 1999. Quarterly report. Yangon, Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries.
Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Guidelines for preparing economic analyses. Washington DC, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator.
Furnivall, J.S. 1957. An introduction to the political economy of Burma. Third Edition. Rangoon, Burmese Advertising Press.
Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., Masek, J. & Duke, N. 2011. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Global Ecol. Biogeogr., 20(1): 154-159.
Kyaw Thi Soe & Mon Mon Yin. 2009. Environmental management in Myanmar. Yangon University of Distance Education Research Journal, 1(1): 264.
Latt, W. 1999. The assessment of CDRT aquaculture projects, aquatic resources profile and aquaculture potential. NACA Consultant Report of Environment Subproject (ESP), Community Development for Remote Township (CDRT). Bangkok, Thailand, MYA UNDP, Yangon, Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Mya Than. 1984. Burma’s agriculture since 1962 – from stagnancy to breakthrough. In Ngo Manh-Lan, ed. Unreal growth: critical studies in Asian development. Delhi, Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India).
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). 2012. Myanmar’s National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to climate change. National Coordinating Body: National Environmental Conservation Committee, Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry; Executing Agency: Department of Meteorology and Hydrology, Ministry of Transport; Implementing Agency: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA). 1999. State of the environment in Myanmar. Draft report prepared for ESCAP. National Commission for Environmental Affairs.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2003. Coastal zone management: integrated policies (Paris: OECD, 1993); and Integrated coastal management, "what is the 'coast'?". Available at http://icm.noaa.gov/story/icm_coast.html. Accessed on 12 August 2003.
57
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2001. World resources 2000-2001 — people and ecosystems: the fraying web of life. Washington, DC, World Resources Institute.
Voigt, B. 1998. Glossary of coastal terminology. Available at www.csc.noaa.gov/text/glossary.html. Accessed on 15 August 2003.
Web sites http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar http://www.unicef.org/eapro/Myanmar_Situation_Analysis.pdf http/data.worldbank.org/country/Myanmar
58
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management ANNEX 2: OVERVIEW OF STATES/DIVISIONS AND TOWNSHIPS IN MYANMAR
59
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management ANNEX 3: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS
Intervention 1. Land-use policy Areas of Intervention Mapping the existing land use pattern and expected changes in and Investment coming years and evolve with a Land-use Policy for the better management of natural resources Justification Land-use planning is the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land-use options. The purpose is to select and put into practice those land uses that will best meet the needs of the people while safeguarding resources for the future. The driving force in planning is the need for change, the need for improved management or the need for a quite different pattern of land use dictated by changing circumstances. All kinds of rural land use are involved: agriculture, pastoralism, forestry, wildlife conservation and tourism. Planning also provides guidance in cases of conflict between rural land use and urban or industrial expansion, by indicating which areas of land are most valuable under rural use. Land-use planning does not exist in isolation. It is necessary to view land-use planning as an integral part of the process of national growth and development. Among other things, this process seeks to identify, articulate and satisfy the basic social/human needs of a country’s population within the context of available economic/financial resources and technical knowledge. The developmental needs such as need housing; jobs; education; opportunities for recreation; transport; and basic services like water, electricity, clean air and health care. Social planning and policies attempt to take care of the basic social needs of the country’s population. Economic planning and policies seek to ensure that the country has a sound economic base which provides revenue to finance government operations and pay for provision of services to the public while also ensuring that jobs are available to the country’s labour force. Land-use planning seeks to accommodate these needs within a technical and spatial framework. Similarly, economic decisions to focus on tourism, manufacturing industry or agricultural development, as the basis of the country’s economic development must be translated into land-use terms. Understanding the land use patterns and expected changes in future is significant in developing a Land use policy for the rational management of the coastal regions. Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions
60
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Scope In Myanmar, one of the major factors for forest degradation and habitat and biodiversity loss is a lack of land-use policies and planning. Moreover, unplanned expansion of commercial plantations, such as oil palm and cassava, is leading to large- scale conversion of forest areas. Under the guidance of the Union President, a Land Scrutinizing Committee was formed in 2013 to steer the development of a comprehensive Land Use Policy and Land 16 Use Management Plan. The Union Minister of the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry (MOECAF) chairs the committee. At the national level, planning is concerned with national goals and the allocation of resources. A national land-use plan may cover: land-use policy: balancing the competing demands for land among different sectors of the economy food production, export crops, tourism, wildlife conservation, housing and public amenities, roads, industry; national development plans and budget: project identification and the allocation of resources for development; coordination of sectoral agencies involved in land use; legislation on such subjects as land tenure, forest clearance and water rights. Activities Categorize the activities existing and also propose potential areas for future usage: Shoreline Access Recreation and Visitor-Serving Facilities Housing Water and Marine Resources Diking, Dredging, Filling and Shoreline Structures Commercial Fishing and Recreational Boating Environmentally Sensitive Habitat Areas Agriculture Hazards Forestry and Soils Resources Locating and Planning New Development Coastal Visual Resources and Special Communities Public Works Industrial and Energy Development Undertake an assessment of available data to determine data gaps and information needs for natural resources, ecosystems and sustainable land management Develop and implement monitoring and data collection programmes for natural resources, ecosystems and land information Include identification of appropriate personnel and training as part of a programmatic approach to database and inventories
61
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management development, data collation and analysis, mobilizing information and dissemination Need to develop cooperation in sharing database development expertise between government agencies Investigate the potential for individuals in key ministries to collaborate and develop their skills in databases development and support this collaboration. Designate an agency to facilitate and manage a central land and resource information system that is accessible by all stakeholders Formal and informal training and skills development of national and community level personnel for resource use planning methods, techniques, approaches and systems; GIS development; resource inventory methods; multi-criteria and objective based planning; ecosystem approaches to land use planning; land capability/suitability methods; and, integrated catchment and coastal zone approaches. Identify data needs and benefits or desirable outputs for individual Ministries from a GIS, develop a targeted programme for practical utilization of GIS data. Develop training programmes for practical training of relevant agencies and organizations in data collection, data basing, analysis, mapping, maintenance and practical utilization of Geographic Information Systems Develop a land use policy and integrate into the National Policy and make provisions for enforcement Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD
62
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 2: Integrated coastal management authority Areas of Intervention Establishment of an Integrated Coastal Management Authority and Investment Justification As populations in coastal areas increase and the economic activity diversifies, all the impacts on coastal environment are bound to worsen threatening survival of several species, productivity of the biota, and render fishing an unsustainable proposition. It is, therefore, clear that unless governments and resource users take appropriate action, the degradation of the coastal and marine environment will become uncontrollable and there will be no possibilities for sustainable use of resources from these waters. A separate authentic body “Integrated Coastal Management Authority” to regulate the resources would be appropriate with defined set of regulations. Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions Scope Existing legislation and policy frameworks for management of coastal resources are fragmented, ineffectively implemented and only provides limited mandate to regulate or control activities that may impact upon the coastal zone Poor implementation and enforcement of management regimes within the coastal zone Lack of clarity of existing mandates and delineation of responsibility between agencies and ministries related to coastal zone management No plan of action to bring together all the parts of government for integrated coastal management together and to work in a cohesive fashion The authority can declare coastal stretches as Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) and regulate certain activities within the zone. The provisions of the act are to be implemented by the coastal states and Islands. It also envisages the creation of an appropriate authority at the state level to be responsible for enforcement and enactment of these provisions. Activities Establish an independent coastal management authority with the implementation objectives of developing directives and decide the management strategies for: Protecting natural resources, Managing development in high hazard areas, Giving development priority to coastal-dependent uses, Providing public access for recreation, Prioritizing water-dependent uses, and Coordinating state and federal actions. Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD 63
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 3. Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR) technique Areas of Intervention Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological and Investment Mangrove Restoration (EMR) technique and other coastal ecosystems with stakeholders’ participation Justification The mangrove deforestation rate is now the highest of all forest types for which data is available; over the past 30 years the country lost around 58% of its mangrove forests.
Over the past two decades, the natural resources in Wunbaik Reserved Forest have been severely degraded, due to unsustainable levels of wood collection and land conversion. In 2011, 25 per cent of the reserve had been encroached for paddy and shrimp cultivation while degraded forests covered 17 per cent. And encroached and degraded area was achieved through a combination of high-resolution satellite imagery at 0.3m resolution and inventory techniques (FAO- UN/TCP/MYA/3204).
The Ayeyarwady Delta—also called the Irrawaddy Delta—is a vast alluvial floodplain. The delta spans over 35,000 km2 (13,500 mi2) and was once home to an extensive tract of mangrove forests, but deforestation has changed the landscape. One scientific study estimated that the delta lost 1,685 km2 (651 mi2) from 1978 to 2011. This 40-year sequence of Landsat images shows the relatively rapid loss of mangrove forest. Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) and continuous interventions. Scope Approximately 5 644 hectares of land encroached for agriculture and aquaculture within the reserved Wunbaik mangroves, Rakhine state are degraded and could be taken for restoration initiatives through EMR technique. Note: Already a successful EMR demonstration exists in Hlang Kaung, adjacent to Wunbaik, Rakhine State for replication (TCP/MYA/3204, FAO-UN). Ecological Mangrove Restoration method recommends the following steps, to be undertaken using healthy mangroves of the surrounding area as a reference: Assess the ecology, especially reproduction and distribution patterns, of the mangrove species at the disturbed site; Map the topographical elevations and hydrological patterns that determine how seedlings should establish themselves at the site; Assess the changes made to the site that currently prevent the site from recovering by itself; Design a restoration plan that begins by restoring the normal range of elevations and tidal hydrology at the site; and 64
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Monitor the site to determine if the restoration has been successful in light of the original objectives
No Nursery development required for this technique; it depends on hydrology restoration and natural recruitment. Activities The actual planting of seedlings is a last resort, since it fails in many cases; it should be considered only if natural recruitment of seedlings fails to reach the restoration objective. Encroached areas are restored to mangrove cover Design and implement community based mangrove restoration plans for abandoned areas (cash for work). Allocate resource use rights in restored areas to local communities. Educate and train stakeholders including local Forest Department and line agency staff to increase awareness of the need for forest protection and conservation. Mangrove management is improved at the national level Provide training in mangrove restoration to organisations working in different mangrove areas in Myanmar Periodical evaluation and monitoring and documentation is inevitable Review management of other mangrove reserved forests in Myanmar and provide recommendations/concept notes for project support Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) and should be continuous Cost TBD
65
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 4. Small-scale entrepreneur development Areas of Intervention Small scale entrepreneur development support based on the and Investment minor and major coastal forest produce including fishery Justification The coastal region is bestowed with plenty of natural resources including the minor and major forest produce and the fishery resources. These abundant resources are either unutilized or overexploited. Coastal region based wood produce, nuts and fruits, sap and honey, shells and fish, could create a base for the livelihood of the community dependent. Currently there are several small- scale entrepreneur activities in operation, which could be strengthened by the cooperatives, technologies for value addition and support systems. People could be supported with seed fund and technical support and to reach the marketing linkages. Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions Scope Small entrepreneurs cover a wide range of business activities. The range of products manufactured by small-scale industries is very wide: Manufacturing Industries: Village and Cottage Industries Handlooms and Handicrafts: Modern Small Entrepreneurs: These industries are: (a) Small Entrepreneurs: (b) Ancillary Industries: The manufacture of parts components, sub- assemblies, tooling or intermediaries, or The rendering of services supplying for the production Tiny Units: include undertakings providing services such as laundry, zeroing, repairs and maintenance of customer equipment and machinery, hatching and poultry etc. Trading Industries: These types of small entrepreneurs are engaged in sale and purchase or exchange of goods and services. These industries act as middlemen between producers and consumers. This type of units includes wholesaler, retailer and commission agents.
66
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Service Industries: These small entrepreneurs’ establishments are engaged in personal or household services in rural areas and towns and having fixed investment in plant and machinery. These industries include: Professional services e.g. services of law, accounting medicine, consultancy etc. Commercial services e.g. transport, constructing warehousing, real estate, repair shops etc. Personal services e.g. fashion shops, dry cleaning restaurants, etc. Activities Establish an apex body for assisting the Government in formulating and overseeing the implementation of its policies and programmes/projects/schemes. The apex body may be developed with a view to give a new orientation and strength to the development of Small Scale Industries in the coastal states of Myanmar. The main objective should aid, counsel, assist, finance, protect and promote the interests of Small Industries. May play a vital role in revival, development and growth of traditional skills of Myanmar by responding to the diversified need s of entrepreneurs and marketing their products in Myanmar as well as abroad. Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD
67
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 5. Developing fodder and woodfuel farms using native grasses and trees Areas of Intervention Developing large tracts of grassing lands, fodder and wood fuel and Investment tree farms using the native grasses and trees
Justification Improved/imported breeds of livestock have become the choice of animal breeding and pasturing. The existing grassland and fodder grounds remain the cheapest form of animal feed. Concentrates are only required at very high level of management. Pasture grasses and legumes however, vary in their nutritive value and productivity. Good animal production requires pasture and fodder species which give a high yield of palatable and digestive herbage, containing adequate nutrients; The dependency for energy on trees is also extremely high Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions Scope Fodder crops may be planted specifically to provide feed for cattle farms. Plenty of native fodder, palatable grass and wood fuel species are available in the coastal regions A well maintained fodder tree plots can continuously produce fodder for 10 – 20 years. It is important to keep it free of weeds and fill the gaps in the early stages. Other uses include fuel woods, stakes, poles and bee forage, as well as helping in soil fertility improvement and soil erosion control, and serving as an ornament tree. Activities Analyse the demand and supply Identify the native species and techniques of propagation Linkages for production and marketing linkages Technical and fund support through government schemes Cooperative management for sustainable operation of enterprise 1. Choosing where and how to plant grass and trees 2. Nursery and management 3. Managing practices for trees/grass 4. Management for harvest Involve the community in these interventions to become small, medium and large scale entrepreneurs Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD
68
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 6. Harvesting rainwater Areas of Intervention Initiating systems for harvesting rainwater for potable and and Investment farming water demands and restoring the water bodies and catchments. Justification Appropriate management of water resources is important to have socially and environmentally sustainable development, in the increasing water related economic activities. Harvesting rain is a practice that has been around for centuries. Cisterns and other rain harvesting systems are widely used. Small steps can make a huge impact. Uses include water for garden, water for livestock, water for irrigation, water for domestic use with proper treatment, and indoor heating for houses etc. In many places the water collected is just redirected into a deep pit with percolation. Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during drought, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces demand on wells that may enable ground water levels to be sustained. Rainwater harvesting is possible by growing fresh water flooded forests without losing the income from the used /submerged land. The main purpose of the rainwater harvesting is to utilize the locally available rainwater to meet water requirements throughout the year without the need of huge capital expenditure. This would facilitate availability of uncontaminated water for domestic, industrial and irrigation needs. Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions Scope The percentage of people covered by safe drinking water facilities is still very low in the country compared to the global status. Water is strongly linked to the overall socioeconomic development of Myanmar as it has large water resources related subsistence sectors, energy and agriculture. There are plans to intensify water usage in Myanmar in order to achieve economic growth through increased hydro electricity and agricultural exports. The catchment area of Myanmar's ten principal river basins comprises about 737800 km². Potential water resources volume is about 1082 km³ for surface water and 495 cubic km for groundwater.as well constitute national water resources annually. As an agro-base country of Myanmar, water utilization for agricultural sector stands for 90% while industry and domestic use is only about 10% of the total water use. There is always a high demand and scarcity for potable water during summer and for agriculture.
69
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management However, with the increase of population and enhanced need for water for economic activities, there is increasing pressure on use of surface water and extraction of groundwater. Control and management of surface water and groundwater is therefore important for sustainable development of the country in future. Activities Institutional Mechanism: Collaboration among several government agencies. Central Water Board or committee, Information System for both surface and groundwater Legal Instrument: Comprehensive Laws and Acts for Water (Drinking and Irrigation water supply) Technical measure for water conservation Economic measures: Application of water saving devices (eg. Sprinkler, drip); Reuse of water Non-economic measures: Enhancement of water supply efficiency Water Quality Protection: Infrastructure improvement & Management improvement; Appropriate National Standard for drinking water and waste water; Restriction on import of toxic pesticides and chemical fertilizers; Encouragement of utilization of natural fertilizers; Reforestation Public Awareness on Water Use and Efficiency and Conservation: Role of education sector Media campaign Community Base to Community Manage System Although the conservation of natural water resources is taken into account in the government policies, the comprehensive legal mechanism for governance of groundwater is still needed. Expected duration TBD Cost TBD
70
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 7. Alternative fuel and energy options Areas of Intervention Identification and implementation of alternative fuel and energy and Investment options to reduce dependency and pressure on the coastal forest. Justification Wood fuel accounted for some 80% of total energy consumption in Myanmar, equivalent to about 20,000 tons. Since then, the consumption of wood fuel has increased, and this trend is likely to continue in the coming years. Though the country is known for its vast forest resources, in populated areas scarcities of wood fuel are severe and basic fuel needs are not satisfied, particularly in the Dry Zone. The flow and trade of wood fuels in the country may be a key element of balancing supply and demand. Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions Scope Wood fuels have long been a major source of energy and are expected to remain so for some time. Firewood use is expected to remain relatively level over the next 20 years, while charcoal use is expected to increase considerably. This increase in charcoal demand correlates with the expected increase in urbanization, as urban dwellers use more charcoal than rural ones. There may also be increased competition for wood products if the demand for industrial wood fuels and other advanced bioenergy increases. Given that charcoal production can lead to forest degradation, such an increase is cause for concern. Activities Review the present system of wood fuel production, distribution and marketing, demand supply chain in Myanmar Recommendations on appropriate policies and strategies to improve the wood fuel plantation situation in the country Developing strategies by which small- and medium-scale charcoal production controlled and regulated by local communities to make the charcoal trade more sustainable Certification of wood fuel Forest Management in the coastal region Using fast-growing native plantation species rather than slow- growing hardwoods, increasing efficiencies of charcoal kilns and stoves, and finding alternative sources of energy can reduce the impact of charcoal production. To implement programs for use of wood fuel saving device the extension arms of some projects have introduced the use of new fuel-efficient stoves. Rural communities are also encouraged to overcome fuel wood scarcity through the use of crop residues. Rice husk gasifiers and rice husk / sawdust briquettes are being produced and distributed Mechanisms to distribute proportions of Oil and Gas from the local fields for the local utility
71
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Wave and tidal energy, Solar energy harnessing Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD
72
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 8. Skills assessment and capacity building Areas of Intervention Skills assessment and capacity building programs in all the and Investment sectors such as Agriculture, Fishery, Forestry, Livestock, rural employment options to all levels of stakeholders Justification Skills and knowledge are the driving forces of economic growth and social development for any country. Countries with higher and better levels of skills adjust more effectively to the challenges and opportunities Coasts also support a diverse array of related industries (e.g. agriculture products, fisheries and aquaculture, major and minor forest produce, tourism, shipping, oil and gas industries), which provide enormous economic productivity. The Myanmar Government has invited both local and foreign investors to invest, under structures of Joint Venture or 100% investment, in the following areas: Establishing Agro-based Industries; Assembling and manufacturing light agricultural machinery and small farm implements; Manufacturing agricultural inputs and related support products; Developing livestock allied small scale and major industries such as ice, cold storage facilities, laboratories, pharmaceuticals, feeds, fodder, liquid nitrogen and others to cater the expansion of cattle and fowl farms; The investment opportunity for the production of Teak and hardwood furniture, input of good design and modern technology equipment, processes and packaging; Value added products for export market; Construction of wharfs, ports and jetties are in progress; several infrastructure developments are also in progress. Above sectors need skilled manpower to cater the development activities and also to sustainably utilize the natural resources. Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions Scope Skill building can be viewed as an instrument to improve the effectiveness and contribution of labor to the overall production. The quality of employment in organized sectors is generally high. Significant employment generation occurs in the tertiary sector, particularly, in services industries. Self-employment and small business continue to play a vital role in this regard. It is, therefore, necessary to train the people to cater the main employment opportunities in (a) agriculture, (b) labor intensive manufacturing sector such as food processing, leather products, textiles (c) services sectors: trade, restaurants and hotels, tourism, construction and information technology and (d) small and medium enterprises. Concerns related to society are covered under social education, personality development, and vocational education which consists of technical education that further deals with sectors
73
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, livestock, medicine, engineering and commerce. Technical education is a skill-based education that provides training to the individual in a specific field and increases the job prospects. The personal skill and capacity development is critical for the people to accept the opportunities created through development and management Activities Specific laws and regulations for skill development of the populace Increasing capacity & capability of existing system to ensure equitable access to all. Promoting lifelong learning, maintaining quality and relevance, according to changing requirement particularly of emerging knowledge economy. Creating effective convergence between school education, various skill development efforts of government and between government and Private Sector initiative. Capacity building of institutions for planning, quality assurance and involvement of stakeholders. Creating institutional mechanism for research development quality assurance, examinations & certification, affiliations and accreditation. Increasing participation of stakeholders, mobilizing adequate investment for financing skill development, attaining sustainability by strengthening physical and intellectual resources. Coordinating with the existing agencies and government to identify locations and strategies for skill and capacity building with all stakeholders Introducing both the structural streams formal and informal of technical education to cater the small to medium technology- based enterprises; Vocational trainings and technical education and main stream education with life skills Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD
74
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 9. Natural resource mapping Areas of Intervention Natural resource mapping, awareness and conservation and Investment initiatives through community participation Justification Natural resource managers, policy planers, administrators, biologists, botanists, ecologists, environmental regulators, hydrologists, planners, miners, petroleum engineers, foresters, and farmers rely on the analytical power of RS-GIS mapping for help in making critical decisions to manage the coastal resources. Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions Scope For conserving and restoring habitats, planting crops or forest trees, exploring oil and gas, or monitoring endangered species there is increasing optimism that the application of GIS is considered to be the inevitable tool. Activities Form Project teams including stakeholders multi faculties and community Obtain necessary land parcel data set Determine base map content and layout Modify ranking system Produce draft base maps for review Survey standards, forms, calibration baselines, permanent survey marks and other resources Revise ranking system as necessary Generation of Geo-database Zones and Community wise Soil resource development plan, Water resource development plan, Vegetation resource development plan, Land use and Land cover plan can be developed Contact key landowners and provide land protection Plan and conduct outreach to town boards, citizens and landowners Awareness and training programs with stipulated objectives of conservation and sustainable utilization Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD
75
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 10. Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems Areas of Intervention Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems and Investment Justification Ecosystem functions are the physical, chemical, and biological processes or attributes that contribute to the self-maintenance of an ecosystem; in other words, what the ecosystem does. Some examples of ecosystem functions are provision of wildlife habitat, carbon cycling, or the trapping of nutrients. Thus, the processes, or functions, that occur within them, can characterize ecosystems, such as wetlands, forests, or estuaries. Some examples of ecosystem services are support of the food chain, harvesting of animals or plants, and the provision of clean water or scenic views. In order for an ecosystem to provide services to humans, some interaction with, or at least some appreciation by, humans is required. Thus, functions of ecosystems are value-neutral, while their services have value to society. Human-induced changes in the natural environment are affecting the provision of ecosystem goods and services Land use plans rarely include the value of public ecosystem services such as climate regulation and biodiversity due to difficulties in valuing these services Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions Scope The ecosystem functions of the Myanmar coastal zone and their role in producing and sustaining ecosystem services are still poorly understood, as are human impacts on the ecological health and function of the Myanmar sea, which affect ecosystem services and thus people. To understand the value and economic impact of better management will require better economic and ecological data and a more holistic scientific understanding of the integrated relationship between people and the Myanmar coastal ecosystem. Ecosystem valuation can help resource managers deal with the effects of market failures, by measuring their costs to society, in terms of lost economic benefits. The costs to society can then be imposed, in various ways, on those who are responsible, or can be used to determine the value of actions to reduce or eliminate environmental impacts. Data on economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems substantiates the coastal region management and land use policy Activities Economic valuation for important ecosystem goods and services under five future land-use scenarios using varying levels of costs, prices and discount rates.
76
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Economic evaluations can be undertaken at the individual level (e.g. individual farmer), sectoral level (e.g. farming sector) or societal level (e.g. single country) Cost/Benefit Analysis (CBA) provides a systematic assessment of the costs and benefits associated with an intervention Cost-effectiveness analysis – CEA (Sometimes also known as least cost analysis) is used to identify the most cost-effective option for achieving a pre-set objective or criterion that is not measurable in monetary terms Valuing the benefits of interventions These costs generally fall under five headings that must be included in social cost analyses (EPA, 2010): (1) Real-resource compliance costs: these are the direct costs associated with purchasing, installing and operating new pollution control equipment; changing relevant production processes by using different inputs or different mixtures of inputs; and, capturing the polluting wastes and selling or re- using them. (2) Government regulatory costs: these include the monitoring, administrative and enforcement costs associated with regulation. (3) Social welfare losses: these are the losses in welfare associated with the rise in the price (or decreases in output) of goods and services that occur as a result of policy. (4) Transitional costs: these include the value of resources that are displaced because of regulation-induced reductions in production and the private real resource costs of re-allocating those resources. (5) Indirect costs: these other costs include the adverse effects policies may have on product quality, productivity, innovation and changes in markets indirectly affected by the policy. The importance of both the data and the understanding is underscored by the potentially large amount of economic activity and value that may be tied to the health of the Myanmar coastal ecosystem and by the potentially large economic benefits of improved management. Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD
77
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management Intervention 11. Coastal resources management, research and extension Areas of Intervention Advanced Coastal Resources Management Research and and Investment Extension Justification Research and Extension studies are vital to the understanding and management of these crucial ecosystems. Advanced Coastal Resources Management Research and Extension provide educational & outreach activities that advance marine coastal, and estuary literacy and engage educators, students and the general public to practice coastal stewardship. Coastal Management Stewardship programs integrate science, monitoring and communities to protect, manage, and restore coastal habitats. The Coastal Training Program provides science-based information and training to support those who make decisions that affect coastal resources. Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years) interventions, owing to the need to address the restructuring and financing of R&D and extension at various levels impacting on investment, policies and institutions Scope Very little natural resources research has been carried out in Myanmar due to the country's self-imposed isolation from the rest of the world since independence. Most of the studies available date to the British colonial era and are not reliable by today's standards. Tertiary education in the country, which has never approached an international level, has further declined in quality since the 1970s, hence native research is even more scant, but indications are this may soon change. Advanced research and monitoring programs provide a robust foundation for effective national, regional, and local coastal zone management. Activities The research and monitoring program should include (1) ensuring a stable environment for research through long-term protection of coastal resources; (2) addressing coastal management issues through coordinated coastal and estuarine research within the System; and (3) collecting information necessary for improved understanding and management of marine, coast and estuarine areas, and making the information available to stakeholders. Understand how estuaries function and change over time, to predict how coastal systems respond to changes in climate and human-induced disturbances Provide up-to-date scientific information and skill-building opportunities to the people who are responsible for making decisions affecting coastal lands and waters Organize regular Coastal Training Programs to stakeholders to provide up-to-date scientific information and skill-building
78
MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management opportunities to individuals who are responsible for making decisions that affect coastal resources Establish Research Centers and Institutes with different faculty and academic units. Centers/Institutes could serve as a focus of scholarly activity and intellectual creativity, focal points for interaction with research sponsors, and serve to amplify competitiveness in obtaining research funding in the designated areas Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) Cost TBD
79