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Ahmad Kamruzzaman Background. Lead (Pb) poses a severe threat to human health and the environment. Majumder, Worldwide Pb production and consumption have significantly increased along with Abdullah Al Nayeem, unplanned industrialization and , lead , and lead-acid battery Mahmuda Islam, processing. The improper management of Pb-containing elements is responsible for Pb Mohammed Mahadi Akter, pollution. Lead’s persistence in nature and bioaccumulation in the food chain can lead to Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhp/article-pdf/11/31/210902/2888406/i2156-9614-11-31-210902.pdf by guest on 01 October 2021 William S. Carter adverse health impacts. Objectives. The present study aims to describe Pb contaminated sites in Bangladesh and Pb Center for Atmospheric Pollution Studies concentration in the atmosphere, water, sediments, soil, vegetables, fish, and other foods in (CAPS), Department of Environmental Bangladesh. Science, Stamford University Bangladesh Methods. The present study searched a total of 128 peer-reviewed articles based on a predefined set of criteria (keywords, peer-reviewed journals, and indexing in Scopus, Science Corresponding Author: Direct, Web of Science, Springer, PubMed, Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Abdullah Al Nayeem and Bangladesh Journals Online (BanglaJOL) and exclusion criteria (predatory journal [email protected] and absence of full text in English) and finally selected 63 articles (58 research articles and five (5) reports). The relevant findings on Pb exposure, sources, routes, diet, and impacts in Bangladesh were combined and presented. Results. The reviewed studies identified 175 Pb contaminated sites through soil sample assessment in Bangladesh. The study determined Pb concentrations in air (0.09-376.58 µg/ m3, mean 21.31 µg/m3), river water (0.0009-18.7 mg/l, mean 1.07 mg/l), river sediments Introduction (4.9-69.75 mg/kg, mean 32.08 mg/kg), fish (0.018-30.8 mg/kg, mean 5.01 mg/kg), soil (7.3- 445 mg/kg, mean 90.34 mg/kg), vegetables (0.2-22.09 mg/kg, mean 4.33 mg/kg) and diet The advancement of technology has items (0.001-413.9 mg/kg, mean 43.22 mg/kg) of which 38.8%, 27.8%, 54.5%, 68.8%, 9.7% led to the expansion of urbanization and 100% of samples, respectively, exceeded related World Health Organization (WHO), and industrialization, resulting in Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United States Environmental Protection Agency an upsurge of heavy metal pollution (USEPA) and Bangladesh Standard Testing Institution (BSTI) guidelines. The present study into the environment, especially in found that industrial soils are severely polluted with Pb (7.3-445 mg/kg) in Bangladesh. A low- and middle-income countries high Pb concentration has been found in fish muscle and foods, including leafy and non-leafy (LMIC). Anthropogenic activities vegetables collected from different places in Bangladesh. are a significant contributor to the Conclusions. Lead-contaminated foods can enter the human body through dietary intake amplification of heavy metal emissions and consequently lead to long-term adverse health effects. This study may help policymakers into the earth’s atmosphere, cultivated to formulate national policies with effective mitigation plans to combat the adverse health land, and water bodies.1 impacts of Pb in Bangladesh. Competing Interests. The authors declare no competing financial interests. Rapid and unplanned urbanization Keywords. lead, concentration, contamination, polluted, impacts, Bangladesh. and industrialization have led to Received January 22, 2021. Accepted May 16, 2021. toxic substances like (As), J Health Pollution 31: (210902) 2021 cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), © copper (Cu), (Hg), (Zn), nickel (Ni), tin (Sn), and lead (Pb) being discharged to the surrounding environment.2 Planned urbanization also increases the risk of releasing untreated municipal , fertilizer various exposure routes such as diet, toxic materials due to unregulated and , , smoking, breathing, and drinking, development activities.3 These metals and activities. Suspended air toxic heavy metals can accumulate in contaminate the air, soil, and water particles hold heavy metals, which various parts of the human body and through various pathways, including eventually deposit onto the soil cause severe health disorders.3 vehicle exhaust, fossil fuel combustion, through the natural sedimentation suspended atmospheric particles, and precipitation processes.1 Through Lead is an abundant non-

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biodegradable toxic heavy metal that Abbreviations is soft, corrosion resistant, highly malleable and ductile. As a result, Pb LAB Lead acid batteries WHO World Health Organization has been used in many industries. Lead has acute and chronic effects on ULAB Used lead acid batteries human health and the environment.4 Due to the rapid growth of industrial activities, the high demand for lead- acid batteries (LAB) is now a concern Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhp/article-pdf/11/31/210902/2888406/i2156-9614-11-31-210902.pdf by guest on 01 October 2021 in low- and middle-income countries.3 Since the early days of the , use of Pb has increased globally (Figure 1), and over the last decade, the exponential growth rate has become much more significant. In the 20th century, Pb contamination has increased significantly due to the use of leaded gasoline in motor vehicles.5 The global usage of Pb in 2012 was 10.7 million tons6 (Figure 1). The demand for motor vehicles has led to increased LAB demand.7 This Pb is 100 percent recyclable, but the process is conducted chiefly through informal processes, especially in developing countries,8 resulting in . The sector-based global annual consumption rate of Pb Figure 1 — Global lead usage trend from 1970 to 20126 is shown in Table 1. Around 85% of Pb is used during the LAB manufacturing process. About 98.9% of used LAB (ULAB) were recycled in the United States in 2014, and around 99% in the atmospheric deposition from various kidney damage, DNA damage, change European Union (EU) from 2010- point sources like smelting and in blood composition, impaired 2012.6 industrial processes.3 Several non- hemoglobin synthesis, decreased red point sources such as fertilizers, blood cell counts, and oxidative stress. Lead can have adverse environmental sewage sludge, organic manure and Other adverse effects include impaired and health effects resulting from compost are critical pathways of Pb cognitive development in children, various anthropogenic activities. Table contamination in vegetables and other adverse effects on the development of 2 summarizes the routes and activities crops.10 the central nervous system, maternal that cause Pb contamination in the death, mental retardation in children, environment. Emissions from informal Lead as an antiknock agent in petrol is and harmful effects on thyroid and ULAB processing, automobiles that one of the prime contributors to total growth hormones.8,26,27 Due to burn leaded gasoline, industrial dust, atmospheric Pb pollution.25 Hence, vulnerability to developmental effects, waste burning, open dumping, the people can be exposed to Pb through children are more greatly affected by paint industry, industrial sludge, inhalation of Pb particles released Pb toxicity.28 Even low concentrations mining activities, and low-grade from burning of Pb-containing of Pb in human blood can cause fertilizer application are the leading material and or ingestion of dust, adverse consequences.29 One study causes of Pb contamination in air, soil, diet, and drinking water that reported a Pb level in the blood of soil, and water bodies.9 Soil can be contains Pb. Lead intake can cause workers in battery manufacturing contaminated with Pb through various health disorders, including industries of around 47 μg/dL and 64

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through electronic databases using the following terms: “Pb in atmosphere,” “Pb pathway,” “Pb exposure,” “Pb in river water,” “trace metals in water,” “Pb in river sediment,” “Pb from industrial emission,” “heavy metal concentration in soil,” “Pb in food,” “Pb in vegetables,” “pathways and routes of Pb,” “Pb in the food chain,” Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhp/article-pdf/11/31/210902/2888406/i2156-9614-11-31-210902.pdf by guest on 01 October 2021 “health effects of Pb,” “Pb effects on plants.”

Table 1 — Global Annual Consumption Rate of Lead (thousand tons)6 One hundred and twenty-eight (128) related research papers were identified from accepted publication platforms around the world (Science Direct, PubMed, Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), Web of Science, μg/dL in plants in low- and through the food chain. A previous Springer Link, National Center for middle-income countries, which study found that the deposition of Pb Biotechnology Information (NCBI), exceeds the current United States in soil, crops, water, air, and vegetables Directory of Open Access Journals standard of 5 μg/dL.30 Child laborers is higher in the vicinity of Bangladesh’s (DOAJ), and JSTOR); prominent in low- and middle-income countries industrial and urban areas.3 Since the national libraries (BanglaJOL, are at higher risk because of acute 20th century, two and three-stroke Department of Environment, Ministry exposure to Pb as measured by blood engines have been major contributors of Health, International Center Pb levels; levels exceeding 150 μg/ to atmospheric Pb pollution in for Diarrheal Disease Research, dL may cause death.31,32 According Bangladesh.5 There are 148 known Bangladesh (icddr,b), Bangladesh to the Institute for Health Metrics informal recycling sites conducting Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC), and Evaluation (IHME) 2017,33 Pb ULAB and 97 LAB manufacturing Bangladesh Standards & Testing exposure was responsible for 1.06 sites in Bangladesh. This presents a Institution (BSTI)); and international million deaths worldwide, with the threat to human health as people living organizations (Asian Development highest Pb-related death rate in low- near urban or industrial areas have Bank, Clean Air , Norwegian and middle-income countries. Lead higher blood Pb levels in their bodies.8 Institute for Air Research, School not only affects the human body, but The present study aims to determine of Environmental Science Murdoch also has an adverse impact on soil potential Pb contaminated sites in University, , Stockholm microbial communities and the growth Bangladesh and Pb concentrations in Environment Institute (SEI), , of plants.23 A summary of the effects different environmental spheres. World Health Organization (WHO), of Pb poisoning on soil, plants, and Pure Earth, International Lead humans is presented in Table 3. Methods Association (ILA), and the World Bank). Bangladesh is a highly populated and A systematic literature search was polluted country.25 Along with rapid conducted of research findings on Pb Eligibility criteria economic growth, it has experienced a exposure from relevant sources such dramatic shift in exposure to Pb over as peer-reviewed articles, textbooks, The following inclusion criteria the past three decades. Bangladesh has and reports of Pb contamination and were adopted: (i) peer-reviewed a limited capacity for waste treatment poisoning in Bangladesh. The literature with mentioned database (ii) articles and recycling facilities. Untreated search focused on seven prioritized investigating Pb in the atmosphere, wastes are discharged into nearby aspects of Pb pollution and pathways water, sediment, fish, soil, vegetables, agricultural lands, rivers, roadside (atmosphere, water, sediment, fish, and foods; (iii) full texts published canals, or streams. Lead from these soil, vegetables, and foods) along in English; (iv) use of scientific sources can persist in the soil and with hotspots and impacts on living analytical methods; (v) discussion and water bodies that humans can take up organisms. The search was performed interpretation of the main findings;

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Table 2 — Source Identification of Lead in the Environment

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Table 3 — Effects of Lead Pollution on Environmental Components

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Figure 2 — PRISMA flow diagram indicating Pb-related article collection, screening, inclusion and exclusion process

(vi) limitations of the study (e.g. Data processing and tabulation, ArcGIS 10.2.1 and process of data collection, lack of Microsoft Excel 10 were used, data, lack of ethics clearance, lack of We followed two screening (abstract respectively. coherence in data analysis) and (vii) and full text) procedures on retrieved conclusions and implications within literature to determine article Study characteristics the scope of the study design. There eligibility based on this study’s were no restrictions on the date of objective. During the first screening, Table 4 presents the characteristics of publication. Criteria for exclusion the title and abstract were reviewed the included papers. We considered 58 were: (i) publication in predatory based on Pb sources, route and research articles from seven different journals (predatory journals defined impacts in Bangladesh. Next, the full media. In addition, five studies as not indexed, rapid publication text of those related abstracts was were examined for the standard process, contact email address is non- assessed to identify whether a study concentration of various spheres. Two professional and non-journal affiliated, was fully or partially related to the (2) of the 58 reviewed articles’ key peer review process and publication study’s objectives. Finally, 63 studies objectives was to classify the sources timelines too short etc.), and websites were selected for review. An overview of heavy metal pollution, 48 articles (ii) published papers with English of the literature selection procedure described metal concentration, and abstracts but without full texts in is shown in Figure 2. Lastly, findings six described health risks from Pb English. were processed and analyzed following exposure. Lead concentrations in soil the cross-tabulation technique to list was the focus of 22 (32%) studies, and compare Pb concentrations from and water and sediment results were various sources. For hotspot mapping reported in 12 papers (16%). Most of

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Table 4 — Characteristics of Reviewed Papers

the first authors of these peer-reviewed results. One hundred and seventy- polluted and have more smelting and articles were from Bangladesh, five (175) of the assessed sites were ULAB industries than other districts. followed by the United States. found to be contaminated with Pb.43 Eighty-five (85) / Lead in air Results manufacturing/repairing and 84 Pb smelting industries were identified as Table 5 shows Pb concentrations (µg/ In collaboration with the Department sources of Pb pollution in Bangladesh. m3) in the ground-level atmosphere of Geology of the University of Dhaka In addition, tannery and dye in Bangladesh. Woo, et al. (2018) and the Department of Environment, operations, heavy industry, chemical, recorded a Pb concentration of Bangladesh, Pure Earth investigated and fertilizer manufacturing were 376.58 µg/m3, the highest among Pb contaminated hotspot areas in identified as sources of Pb pollution the 18 studied areas, and around Bangladesh. The investigators collected in different districts of Bangladesh. the battery manufacturing plant of soil samples, following the Initial Site Figure 3 shows the spatial distribution Munshiganj Sadar, the Pb level of a Screening (ISS) protocol provided of Pb-contaminated hotspot areas nearby residential area was 1.22 µg/ by Pure Earth,43 and determined the in Bangladesh. Dhaka and Khulna m3.32 Ahmed et al. (2012)44 determined hotspot zones based on the analyzed districts were found to be the most Pb concentrations in places in

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Figure 3 — Map of district-wise Pb contaminated sites screened through the Toxic Sites Identification Program in Bangladesh between 2011 to 2018 (Adopted from McCartor, 2018)43

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Table 5 — Lead Concentration (µg /m3) in Ground Level Atmosphere in Bangladesh

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Table 6 — Lead Concentration in Surface Water in Bangladesh (mg/l)

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Table 7 — Lead Concentration in River Sediment (mg/kg) in Bangladesh

Chittagong city and found that the cement, and paint industries, and areas with the highest concentration New Market area of Chittagong city vehicle exhausts were identified as found in the near had the highest concentration of Pb primarily responsible for atmospheric the Savar industrial area.50 Lead (0.74 µg/m3). Rahman et al. (2013)45 Pb pollution in Bangladesh in these concentrations in most studied rivers showed that the air at various locations reviewed articles.44,45 exceeded the standard of irrigation of Dhaka city had a range of 0.1-1 water, especially rivers near Dhaka and µg/m3. In summary, 9 out of 18 sites Lead in surface water, sediment Chittagong city and the rivers near to in Dhaka and its vicinity exceeded and fish any urbanized or industrialized area. the Bangladesh National Ambient However, Mokaddes et al. (2013)51 Air Quality Standard (BNAAQS) for Three of the reviewed studies indicated reported that the water in the lakes Pb concentration in air. In Dhaka that in Bangladesh, metal pollution, of Dhaka city was acceptable. The city, Tejgaon heavy industrial area especially Pb, is increasing in river arithmetic mean of the concentration had the highest concentration level water and sediment.22,48,49 Table 6 of Pb in surface water was 1.07, in the present study. The mean presents the Pb concentrations in both 107-fold higher than the irrigation concentration was 21.31 µg/m3, nearly river and lake water of Bangladesh. water standard and 21.4-fold higher 47 times higher than the standard Most of the studies were in the than the inland water standard set set by BNAAQS. Used LAB and industrialized areas on the river banks by the Department of Environment smelting industries, fertilizers, dye, near Dhaka and Chittagong. Eighteen (DoE).47 Untreated and partially (18) water bodies were studied from 14 treated effluents from industries were

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Table 8 — Lead Concentration in Fish Species (mg/kg) in Bangladesh

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Table 9 — Lead Concentration in Soil (mg/kg) in Bangladesh

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Table 10 — Lead Concentration in Vegetables (mg/kg) in Bangladesh

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Table 11 — Lead Concentration in Food Stuff (mg/kg) in Bangladesh

identified as the leading causes of Pb were dumped in nearby rivers.21 times higher than the standard. pollution in river water.50 Fish were identified as a significant Seven research studies and monitoring protein source in the human diet The results of the analysis of Pb programs on Pb accumulation in in two of the reviewed papers. concentrations in river sediment fish in Bangladesh were identified These fish assimilate Pb through are reported in Table 7. Ahmed et (Table 8). In these studies, 21 of ingestion of suspended particulate al. (2010)53 recorded the highest Pb 32 samples in various fish species matter from water, ingestion of food, concentration in from different rivers of Bangladesh and surface adsorption by both sediment (69.75 mg/kg). In Turag, the exceeded the WHO food safety tissues and membranes.67,68 concentration varied from 24-33.8 mg/ guidelines for Pb of 0.5 mg/kg. Fish kg. The next highest concentration samples collected from the Karwan Lead in soil samples, vegetables (31.4 mg/kg) was found in the Bangshi Bazaar fish market had the highest and diet River sediment near the Dhaka Export concentration of Pb and the Pangus Processing Zone (Mohiuddin et al., fish ranked highest with nearly 62 Twenty-two (22) studies reported 2015).21 That study reported that in times more than the WHO standard.66 soil samples contaminated with Pb Dhaka city more than 5 thousand tons All the samples collected from the in different districts of Bangladesh. of solid wastes are produced every day Buriganga and Karnafuli River also The listed primary sources were from domestic sources, of which 63% contained high concentrations of atmospheric deposition from Pb with average concentrations 10 smelting, mining, and other industrial

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activities, and fertilizers, pesticides, almost all collected food samples irrigation water standard.58 The water sewage sludge, organic manures, exceeded BSTI limits. in the lakes of Dhaka metropolitan and composts.11 Industrial sites, Pb city had lower Pb levels due to smelting, and mining areas were found Discussion regular maintenance and the absence to be polluted, as seen in Table 9. The of any industry adjacent to them.51 Pb concentration of soil exceeded the After the banning of two and three- Sediments from some of the rivers limit in only three areas: Narayanganj stroke motor vehicles in 2002, the have significant Pb levels. Surprisingly, industrial area (445 mg/kg), Pb most significant Pb emission sources two rivers’ sediments, the Padma smelting area in Khulna (224.43 in Bangladesh are now industries and Karnafuli, had Pb within the Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhp/article-pdf/11/31/210902/2888406/i2156-9614-11-31-210902.pdf by guest on 01 October 2021 mg/kg), and mine-affected area in that use substances containing Pb, acceptable range even though the latter Dinajpur (433 mg/kg). The average mostly informal ULAB, and the is adjacent to the urbanized port city concentrations for all the studied smelting industry. Figure 3 shows of Chittagong, which has eight Pb samples were within acceptable limits. that most of the contaminated sites production sites. The strong current Lead can remain in soil for thousands are either ULAB or smelters. Heavy and wave action of the Padma and of years without any changes, although traffic congested areas and highly Rivers may reduce the insect activity, plowing, adding industrialized zones in Dhaka and potential for depositing sediment. Fish compost, and other activities do lower Chittagong had atmospheric Pb levels samples collected from the Buriganga, Pb in soil over time.36 exceeding the Bangladesh standard Karnafuli and Karwan Bazar contained of 0.5 µg /m3.47 In Chittagong, the high levels of Pb.53,62,66 The sediment Eight (8) studies in Bangladesh New Market and Director’s office of the Payra River in the Khulna area reported high Pb concentrations in areas are two of the city’s busiest was found to be polluted with Pb, but different types of vegetables(Table areas, and road dust and vehicle the concentration of Pb in all the fish 10). Uddin et al. (2019)83 stated that exhaust were the primary sources of studied from this river was within the Pb concentrations in vegetables were Pb pollution in Chittagong.78 Near WHO food safety guidelines for Pb of 1.6-13.1 mg/kg in the Satkhira district. a battery manufacturing plant in 0.5 mg/kg, except Hilsha, the national High concentrations of Pb were found Munsiganj Sadar Upazila, including fish of Bangladesh.66 The fish Pb levels in vegetable samples collected from the surrounding residential areas, the captured from the Rupsha River in the surrounding area of Dhaka Export concentration was higher than other the Khulna area were also below the Processing Zone (DEPZ). All vegetable locations. WHO food safety guidelines, whereas samples in this study exceeded the the water and sediment from this Food and Agriculture Organization Being a river-fed country, resources river were contaminated with Pb.55 It (FAO)/WHO guideline and the from rivers help the country’s would seem the fish of coastal areas are average concentration was 433-fold economic growth, but contaminated safer to eat even though the water and higher than the standard. According to and polluted resources like water, sediment are polluted with Pb. The three of the reviewed articles, the main sediment, and fish can harm humans sources of the fish sold in the Karwan reason for the higher concentration through the food chain and bio- Bazar fish market were not stated, was cultivating vegetables in Pb- magnification process. The reviewed however it can be assumed that these contaminated soil.83,84,85 studies have shown that all rivers near fish are from anthropogenic sources to an industrial site, urbanized area, or cultured with Pb-contaminated food.66 One of the reviewed studies stated port such as Dhaleswari, Buriganga, that diet, including cereals, vegetables, Karnafuli, Old Brahmaputra, and In the present study, most of the and seafood are the primary sources Shitalakhya, have Pb-polluted water surveyed soils were safe according of Pb exposure in Bangladesh. 3 Seven except for the and Tongi to the United States Environmental (7) studies in Bangladesh examined Lake (joined to the Turag River). Protection Agency (USEPA) the concentration of Pb in different However, these two water bodies’ standard.82 Nonetheless, all of them foods and dietary items (Table 11). contamination levels increased from contained some contamination. Forsyth et al. (2019)91 reported a Pb 2012 to 2016.22,61 Lead concentrations Although atmospheric deposition is concentration in turmeric powder in other rivers in this study, including a major pathway of Pb concentration, that was up to 100 times greater than the Khiru, Pashur, Brahmaputra, the soil and dust of Dhaka city is seen the Bangladesh Standard Testing Rupsha, and Karatoa rivers, were to have Pb within the limit of the Institution’s (BSTI) limit of 2.5 mg/ found to be within the inland water USEPA standard, but the vegetables kg.92 Islam et al. (2015)3 found that standard and some exceeded the grown on these soils had very high

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Table 12 — Percentage of Samples Exceeding Standard

Pb levels exceeding the standard of a global problem.18 lead level (BLL) in Bangladesh. FAO/WHO, 201188 of .01 mg/kg. In Forsyth et al. (2019) found that 36 Satkhira, the soil was not polluted with Data were compiled into a frequency out of 45 pregnant women had a BLL Pb but the Pb content in vegetables table (Table 12) to determine the greater than 5 µg/dL in three rural was 56-65-fold higher than the most contaminated sector. Based districts. Higher BLLs have been FAO/WHO food safety standard.88 on the percentage of contaminated associated with the consumption of This intrusion may be happening samples, the most polluted sector adulterated turmeric. Several studies because of atmospheric deposition, was vegetables, where 100% of the found higher BLLs in the residents irrigated water from nearby Pb- studied samples were found to be of urban areas like Dhaka and containing water bodies, Pb-loaded contaminated with Pb followed by Narayanganj, industrialized areas, and fertilizer, , organic manure, 68.8% of the fish species. Soil was rural agrarian regions (Munshigonj poultry feed, and compost.3 One of found to be the least contaminated and Dinajpur).8,9,32 These studies tried the reviewed studies indicated that sector in Bangladesh. The authors to determine the significant pathways the concentration of Pb in soil and did not find any direct relationship of Pb absorption in blood. vegetables decreased with increased in Pb concentration between distance from the roadside in soil and associated vegetables or Study limitations Gazipur, Bangladesh indicating that foodstuff. Since all the spheres of the traffic was the reason for increased environment are interrelated, there Documents published in languages concentrations of Pb in roadside is a need for more research on Pb rather than English were excluded, soil and associated vegetables.15 The concentration in air, water, soil, and and we focused on papers that were current study found that chicken egg, foodstuff grown in specific areas. available online only, thus potentially duck egg, and cow milk accumulated Comparing the average concentration excluding some useful sources. a significant amount of Pb due to with the standards of each sector, the Another limitation of the study was accumulation from Pb-contaminated most polluted sector was found to be the heterogeneity in the sample poultry feed.1 The elevated Pb levels in vegetables. collection procedures in included cereals and vegetables could be due to papers. Despite these limitations, the Pb smelting, emissions from vehicles Several studies have reported that present study can provide an overview and other industrial activities in the Bangladeshi populations are exposed of Pb pollution in Bangladesh. urban area and its vicinity.3 Elevated to excessively high levels of Pb in their Pb concentrations in rice have become diet and through inhalation.3,48,49,89 This risk has been verified by blood

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Conclusions in the reviewed papers. Additional Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2015;122:462-469. https://doi. studies are needed to determine the org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.09.022 Lead contamination in the relationship between soil Pb level 4. Islam MS, Mamun MHA. Accumulation of trace environment from various sources and Pb in associated vegetables and elements in sediment and fish species of Paira River, has become a major issue for the other agricultural products. Since the Bangladesh. AIMS Environ Sci. 2017; 4(2): 310–322. people of Bangladesh. This study toxicity of Pb depends on its chemical https://doi.org/10.3934/environsci.2017.2.310 demonstrates that Pb risk in state, a study could be initiated to 5. Begum K, Mohiuddin KM, Zakir HM, Rahman Bangladesh is associated with ULAB, determine the solubility of inorganic MM, Hasan MN. Heavy metal pollution and smelting, mining, and industrialization lead in contaminated locations and major nutrient elements assessment in the soils of Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhp/article-pdf/11/31/210902/2888406/i2156-9614-11-31-210902.pdf by guest on 01 October 2021 procedures. In the present study, the determine if there are any residual Bogra city in Bangladesh. Canadian Chem Trans. average Pb concentration was found amounts of organic lead (tetraethyl 2014; 2(3): 316–326. https://doi.org/10.13179/ to be 21.31 µg/m3 in the local air, 1.07 lead). The appropriate authority should canchemtrans.2014.02.03.0088. mg/l in river water, 32.41 mg/kg in take mitigation measures to stop the 6. International Lead Association (ILA). Lead river sediments, 5.01 mg/kg in fish, unauthorized operation of Pb smelters uses-statistics. 2012 Accessed [2020 September 20]. 90.36 mg/kg in soil, 4.33 mg/kg in and ULAB. Institutional frameworks Available from: https://www.ila-Lead.org/Lead-facts/ vegetables, and 43.223 mg/kg in food and national policies are required to Lead-uses--statistics items. Atmospheric Pb in Dhaka and combat the adverse health impacts of 7. Akber MA, Rahman MA, Islam MA, Islam MA. Chittagong city was found to exceed Pb pollution in Bangladesh. Potential ecological risk of metal pollution in Lead the BNAAQS. Lead concentrations in smelter-contaminated agricultural soils in Khulna, residential areas adjacent to industrial Acknowledgments Bangladesh. Environ Monit Assess. 2019;191(6): 1-12. zones may pose a serious health risk This study was funded as part of https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7483-3 to the inhabitants, especially children. employment. 8. 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