Wednesday, April 28, 2010

Part II

Environmental Protection Agency 40 CFR Part 87 Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on Lead Emissions From Piston-Engine Aircraft Using Leaded Aviation Gasoline; Proposed Rule

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION • Fax: (202) 566–9744. materials are available either AGENCY • Mail: Environmental Protection electronically in http:// Agency, Mail Code: 6102T, 1200 www.regulations.gov or in hard copy at 40 CFR Part 87 Pennsylvania Ave., NW., Washington, the EPA Docket Center, EPA/DC, EPA [EPA–HQ–OAR–2007–0294; FRL–9141–7] DC 20460. Please include two copies. West, Room 3334, 1301 Constitution • Hand Delivery: EPA Docket Center Avenue, NW., Washington, DC. The RIN 2060–AP79 (Air Docket), U.S. Environmental Public Reading Room is open from 8:30 Protection Agency, EPA West Building, a.m. to 4:30 p.m., Monday through Advance Notice of Proposed 1301 Constitution Avenue, NW., Room: Friday, excluding legal holidays. The Rulemaking on Lead Emissions From 3334 Mail Code: 2822T, Washington, telephone number for the Public Piston-Engine Aircraft Using Leaded DC. Such deliveries are only accepted Reading Room is (202) 566–1744, and Aviation Gasoline during the Docket’s normal hours of the telephone number for the Air Docket AGENCY: Environmental Protection operation, and special arrangements is (202) 566–1742. Agency (EPA). should be made for deliveries of boxed FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: information. Marion Hoyer, Assessment and ACTION: Advance notice of proposed Instructions: Direct your comments to Standards Division, Office of rulemaking. Docket ID No. EPA–HQ–OAR–2007– Transportation and Air Quality, 2000 0294. EPA’s policy is that all comments SUMMARY: EPA is issuing this Advance Traverwood Drive, Ann Arbor, MI received will be included in the public Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPR) 48105; telephone number: (734) 214– docket without change and may be to describe information currently 4513; fax number: (734) 214–4821; made available online at http:// available and information being e-mail address: [email protected]. www.regulations.gov, including any collected that will be used by the SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Administrator to issue a subsequent personal information provided, unless proposal regarding whether, in the the comment includes information I. General Information Administrator’s judgment, aircraft lead claimed to be Confidential Business Information (CBI) or other information A. What should I consider as I prepare emissions from aircraft using leaded whose disclosure is restricted by statute. my comments for EPA? aviation gasoline (avgas) cause or Do not submit information that you contribute to air pollution which may 1. Submitting CBI. Do not submit this consider to be CBI or otherwise reasonably be anticipated to endanger information to EPA through http:// protected through http:// public health or welfare. In this ANPR www.regulations.gov or e-mail. Clearly www.regulations.gov or e-mail. The we describe and request comment on mark the part or all of the information http://www.regulations.gov Web site is the data available for evaluating lead that you claim to be CBI. For CBI an ‘‘anonymous access’’ system, which emissions, ambient concentrations and information in a disk or CD ROM that means EPA will not know your identity potential exposure to lead from the you mail to EPA, mark the outside of the or contact information unless you continued use of leaded avgas in piston- disk or CD ROM as CBI and then provide it in the body of your comment. engine powered aircraft. We also identify electronically within the disk or If you send an e-mail comment directly CD ROM the specific information that is describe and request comment on to EPA without going through http:// additional information being collected claimed as CBI. In addition to one www.regulations.gov your e-mail complete version of the comment that that will inform any future action. address will be automatically captured This ANPR is being issued to further includes information claimed as CBI, a and included as part of the comment copy of the comment that does not respond to a petition submitted by that is placed in the public docket and Friends of the Earth (FOE) in 2006. contain the information claimed as CBI made available on the Internet. If you must be submitted for inclusion in the Emissions of lead from piston-engine submit an electronic comment, EPA aircraft using leaded avgas comprise public docket. Information so marked recommends that you include your will not be disclosed except in approximately half of the national name and other contact information in inventory of lead emitted to air. There accordance with procedures set forth in the body of your comment and with any 40 CFR Part 2. are almost 20,000 airport facilities in the disk or CD–ROM you submit. If EPA U.S. at which leaded avgas may be used. 2. Tips for Preparing Your Comments. cannot read your comment due to When submitting comments, remember EPA has long-standing concerns technical difficulties and cannot contact regarding exposure to lead, particularly to: you for clarification, EPA may not be • Identify the rulemaking by docket during childhood. The most recent able to consider your comment. number and other identifying review and revision of the National Electronic files should avoid the use of information (subject heading, Federal Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) special characters, any form of Register date and page number). for lead, promulgated in 2008, found encryption, and be free of any defects or • Follow directions—The agency may that serious health effects occur at much viruses. For additional information ask you to respond to specific questions lower levels of lead in blood than about EPA’s public docket visit the EPA or organize comments by referencing a previously identified and did not Docket Center homepage at http:// Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) part identify a safe level of lead exposure. www.epa.gov/epahome/dockets.htm. or section number. DATES: Comments must be received on Docket: All documents in the docket • Explain why you agree or disagree, or before June 28, 2010. are listed in the http:// suggest alternatives, and substitute ADDRESSES: Submit your comments, www.regulations.gov index. Although language for your requested changes. identified by Docket ID No. EPA–HQ– listed in the index, some information is • Describe any assumptions and OAR–2007–0294, by one of the not publicly available, e.g., CBI or other provide any technical information and/ following methods: information whose disclosure is or data that you used. • http://www.regulations.gov: Follow restricted by statute. Certain other • If you estimate potential costs or the on-line instructions for submitting material, such as copyrighted material, burdens, explain how you arrived at comments. will be publicly available only in hard your estimate in sufficient detail to • E-mail: [email protected]. copy. Publicly available docket allow for it to be reproduced.

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• Provide specific examples to Considerations Regarding Engine control the emissions of lead from illustrate your concerns, and suggest Emission Standards piston-engine aircraft. Under 49 U.S.C. alternatives. A. The Lead NAAQS and Lead Emissions 44714, FAA would also be required to • Explain your views as clearly as from Piston-Engine Aircraft prescribe standards for the composition 1. Monitoring Lead at Airports to Evaluate possible, avoiding the use of profanity Ambient Concentrations to Which Lead or chemical or physical properties of or personal threats. piston-engine fuel or fuel additives to • Emissions from Piston-Engine Aircraft Make sure to submit your Contribute control or eliminate aircraft lead comments by the comment period 2. Evaluating the Contribution of Lead emissions. deadline identified. Emissions from Piston-Engine Aircraft to In this notice, we discuss our analysis Areas Approaching or Exceeding the of the relevant information and issues to Table of Contents Lead NAAQS date, and we seek further public input I. Overview B. Additional Information EPA Is regarding FOE’s petition. For the A. Background on Leaded Aviation Collecting to Evaluate Ambient Lead purposes of this notice, we will refer to Gasoline Concentrations Attributable to Emissions from Piston-Engine Aircraft the positive or negative exercise of B. Background Information Regarding judgment as to whether lead emissions General Aviation and Use of Piston- C. Considerations Regarding Engine Engine Aircraft Emission Standards from aircraft engines resulting from the C. Background on the Petition and EPA’s VII. Statutory and Executive Order Reviews use of aviation gasoline (avgas) cause or contribute to air pollution which may Response I. Overview D. Statutory Authority reasonably be anticipated to endanger 1. Background EPA is publishing this ANPR in public health or welfare as the 2. Regulatory Authority for Emission further response to a petition submitted ‘‘endangerment finding’’ and the ‘‘cause Standards by Friends of the Earth (FOE) entitled or contribute finding.’’ This short-hand 3. Regulatory Authority for Fuel Standards ‘‘Petition for Rulemaking Seeking the use of ‘‘endangerment finding’’ and E. Federal Actions To Reduce Lead Regulation of Lead Emissions From ‘‘cause or contribute finding’’ is strictly Exposure General Aviation Aircraft Under § 231 of for purposes of simplifying the II. Health and Welfare Effects of Lead the Clean Air Act.’’ 1 In the petition, FOE A. Multimedia and Multi-Pathway discussion, and should not be read as Exposure Considerations requests that the Administrator of EPA: implying that EPA considers the B. Health Effects Information (1) Make a finding that lead emissions exercise of the Administrator’s 1. Blood Lead from general aviation aircraft endanger judgment to require a formal ‘‘finding’’ 2. Health Effects public health and welfare and issue a or ‘‘determination.’’ 3. At-Risk Populations and Life Stages proposed emission standard for lead In 2006, EPA completed the Air C. Welfare Effects from general aviation aircraft under the Quality Criteria Document (AQCD) for 1. Terrestrial Ecosystems Clean Air Act (CAA) or, alternatively, Lead, which critically assesses and 2. Aquatic Ecosystems (2) if the Administrator of EPA believes integrates relevant scientific information III. Lead Emissions from Piston-Engine that insufficient information exists to 2 Aircraft regarding the health effects of lead. A. Inventory of Lead from Piston-Engine make such a finding, commence a study EPA concluded that the latest evidence Powered Aircraft and investigation of the health and indicates adverse health effects, most 1. National Emissions of Lead from Piston- environmental impacts of lead notably among children, are occurring at Engine Aircraft emissions from general aviation aircraft, much lower levels than previously 2. Airport-Specific Emissions of Lead from including impacts to humans, animals considered. In 2008, EPA decreased the Piston-Engine Aircraft and ecosystems under the CAA and level of the primary National Ambient B. Projections for Future Growth issue a public report on the findings of Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for lead IV. Lead Concentrations in the Vicinity of the study and investigation. Section I.C from 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter Airports of this notice discusses the background (μg/m3) to 0.15 μg/m3 in order to A. Chemical and Physical Properties of Lead Emitted by Piston-Engine Aircraft on the petition and EPA’s response to provide increased protection for B. Summary of Airport Lead Monitoring date and Section I.D discusses EPA’s children and other at-risk populations and Modeling Studies statutory authority under section 231(a) against an array of adverse health 1. Summary of Airport Lead Monitoring of the CAA. Under the CAA, if, in the effects, most notably neurological effects Studies Administrator’s judgment, lead in children, including neurocognitive 2. Summary of Airport Lead Modeling emissions from the use of leaded avgas and neurobehavioral effects.3 Studies cause or contribute to air pollution Neurotoxic effects in children and V. Exposure to Lead from Piston-Engine which may reasonably be anticipated to cardiovascular effects in adults are Aircraft and Potential for Impacts endanger public health or welfare, then among those best substantiated as A. Exposure to Lead Emissions from EPA would be required under our occurring at blood lead concentrations Piston-Engine Aircraft μ 1. Population Residing Near Airports statutory authority to prescribe as low as 5 to 10 g/dL (or possibly 2. Children Attending School Near standards to control the emissions of lower); and these categories are Airports lead from piston-engine aircraft. In currently clearly of greatest public 3. Agricultural Activities promulgating such standards, the EPA health concern (AQCD for Lead, p. 8– 4. Pilots, Student-Trainees, Passengers would be required to consult with the 60). The U.S. Centers for Disease 5. Bioaccumulation of Lead in Aquatic Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Control and Prevention (CDC) Organisms and could not change standards if doing concluded in 2005 that no ‘‘safe’’ B. Related Exposures of Concern so would significantly increase noise threshold for blood lead has been 1. Lead Contribution to Ambient identified, and emphasized the Particulate Matter and adversely affect safety. FAA would 2. Ethylene Dibromide then be required, after consultation with EPA, to prescribe regulations to insure 2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006) 3. Non-Exhaust Exposure to Tetraethyl Air Quality Criteria for Lead. Washington, DC, EPA/ Lead compliance with any standards to 600/R–5/144aF. Available online at: http:// VI. Additional Information Available for the www.epa.gov/ncea/. NPRM to Evaluate the Potential for 1 See docket item EPA–HQ–OAR–2007–0294– 3 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Public Health and Welfare Impacts and 0003. Lead 73 FR 66965 (Nov. 12, 2008).

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importance of preventative measures.45 piston engines. Continued use of leaded in highway vehicles.7 The addition of To provide increased protection against avgas provides an ongoing source of lead to fuel used in piston-engine lead-related welfare effects, in 2008 EPA new lead that is deposited in various powered aircraft was not banned in this revised the secondary standard to be environmental media and participates action, and the use of leaded avgas is identical in all respects to the revised in long term cycling mechanisms in the the largest remaining source category of primary standard. Section II of this environment, thus adding to the pool of lead emissions. Lead is not added to jet ANPR provides more detail regarding lead available for uptake by humans and fuel that is used in commercial aircraft, health and welfare effects of lead. biota. We expect the lead from avgas to most military aircraft, or other turbine- Given the recent findings of the be bioavailable in the same way as the engine powered aircraft. Most piston- science summarized by EPA in the lead emitted by motor vehicles in the engine aircraft fall into the categories of AQCD for Lead as well as the findings past, which was well documented to either general aviation (GA) or air taxi of the CDC, the Agency is concerned contribute to blood levels through both (AT). GA and AT aircraft include a about the potential for health and ingestion and inhalation. diverse set of aircraft types and engine welfare effects from exposure to lead models and are used in a wide variety emissions from aircraft engines using As noted in Section II of this ANPR, of applications.8 leaded avgas. On a national basis, once deposited to surfaces, lead can Lead is added to fuel for piston- emissions of lead from aircraft engines subsequently be resuspended into the engine aircraft in the form of tetraethyl using leaded avgas are the largest single ambient air and, because of the lead (TEL). This lead additive helps source category for emissions of lead to persistence of lead, emissions of this boost fuel octane, prevents knock, and air, comprising approximately half of metal contribute to environmental prevents valve seat recession and the national inventory.6 There are media concentrations for many years subsequent loss of compression for almost 20,000 airport facilities in the into the future. Lead that is a soil or dust engines without hardened valves. There U.S. at which leaded avgas may be used, contaminant today may have been are two main types of leaded avgas: 100 and in some areas of the country there airborne yesterday or many years ago. Octane, which can contain up to 4.24 are densely populated residential Therefore lead emissions from piston- grams of lead per gallon; and 100 developments immediately adjacent to engine aircraft could contribute to Octane Low Lead (100 LL), which can these airport facilities. As described in increased lead exposure and risk contain up to 2.12 grams of lead per Section V, we estimate that up to 16 currently or at some time in the future. gallon. Currently, 100LL is the most million people reside and three million commonly available and most Section VI of this ANPR provides an children attend school in close commonly used type of avgas.910 TEL overview of additional information that proximity to airport facilities servicing was first used in piston-engine aircraft will be available for the NPRM to piston-engine aircraft that are operating in 1927.11 Into the 1950s commercial on leaded avgas. evaluate the potential for public health and military aircraft in the U.S. operated Exposure to lead occurs through and welfare impacts from lead emitted on 100 Octane leaded avgas, but in multiple routes (e.g., inhalation, by piston-engine aircraft. These subsequent years, the commercial and ingestion and dermal adsorption), and additional data will come from lead military aircraft fleet largely converted lead emitted to the atmosphere can monitoring being planned to satisfy to jet turbine-engine propelled aircraft. contribute to lead levels in multiple requirements of the Lead NAAQS, air However, the use of avgas containing 4 media (e.g., air, soil and water). The quality modeling planned at EPA and grams of lead per gallon continued in lead monitoring studies conducted at or any information submitted to EPA piston-engine aircraft until the early near airports, described in Section IV of during the comment period for this 1970s when 100LL became the this ANPR, indicate that lead levels in ANPR. dominant leaded fuel in use. Currently, ambient air on and near airports very little 100 Octane is supplied in the servicing piston-engine aircraft are The remainder of this section U.S. and we use the lead content of higher than lead levels in areas not provides background on leaded avgas, 100LL (2.12 grams per gallon) to directly influenced by a lead source. In FOE’s petition and EPA’s response to characterize the lead available from addition, the emissions of lead from the petition to date, and statutory authority over emissions, fuel for avgas. these engines are also expected to Since lead is a persistent pollutant, it distribute widely through the aircraft and Federal actions to reduce lead exposure. Section II provides a is important to characterize the environment. This is in part due to the historical use of this fuel. emission of lead at various altitudes discussion of the health and welfare effects of lead. Sections III, IV and V during aircraft operations as well as the 7 See ‘‘Prohibition on Gasoline Containing Lead or fine particle size of lead emitted by describe the emissions of lead from Lead Additives for Highway Use’’ 61 FR 3832 (Feb. avgas, ambient lead concentration in the 2, 1996). 4 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention vicinity of airports and potential 8 Commercial aircraft include those used for (2005) Preventing lead poisoning in young children: exposure to lead from leaded avgas, scheduled service transporting passengers, freight, a statement by the Centers for Disease Control and or both. Air taxis fly scheduled and for-hire service Prevention. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health respectively. In Section VI, we describe carrying passengers, freight or both, but they and Human Services, Public Health Service. the additional information EPA is usually are smaller aircraft than those operated by August. collecting and considerations regarding commercial air carriers. General aviation includes 5 Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead engine emission standards. Section VII most other aircraft (fixed and rotary wing) used for Poisoning Prevention (ACCLPP) (2007) Interpreting recreational flying, business, and personal and managing blood lead levels <10 ug/dL in contains information on statutory and transportation. children and reducing childhood exposures to lead: executive order reviews covering this 9 ChevronTexaco (2006) Aviation Fuels Technical Recommendations of CDC’s Advisory Committee on action. Review. FTR–3. Available online at: http:// Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention. Morbidity www.chevronglobalaviation.com/docs/ and Mortality Weekly Report. 56(RR–8). November A. Background on Leaded Aviation aviation_tech_review.pdf. 2, 2007. Gasoline 10 ASTM International (2007) Standard 6 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Specification for Aviation Gasolines D910–06. Electronic Report on the Environment. Available at: In 1996, EPA promulgated regulations 11 Ogston, A.R. (1981) A Short History of Aviation http://cfpub.epa.gov/eroe. Updated in December Gasoline Development, 1903–1980. Society of 2009 using the 2005 National Emissions Inventory. that banned the use of leaded gasoline Automotive Engineers. Paper number 810848.

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Approximately 14.6 billion gallons of U.S.14 The Department of concentration of lead in 100LL (2.12 leaded avgas have been consumed in the Transportation’s (DOT’s) FAA provides grams of lead per gallon), the total U.S. between 1970 and 2007. If this fuel information on the volume of leaded quantity of lead supplied in avgas in the was all 100LL, it would account for avgas consumed in the U.S.15 EPA has nation has ranged from 762 tons in 1999 approximately 34,000 tons 12 of lead historically used the DOE EIA avgas fuel to 550 tons in 2008 (a 28% decrease emitted to the air.13 In terms of the volumes supplied to calculate national over that time period). The decrease in potential impacts from long-term use of lead inventories from the consumption fuel consumption is attributed to the leaded avgas at and near airports, older of leaded avgas. We are currently decrease in piston-engine aircraft facilities would be expected to have a evaluating methods used by DOE and activity over that time period and not legacy of lead, particularly those that DOT to calculate annual avgas supply due to a shift to unleaded fuel. There are supported military and commercial and consumption volumes. In this currently over 200,000 piston-engine aircraft operating on 100 Octane. Over 3,000 of the 20,000 airport facilities in document, we provide avgas fuel aircraft in the U.S. that continue to the U.S. are at least 50 years old and volume data supplied by DOE and DOT consume leaded avgas and some airports have been in operation and we note the source of the data for approximately 2,000 new piston-engine since the early 1900s. clarity. Over the past ten years, DOE aircraft requiring leaded avgas are The Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) estimates of the volume of leaded avgas manufactured annually.16 As described Energy Information Administration supplied has ranged from 326 million in Section III.B of this ANPR, there is a (EIA) provides information on the gallons in 1999 to 235 million gallons in slight growth in the activity of general volume of leaded avgas supplied in the 2008 (Figure 1). Applying the aviation aircraft projected to 2025.

12 In this ANPR and in EPA’s National Emissions obtained from http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/ document provides historical data for 2000–2008 as Inventory, the use of the unit tons refers to short hist/mgaupus1A.htm accessed June 2009. well as forecast data. tons. 15 U.S. Department of Transportation Federal 16 General Aviation Manufacturers Association 13 Oak Ridge National Laboratory (2009) Aviation Administration Aviation Policy and Plans. (2008) General Aviation Statistical Databook & Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 28. FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2009–2025. Industry Outlook. Available online at: http:// Available at: http://cta.ornl.gov/data. Table A.7. p.81. Available at: http://www.faa.gov/ www.gama.aero/files/2008_general_ 14 Department of Energy Information data_research/aviation/aerospace_forecasts/2009– aviation_statistical_databook__ Administration. Fuel production volume data 2025/media/2009%20Forecast%20Doc.pdf. This indust_499b0dc37b.pdf.

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B. Background Information Regarding C. Background on the Petition and from certain sources cause or contribute General Aviation and Use of Piston- EPA’s Response to air pollution which may reasonably Engine Aircraft In a 2003 letter to the EPA, FOE be anticipated to endanger public health 24 initially raised the issue of the potential or welfare. EPA has discussed its In the U.S., general aviation aircraft for endangerment caused or contributed ‘‘endangerment finding’’ authority at fly over 27 million hours and carry 166 length in recent notices for greenhouse 17 to by lead emissions from the use of million passengers annually. leaded avgas.22 In 2006, FOE filed a gases published in the Federal Register, Approximately 66 percent of hours petition with EPA requesting that the and we refer readers to those notices for flown by general aviation are conducted Administrator find endangerment or, if detailed discussions of the analytical 18 by piston-engine aircraft. Aircraft in there was insufficient information to and legal framework.25 the general aviation fleet are used for find endangerment, commence a study In 1976, EPA listed lead under CAA personal transportation (36 percent), of lead emissions from piston-engine section 108, making it what is called a instructional flying (19 percent), aircraft. In 2007, the EPA issued a ‘‘criteria pollutant.’’ As part of the listing corporate uses (11 percent), business (11 Federal Register notice on the petition decision, EPA determined that lead was percent), air taxi and air tours (8 requesting comments and information an air pollutant which, in the percent) and the remainder include related to a wide range of issues Administrator’s judgment, has an hours spent in other applications such regarding the use of leaded avgas and adverse effect on public health or as aerial observation and aerial potential public health and welfare welfare under then section 108(a). Once application.19 According to the 2008 exposure issues.23 We sought comments lead was listed, EPA issued primary and General Aviation Statistical Databook & regarding exposure to lead from avgas secondary NAAQS that the Industry Outlook report by the General combustion, emissions of lead, fuel Administrator determined were Aviation Manufacturers Association options, and piston-engine technology. requisite to protect public health with (GAMA) there were 578,541 pilots in The comments received to date are an adequate margin of safety and to the United States in 2008.20 According publicly available in the docket (EPA– protect public welfare from any known to GAMA, in 2008, the number of active HQ–OAR–2007–0294). The majority of or anticipated adverse effects. Section single-engine piston-powered aircraft comments received concerned the 109(b)(1) and (2). As discussed was 144,220 and the number of active nature of the industry and fuel supply elsewhere in this notice, EPA issued the first NAAQS for lead in 1978, and twin-engine piston-powered aircraft was issues. The commenters did not supply recently revised the lead NAAQS by 18,385. In 2008, 1,791 new piston- information regarding health or exposure issues. In 2008, the EPA reducing the level of the standard from engine aircraft were manufactured in initiated a lead study which will 1.5 μg/m3 to 0.15 μg/m3, measured over the U.S. improve the manner in which EPA a 3-month averaging period. These FAA’s Office of Air Traffic provides a models emissions from piston-engine actions are part of the context for the complete listing of operational airport aircraft. This study is described in issues before EPA under section 231(a). facilities in the National Airspace further detail in Section VI of this The first part of the endangerment test System Resources (NASR) database.21 In document. At the time we received concerns identification of air pollution 2008, there were 19,896 airport facilities FOE’s petition, the EPA was in the which may reasonably be anticipated to in the U.S., the vast majority of which process of a full re-evaluation of the endanger public health or welfare. The are expected to have activity by piston- science supporting the lead NAAQS. CAA defines both ‘‘air pollutant’’ and engine aircraft that operate on leaded Information from that re-evaluation and ‘‘welfare.’’ Air pollutant is defined in avgas. FAA’s National Plan of Integrated the relationship between the new lead CAA section 302(g) as: ‘‘Any air Airport Systems identifies standard and the emissions of lead from pollution agent or combination of such approximately 3,400 airports that are piston-engine aircraft are discussed in agents, including any physical, significant to national air transportation. this ANPR. chemical, biological, radioactive D. Statutory Authority (including source material, special 17 General Aviation Manufacturers Association nuclear material, and byproduct (2008) General Aviation Statistical Databook and 1. Background material) substance or matter which is Industry Outlook, p.30. Retrieved on August 17, Section 231 of the CAA sets forth emitted into or otherwise enters the 2009 from: http://www.gama.aero/files/ 2008_general_aviation_statistical_databook__ EPA’s authority to regulate aircraft ambient air. Such term includes any indust_499b0dc37b.pdf. emissions of air pollution. As described precursors to the formation of any air 18 General Aviation Manufacturers Association further in Section I.D.2 of this ANPR, pollutant, to the extent the (2008) General Aviation Statistical Databook and Section 231(a)(2)(A) requires EPA to, Administrator has identified such Industry Outlook, p.30. Retrieved on August 17, precursor or precursors for the 2009 from: http://www.gama.aero/files/ from time to time, issue proposed 2008_general_aviation_statistical emission standards applicable to the particular purpose for which the term _databook__indust_499b0dc37b.pdf. emission of any air pollutant from any ‘air pollutant’ is used.’’ Lead fits within 19 General Accounting Office Report to class or classes of aircraft engines Congressional Requesters (2001) General Aviation which, in the Administrator’s judgment, 24 See, e.g., Ethyl Corp. v. EPA, 541 F.2d 1, 6 (DC Status of the Industry, Related Infrastructure, and Cir.), cert. denied 426 U.S. 941 (1976); see also Safety Issues. GAO–01–916. cause or contribute to air pollution Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. 497, 506, n.7 20 General Aviation Manufacturers Association which may reasonably be anticipated to (2007). (2008) General Aviation Statistical Databook and endanger public health or welfare. EPA 25 See, ‘‘Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Industry Outlook, pp.51–55. Retrieved on August has broad authority in exercising its Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 17, 2009 from: http://www.gama.aero/files/ judgment regarding whether emissions 202(a) of the Clean Air Act; Final Rule,’’ 74 FR 2008_general_aviation_statistical_databook 66496, 66505 (Dec. 15, 2009); see also, ‘‘Proposed __indust_499b0dc37b.pdf. Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for 21 An electronic report can be generated from the 22 FOE letter dated December 12, 2003 submitted Greenhouse Gases Under Section 202(a) of the NASR database and is available for download from to EPA Docket EPA–HQ–OAR–2002–0030. Clean Air Act,’’ 74 FR 18886, 18890–94 (April 24, the Internet at the following Web site. http:// 23 See ‘‘Petition Requesting Rulemaking To Limit 2009); see also ‘‘Regulating Greenhouse Gas www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airports/ Lead Emissions from General Aviation Aircraft; Emissions Under the Clean Air Act; Advance Notice airport_safety/airportdata_5010/. This database is Request for Comments’’ 72 FR 64570 (Nov. 16, of Proposed Rulemaking,’’ 73 FR 44354, 44421–23 updated every 56 days. 2007). (July 30, 2008).

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this capacious definition, and has long judgment in determining contribution, modifications as the Administrator been regulated as an air pollutant by and authorized regulatory controls to ‘‘deems appropriate.’’ EPA under the CAA (see Section I.E. of address air pollution even if the air In setting or revising standards, this ANPR). pollution problem results from a wide section 231(b) provides that EPA shall There is no definition of public health variety of sources. The cause or have them take effect after such period in the CAA. The U.S. Supreme Court contribute test is designed to authorize as EPA finds necessary (after has discussed the concept in the context EPA to identify and then address what consultation with the Secretary of of whether costs can be considered may well be many different sectors or Transportation) to permit the when setting NAAQS. Whitman v. groups of sources that are each part of development and application of the American Trucking Ass’n, 531 U.S. 457 an air pollution problem. requisite technology, giving appropriate (2001). In Whitman, the Court imbued Section 231(a)(2) refers to consideration to the cost of compliance the term with its most natural meaning: contribution and does not specify that within such period. Section 231(c) then ‘‘the health of the public.’’ Id., at 466. the contribution must be significant states that EPA’s regulations regarding When considering public health, EPA before an affirmative finding can be aircraft shall not apply if disapproved has looked at morbidity, including acute made. Any finding of a ‘‘contribution’’ by the President, after notice and and chronic health effects, as well as requires some threshold to be met; a opportunity for public hearing, on the mortality. EPA has long regulated truly trivial or de minimis basis of a finding by DOT that such emissions of lead air pollution due to ‘‘contribution’’ might not count as such. regulations would create a hazard to their adverse impacts on public health In the past, the Administrator has aircraft safety. Section 232 directs DOT (see section I.E. of this ANPR). Exposure evaluated the emissions of the source or to issue and implement regulations to to lead causes ‘‘a broad array of sources in different ways, based on the insure compliance with EPA’s deleterious effects on multiple organ particular circumstances involved. In standards, while section 233 pre-empts systems,’’ among children and adults some mobile source rulemakings, the States and local governments from (AQCD for Lead, p.8–24 and Section Administrator has used the percent of adopting or enforcing any aircraft 8.4.1). Of particular concern are the emissions from the regulated mobile emission standards that are not identical neurotoxic effects of lead in young source category compared to the total to EPA’s standards. children.26 See Section II of this ANPR mobile source inventory for that air In recently reviewing this statutory for a more complete overview of the pollutant as the best way to evaluate scheme, the U.S. Court of Appeals for 29 public health effects of lead. contribution. In other instances the the District of Columbia Circuit ruled Regarding ‘‘welfare,’’ CAA section Administrator has looked at the percent that it constitutes a ‘‘both explicit and 302(h) states that ‘‘[a]ll language of emissions compared to the total extraordinarily broad’’ delegation of referring to effects on welfare includes, nonattainment area inventory of the air ‘‘expansive authority to EPA to enact but is not limited to, effects on soils, pollution at issue.30 EPA has found that appropriate regulations applicable to the water, crops, vegetation, man-made air pollutant emissions that amount to emissions of air pollutants from aircraft materials, animals, wildlife, weather, 1.2 percent of the total inventory met engines.’’ 32 the statutory test for contribution, visibility, and climate, damage to and 3. Regulatory Authority for Fuel triggering EPA’s regulatory authority.31 deterioration of property, and hazards to Standards transportation, as well as effects on 2. Regulatory Authority for Emission Section 211(c) of the CAA allows EPA economic values and on personal Standards comfort and well-being, whether caused to regulate fuels used in motor vehicles by transformation, conversion, or Section 231 of the CAA sets forth and nonroad vehicles or engines where combination with other air pollutants.’’ EPA’s authority to regulate aircraft emission products of the fuel either: (1) This definition is quite broad, and may emissions of air pollution. Section Cause or contribute to air pollution that include effects other than those listed 231(a)(2)(A) requires EPA to, from time reasonably may be anticipated to here as effects on welfare. Welfare to time, issue proposed emission endanger public health or welfare, or (2) effects caused by lead have been standards applicable to the emission of will impair to a significant degree the evaluated by EPA and were the basis for any air pollutant from any class or performance of any emission control establishing the secondary lead classes of aircraft engines which, in the device or system which is in general Administrator’s judgment, cause or use, or which the Administrator finds standard.27 By instructing the Administrator to contribute to air pollution which may has been developed to a point where in consider whether emissions of an air reasonably be anticipated to endanger a reasonable time it will be in general pollutant cause or contribute to air public health or welfare. Section use were such a regulation to be pollution, the statute is clear that she 231(a)(2)(B)(i) directs EPA to consult promulgated. This section of the CAA need not find that emissions from any with FAA on aircraft engine emission was used to eliminate lead from fuel one sector or group of sources are the standards, and section 231(a)(2)(B)(ii) used in motor vehicles. EPA’s authority sole or even the major part of an air provides that EPA shall not change the to regulate fuels is limited to those fuels pollution problem. Moreover, section aircraft engine emission standards if used in motor vehicles, motor vehicle 231(a) does not contain a modifier on its such change would significantly engines, or nonroad engines or vehicles, use of the term contribute. Unlike some increase noise and adversely affect under CAA section 211(c)(1). The CAA other CAA provisions, it does not safety. Section 231(a)(3) directs EPA to defines ‘‘motor vehicle,’’ ‘‘nonroad require ‘‘significant’’ contribution.28 issue final regulations with such engine,’’ and ‘‘nonroad vehicle’’ in Congress made it clear that the section 216 for purposes of part A of 29 Administrator is to exercise her See, e.g., 66 FR 5001 (January 18, 2001) (heavy title II of the CAA. Part A is also where duty engine and diesel sulfur rule). the authority to regulate fuels under 30 See, e.g., 67 FR 68242 (November 8, 2002) section 211 resides. However, EPA’s 26 See ‘‘National Ambient Air Quality Standards (snowmobile rule). for Lead’’ 73 FR 66970–67007 (Nov. 12, 2008). 31 Bluewater Network v. EPA, 370 F.3d 1, 15 (DC authority to regulate aircraft resides in 27 See ‘‘National Ambient Air Quality Standards Cir. 2004) (For Fairbanks, this contribution was for Lead’’ 73 FR 67007–67012 (Nov. 12, 2008). equivalent to 1.2 percent of the total daily CO 32 NACAA v. EPA, 489 F.3d 1221, 1229–30 (DC 28 See, e.g., CAA sections 111(b); 213(a)(2), (4). inventory for 2001). Cir. 2007).

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part B of title II, and therefore the from motor vehicles presented a annually. Projected growth for this definitions of section 216 do not apply significant risk of harm to the health of industry is discussed in Section III.B. to aircraft. This means that aircraft are urban population groups, especially Significant reductions in emission of not ‘‘nonroad vehicles,’’ and aircraft children. Children are at a sensitive life lead from stationary sources have been engines are not ‘‘nonroad engines.’’ stage with regard to the adverse health achieved between 1985 and 2002, Consequently, EPA’s authority to effects of lead. In 1985, EPA, noting the totaling almost 2,000 tons of lead.39 regulate fuels under section 211 does significant reduction in adverse health Regulations promulgated in 1995, 1997 not extend to fuels used exclusively in effects, mainly among pre-school age and 1999 controlled emissions of lead aircraft, such as leaded avgas, that are children, that would result from from primary and secondary lead not also used in motor vehicles or reductions in lead content in gasoline, smelters, contributing to these nonroad vehicles or engines (excluding promulgated additional regulations to reductions.40 41 42 Currently, metal fuel used in vehicles exclusively). decrease the allowable concentration of industry emissions of lead comprise Instead, fuels used exclusively in lead in gasoline for motor vehicles to 23% of the national inventory (298 aircraft engines are to be regulated by 0.10 grams per gallon.35 In 1990 tons). Additional reductions in the the FAA. Title 49 (49 U.S.C. 44714) Congress added section 211(n) to the emission of lead have been requires that ‘‘the Administrator of the CAA which provides that after accomplished through controls on waste Federal Aviation Administration shall December 31, 1995, it shall be unlawful incineration and other stationary prescribe (1) standards for the 43 44 45 to sell any gasoline for use in any motor sources. These standards have composition or chemical or physical vehicle which contains lead or lead been set at ‘‘maximum achievable properties of an aircraft fuel or fuel additives. In 1996, EPA incorporated the control technology’’ (MACT) levels, and additive to control or eliminate aircraft CAA statutory ban on gasoline under CAA sections 112 and 129 EPA emissions the Administrator of the containing lead or lead additives for must revisit these standards in the Environmental Protection Agency highway use into the Agency’s existing future to determine whether they are decides under section 231 of the Clean regulations on the lead content of sufficiently stringent to provide an Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7571) endanger the gasoline.36 ample margin of safety to protect public public health or welfare; and (2) In this regulation, it was noted that the petroleum industry may health and prevent an adverse regulations providing for carrying out environmental effect. continue to make and market gasoline and enforcing those standards.’’ As lead is a multimedia pollutant, a produced with lead additives for all broad range of Federal programs beyond E. Federal Actions To Reduce Lead remaining uses, including use as fuel in those that focus on air pollution control Exposure aircraft, racing cars, and nonroad provide for nationwide reductions in engines such as farm equipment engines The U.S. has made tremendous environmental releases and human progress in reducing lead concentrations and marine engines, to the extent 37 exposures. In addition, the U.S. Centers in the outdoor air. Nationwide, average otherwise allowed by law. for Disease Control and Prevention concentrations of lead in the air have In fact, there have been no regulatory (CDC) programs provide for the tracking dropped 91 percent between 1980 and limits placed on the production and of children’s blood lead levels 2008.33 Much of this dramatic consumption of leaded avgas, and, as nationally and provide guidance on improvement occurred as a result of the noted in Section I.A of this ANPR, levels at which medical and permanent phase-out of lead in motor emissions of lead from piston-engine environmental case management vehicle gasoline discussed in this aircraft account for an increasing activities should be implemented.46 47 In section of the ANPR. However, lead fraction of the lead emissions to air (e.g., continues to be emitted into the air from accounting for approximately half the 39 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008) many different types of stationary national inventory of lead emission in EPA’s Report on the Environment EPA/600/R–07/ sources and piston-engine aircraft as 2005). This is in spite of the decrease in 045F. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/roe/. well as certain high performance 40 ‘‘National Emission Standards for Hazardous the supply of leaded avgas nationally Air Pollutants From Secondary Lead Smelting’’ 60 engines such as race cars. from 374 million gallons (875 tons of FR 32587 (June 23, 1995). Federal programs provide for lead) in 1990 to 235 million gallons (550 41 ‘‘National Emission Standards for Hazardous nationwide reductions in emissions of tons of lead) in 2008.38 The decrease in Air Pollutants From Secondary Lead Smelting’’ 62 FR 32209 (June 13, 1997). lead and other air pollutants through fuel consumption is attributed to the several provisions in the CAA. In the 42 ‘‘National Emission Standards for Hazardous decrease in piston-engine aircraft Air Pollutants for Primary Lead Smelting’’ 64 FR early 1970s, EPA issued regulations activity over that time period and not 30194 (June 4, 1999). regarding lead in gasoline in order to 43 ‘‘Standards of Performance for New Stationary 34 due to a shift to unleaded fuel. There are accomplish two purposes. First, EPA over 200,000 piston-engine aircraft in Sources and Emission Guidelines for Existing Sources: Municipal Waste Combustors’’ 60 FR issued regulations designed to ensure the U.S. that continue to consume the availability of unleaded gasoline for 65387 (Dec. 19, 1995). leaded avgas and approximately 2,000 44 use in motor vehicles equipped with ‘‘Emission Guidelines for Existing Sources and new piston-engine aircraft requiring Standards of Performance for New Stationary emission control systems such as leaded avgas are manufactured Sources’’ 62 FR 45124 (Aug. 25, 1997). catalytic converters. EPA had 45 ‘‘Standards of Performance for New Stationary determined that lead additives would Sources and Emission Guidelines for Existing 35 impair to a significant degree the ‘‘Regulation of Fuels and Fuel Additives; Sources: Large Municipal Waste Combustors’’ 71 FR Gasoline Lead Content’’ 50 FR 9386 (March 7, 1985). 27324–27348 (May 10, 2006). performance of emission control 36 ‘‘Prohibition on Gasoline Containing Lead or 46 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention systems. Second, EPA issued Lead Additives for Highway Use’’ 61 FR 3832 (Feb. (2005) Preventing lead poisoning in young children: regulations designed to gradually reduce 2, 1996). a statement by the Centers for Disease Control and the content of lead in leaded gasoline, 37 ‘‘Prohibition on Gasoline Containing Lead or Prevention. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health Lead Additives for Highway Use’’ 61 FR 3834 (Feb. and Human Services, Public Health Service. because EPA found that lead emissions 2, 1996). August. 38 These fuel volume estimates are from the 47 Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead 33 See http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/lead.html. Department of Energy Information Administration. Poisoning Prevention (2007) Interpreting and 34 ‘‘Regulation of Fuels and Fuel Additives’’ 38 FR http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/hist/ managing blood lead levels <10 μg/dL in children 1254 (Dec. 4, 1973). mgaupus1A.htm. and reducing childhood exposures to lead:

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1991, the Secretary of the U.S. repair work occurring in housing in retailers),56 and activities to reduce the Department of Health and Human which they live. practice of backyard trash burning.57 In addition to the lead control Services (HHS) characterized lead Programs associated with the ‘‘ programs summarized above, EPA’s poisoning as the number one Comprehensive Environmental environmental threat to the health of research program, with other Federal Response, Compensation, and Liability children in the United States.’’ 48 In agencies, identifies, encourages and Act (CERCLA or Superfund) and 1997, President Clinton created, by conducts research needed to locate and Executive Order 13045, the President’s Resource Conservation Recovery Act assess serious risks and to develop Task Force on Environmental Health (RCRA) also implement abatement methods and tools to characterize and Risks and Safety Risks to Children in programs, reducing exposures to lead help reduce risks. For example, EPA’s response to increased awareness that and other pollutants. For example, EPA Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic children face disproportionate risks determines and implements protective Model for Lead in Children (IEUBK from environmental health and safety levels for lead in soil at Superfund sites model) and the Adult Lead hazards (62 FR 19885).49 By Executive and RCRA corrective action facilities. Methodology are widely used and Orders issued in October 2001 and April Federal programs, including those accepted as tools that provide guidance 2003, President Bush extended the work implementing RCRA, provide for in evaluating site specific data. More for the Task Force for an additional management of hazardous substances in recently, in recognition of the need for three and a half years beyond its hazardous and municipal solid waste.50 a single model that predicts lead original charter (66 FR 52013 and 68 FR Federal regulations concerning batteries concentrations in tissue for children and 19931). The Task Force set a Federal in municipal solid waste control the adults, EPA is developing the All Ages goal of eliminating childhood lead collection and recycling or proper Lead Model (AALM) to provide poisoning by the year 2010, and disposal of batteries containing lead.51 researchers and risk assessors with a reducing lead poisoning in children was Similarly, Federal programs provide for pharmacokinetic model capable of estimating blood, tissue, and bone identified as the Task Force’s top the reduction in environmental releases concentrations of lead based on priority. of hazardous substances such as lead in Federal abatement programs provide 52 estimates of exposure over the lifetime for the reduction in human exposures the management of wastewater. of the individual. EPA research and environmental releases from in- A variety of Federal nonregulatory activities on substances including lead place materials containing lead (e.g., programs also provide for reduced focus on better characterizing aspects of lead-based paint, urban soil and dust, environmental release of lead- health and environmental effects, and contaminated waste sites). Federal containing materials through voluntary exposure, and control or management of regulations on disposal of lead-based measures and more general environmental releases.58 paint waste help facilitate the removal encouragement of pollution prevention, II. Health and Welfare Effects of Lead of lead-based paint from residences (68 promotion of reuse and recycling, FR 36487). Further, in 1991, EPA reduction of priority and toxic A. Multimedia and Multi-Pathway lowered the maximum levels of lead chemicals in products and waste, and Exposure Considerations permitted in public water systems from conservation of energy and materials. This section briefly summarizes the 50 parts per billion (ppb) to 15 ppb These include the voluntary partnership information presented in the 2008 measured at the consumer’s tap (56 FR between EPA and the National NAAQS for Lead,59 the 2007 Lead Staff 26460). Paper 60 and the 2006 Air Quality Federal programs to reduce exposure Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) which has achieved the goal Criteria Document for Lead (AQCD for to lead in paint, dust, and soil are Lead).61 Lead is an unusual pollutant in specified under the comprehensive of removing alkyl lead (organic forms of lead) from racing fuels used in the that the distribution of lead to different Federal regulatory framework developed environmental media (e.g., air, soil, under the Residential Lead-Based Paint Nextel Cup, Busch and Craftsman Truck Series.53 Other programs include the water) is important for evaluating public Hazard Reduction Act (Title X). Under health and welfare effects. Lead emitted Resource Conservation Challenge,54 the Title X and Title IV of the Toxic to the air can result in exposure via National Waste Minimization Substances Control Act (TSCA), EPA multiple pathways (e.g., inhalation, Program,55 ‘‘Plug in to eCycling’’ (a has established regulations and ingestion, dermal absorption). Some key associated programs with the goal of partnership between EPA and consumer multimedia and multi-pathway reducing exposure to lead via lead- electronics manufacturers and considerations for lead include the based paint. For example, under Title IV following: of TSCA, EPA established standards 50 See, e.g., 66 FR 58258. (1) Lead is emitted into the air from identifying hazardous levels of lead in 51 See, e.g., ‘‘Implementation of the Mercury- many sources encompassing a wide residential paint, dust, and soil in 2001. Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act’’ http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/ On March 31, 2008, the Agency issued 56 recycle/battery.pdf and ‘‘Municipal Solid Waste http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/partnerships/ a new rule (73 FR 21692) to further plugin/index.htm. Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the United protect children from lead-based paint 57 States: Facts and Figures for 2005’’ http:// http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/ municipal/backyard/index.htm. hazards resulting from renovation and www.epa.gov/epaoswer/osw/conserve/resources/ 58 msw-2005.pdf. http://www.epa.gov/ord/. 59 Recommendations of CDC’s Advisory Committee on 52 http://www.epa.gov/owm/. National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Lead 73 FR 66970–67007 (Nov. 12, 2008) Section Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention. Morbidity 53 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Mortality Weekly Report. 56(RR–8). November II.A. Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Pollutants 2, 2007. 60 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Review (PBT) Program (2002) PBT national action plan for 48 Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for alkyl-Pb. Washington, DC. Available online at: Lead: Policy Assessment of Scientific and Technical (1991) The First Comprehensive National _ _ Conference; Final Report. October 6, 7, 8, 1991. http://www.epa.gov/pbt/pubs/Alkyl lead action Information OAQPS Staff Paper (2007) Chapter 2. _plan_final.pdf. 49 Co-chaired by the Secretary of the HHS and the EPA–452/R–07–013 November. Administrator of the EPA, the Task Force consisted 54 http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/rcc/index.htm. 61 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Air of representatives from 16 Federal departments and 55 http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/ Quality Criteria for Lead (2006) Volume I: Chapters agencies. wastemin/. 2 & 3. EPA/600/R–5/144aF. October.

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variety of stationary and mobile source inhalation (73 FR 66971). These quickly absorbed into the blood stream types. Lead emitted to the air is exposure pathways are described more and distributed throughout the body.68 predominantly in particulate form, with fully in Section 8.2.2 of the AQCD for Less commonly, lead, particularly the particles occurring in various sizes. Lead. organic forms of lead such as alkyl lead, Once emitted, the particles can be (4) Air-related exposure pathways are can be absorbed through the skin transported long or short distances affected by changes to air quality, (AQCD for Lead, page 4–12). Blood lead depending on their size, which including changes in concentrations of levels are extensively used as an index influences the amount of time spent in lead in air and changes in atmospheric or biomarker of exposure by national the aerosol phase. In general, larger deposition of lead. Further, because of and international health agencies, as particles tend to deposit more quickly, its persistence in the environment, lead well as in epidemiological (AQCD for within shorter distances from emissions deposited from the air may contribute to Lead, Sections 4.3.1.3 and 8.3.2) and points (e.g., kilometers), while smaller human and ecological exposures for toxicological studies of lead health particles will remain in the aerosol years into the future as described above. effects and dose-response relationships phase and travel longer distances before Additionally, human exposures to (AQCD for Lead, Chapter 5). The U.S. depositing (e.g., hundreds to thousands lead include pathways that are not CDC, and its predecessor agencies, has of kilometers).62 As summarized in the related to ambient air concentrations. for many years used blood lead level as AQCD for Lead, airborne concentrations The pathways of human exposure to a metric for identifying children at risk of lead at sites near sources are much lead that are not air-related include of adverse health effects and for 65 higher than at sites not known to be ingestion of indoor lead paint, lead in specifying particular public health directly influenced by sources. diet as a result of inadvertent additions recommendations.69 Most recently, in (2) Once deposited to surfaces, lead during food processing, and lead in 2005, with consideration of a review of can subsequently be resuspended into drinking water attributable to lead in the evidence by their advisory the ambient air and, because of the distribution systems, as well as other committee, CDC revised their statement persistence of lead, emissions of this generally less prevalent pathways, as on Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young metal contribute to environmental described in the AQCD for Lead (pp. 3– Children.70 CDC specifically recognized media concentrations for many years 50 to 3–51). the evidence of adverse health effects in into the future as it is cycled within and B. Health Effects Information children with blood lead levels below between environmental media such as 10 μg/dL,71 the data demonstrating that In 2008, EPA decreased the level of soil, air and water. Lead that is a soil or no ‘‘safe’’ threshold for blood lead had the primary (health-based) NAAQS for been identified, and emphasized the dust contaminant today may have been 3 3 Lead from 1.5 μg/m to 0.15 μg/m in 72 airborne yesterday or many years ago.63 importance of preventative measures. order to provide increased protection for (3) Exposure to lead emitted into the Since 1976, the CDC has been children and other at-risk populations ambient air can occur directly by monitoring blood lead levels in multiple against an array of adverse health inhalation, or indirectly by ingestion of age groups nationally through the effects, most notably neurological effects lead-contaminated food, water or other National Health and Nutrition in children, including neurocognitive 73 materials including dust and soil. This Examination Survey (NHANES). The and neurobehavioral effects.66 This occurs due to the environmental cycling section summarizes information 68 of this persistent metal which, once Additionally, lead freely crosses the placenta provided in the numerous recent resulting in continued fetal exposure throughout emitted into the ambient air is documents summarizing health and pregnancy, with that exposure increasing during the distributed to other environmental welfare effects from exposure to lead, latter half of pregnancy (AQC for Lead, Section media and can contribute to human 6.6.2). including the AQCD for Lead, CDC 69 exposures via indoor and outdoor dusts, Centers for Disease Control (1991) Preventing documents, the EPA Staff Paper 67 and lead poisoning in young children: a statement by outdoor soil, food and drinking water, the proposed and final NAAQS for the Centers for Disease Control. Atlanta, GA: U.S. as well as inhalation of air. Atmospheric Lead. First, the use of blood lead as a Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service; October 1. Available online at: deposition is estimated to comprise a measure of exposure to lead is described significant proportion of lead in food http://wonder.cdc.gov/wonder/prevguid/p0000029/ followed by a brief summary of the p0000029.asp. (AQCD for Lead, p. 3–48). For example, broad array of lead-induced health 70 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention livestock may be exposed to lead in effects. Particular focus is given here to (2005) Preventing lead poisoning in young children: vegetation (e.g., grasses and silage) and the effects of lead on the developing a statement by the Centers for Disease Control and in surface soils via incidental ingestion Prevention. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health nervous system in children since this is and Human Services, Public Health Service. of soil while grazing (USEPA 1986, among the most sensitive endpoints August. 64 Section 7.2.2.2.2). And dietary intake identified for this toxic metal. The 71 As described by the Advisory Committee on may be a predominant source of lead section ends with a description of at- Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention, ‘‘In 1991, exposure among adults, greater than CDC defined the blood lead level (BLL) that should risk populations and life stages. prompt public health actions as 10 μg/dL. consumption of water and beverages or Concurrently, CDC also recognized that a BLL of 10 1. Blood Lead μg/dL did not define a threshold for the harmful 62 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2004) Lead enters the body most commonly effects of lead. Research conducted since 1991 has Air quality criteria for particulate matter. Research via the respiratory system and/or strengthened the evidence that children’s physical Triangle Park, NC: Office of Research and and mental development can be affected at BLLS Development, National Center for Environmental gastrointestinal tract, from which it is <10 μg/dL’’ (ACCLPP, 2007). Assessment; EPA report no. EPA–600/P–99/0028aF. 72 Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead 63 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for 65 Weathering of outdoor lead paint may also Poisoning Prevention (2007) Interpreting and Lead 73 FR 66971 (Nov. 12, 2008), AQC for Lead, contribute to soil lead levels adjacent to the house. managing blood lead levels <10 μg/dL in children Section 2.5. 66 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for and reducing childhood exposures to lead: 64 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986) Lead 73 FR 66965 (Nov. 12, 2008). Recommendations of CDC’s Advisory Committee on Air quality criteria for lead. Research Triangle Park, 67 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention. Morbidity NC: Office of Health and Environmental Review of the National Ambient Air Quality and Mortality Weekly Report. 56(RR–8). November Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Standards for Lead: Policy Assessment of Scientific 2, 2007. Assessment Office; EPA report no. EPA–600/8–83/ and Technical Information, OAQPS Staff Paper. 73 This information documents a variation in 028aF–dF. 4v. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, EPA–452/R–07–013. Office of Air Quality Planning mean blood lead levels across the various age VA; PB87–142378. and Standards, Research Triangle Park. groups monitored. For example, mean blood lead

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NHANES information has documented and function; reproduction and physical substantiated as occurring at blood lead the dramatic decline in mean blood lead development; kidney function; concentrations as low as 5 to 10 μg/dL levels in the U.S. population that has cardiovascular function; and immune (or possibly lower); and these categories occurred since the 1970s and that function. The weight of evidence varies are currently clearly of greatest public coincides with regulations regarding across this array of effects and is health concern’’ (AQCD for Lead, p. 8– leaded motor vehicle fuels, leaded comprehensively described in the 60).81 82 The AQCD for Lead states, paint, and lead-containing plumbing AQCD for Lead. There is also some ‘‘There is no level of lead exposure that materials that have reduced lead evidence of lead carcinogenicity, can yet be identified, with confidence, exposure among the general population primarily from animal studies, together as clearly not being associated with (AQCD for Lead, Sections 4.3.1.3 and with limited human evidence of some risk of deleterious health effects’’ 8.3.3). suggestive associations (AQCD for Lead, (AQCD for Lead, p. 8–63). While blood lead levels in the U.S. Sections 5.6.2, 6.7, and 8.4.10). The U.S. While adults are susceptible to lead general population, including geometric EPA has listed lead under current EPA effects at lower blood lead levels than mean levels in children aged 1–5 have guidelines as a probable human previously understood (e.g., AQCD for declined significantly, levels have been carcinogen based on the available Lead, p. 8–25), among the wide variety found to vary among children of animal data (AQCD for Lead, p. 6– of health endpoints associated with lead different socioeconomic status (SES) 195).76 Inorganic lead has been exposures, there is general consensus and other demographic characteristics classified as a probable human that the developing nervous system in (AQCD for Lead, p. 4–21), as well as by carcinogen by the International Agency children is among the, if not the, most age.74 Racial/ethnic and income for Research on Cancer (inorganic lead sensitive. Blood lead levels in U.S. disparities in blood lead levels in compounds), based mainly on sufficient children have decreased notably since children persist. For example, blood animal evidence,77 and classified as the late 1970s. Studies evaluating lead levels for lower income and reasonably anticipated to be a human current blood lead levels in children African American children are higher carcinogen by the U.S. National have reported associations with than those for the general population. Toxicology Program (lead and lead neurodevelopment effects (AQCD for The spectrum of health effects compounds) (AQCD for Lead, Section Lead, Chapter 6). Functional discussed in the following section is 6.7.2).78 79 manifestations of lead neurotoxicity relevant for all forms of lead that enter As described in the AQCD for Lead, during childhood include sensory, the blood stream. Once in the blood the key effects associated with motor, cognitive and behavioral individual blood lead levels in children impacts. Numerous epidemiological stream, lead bioaccumulates in the μ body, with the bone serving as a large, and adults in the range of 10 g/dL and studies have reported neurocognitive, long-term storage compartment. Soft lower include neurological, neurobehavioral, sensory, and motor 80 tissues (e.g., kidney, liver, brain, etc.) hematological and immune effects for function effects in children with blood serve as smaller compartments, in children, and hematological, lead levels below 10 μg/dL (AQCD Lead, which lead may be more mobile (AQCD cardiovascular and renal effects for Sections 6.2 and 8.4). for Lead, Sections 4.3.1.4 and 8.3.1). adults (AQCD for Lead, Tables 8–5 and Cognitive effects associated with lead During childhood development, bone 8–6, pp. 8–60 to 8–62). As evident from exposures that have been observed in represents approximately 70% of a the discussions in Chapters 5, 6 and 8 epidemiological studies have included ‘‘ child’s body burden of lead, and this of the AQCD for Lead, neurotoxic decrements in intelligence test results, effects in children and cardiovascular accumulation continues through such as the widely used IQ score, and effects in adults are among those best adulthood, when more than 90% of the in academic achievement as assessed by total lead body burden is stored in the various standardized tests as well as by 76 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, class ranking and graduation rates bone (AQCD for Lead, Section 4.2.2). Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) (1993) Lead in bone can be mobilized during IRIS Summary for Lead and compounds (CASRN (AQCD for Lead, Section 6.2.16 and pp critical periods including pregnancy 7439–92–1), Available online at: http:// 8–29 to 8–30). As noted in the AQCD for and lactation (AQCD for Lead, Section www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/subst/0277.htm. Lead with regard to the latter, 77 International Agency for Research on Cancer ‘‘Associations between lead exposure 5.8.6). (IARC) (2006) Inorganic and organic lead compounds. Lyon, France: International Agency for and academic achievement observed in 2. Health Effects Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the the above-noted studies were significant Lead, as with mercury and arsenic, evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to even after adjusting for IQ, suggesting 75 humans: volume 87. Available online at: http:// that lead-sensitive neuropsychological has no known biological function. monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol87/ Lead has been demonstrated to exert ‘‘a index.php. processing and learning factors not broad array of deleterious effects on 78 National Toxicology Program (2003) Report on multiple organ systems via widely carcinogens background document for lead and lead 81 With regard to blood lead levels in individual diverse mechanisms of action’’ (AQCD compounds. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. children associated with particular neurological Department of Health and Human Services. effects, the AQC for Lead states ‘‘Collectively, the for Lead, p. 8–24 and Section 8.4.1). Available online at: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/ prospective cohort and cross-sectional studies offer This array of health effects includes newhomeroc/roc11/Lead-Public.pdf. evidence that exposure to lead affects the effects on heme biosynthesis and related 79 National Toxicology Program. (2004) Lead intellectual attainment of preschool and school age μ functions; neurological development (CAS no. 7439–92–1) and lead compounds. In: children at blood lead levels <10 g/dL (most Report on carcinogens, eleventh edition. Research clearly in the 5 to 10 μg/dL range, but, less Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and definitively, possibly lower).’’ (p. 6–269) levels in 2001–2002 for ages 1–5, 6–11, 12–19 and Human Services. Available online at: http:// 82 Epidemiological studies have consistently greater than or equal to 20 years of age, are 1.70, ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/eleventh/profiles/ demonstrated associations between lead exposure μ 1.25, 0.94, and 1.56 g/dL, respectively (AQC for s101lead.pdf. and enhanced risk of deleterious cardiovascular Lead, p. 4–22). 80 At mean blood lead levels, in children, on the outcomes, including increased blood pressure and 74 Axelrad, D., U.S. EPA (November 4, 2009) E- order of 10 μg/dL, and somewhat lower, incidence of hypertension. A meta-analysis of mail message to Marion Hoyer, U.S. EPA. Available associations have been found with effects to the numerous studies estimates that a doubling of in docket number EPA–HQ–OAR–2007–0294. immune system, including altered macrophage blood-lead level (e.g., from 5 to 10 μg/dL) is 75 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) activation, increased IgE levels and associated associated with ∼1.0 mm Hg increase in systolic Framework for Metals Risk Assessment. Office of increased risk for autoimmunity and asthma (AQC blood pressure and ∼0.6 mm Hg increase in the Science Advisor. EPA 120/R–07/001. for Lead, Sections 5.9, 6.8, and 8.4.6). diastolic pressure (AQC for Lead, p. E–10).

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reflected by global intelligence indices or irreversibility of such effects can be result from a multitude of factors, might contribute to reduced the result of damage occurring without including genetic or developmental performance on academic tasks’’ (AQCD adequate repair offsets or of the factors, life stages (i.e., childhood or old for Lead, pp 8–29 to 8–30). persistence of lead in the body (AQCD age), gender differences, or preexisting With regard to potential implications for Lead, Section 8.5.2). It is disease states. In addition, new of lead effects on IQ, the AQCD for Lead additionally important to note that there attention has been paid to the concept recognizes the ‘‘critical’’ distinction may be long-term consequences of such of some population groups having between population and individual risk, deficits over a lifetime. Poor academic increased responses to pollution-related identifying issues regarding declines in skills and achievement can have effects due to factors including IQ for an individual and for the ‘‘enduring and important effects on socioeconomic status (SES) (e.g., population. The AQCD for Lead further objective parameters of success in real reduced access to health care, poor states that a ‘‘point estimate indicating a life,’’ as well as increased risk of nutritional status) or particularly modest mean change on a health index antisocial and delinquent behavior elevated exposure levels. at the individual level can have (AQCD for Lead, Section 6.2.16). EPA uses the term ‘‘life stage’’ to refer substantial implications at the The current evidence reviewed in the to a distinguishable time frame in an population level’’ (AQCD for Lead, p. 8– AQCD for Lead with regard to the individual’s life characterized by unique 77).83 A downward shift in the mean IQ quantitative relationship between and relatively stable behavioral and/or value is associated with both substantial neurocognitive decrement, such as IQ, physiological characteristics that are decreases in percentages achieving very and blood lead levels indicates that the associated with development and high scores and substantial increases in slope for lead effects on IQ is nonlinear growth. To recognize the rapid changes the percentage of individuals achieving and is steeper at lower blood lead levels, that occur during childhood related to μ very low scores (AQCD for Lead, p. 8– such that each g/dL increase in blood physiology, metabolism, anatomy and 81).84 For an individual functioning in lead may have a greater effect on IQ at behavior that can impact exposure and the low IQ range due to the influence of lower blood lead levels (e.g., below 10 risk to environmental hazards, EPA now μ developmental risk factors other than g/dL) than at higher levels (AQCD for views childhood as a sequence of life lead, a lead-associated IQ decline of Lead, Section 6.2.13; pp. 8–63 to 8–64; stages, from conception through fetal several points might be sufficient to Figure 8–7). As noted in the AQCD for development, infancy, and adolescence. drop that individual into the range Lead, a number of examples of non- or EPA published several exposure and associated with increased risk of supralinear dose-response relationships risk assessment guidance documents educational, vocational, and social exist in toxicology (AQCD for Lead, pp. beginning in 2005,85 86 87 in which we failure (AQCD for Lead, p. 8–77). 6–76 and 8–38 to 8–39). With regard to emphasized the importance of Other cognitive effects observed in the effects of lead on considering the potential for increased studies of children have included neurodevelopmental outcomes such as sensitivity of different life stages or age decrements in attention, executive IQ, the AQCD for Lead suggests that groups in addition to that of groups that functions, language, memory, learning initial neurodevelopmental effects at form a fixed portion of the population and visuospatial processing (AQCD for lower lead levels may be disrupting very based on characteristics such as pre- Lead, Sections 5.3.5, 6.2.5 and 8.4.2.1), different biological mechanisms (e.g., existing disease, gender, socioeconomic with attention and executive function early developmental processes in the status, geographical location, culture/ central nervous system) than more effects associated with lead exposures ethnicity, or genetic make-up. severe effects of high exposures that indexed by blood lead levels below 10 Physiological, behavioral and result in symptomatic lead poisoning μg/dL (AQCD for Lead, Section 6.2.5 demographic factors contribute to and frank mental retardation (AQCD for and pp. 8–30 to 8–31). The evidence for increased risk of lead-related health Lead, p. 6–76). The AQCD for Lead the role of lead in this suite of effects effects. Children are at increased risk of describes this issue in detail with regard includes experimental animal findings lead-related health effects due to various to lead (summarized in AQCD for Lead (discussed in the AQCD for Lead, factors that enhance their exposures at p. 8–39). Various findings within the Section 8.4.2.1; p. 8–31), which provide (e.g., via the hand-to-mouth activity that toxicological evidence, presented in the strong biological plausibility of lead is prevalent in very young children, AQCD for Lead, provide biologic effects on learning ability, memory and AQCD for Lead, Section 4.4.3) and plausibility for a steeper IQ loss at low susceptibility. While children are attention (AQCD for Lead, Section blood lead levels, with a potential 5.3.5), as well as associated mechanistic considered to be at a period of explanation being that the predominant maximum exposure around 18–27 findings. mechanism at very low blood lead The persistence of such lead-induced months, the current evidence has found levels is rapidly saturated and that a even stronger associations between effects is described in the AQCD for different, less-rapidly-saturated process Lead (e.g., AQCD for Lead Sections blood lead levels at school age and IQ becomes predominant at blood lead at school age. The evidence ‘‘supports 5.3.5, 6.2.11, and 8.5.2). The persistence μ levels greater than 10 g/dL. the idea that lead exposure continues to 83 As an example, the AQC for Lead states 3. At-Risk Populations and Life Stages be toxic to children as they reach school ‘‘although an increase of a few mmHg in blood age, and [does] not lend support to the Individuals potentially at risk from pressure might not be of concern for an individual’s interpretation that all the damage is exposure to environmental pollutants well-being, the same increase in the population done by the time the child reaches 2 to mean might be associated with substantial increases include those with increased in the percentages of individuals with values that susceptibility and vulnerability. The are sufficiently extreme that they exceed the criteria 85 U.S. EPA (2005) Guidance on Selecting Age used to diagnose hypertension’’ (AQC for Lead, p. terms ‘‘susceptibility’’ and Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood 8–77). ‘‘vulnerability’’ have been used to Exposure to Environmental Contaminants. EPA/ 84 For example, for a population mean IQ of 100 characterize those with a greater 630/P–03/003F. (and standard deviation of 15), 2.3% of the likelihood of an adverse outcome given 86 U.S. EPA (2006) A Framework for Assessing population would score above 130, but a shift of the Health Risks of Environmental Exposures to population to a mean of 95 results in only 0.99% a specific exposure in comparison with Children. EPA/600/R–05/093A. of the population scoring above 130 (AQC for Lead, the general population. This increased 87 U.S. EPA (2008) Child-Specific Exposure pp. 8–81 to 8–82). likelihood of response to a pollutant can Factors Handbook. EPA/600/R–06/096F.

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3 years of age’’ (AQCD for Lead, Section Chapter 6 of the Office of Air Quality exposed to lead in vegetation (e.g., 6.2.12). Physiological factors that can Planning and Standards Staff Paper on grasses and silage) and in surface soils affect risk of lead-related effects in Lead (SP) 90 and the Lead NAAQS. via incidental ingestion of soil while children include genetic grazing (USEPA 1986, Section 1. Terrestrial Ecosystems polymorphisms and nutritional status. 7.2.2.2.2).91 Children with particular genetic Lead is removed from the atmosphere By far, the majority of air-related lead polymorphisms (e.g., presence of the d- and deposited on soil and other surfaces found in natural terrestrial ecosystems aminolevulinic acid dehydratase-2 via wet or dry deposition. In soils, most was deposited in the past during the use [ALAD–2] allele) have increased lead is retained via the formation of of lead additives in motor vehicle sensitivity to lead toxicity, which may stable solid phase compounds, gasoline. Many sites receiving lead be due to increased susceptibility to the precipitates, or complexes with organic predominantly through long-range same internal dose and/or to increased matter. Thus, terrestrial ecosystems transport of gasoline-derived small internal dose associated with the same remain primarily sinks for lead but particles have accumulated large exposure (AQCD for Lead, p. 8–71, amounts retained in various soil layers amounts of lead in soils (AQCD for Sections 6.3.5, 6.4.7.3 and 6.3.6). Some vary based on forest type, climate, and Lead, p. AX7–98). There is little children may have blood lead levels litter cycling (AQCD for Lead, Section evidence that terrestrial sites exposed as higher than those otherwise associated 7.1). Once in the soil, the migration and a result of this long range transport of with a given lead exposure (AQCD for distribution of lead is controlled by a lead have experienced significant effects Lead, Section 8.5.3) as a result of multitude of factors including pH, on ecosystem structure or function nutritional status (e.g., iron deficiency, precipitation, litter composition and (AQCD for Lead, Section AX7.1.4.2 and calcium intake), as well as genetic and other factors, which in turn, govern the p. AX7–98). Strong complexation of other factors (AQCD for Lead, Chapter 4 rate at which lead is bound to organic lead by organic matter in soil may and Sections 3.4, 5.3.7 and 8.5.3). materials in the soil (AQCD for Lead, explain why few ecological effects have Demographic factors that can affect Section 2.3.5, and Section AX 7.1.4.1). been observed (AQCD for Lead, p. AX7– risk of lead-related effects in children Lead exists in the environment in 98). Studies have shown decreasing include residential location, poverty, different forms which vary widely in levels of lead in vegetation, which and race. As noted in previous EPA their ability to cause adverse effects on appears to correlate with decreases in actions on lead, situations of elevated ecosystems and organisms. Many forms atmospheric deposition of lead resulting exposure, such as residing near sources of lead in the ambient air are quite from the removal of lead additives to of ambient lead, as well as insoluble and thus not easily leached to motor vehicle gasoline (AQCD for Lead, socioeconomic factors, such as reduced underground water once deposited to Section AX 7.1.4.2). access to health care or low surfaces. However, leaching may occur The deposition of gasoline-derived socioeconomic status can also under acidic conditions, where lead lead into forest soils has produced a contribute to increased blood lead levels concentrations are extremely high, or in legacy of slow moving lead that remains and increased risk of associated health the presence of substances (e.g., soluble bound to organic materials despite effects from air-related lead.88 organic matter, high concentrations of dramatic reductions in the use of leaded Additionally, as described in the chlorides or sulfates) that form additives to motor vehicle fuels. Current NAAQS for Lead, children in poverty relatively soluble complexes with lead levels of lead in soil vary widely and black, non-Hispanic children have (AQCD for Lead, Section 2.3.5). depending on the source of lead but in notably higher blood lead levels than do Plants take up lead via their foliage all ecosystems lead concentrations economically well-off children and and through their root systems. The rate exceed natural background levels. For white children, in general.89 of plant uptake from soil varies by plant areas influenced by point sources of air species, soil conditions, and lead C. Welfare Effects lead, concentrations of lead in soil may species. Most lead in plants is stored in exceed by many orders of magnitude the Lead is persistent in the environment roots, and very little is stored in fruits. concentrations which are considered and accumulates in soils, aquatic Metals that are applied to soil as salts harmful to laboratory organisms. systems (including sediments), and (usually as sulfate, chloride, or nitrate Adverse effects in terrestrial organisms some biological tissues of plants, salt) are accumulated more readily than associated with lead include animals and other organisms, thereby the same quantity of metal added via neurological, physiological and providing long-term, multi-pathway sewage sludge, flue dust, or fly ash behavioral effects which may influence exposures to organisms and ecosystems. (AQCD for Lead, Section 2.3.7). ecosystem structure and functioning (73 In 2008, EPA established a secondary Surface deposition of lead onto plants FR 67008). lead standard of 0.15 ug/m3. This may represent a significant contribution standard is intended to protect the to the total lead in and on the plant, as 2. Aquatic Ecosystems public welfare from known or has been observed for plants near Atmospheric lead enters aquatic anticipated adverse effects associated smelters and along roadsides (AQCD for ecosystems primarily through with the presence of lead in the ambient Lead, page E–19). Atmospheric deposition (wet and dry) and the air. This section provides a summary of deposition of lead also contributes to erosion and runoff of soils containing information regarding welfare effects of lead in vegetation as a result of contact lead. While overall deposition rates of lead, focusing on terrestrial and aquatic with above-ground portions of the plant atmospheric lead have decreased ecosystems. This information is largely (AQCD for Lead, pp. 7–9 and AXZ7–39; dramatically since the removal of lead drawn from the 2006 AQCD for Lead, USEPA, 1986, Sections 6.5.3 and additives from motor vehicle gasoline, 7.2.2.2.1). Wildlife may subsequently be 88 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) 91 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986) Review of the National Ambient Air Quality 90 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air quality Criteria for Lead. Research Triangle Standards for Lead: Policy Assessment of Scientific Review of the National Ambient Air Quality Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental and Technical Information, OAQPS Staff Paper. Standards for Lead: Policy Assessment of Scientific Assessment, Environmental Criteria and EPA–452/R–07–013. Office of Air Quality Planning and Technical Information, OAQPS Staff Paper. Assessment Office; EPA report no. EPA–600/8–83/ and Standards, Research Triangle Park. EPA–452/R–07–013. Office of Air Quality Planning 028aF–dF. 4v. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, 89 See 73 FR 66973 (November 12, 2008). and Standards, Research Triangle Park. VA; PB87–142378.

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lead continues to accumulate and may ecosystems may be anticipated given airport-specific lead inventories that use be re-exposed in sediments and water experimental results. It is unlikely that our most recently developed methods bodies throughout the United States dissolved lead in surface water for estimating lead (described below); (AQCD for Lead, Section 2.3.6). constitutes a threat to ecosystems that (2) this inventory is the first NEI to Several physical and chemical factors are not directly influenced by point include approximately 20,000 airport govern the fate and bioavailability of sources. For lead in sediment, the facilities in the U.S.; and (3) to increase lead in aquatic systems. A significant evidence regarding the effects is less awareness of the opportunity for State, portion of lead remains bound to clear. It is likely that some areas with local, and Tribal governments and suspended particulate matter in the long-term historical deposition of lead industry to review this draft NEI and water column and eventually settles to sediment from a variety of sources as provide information that could improve into the substrate. Species, pH, salinity, well as areas influenced by point airport lead inventories. Comments and temperature, turbulence and other sources have the potential for adverse data can be supplied to EPA for the factors govern the bioavailability of lead effects to aquatic communities. The long 2008 NEI until mid-2010. While we are in surface waters (AQCD for Lead, residence time of lead in sediment and describing the draft 2008 NEI for piston- Section 7.2.2). Lead can bioaccumulate its ability to be resuspended by engine aircraft emissions of lead, we do in the tissues of aquatic organisms turbulence make lead likely to be a not have draft inventory estimates for through ingestion of food and water, factor for consideration regarding 2008 for all sources of lead. The 2008 and adsorption from water, and can potential risk to aquatic systems for the NEI will be final in 2010. foreseeable future (73 FR 67008). subsequently lead to adverse effects if 1. National Emissions of Lead From 92 tissue levels are sufficiently high. The III. Lead Emissions From Piston-Engine Piston-Engine Aircraft accumulation of lead is influenced by Aircraft pH and decreasing pH favors To calculate the national avgas lead Currently, lead emitted by piston- bioavailability and bioaccumulation. inventory, the volume of leaded avgas engine aircraft operating on leaded Organisms that bioaccumulate lead with produced in a given year is multiplied avgas is the largest source of lead to the little excretion must partition the metal by the concentration of lead in the avgas air, contributing about 50% of the and by the fraction of lead emitted from such that it has limited bioavailability, National Emission Inventory in 2005. a combustion system operating on otherwise toxicity will occur if a This section describes the draft 2008 leaded fuel (to account for the lead that sufficiently high concentration is avgas lead inventory which is currently 93 is retained in the engine, engine oil and/ reached. The general symptoms of undergoing review by State, local and or exhaust system). For example, the lead toxicity in fish include production Tribal air agencies. We describe and volume of avgas produced in the U.S. in of excess mucus, lordosis, anemia, request comment on input data used to darkening of the dorsal tail region, 2008 according to DOE was 235,326,000 derive airport-specific lead inventories. 97 degeneration of the caudal fin, This section ends with a summary of gallons. The concentration of lead in destruction of spinal neurons, data forecasting the potential growth of avgas ([Pb] in the equation below) can aminolevulinic acid dehydratase the industry using leaded avgas. be one of four levels (ranging from 0.14 (ALAD) inhibition, growth inhibition, to 1.12 grams of lead per liter or 0.53 to renal pathology, reproductive effects, A. Inventory of Lead From Piston-Engine 4.24 grams of lead per gallon) as growth inhibition, and mortality.94 Powered Aircraft specified by the American Society for Toxicity in fish has been closely Every three years, the EPA prepares a Testing and Materials (ASTM). By far correlated with duration of lead National Emissions Inventory (NEI) of the most common avgas supplied is exposure and uptake.95 air emissions of criteria pollutants and ‘‘100 Low Lead’’ or 100LL which has a Lead exists in the aquatic hazardous air pollutants with input maximum lead concentration specified environment in various forms and under from numerous State, local, and Tribal by ASTM of 0.56 grams per liter or 2.12 various chemical and physical air agencies and from industry.96 For the grams per gallon.98 99 A fraction of lead parameters which determine the ability purposes of this ANPR, EPA is is retained in the engine, engine oil and/ of lead to cause adverse effects either describing piston-engine aircraft lead or exhaust system which we currently from dissolved lead in the water column information provided in the draft 2008 estimate at 5%.100 or lead in sediment. Current levels of NEI as well as information from the For 2008, using DOE fuel volume lead in water and sediment vary widely final 2005 NEI. We have chosen to estimates, the national estimate of lead depending on the source of lead. describe the draft 2008 NEI for the emissions from the consumption of Conditions exist in which adverse following reasons: (1) This is the first avgas is 522 tons as calculated effects to organisms and thereby version of the NEI that will include according to the following equation:

(,,235 326 000 gal)(2.12 g Pb/gal)(0.95) = 5522 short tons Pb 907,185 g/short ton

92 AQC for Lead I. 7–24: (Vink, 2002; Rainbow, 97 DOE Energy Information Administration. Fuel 99 ASTM International (2007) Standard 1996). production volume data obtained from http:// Specification for Aviation Gasolines D910–06. 93 AQC for Lead AX7.2.3.1. tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/hist/mgaupus1A.htm 100 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008) accessed November 2006. 94 AQC for Lead page 232, Annex 7. Lead Emissions from the Use of Leaded Aviation 98 ChevronTexaco (2006) Aviation Fuels 95 Gasoline in the United States, Technical Support AQC for Lead page 232, Annex 7. Technical Review. FTR–3. Available online at: 96 http://www.epa.gov/air/data/neidb.html. http://www.chevronglobalaviation.com/docs/ Document. EPA420–R–08–020. Available online at: aviation_tech_review.pdf. http://www.epa.gov/otaq/aviation.htm.

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As described in the Overview section volume estimates. In the draft 2008 NEI, largest single source of lead to air of this ANPR, DOT’s FAA also provides we are using DOT fuel volume (Figure 2). These lead emissions estimates of annual avgas fuel estimates. estimates do not include evaporative consumption. For 2008, DOT estimates We currently cannot estimate the losses of lead and minimal military 351,000,000 gallons of avgas were fraction of total lead emissions these aircraft data. Few military aircraft are consumed. Consumption of this volume estimates comprise since the inventories piston-engine powered and consume of avgas equates to a national lead for all other sources of lead to air are not leaded avgas.102 Military aircraft data emissions estimate for this source of 779 yet in the draft 2008 NEI. In 2005, lead are supplied by States, and data short tons. DOT fuel volume data are from avgas comprised about 50% of the provided to EPA during the 2008 NEI derived from FAA estimates of piston- national lead inventory for emissions to review will be included in the final engine activity annually.101 We are air. As point source emissions of lead 2008 inventory. working to identify the source(s) of the have decreased, lead emissions from information used to derive DOE fuel piston-engine aircraft have become the

2. Airport-Specific Emissions of Lead purpose of assessing potential air and air taxi (AT) that are used in EDMS From Piston-Engine Aircraft quality impacts of airport operations for GA and AT and we use methods Aircraft gaseous and particulate and proposed airport development similar to those in EDMS that are matter (PM) emissions are calculated projects. Lead emissions from piston- described in an EPA Technical Support through the FAA’s Emissions and engine aircraft are not included in Document (TSD) and briefly Dispersion Modeling System (EDMS).103 EDMS. To estimate airport-specific lead This modeling system was designed to inventories we use engine data and develop emission inventories for the other attributes of general aviation (GA)

101 U.S. Department of Transportation Federal 2025/media/2009%20Forecast%20Doc.pdf. This http://www.chevronglobalaviation.com/docs/ Aviation Administration Aviation Policy and Plans. document provides historical data for 2000–2008 as aviation_tech_review.pdf. FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2009–2025. well as forecast data. 103 EDMS is available online at: http:// p.81. Available at: http://www.faa.gov/ 102 ChevronTexaco (2006) Aviation Fuels www.faa.gov/about/office_org/ data_research/aviation/aerospace_forecasts/2009- Technical Review p. 44. Available online at: headquarters_offices/aep/models/edms_model/.

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summarized here.104 The data required modes of the landing and take-off cycle; oil. The equation used to calculate to estimate airport-specific lead the time spent in each mode of the LTO airport-specific lead emissions during inventories includes the landing and (taxi/idle-out, takeoff, climb-out, the LTO cycle is below, followed by a take-off (LTO) activity of piston-engine approach, and taxi/idle-in); the description of each of the input aircraft at a facility; fuel consumption concentration of lead in the fuel; and parameters. rates by these aircraft during the various the retention of lead in the engine and

()(piston-engine LTO avgas gal/LTO)([Pb])( 1 -Pb retention) LTO Pb (tons) = 907,185 g/short ton

Piston-engine LTO: Most piston- to the population of piston-engine usage rates, the overall weighted average engine aircraft fall into the categories of aircraft as a whole. For the single-engine fuel usage rate per LTO of 3.46 gal/LTO either GA or AT. Some GA and AT aircraft, the average amount of fuel is obtained. activity is conducted by turboprop and consumed per LTO was determined Concentration of lead in fuel, [Pb]: turbojet aircraft which do not use leaded from the six types of single piston- 107 The maximum lead concentration avgas. There are no national databases engine aircraft within EDMS. This specified by ASTM for 100LL is 0.56 that provide airport-specific LTO was accomplished by averaging the grams per liter or 2.12 grams per gallon. activity data for piston-engine aircraft single-engine EDMS outputs for fuel This amount of lead is normally added separately from turbojet and turboprop consumed per LTO using the EDMS to assure that the required lean and rich aircraft. The fraction of GA and AT scenario property of ICAO/USEPA mixture knock values are achieved. As aircraft that use piston engines will vary Default—Times in Mode (TIM), with a noted above, 100 Octane (containing by airport. However, in the absence of 16 minute taxi-in/taxi-out time 1.12 grams of lead per liter or 4.24 airport-specific data, EPA calculated a according to EPA’s Procedures for national default estimate using FAA’s Emission Inventory Preparation, grams of lead per gallon) is used by a GA and AT Activity (GAATA) Volume IV: Mobile Sources, 1992.108 small number of piston-engine aircraft. Survey.105 The 2005 GAATA Survey This gives a value of 16.96 pounds of We currently do not include estimates reports that approximately 72% of all fuel per LTO (lbs/LTO). Next, the of lead emissions using 100 Octane and GA and AT LTOs are from piston-engine average single-engine consumption rate we are requesting comment on the aircraft which use avgas, and about 28% was divided by the average density of airport facilities where 100 Octane is are turboprop and turbojet powered 100LL avgas, 6 pounds per gallon (lbs/ used and the LTO activity associated which use jet fuel, such as Jet A.106 Lead gal), producing an average fuel usage for with the use of this fuel. is not added to jet fuel. Therefore, to single-engine piston aircraft of 2.83 Retention of lead in engine and oil (1– calculate piston-engine aircraft LTO as gallons per LTO (gal/LTO). This same Pb Retention): Recent data collected input for this equation, the total GA calculation was performed for the two from aircraft piston engines operating plus AT LTOs are multiplied by 0.72. twin-engine piston aircraft within on leaded avgas suggests that about 5% Avgas use (gal/LTO): Piston-engine EDMS, producing an average LTO fuel of the lead from the fuel is retained in aircraft can have either one or two usage rate for twin-engine piston aircraft the engine and engine oil.109 Thus the engines. EDMS version 5.0.2 contains of 9.12 gal/LTO. emitted fraction is 0.95. information on the amount of avgas Using these single- and twin-engine used per LTO for some single and twin- piston aircraft fuel consumption rates, a Multiplying the lead concentration in engine aircraft. The proportion of weighted average fuel usage rate per 100LL avgas by the weighted average piston-engine LTOs conducted by LTO was computed by multiplying the fuel usage rate produces an overall single- versus twin-engine aircraft was average fuel usage rate for single-engine average value of 7.34 grams of lead per LTO (g Pb/LTO) for piston engines: 3.46 taken from the FAA’s GAATA Survey aircraft (2.83 gal/LTO) by the fleet × for 2005 (90% of LTOs are conducted by percentage of single-engine aircraft gal/LTO 2.12 g Pb/gal = 7.34 g Pb/ aircraft having one engine and 10% of LTOs (90%). Next, the twin-engine LTO. The denominator is a unit LTOs by aircraft having two engines). piston aircraft average fuel usage rate conversion factor used to express the Since twin-engine aircraft have higher (9.12 gal/LTO) was multiplied by the lead inventory in units of short tons. fuel consumption rates than those with fleet percentage of twin-engine aircraft Applying these parameters in the single engines, a weighted average LTO LTOs (10%). By summing the results of equation above yields the following fuel usage rate was established to apply the single- and twin-engine aircraft equation:

104 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008) 106 There are about 194,000 piston-engine aircraft 109 The information used to develop this estimate Lead Emissions from the Use of Leaded Aviation in the U.S. general aviation and air taxi fleet is from the following references: (a) Todd L. Gasoline in the United States, Technical Support (175,000 single-engine and 19,000 twin-engine Petersen, Petersen Aviation, Inc, Aviation Oil Lead Document. EPA420–R–08–020. Available online at: aircraft) according to FAA’s 2005 GAATA Survey. Content Analysis, Report Number EPA 1–2008, http://www.epa.gov/otaq/aviation.htm. 107 EPA understands that EDMS 5.0.2 has a January 2, 2008, available at William J. Hughes 105 The FAA GAATA is a database collected from limited list of piston engines, but these are Technical Center Technical Reference and Research surveys of pilots flying aircraft used for general currently the best data available. Library at http://actlibrary.tc.faa.gov/ and (b) E-mail aviation and air taxi activity. For more information 108 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1992) from Theo Rindlisbacher of Switzerland Federal on the GAATA, see Appendix A, online at: Procedures for Emission Inventory Preparation, Office of Civil Aviation to Bryan Manning of U.S. http://www.faa.gov/data_statistics/ Volume IV: Mobile Sources, EPA–450/4–81–026d EPA, regarding lead retained in engine, September aviation_data_statistics/general_aviation/. (Revised). 28, 2007.

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(piston-engine LTO)(7.34 g Pb/LTO)(0.95) Pb (tons) = 907,185 gg/short ton

which simplifies to: Pb = (piston-engine in the TAF, operations data are obtained include: the number and type of aircraft LTO) (7.7 × 10¥6 short tons) or 7 grams from the NASR database, where based at the facility (i.e., ‘‘based of lead per LTO where piston-engine available. Operations data provided by aircraft’’), population in the vicinity of LTO = (GA LTO + AT LTO)(0.72). EPA the NASR database may be self-reported the airport, airport regional prominence, used similar methods to estimate lead by airport operators through data per capita income, region of the country, emissions from piston-engine powered collection accomplished by airport and the presence of certificated flight helicopters which are described inspectors who work for the State schools. We were able to obtain data separately.110 We currently estimate Aviation Agency, or operations data can from the NASR and the U.S. Census there are 6 grams of lead emitted by be obtained through other means.115 Bureau to evaluate relationships piston-engine helicopters per LTO. We are using the January 15, 2009 between several airport characteristics Lead emitted during the LTO cycle is version of the NASR database to and LTO activity. LTO estimates were assigned to the airport facility where the evaluate airport lead emissions derived using different models aircraft operations occur.111 FAA’s inventories for 2008. Using the TAF depending on data availability. Office of Air Traffic provides a complete database as the primary source of LTO The number of based aircraft and listing of operational airport facilities in information and the NASR as a county population in which the airport the National Airspace System Resources secondary source, we have LTO activity is located were the most highly (NASR) database.112 In 2008, there were data for approximately 5,600 airport significant and positive regressors to 19,896 airport facilities in the U.S., the facilities. There are approximately LTO activity that our analysis vast majority of which are expected to 14,000 facilities in the NASR database provided.121 The regression equation for have activity by piston-engine aircraft for which there are no LTO activity based aircraft and county population is: that operate on leaded avgas. There are data.116 We developed methods based LTOs = 1248 + 203.04*Aircraft + seven types of airport facilities: airports, on previous work conducted by the 0.0019*County Population with an R2 = balloonports, seaplane bases, FAA to estimate LTO activity at the 0.64. For approximately 7,800 facilities gliderports, heliports, stolports,113 and remaining airport and heliport facilities. that do not report LTO activity to FAA, ultralight facilities. Among these, We are requesting comment on these we used based aircraft and county balloonports are the only facilities not methods which are described here population to estimate activity. We expected to have piston-engine aircraft briefly. The details regarding the request comment on the method we are activity. method described here are available in using to estimate LTO activity at these 117 Preparing airport-specific lead the docket. airport facilities. inventories requires information The FAA has used regression models To estimate LTO activity at the airport regarding LTO activity. to estimate operations at facilities where facilities that do not report based 118 119 These activity data are reported to the operations data are not available. aircraft, we used a regression equation In this work and other work, FAA FAA for only a small subset of the based on county population and region identified characteristics of small approximately 20,000 facilities in the of the country. The regression equation towered airports for which there were U.S. EPA obtains LTO information for using county population and regression statistically significant relationships approximately 3,400 facilities from of the country is: LTOs = 6200.2 + with operations at these airports.120 FAA’s Terminal Area Forecast (TAF) 0.0087*county population— Regression models based on the airport database that is prepared by FAA’s 175.07*West State ¥ 5567.3*Alaska + characteristics were then used to Office of Aviation Policy and Plans.114 854.83*Northeast with an R2 = 0.15. estimate general aviation operations for The TAF database currently includes This equation has a low correlation a set of non-towered airports. The information for airports in FAA’s coefficient and we are exploring airport characteristics identified by the National Plan of Integrated Airport FAA and used to estimate general additional options for estimating LTO Systems (NPIAS), which identifies aviation operations at small airports activity at these facilities for which very airports that are significant to national little information is reported to the air transportation. For airports not listed 115 In the absence of updated information from FAA. We request comment on applying States, local authorities or Tribes, we are using the the regression equation above and 110 U.S. EPA (March 2010) Memorandum from LTO data provided in the FAA database. alternative methods to estimate LTO Meredith Pedde to docket EPA–HQ–OAR–2007– 116 No Commuter, GA Itinerant, GA Local, or Air activity at these facilities. 0294, titled, ‘‘Calculating Aviation Gasoline Lead Taxi operations data. For heliports, which comprise Emissions in the 2008 NEI.’’ pp.8–9. 117 U.S. EPA (March 2010) Memorandum from 111 An aircraft operation is defined as any landing Meredith Pedde to docket EPA–HQ–OAR–2007– approximately 5,500 facilities in the or take-off event, therefore, to calculate LTOs, 0294, titled, ‘‘Calculating Aviation Gasoline Lead NASR database, we had insufficient operations are divided by two. Most data sources Emissions in the 2008 NEI.’’ information on which to develop a from FAA report aircraft activity in numbers of 118 Federal Aviation Administration, Office of regression equation and are currently operations which, for the purposes of calculating Aviation Policy and Plans, Statistics and Forecast lead emissions using the method described in the Branch. (July 2001) Model for Estimating General using the median of activity (141 LTOs/ TSD, need to be converted to LTO events. Aviation Operations at Non-Towered Airports year) at heliports for which we have 112 An electronic report can be generated from the Using Towered and Non-towered Airport Data. LTO activity data. Nationally, 25% of NASR database and is available for download from Prepared by GRA, Inc. helicopters are piston-engine powered the Internet at the following Web site. http:// 119 Hoekstra, M. (April 2000) Model for and therefore use leaded avgas. The www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airports/ Estimating General Aviation Operations at Non- airport_safety/airportdata_5010/. This database is Towered Airports. Prepared for FAA Office of FAA and EPA have limited information updated every 56 days. Aviation Policy and Plans. 113 Stolport is an airport designed with STOL 120 GRA, Inc. ‘‘Review of TAF Methods,’’ Final 121 U.S. EPA (March 2010) Memorandum from (Short Take-Off and Landing) operations in mind, Report, prepared for FAA Office of Aviation Policy Meredith Pedde to docket EPA–HQ–OAR–2007– normally having a short single runway. and Plans under Work Order 45, Contract No. 0294, titled, ‘‘Calculating Aviation Gasoline Lead 114 http://aspm.faa.gov/main/taf.asp. DTFA01–93–C–00066, February 25, 1998. Emissions in the 2008 NEI.’’

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regarding the specific heliports that powered aircraft is projected to increase engine aircraft and monitoring and have activity by piston-engine annually at a 0.5% growth rate, with the modeling studies regarding ambient and helicopters. We are requesting aircraft population increasing from soil lead concentrations in the vicinity information regarding heliport facilities 144,220 in 2008 to 157,400 in 2025. The of airports where piston-engine aircraft at which piston-engine powered aircraft number of active twin-engine piston- operate. operate and the activity of these aircraft. powered aircraft is projected to decrease The draft 2008 NEI is the first A. Chemical and Physical Properties of 0.9% annually, with aircraft population Lead Emitted by Piston-Engine Aircraft inventory for which we are decreasing from 18,385 in 2008 to implementing the use of LTO-based lead 15,650 in 2025. The piston-powered Information regarding lead emissions estimates at almost 20,000 airport helicopter population is expected to from engines operating on leaded fuel is facilities and we are expecting State, grow 4.7% annually from a population summarized in prior AQCDs for local and Tribal air agency review of of 3,970 in 2008 to 8,295 in 2025. Lead.126 127 The chemical form of lead these data to improve our current The FAA forecast predicts the number added to avgas (i.e., tetraethyl lead) and estimates. The specific information on of hours flown in single-engine piston- the lead scavenger, ethylene dibromide, which we are requesting data include: powered aircraft is projected to increase are the same compounds used in leaded (1) The fraction of GA and AT LTO 0.5% yearly from 2008 to 2025); the gasoline for motor vehicles in the past. activity reported to FAA that is number of hours flown in twin-engine Therefore, the summary of the science conducted by piston-engine versus jet- piston-powered aircraft is projected to regarding emissions of lead from motor engine powered aircraft, (2) airport- decrease 1.5% annually and the number vehicles presented in the 1997 and 1986 specific LTO activity for single- versus of hours flown in piston-powered AQCD for Lead are relevant to twin-engine piston-powered aircraft, (3) rotocraft is projected to increase 3.9% understanding some of the properties of fuel consumption rates for the piston- annually. The changes in numbers of lead emitted from piston-engine aircraft. engine aircraft operating at each airport, piston aircraft and hours flown is In addition, the Swiss Federal Office of (4) the time spent in each mode of generally reflected in the consumption Civil Aviation (FOCA) published a operation including run-up checks study of piston-engine aircraft emissions of leaded avgas. For the years 2008 128 conducted by piston-engine aircraft through 2025, DOT’s FAA estimates no including measurements of lead. When leaded avgas is combusted, the prior to take-off, and (5) the change in the volume of leaded avgas lead is oxidized to form lead oxide. In concentration of lead in fuel delivered consumed by single-engine aircraft in the absence of a lead scavenger in the to individual airports. Methods for the U.S. (204 million gallons in 2008 fuel, lead oxide can collect on the valves providing information to EPA as part of and 2025), a 1.9% decrease in leaded and spark plugs and if the deposits the review process involved in avgas consumed by multi-engine aircraft 122 become thick enough, the engine can be finalizing the 2008 NEI are available. (from a baseline of 108 million gallons The discussion above pertains only to damaged. Ethylene dibromide reacts in 2008 to 78 million gallons in 2025), with the lead oxide, converting it to lead emissions during the LTO cycle. and a 3.8% annual increase in the Lead emitted outside the LTO cycle brominated lead and lead oxybromides. volume of leaded avgas consumed by These halogenated forms of lead are occurs during aircraft cruise mode and piston-powered helicopters (from a portions of the climb-out and approach volatile at the high temperatures baseline of 13 million gallons in 2008 to experienced under combustion modes. This part of an aircraft operation 24 million gallons in 2025). For 2025, emits lead at various altitudes as well as conditions and are therefore exhausted the forecast volume of leaded avgas is from the engine along with the other close to and away from airports. We are 348 million gallons. Consumption of developing methods to estimate lead combustion by-products.129 Upon this volume of fuel would release 773 cooling to ambient temperatures these emissions outside the LTO cycle which tons of lead to the air in 2025. we anticipate will be available in 2010. brominated lead compounds are The number of active pilots flying converted to particulate matter. In B. Projections for Future Growth general aviation aircraft (excluding air addition to lead halides, ammonium transport pilots) is projected to be The FAA publishes an annual forecast salts of lead halides were also emitted slightly over half a million in 2025, 130 of the number of piston-engine powered by motor vehicles. Lead halides representing a yearly increase of 0.7% aircraft, hours flown, the consumption 125 over the forecast period. 126 of avgas, the numbers of pilots and The student U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1977) pilot population is forecast to increase Air Quality Criteria for Lead. Research Triangle student pilots.123 The most recent at a slightly higher rate of 1.0% yearly Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental forecast is for the years 2009 through for a 2025 total slightly over 100,000. Assessment, Environmental Criteria and 2025. The General Aviation Assessment Office; EPA report no. EPA–600/8–77– Private pilots and sport pilots are also Manufacturers Association (GAMA) 017. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/ projected to increase yearly (0.2% standards/pb/s_pb_pr.html. reproduces the FAA forecast in their yearly increase in the number of private 127 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986) annual statistical databook.124 pilots). EPA is requesting comments on Air Quality Criteria for Lead. Research Triangle According to the GAMA summary, the Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental the forecast information presented in number of active single-engine piston- Assessment, Environmental Criteria and this section and on the uncertainty in Assessment Office; EPA report no. EPA–600/8–83/ these projections. 028aF–dF. 4v. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/ 122 All documentation for use in preparing 2008 naaqs/standards/pb/s_pb_pr.html. emission inventories can be found on the NEI/EIS IV. Lead Concentrations in the Vicinity 128 Federal Office of Civil Aviation Environmental Implementation Web site: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/ of Airports Affairs (2007) Aircraft Piston Engine Emissions chief/net/neip/index.html. Summary Report. 33–05–003 Piston Engine 123 FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2009– This section summarizes information Emissions_Swiss FOCA_Summary. 2025. Available online at: http://www.faa.gov/ Report_070612_rit. Available online at: http:// data_research/aviation. regarding the chemical and physical www.bazl.admin.ch. 124 General Aviation Manufacturers Association properties of lead emitted by piston- 129 ChevronTexaco (2006) Aviation Fuels (2008) General Aviation Statistical Databook and Technical Review pp. 64–65. Available online at: Industry Outlook, pp.51–55. Available online at: 125 Except for sport pilots, an active pilot is a http://www.chevronglobalaviation.com/docs/ http://www.gama.aero/files/2008_general_ person with a pilot certificate with a valid medical aviation_tech_review.pdf. aviation_statistical_databook__indust certificate. Source: FAA 2008–2025 Aerospace 130 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986) _499b0dc37b.pdf. Forecast. Air Quality Criteria for Lead. Volume 2 Section

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undergo compositional changes upon authors noted that these particle of lead emissions from piston-engine cooling and mixing with the ambient air emission rates are comparable to those aircraft has been conducted as part of as well as during transport; the water- from a typical diesel passenger car EPA’s National Air Toxics Assessment solubility of these lead-bearing particles engine without a particle filter (FOCA, and in one study.139 140 As discussed in increases with a shift toward smaller Section 2.2.3.a). Section VI.A of this ANPR, State and mean particle size (USEPA 1977, A significant fraction of particles in local agencies are initiating lead Section 6.2.2.1). Lead halides from the submicron size range are deposited monitoring at four airports in 2010 that automobile exhaust break down rapidly and retained in the lower respiratory will provide additional information in the atmosphere, via redox reactions system of humans and animals (AQCD regarding the air quality impact of lead in the presence of atmospheric acids for PM, page 6–108).133 The 1986 AQCD emissions from piston-engine aircraft. (AQCD for Lead, page E–17). for Lead concludes that lead deposited 1. Summary of Airport Lead Monitoring A small fraction of uncombusted alkyl in the lower respiratory tract is totally Studies lead was measured in the exhaust of absorbed (USEPA 1986, page 10–2). motor vehicles operating with leaded Due to their small size (i.e., typically The ambient air monitoring studies gasoline and is therefore likely to be less than one micron in diameter), lead- reporting lead concentrations on and present in the exhaust from piston- bearing particles emitted by piston near airport property served many 131 engine aircraft. Alkyl lead is the engines may disperse widely in the purposes and therefore used different general term for organic lead environment. However, lead emitted criteria for determining sample compounds and includes the lead during LTO, particularly during ground- locations, sample durations, sample additives tetramethyl lead and tetraethyl based operations such as start-up, idle, collection methods, and collection of lead. Tetraethyl lead is a highly volatile preflight run-up checks, taxi and take- important metadata (e.g., activity of compound and therefore, a portion of off may deposit to the local piston-engine aircraft and aircraft tetraethyl lead in fuel exposed to air environment. Meteorological factors engine type). This section summarizes will partition into the vapor phase. (e.g., wind speed, convection, rain, results from these studies. Tetraethyl lead can enter the humidity) will influence local Ambient monitoring studies at and atmosphere from avgas distribution deposition rates. As discussed in the near airports indicate that lead levels in systems, refueling operations, fuel check overview section of this ANPR, many ambient air at or near airports with pre-flight procedures and evaporative piston-engine activity are higher than 132 airports in the country have been home losses from the aircraft. Tetraethyl to piston-engine operations for decades, lead levels in areas not directly lead has an atmospheric residence time including years when lead influenced by a lead source. The study 141 ranging from a few hours to a few days. concentrations in avgas were twice as at the Santa Monica Airport is the Tetraethyl lead reacts with the hydroxyl high as current levels. We seek only study to date in which a lead radical in the gas-phase to form a variety comment on the chemical and physical monitor was sited at an area of of products that include ionic trialkyl form of lead emissions from piston- anticipated maximum concentration for lead, dialkyl lead and metallic lead. engine aircraft as well as dispersion and a period of time that provides ambient Trialkyl lead is slow to react with the deposition patterns that may influence concentrations relevant for comparison hydroxyl radical and is quite persistent 142 the risk for local-scale impacts. to the Lead NAAQS. In this study in the atmosphere (AQCD for Lead, page where monitors were placed in 2–5). B. Summary of Airport Lead Monitoring Particles emitted by piston-engine and Modeling Studies 137 Tetra Tech, Inc. (2007) Destin Airport Air aircraft are in the submicron size range Sampling Project Executive Summary. Prepared for Lead concentrations in ambient air (less than one micron in diameter). The City of Destin, Florida. Swiss FOCA reported the mean particle have been reported for samples 138 Tetra Tech, Inc. (2008) Destin, Florida Airport diameter of particulate matter emitted collected on or near five airports: the Sampling Report. October 2008. Prepared for City Santa Monica municipal airport in of Destin, Florida. by one single-engine piston-powered 139 Santa Monica, CA, the Van Nuys airport Piazza, B for the Los Angeles Unified School aircraft ranged from 0.049 to 0.108 District Environmental Health and Safety Branch microns under different power in Van Nuys, CA, the Chicago O’Hare (1999) Santa Monica Municipal Airport: A Report conditions. The particle number airport in IL, the Toronto Buttonville on the Generation and Downwind Extent of × 6 municipal airport in Ontario, Canada, Emissions Generated from Aircraft and Ground concentration ranged from 5.7 10 to Support Operations. Report Prepared for The Santa 8.6 × 106 particles per cm3 and using a and the Destin airport in Destin, 134 135 136 137 138 Monica Airport Working Group. Available online specific density for soot of 1.2, the FL. Air quality modeling at: http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/ authors estimated the mass CommunityAssessment.nsf/ 133 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2004) 6ce396ab3fa98ee485256db0004acd94/$FILE/ concentration of particulate emissions Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter (AQCD). Santa_Monica.pdf μ 3 as approximately 10,000 g/m . The Volume II Document No. EPA600/P–99/002bF. 140 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009) Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection 2002 National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment Chapters 5 & 6. Research Triangle Park, NC: Office Agency. Available online at: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ (NATA). Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/ of Health and Environmental Assessment, ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=87903. ttn/atw/nata2002/index.html. Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office; EPA 134 South Coast Air Quality Management District 141 South Coast Air Quality Management District report no. EPA–600/8–83/028aF–dF. 4v. Available (2007) Community-Scale Air Toxics Monitoring— (2007) Community-Scale Air Toxics Monitoring— from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB87–142378. Sun Valley Neighborhood and General Aviation Sun Valley Neighborhood and General Aviation 131 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Airports. Presented by Dr. Philip Fine at the U.S. Airports. Presented by Dr. Philip Fine at the U.S. Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Pollutants EPA Air Toxics Data Analysis Workshop—Chicago, EPA Air Toxics Data Analysis Workshop—Chicago, (PBT) Program (2002) PBT national action plan for IL. October 2–4, 2007. IL. October 2–4, 2007. This presentation includes alkyl-Pb. Washington, DC. Available online at: 135 Illinois Environmental Protection Agency lead monitoring data collected at and near the Santa http://www.epa.gov/pbt/pubs/ Bureau of Air (2002) Chicago O’Hare Airport Air Monica Airport and the Van Nuys Airport. Alkyl_lead_action_plan_final.pdf. Toxic Monitoring Program June–December, 2000. 142 As with other lead sources, source-oriented 132 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 136 Environment Canada (2000) Airborne monitors for airports should be sited in ambient air Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Pollutants Particulate Matter, Lead and Manganese at at the location of predicted maximum lead (PBT) Program (2002) PBT national action plan for Buttonville Airport. Toronto, Ontario, concentration. Typically, the location of maximum alkyl-Pb. Washington, DC. p. 12. Available online Canada:Conor Pacific Environmental Technologies lead concentration will be downwind of the take off at: http://www.epa.gov/pbt/pubs/ for Environmental Protection Service, Ontario strip near the ‘‘blast fence.’’ http://www.epa.gov/ Alkyl_lead_action_plan_final.pdf. Region. ttnamti1/files/ambient/pb/NetworkDesignQA.pdf.

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locations to identify the gradient in lead As summarized in EPA’s 2009 maximum concentration observed over concentrations with distance from Integrated Science Assessment for a 24-hour period at the airport during piston-engine activity, ambient lead Particulate Matter, ultrafine particulate this study (0.13 μg/m3) was 11 times increased with increasing proximity to number counts decrease exponentially higher than the lead concentration the airport. Lead monitors were located with distance from roadways.146 A reported for the downtown Toronto, at seven sites around the Santa Monica recent study at the Santa Monica Canada background site during the same Airport for two three-month periods, in Airport reported increased ultrafine PM time period (0.012 μg/m3).149 The Spring 2006 and Winter 2006–2007. At in a neighborhood downwind from average lead concentration reported for the monitor placed near the runway aircraft operations that were conducted the downtown Toronto site was 0.007 blast fence (i.e., the maximum impact by jet and piston-engine aircraft.147 The μg/m3. The total particulate matter mass site) on the Santa Monica Airport EPA is conducting modeling and in PM10 was also measured in this property, the quarterly average monitoring studies to further evaluate study, and at the airport, the average concentrations of lead in total the gradient in lead concentrations with mass of lead in PM10 was 0.15% of the suspended particulate matter (TSP) distance from airports (see Section VI.B total PM10 mass. At the downtown were 0.08 (winter) and 0.10 (spring) μg/ of this ANPR). Toronto site, the average mass of lead in 3 143 m . The maximum quarterly average At the Van Nuys Airport, lead PM10 was 0.04% of the total PM10 mass. concentration of lead in total suspended monitoring in ambient air was The study reported that the use of particulate matter (TSP) was 0.10 μg/m3, conducted at six sites for two three- leaded avgas at the airport was evident 67% of the 2008 Lead NAAQS of 0.15 month periods. Lead monitoring for this in enhanced airborne lead levels. μg/m3. This suggests that ambient air study included locations of ambient air Lead and other hazardous air lead concentrations at similar airports on airport property. However, monitors pollutants were measured at sites with more piston-engine activity than were not sited in the area anticipated to upwind and downwind of the Chicago the Santa Monica Airport may be experience the maximum impact from O’Hare Airport on sixteen days during higher, and could further approach or piston-engine aircraft emissions. The the period from June through December, μ 3 exceed 0.15 g/m . At a neighborhood monitoring site that was in closest 2000. In order to assess the potential site, 70 meters in the prevailing proximity to the maximum impact area impact of airport operations on ambient downwind direction from the maximum was more than one kilometer downwind concentrations of lead and other 148 impact site, quarterly average from the maximum impact site. The pollutants in areas adjacent to airport concentrations of lead in TSP were 0.02 highest quarterly concentration of lead property, two monitoring sites were μ 3 μ 3 g/m (winter) and 0.03 g/m observed at the Van Nuys Airport was deployed on different sides of the 144 (spring). At a distance of one at the monitor located over one airport: one in Bensenville, IL and the kilometer in the prevailing downwind kilometer away from the maximum other in Schiller Park, IL. For five days direction from the maximum impact impact site and the lead concentration during the sampling campaign, the μ μ 3 site, lead concentrations were 0.004 g/ at this site was 0.03 g/m which was prevailing wind direction provided 3 μ 3 m and 0.008 g/m in winter and four-fold higher than the regional samples that were collected μ 3 spring, respectively (these background level of 0.008 g/m simultaneously upwind and downwind concentrations are considered the measured during the same time period of the airport. Lead concentrations background lead concentration). The at a site over 2.5 kilometers from the measured at the downwind site on these study conducted at the Santa Monica north end of the Van Nuys Airport. five days were, on average, 88% higher At the Toronto Buttonville Municipal Airport reported concentrations of than lead concentrations measured at Airport, ten 24-hour PM samples were ambient lead that were highest at on- 10 the upwind site. Lead concentrations at collected at four sites at the airport (as and near airport areas downwind from the upwind site over the five days the emissions of piston-engine aircraft. close as 15 meters from the runway) and μ 3 one urban background site in downtown averaged 0.016 g/m and downwind These data suggest that piston-engine concentrations averaged 0.030 μg/m3. activity can increase ambient lead Toronto (located about 10 kilometers west, southwest of the airport). PM is This study demonstrates the potential concentrations in downwind 10 for operations on airport property to neighborhood sites, resulting in levels particulate matter less than ten microns impact ambient lead concentrations that are four to five times higher than in aerodynamic diameter. The average downwind. background levels and maximum lead concentration among the airport Lead TSP samples were collected for impact site concentrations that are up to monitors (which includes three samples four days in April 2007 and for three 25 times higher than background lead that were taken for less than a 12-hour days in July 2008 near the Destin levels.145 period), was 0.03 μg/m3 and the As with other emissions from internal maximum 24-hour lead concentration Airport in Destin, FL. Twelve-hour TSP combustion engines, lead emitted by was 0.13 μg/m3. One sample, collected samples (AM and PM) were collected at piston-engine aircraft are largely in the for 11 hours, measured 0.30 μg/m3. The four residential locations ranging from submicron and even ultrafine size 200 meters to 400 meters from the fraction; therefore, analogies to 146 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009) runway at the Destin Airport and at two gradients in ultrafine PM are relevant. Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate urban background locations which were Matter. Second External Review Draft. EPA/600/R– 1.4 kilometers and 2.7 kilometers from 08/139B. p. 3–110. Available online at: http:// 150 143 A low-volume sampler was used at this site cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/ the airport. The average lead which EPA expects would yield comparable results recordisplay.cfm?deid=210586. concentration among the four to a high-volume sampler, the latter of which is the 147 Hu, S., Fruin, S., Kozawa, K., Mara, S., Winer, residential locations was 0.004 μg/m3 current method used to collect samples for A.M., Paulson, S.E. (2009) Aircraft Emission and 0.005 μg/m3 in April and July, comparison with the Lead NAAQS. Impacts in a Neighborhood Adjacent to a General 144 These distances were measured using Google Aviation Airport in Southern California. Environ. respectively, and the average urban Earth Pro software. Sci. Technol. 43:8039–8045. 145 EPA notes that additional information 148 These distances were measured using Google 149 Average concentrations reported in this study regarding this study at the Santa Monica Airport Earth Pro software. Prevailing wind direction, include three days of short-duration sampling so may become available. If additional information which determines the direction in which the the average is not used for comparison here. does become available, EPA will take this majority of aircraft depart, is provided in the 150 These distances were measured using Google information into account in the NPRM. SCAQMD presentation of these data. Earth Pro software.

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background lead concentration was lead concentrations and exposures to In this section we discuss a variety of 0.003 and 0.004 μg/m3 in April and July, lead are modeled for area, point and exposure pathways and scenarios by respectively. nonroad sources. Nonroad sources which the general population and In addition to these airport-specific include only lead emissions from environment may experience an studies, authors evaluating ambient lead piston-engine aircraft. Lead emission increase in lead exposure from concentrations collected as part of the rates are based on the lead emissions of lead by piston-engine Interagency Monitoring of Protected concentration in fuel and not direct aircraft. This section also describes the Visual Environments (IMPROVE) emission measurements. For the NPRM potential for public health and welfare network and the National Oceanic and we will summarize modeling results effects from exposure to compounds Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) from the 2005 NATA which will associated with the continued use of monitoring sites reported a weekend incorporate all 20,000 airport facilities tetraethyl lead in fuel, such as the increase in ambient lead that the discussed in Section III of this ANPR. contribution of lead to ambient authors attributed to weekend increases As discussed in Section VI of this particulate matter, emissions of ethylene in piston-engine powered general ANPR, the EPA has conducted a study dibromide and non-exhaust exposure to aviation activity.151 At some airports, to develop a modeling approach to tetraethyl lead. We are seeking piston-engine aircraft activity conducted evaluate the local-scale variability in comments and information on these for recreational purposes can increase ambient lead concentrations attributable exposure scenarios as well as additional greatly on weekends and can also to piston-engine activity at a case study exposure pathways and scenarios. change seasonally with weather airport. This project includes collection A. Exposure to Lead Emissions From conditions. These peaks in activity are of air monitoring data for use in Piston-Engine Aircraft important to capture because they may evaluating model performance. In the have a strong influence on long-term NPRM, we will describe the results of Piston-engine aircraft emissions of average concentrations in an area. the modeling study with NATA results lead occur at ground level as well as at However, the current database for for this airport and previous modeling altitudes, resulting in areas of more ambient lead concentrations at work.153 concentrated ambient air exposure, as maximum impact sites at airports is We are requesting comment on the discussed in Section IV, and can also be severely limited and does not allow us availability of additional monitoring or distributed over large geographic areas to quantitatively evaluate the influence modeling studies that evaluate the air due to in-flight emissions. Lead of this variability in activity on ambient quality impact of lead emissions from particles can deposit to soil, water, lead concentrations. piston-engine aircraft as well as vegetation and other surfaces or remain We have identified no studies potential impacts on soil, house dust, airborne for some time following evaluating the potential contribution of surface water or other environmental emissions. In this section we discuss piston-engine aircraft emissions on media. We also request comment on the potentially exposed populations which vegetation. We have identified only one availability of studies that assess the include people living or attending study that reports soil concentrations on potential public health and welfare schools near airports and pilots. airport property where piston-engine impacts of lead emissions from piston- Additional pathways by which people aircraft are active. The air monitoring engine aircraft. and animals could be exposed to lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft study conducted at the Toronto V. Exposure to Lead From Piston- are those associated with agricultural Buttonville airport in Ontario, Canada Engine Aircraft and Potential for applications of these aircraft and piston- reported lead concentrations in soil Impacts samples collected at eight locations at engine activity at seaport and inland The continued use of lead in avgas by the airport and two locations at the waterways. piston-engine aircraft is a significant urban background site. Soil samples that Lead from aviation gasoline has been source of current lead emissions to the were collected at the Toronto identified as a potential source of environment. Piston-engine aircraft 154 Buttonville airport had lead contamination for local communities. emissions of lead occur at ground level concentrations ranging from 22–46 μg/g As described below, many general as well as at flying altitude. Lead from which was not substantially higher than aviation airports are located in densely this source is thus concentrated near populated areas. GA airport facilities the lead concentrations in soil samples airports and is also deposited over a were typically built in sparsely at the two urban background sites (29 large geographic area potentially populated areas, many of which are now and 31 μg/g). We are seeking comments contributing to higher ambient heavily populated or are experiencing on the potential for piston-engine concentrations in many communities. increased residential development. This aircraft emissions to impact local soil Numerous groups within the population development includes dense residential lead concentrations. may be at risk of exposure to lead in neighborhoods, schools, businesses, and 2. Summary of Airport Lead Modeling fresh emissions from piston-engine recreational facilities. Studies aircraft, resuspended dust or other Airports can function as a center of Lead emissions from piston-engine routes. Further, lead accumulates in the many forms of activity in a community. aircraft at 3,410 airports were included environment posing a potential risk to In EPA’s initial research, EPA has found in the recently released 2002 National future generations that airports are often surrounded by a Air Toxics Assessment (NATA) as variety of land uses including 153 recreational sport facilities (e.g., nonroad sources of lead.152 Ambient Piazza, B for the Los Angeles Unified School District Environmental Health and Safety Branch baseball diamonds, soccer fields, golf (1999) Santa Monica Municipal Airport: A Report courses, and swimming pools) and 151 Murphy, D.M., Capps, S.L., Daniel, J.S., Frost, on the Generation and Downwind Extent of G.J., and White, W.H. (2008) Weekly patterns of Emissions Generated from Aircraft and Ground residential communities that take aerosol in the United States. Atmos. Chem. Phys., Support Operations. Report Prepared for The Santa 8, 2729–2739. Monica Airport Working Group. Available online 154 Levin, R.; Brown, MJ; Kashtock, ME; Jacobs, 152 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009) at: http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/ DE; Whelan, EA; Rodman, J; Schock, MR; Padilla, 2002 National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment CommunityAssessment.nsf/ A; Sinks, T. (2008) Lead Exposures in U.S. (NATA). Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/ 6ce396ab3fa98ee485256db0004acd94/$FILE/ Children, 2008: Implications for Prevention. ttn/atw/nata2002/tables.html. Santa_Monica.pdf. Environ. Health Perspec. 116:1285–1293.

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advantage of the ease of transport and The limited ambient lead monitoring airports are known as airport pilot training/recreation offered by data near airports presented in Section communities, fly-in communities or quick access to an airport. Many airports IV of this ANPR suggests that for some residential airparks. Some residential offer on-site tours to the general public, airports this analysis will underestimate airparks are private while others have educational classes, and recreational the actual number of people potentially public services and facilities. Some opportunities that can present near- exposed to elevated levels of ambient residential airparks are specifically source exposure scenarios. Airports are lead from piston-engine powered designed as airport communities with especially attractive to young children, aircraft. This is because the analysis will driveways leading from aircraft hangars and programs at some airports are include very little of the nearby or tie-downs onto the airstrip, while focused on this population and provide population for airports that have a large other residential airparks allow outdoor observation facilities and picnic footprint. We plan to revise this analysis apartments to be built in the airplane facilities for families to observe aircraft for the NPRM using a graphical interface hangar. Other residential airparks are operations. Many general aviation system that will allow us to evaluate the developed by the addition of a airports offer instructional flying and/or number of people living within uniform neighborhood immediately adjacent to a clubs where children 14 years of age distances of aircraft activity. commercial airport. FAA terms this a and older as well as adults can learn to Using 2000 U.S. Census Data 157 at the ‘‘through-the-fence’’ operation.158 Homes fly in rental aircraft. Airport facilities block level, EPA estimates that 16 are required to be at least 45 meters also host community-friendly activities million people live within one from the runway centerline and can be such as antique sales, fireworks kilometer of the centroid of the 19,896 built along one or both sides of the displays, air shows and community airport facilities which includes runway.159 Some residential airparks meals. Many airport facilities provide airports, seaplane bases, heliports, provide taxiways for access to the activities which bring people from the stolports, ultralight facilities and glider runway, some provide streets separate general public in close proximity to lead ports. There are currently 5,567 from taxiways, and some share emissions from piston-engine aircraft heliports in this analysis, which can be automobile and aircraft traffic on the and piston-engine helicopters. EPA is in densely populated areas. Fourteen of same thoroughfares. A variety of requesting information regarding the 16 million people living within one resources list the location and services national databases that provide kilometer of the centroid of an airport offered by residential airparks in the information regarding recreational fields facility live within one kilometer of a U.S. and estimates of the number of and community gardens in close heliport. We currently have limited residential airparks range from 300 to proximity to airports. information regarding which heliport 600.160 161 facilities have piston-engine activity and In some cases, records are maintained 1. Population Residing Near Airports we are seeking comment on piston- only for those residential parks that To evaluate the number of people engine activity at heliports. have five or more homes or lots. who might be exposed to elevated lead There are several pathways by which Exposure modeling at the EPA levels due to emissions from piston- people may be exposed to lead indicates that, for the 20 highest air engine aircraft, EPA calculated the associated with the use of piston-engine emission sources, local emissions are number of people that live within one aircraft. These include inhalation of significantly related to local blood lead kilometer of the centroid of an ambient airborne lead as well as levels.162 We are aware of no studies airport.155 The centroid of the airport is incidental ingestion of ambient lead evaluating blood lead levels among defined here as the latitude and through contact with indoor or outdoor people who live in close proximity to longitude coordinate provided by surfaces to which ambient lead has airports with piston-engine activity or airports to FAA.156 These coordinates deposited. Additionally, ambient lead those for whom lead emissions from typically identify a location in the deposited to outdoor soil can be tracked piston engines may elevate their center of the runway or runway area. into interior spaces. There is also the exposure via other exposure pathways. For some airports, nearby residences are potential for ingestion of lead emitted As noted in Section II.B.2, the current outside the one kilometer distance from by piston engine aircraft emissions to evidence indicates that the slope for the airport centroid. This is the case for deposit on edible plants and produce being cultivated in locations near 158 FAA officially defines ‘‘through-the-fence’’ as residences near airports that have those activities permitted by an airport sponsor runways that are longer than two airports. Consequently, there is the through an agreement that permits access to the kilometers and for residences near large potential for exposure to lead emitted by public landing area by independent entities or airports such as those servicing piston-engine aircraft via ingestion for operations offering an aeronautical activity or to those consuming vegetables grown near owners of aircraft based on land adjacent to, but not primarily commercial aircraft activity. part of, the airport property. The obligation to make For airport facilities with one runway airports that service piston-engine an airport available for the use and benefit of the that is approximately one kilometer in aircraft. In addition to personal gardens, public does not impose any requirement for the length, this method will generally community gardens are sometimes sited airport sponsor to permit ground access by aircraft near airports as these areas can have from adjacent property. (http://www.aopa.org/ include people residing within whatsnew/region/airportOps0712.pdf). approximately 500 meters from the ends undeveloped available land. We do not 159 ASTM International (2005) ASTM F2507–05 of the runway and may include have information on the potential Standard Specification for Recreational Airpark residences up to approximately 900 significance of this exposure pathway Design and we are seeking comment on 160 http://www.airparks.com maintains a list of meters from the sides of the runway. airparks that have five or more homes/lots. The list information and analyses that could can be updated by the public and as of July 31, 155 U.S. EPA (March 2010) Memorandum from inform this issue. 2009, lists 326 residential airparks. Meredith Pedde to docket EPA–HQ–OAR–2007– In some cases, pilots and their 161 http://livingwithyourplane.com/about/ has a 0294, titled, ‘‘Evaluation of People Living Within 1 families choose to live in close directory of over 600 residential airparks. km of U.S Airport Facilities.’’ proximity to an airstrip. These 162 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) 156 Federal Aviation Administration. Airport Data Pilot Study of Targeting Elevated Blood Lead Levels (5010) & Contact Information, Airport Facilities communities intentionally placed near in Children (Draft Final Report). Washington DC: Data. Retrieved on August 13, 2009 from: http:// U.S. EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. www.faa.gov/airports/airport_safety/ 157 Obtained from: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/fera/ http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/ airportdata_5010/menu/index.cfm. human_hem_censusandmet.html. si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryId=195303.

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lead effects on IQ is nonlinear and is for Lead, p. 8–25), there is general potential exposures of children at steeper at lower blood lead levels, such consensus that the developing nervous school to lead associated with piston- that each μg/dL increase in blood lead system in children is among the, if not engine aircraft. may have a greater effect on IQ at lower the, most sensitive health endpoints. During the school year, students blood lead levels (e.g., below 10 μg/dL) Also, as noted in Section II.B.3, while spend many hours a day at school, than at higher levels (AQCD for Lead, children are considered to be at a period which usually includes time on school Section 6.2.13; pp. 8–63 to 8–64; Figure of maximum exposure around 18–27 playgrounds and on school athletic 8–7). We are therefore seeking comment months, the current evidence has found fields. Those children attending schools and information regarding blood lead even stronger associations between in close proximity to piston-engine concentrations in children living near blood lead levels at school age and IQ activity may have increased exposure to airports and the extent to which these at school age. The evidence ‘‘supports lead. Using data from the U.S. emissions cause or contribute to any the idea that lead exposure continues to Department of Education’s National increases in blood lead levels. be toxic to children as they reach school Center for Education Statistics, EPA age, and [does] not lend support to the calculated that there are 8,637 schools 2. Children Attending School Near interpretation that all the damage is located within one kilometer of the Airports done by the time the child reaches 2 to centroid of an airport in the U.S., at As noted in Section II.B.2 of this 3 years of age’’ (AQCD for Lead, Section which over 3 million children are in ANPR, while adults are susceptible to 6.2.12). Accordingly, school-age attendance (Table 1).163 164 These lead effects at lower blood lead levels children are an at-risk population for children represent 6% of the total U.S. than previously understood (e.g., AQCD lead exposures. This section discusses student population.

TABLE 1—NUMBERS OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL CHILDREN ATTENDING SCHOOLS LOCATED WITHIN ONE KILOMETER OF THE CENTROID OF AN AIRPORT SERVICING PISTON-ENGINE AIRCRAFT

Number of stu- Number of dents who at- schools within tend schools 1 km of an within 1 km of airport an airport

Private Schools ...... 2,185 420,824 Public Schools ...... 6,452 2,869,939

All Schools ...... 8,637 3,290,763

Section II.B.1 notes that children in we used data from the Department of airport, whereas Hispanic students poverty and black, non-Hispanic Education that provides this represent 19% of students in all U.S. children have notably higher blood lead information. These data indicate that schools (Table 2). Black students levels than do economically well-off minorities are overrepresented at represent 18% of students at schools children and white children, in general. schools that are located within one located within one kilometer of an To evaluate potential ethnic and kilometer from the centroid of an airport, whereas black students economic disparities among children airport. For example, Hispanic students represent 16% of the student population attending schools close to airports represent 23% of students at schools in the U.S. (Table 2). compared with the general population, located within one kilometer of an

TABLE 2—RACIAL DISTRIBUTION AT SCHOOLS WITHIN ONE KILOMETER OF THE CENTROID OF AN AIRPORT AND THE RACIAL DISTRIBUTION AT ALL U.S. SCHOOLS

American In- dian/Alaskan Asian/Pacific Black, Non- Hispanic White, Non- Total students* Indian Islander Hispanic Hispanic

All Schools within 1 Number ...... 46,861 154,408 597,223 764,704 1,646,882 3,290,763 km of an airport. Percent ...... 1% 5% 18% 23% 50% All U.S. Schools .... Number ...... 632,237 2,581,822 8,696,565 10,525,763 30,664,231 54,271,986 Percent ...... 1% 5% 16% 19% 57% * This table includes only those children that identify as one of the five races/ethnicities. A small fraction of students identify as mixed race or ‘other’ and they are not included here, therefore the percent of students does not total 100%.

In general, housing and income data ports, railyards) are likely to have lower airports, EPA evaluated the number of suggest that people living in close income than the general population.165 students who are eligible for the U.S. proximity to major transportation To evaluate the socioeconomic status of Department of Agriculture’s free or sources (i.e., major roadways, airports, students who attend schools near reduced school lunch program. Children

163 U.S. EPA (March 2010) Memorandum from 164 Public School Data available for 2006–2007: 165 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Meredith Pedde to docket EPA–HQ–OAR–2007– http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/bat/; Private School Data Regulatory Impact Analysis for the Regulation to 0294, titled, ‘‘Identification of Schools Within 1 km available for 2007–2008: http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ Control Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions from of U.S Airport Facilities.’’ pss/pssdata.asp. Mobile Sources. Chapter 3, p. 3–122.

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from families with incomes at or below hours were flown by piston-engine is needed to minimize the drift of the 130 percent of the poverty level are aircraft. Aerial application activity fertilizer and pesticide particles away eligible for free meals. Those with includes crop and timber production, from their intended target. An incomes between 130 percent and 185 which involve fertilizer and pesticide unintended consequence of this practice percent of the poverty level are eligible application and seeding cropland. The is that exhaust emissions of lead have a for reduced-price meals.166 Free and National Agricultural Aviation substantially increased potential for reduced lunch eligibility is only tracked Association estimates that there are directly depositing on vegetation and by the U.S. Department of Education’s approximately 3,200 aerial application surrounding soil. We have not identified National Center for Education Statistics professional operators and pilots in the any data or analyses regarding the for students who attend public schools. United States.169 contribution of piston-engine aircraft At public schools that are located As discussed in Section II.C.1, surface lead emissions to lead concentrations in within one kilometer of the centroid of deposition of lead onto plants may or on plant tissues, in livestock or the an airport, 47% of students are eligible represent a significant contribution to dose that this might deliver to the for either free or reduced lunches, the total lead in and on the plant. Lead human population. We are seeking whereas nationally, 41% of students at halides, the primary form of lead comments on the potential significance public schools are eligible for either free emitted by engines operating on leaded of this exposure pathway. fuel, are slightly water soluble. They or reduced lunches. As this analysis 4. Pilots, Student-Trainees, Passengers demonstrates, those living in the therefore may be more readily absorbed vicinity of airports are more likely to be by plants than other forms of inorganic Pilots, student-trainees, and low-income households and minority lead. Atmospheric deposition of lead passengers are all potentially exposed to residents. also contributes to lead in vegetation as lead emissions from piston-engine We are aware of no studies evaluating a result of contact with above-ground aircraft that use leaded avgas. General blood lead levels among children portions of the plant (AQCD for Lead, aviation passengers and pilots access attending school in close proximity to pp. 7–9 and AXZ7–39; USEPA, 1986, their aircraft in areas that are typically airports with piston-engine activity. We Sections 6.5.3 and 7.2.2.2.1). Livestock in close proximity to runways. are seeking comment and information may subsequently be exposed to lead in Therefore, these individuals walk near regarding blood lead concentrations in vegetation (e.g., grasses and silage) and and breathe the air near locations where children who attend schools in close in surface soils via incidental ingestion aircraft are idling, conducting run-up proximity to airports and the extent to of soil while grazing (USEPA 1986, checks, taxiing, taking off, and landing. which these emissions cause or Section 7.2.2.2.2).170 The lead In the U.S., general aviation aircraft fly over 27 million hours and carry 166 contribute to any increases in blood lead concentration of plants ingested by 174 levels. animals is primarily a result of million passengers annually. Approximately 36 percent of the hours 3. Agricultural Activities atmospheric deposition of lead particles onto plant surfaces rather than the flown by general aviation are for Piston-engine aircraft are used in a uptake of soil lead through plant roots. personal transportation, 19 percent are variety of agricultural activities that may Some of the highest levels of lead instructional flight hours, 11 percent are introduce lead into the human diet as exposure among livestock have been corporate flight hours, 11 percent are for well as contribute to lead in the attributed to grazing near major sources business, eight percent are air taxi and environment. The FAA conducts the such as smelters (AQCD for Lead, air tours and the remainder include General Aviation and Air Taxi Activity Section 2.3.8). Atmospheric deposition hours spent in other applications such (GAATA) Survey annually to obtain as aerial observation and aerial is estimated to comprise a significant 175 information on the general aviation and proportion of lead in food (AQCD for application. According to the 2008 air taxi fleet, the number of hours flown, Lead, p. 3–48) and dietary intake may be General Aviation Statistical Databook & and the reasons people use general a predominant source of lead exposure Industry Outlook report by the General aviation and air taxi aircraft.167 168 among adults (greater than consumption Aviation Manufacturers Association According to the results of the 2007 (GAMA) there were 578,541 pilots in of water and beverages or inhalation (73 176 GAATA Survey (the most recent), aerial FR 66971)). the United States in 2008. Among the application in agriculture and forestry Depending on wind conditions, an pilot population, 75,382 were student represented 5% of all hours flown by aircraft involved in aerial application pilots, comprising 13% of the total pilot general aviation aircraft in 2007. Of the may fly only 4 inches to 12 feet above population. The majority of initial pilot total aerial application hours flown in the crops.171 172 173 The low flying height training is conducted in piston-engine 2007 (1.41 million hours), 60% of the aircraft.177 There is no age minimum for 169 National Agricultural Aviation Association: 166 United States Department of Agriculture: Food ‘‘History.’’ Retrieved from: http:// 173 Petersen, R. ‘‘So you want to be a spray pilot’’. and Nutrition Service, National School Lunch www.agaviation.org/history.htm on August 13, AgAir Update. Retrieved on October 9, 2009 from: Program Fact Sheet. Obtained from: http:// 2009. http://www.agairupdate.com/aau/wannabe/ www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/Lunch/AboutLunch/ 170 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986) pilot.html. NSLPFactSheet.pdf, August 3, 2009. For the period Air Quality Criteria for Lead. Research Triangle 174 General Aviation Manufacturers Association July 1, 2008, through June 30, 2009, 130 percent of Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental (2008) General Aviation Statistical Databook and the poverty level is $27,560 for a family of four; 185 Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Industry Outlook. Available at: http:// percent is $39,220. Assessment Office; EPA report no. EPA–600/8–83/ www.gama.aero/files/2008_general_aviation _ _ _ _ 167 The FAA GAATA is a database collected from 028aF-dF. 4v. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, statistical databook indust 499b0dc37b.pdf. surveys of pilots flying aircraft used for general VA; PB87–142378. 175 General Accounting Office Report to aviation and air taxi activity. For more information 171 Xiong, Chao. (9–23–2007) ‘‘Future for Crop Congressional Requesters (2001) General Aviation on the GAATA, see Appendix A at http:// Dusters is up in the Air’’. The Star Tribune. Status of the Industry, Related Infrastructure, and www.faa.gov/data_statistics/ Retrieved on August 12, 2009 from: http:// Safety Issues. GAO–01–916. aviation_data_statistics/general_aviation/. www.startribune.com/local/11606661.html. 176 GAMA 2008 General Aviation Statistical 168 National Agricultural Aviation Association: 172 Harpole, T. (3–1–2007) ‘‘That Old-Time Databook & Industry Outlook report. Retrieved on ‘‘Help the Aerial Application Industry by Profession’’ Air & Space Magazine. Retrieved on August 17, 2009 from: http://www.gama.aero/files/ completing the 2008 General Aviation Activity August 12, 2009 from: http:// 2008_general_aviation_statistical_databook_ Survey.’’ Retrieved from: http://www.agaviation.org/ www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/old_time_ indust_499b0dc37b.pdf. 2008%20GenAvnSurvey.htm on August 13, 2009. profession.html. 177 See http://flighttraining.aopa.org/.

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pilots to begin taking flying lessons.178 issued the PBT National Action Plan for accumulated lead in their tissues that The minimum age for conducting a solo Alkyl-lead to promote further voluntary this is cause for concern for all flight is 16 years and a pilot certificate reductions of use and exposure to alkyl consumers, but especially for children cannot be issued until 17 years of age. lead compounds, including leaded and pregnant or nursing women, and According to the 2008 General Aviation avgas.182 that issuing an advisory is prudent. Statistical Databook & Industry Outlook We are interested in the potential for The 2008 NLFA database includes report by the GAMA, there are 190 lead emissions from piston-engine data on lead concentrations in over student pilots in the 14–15 year old age aircraft to be a source of lead pollution 23,000 fish from over 1,000 lakes and group and 11,562 student pilots in the to aquatic organisms. Among the streams. Among these fish, lead 16–19 years old age group. GAMA approximately 20,000 airport facilities concentrations were above the reports that in 2008 there are 3,846 in the United States there are 448 analytical detection limit in 1,000 fish private pilots in the 16–19 years old age seaplane facilities. Landing and take-off samples 184 and among the fish in which group. According to the FAA there are activity by aircraft at these facilities measureable lead concentrations were more than 500 flight training provides a direct pathway for emission reported, the concentrations of lead schools.179 180 The requirement for a of organic and inorganic lead to the air ranged from 5 ppb to 60,400 ppb.185 private pilot certificate is 40 hours in a near/above inland waters and ocean States do not provide information non-approved school, and 35 hours in seaports where these aircraft operate. In regarding the source of contamination in an approved school. However, most addition to seaplane facilities, many water bodies where fish tissue people obtain 60 to 75 hours of training airports and heliports are located very concentrations of lead are above before earning their pilot certificate. close to rivers, lakes and streams, which detection limits. Lead concentrations in The general public for whom flying is can provide a direct pathway for fish tissue samples declined from mean a recreational activity may be the most emission of organic and inorganic lead concentrations of 0.28 ppm in 1976 to highly exposed population to lead to the air near/above inland waters. 0.11 ppm in 1984.186 The decrease in emissions from piston-engine activity. Lead emissions from seaplane facilities mean lead concentrations was attributed In addition to their inhalation exposure as well as airports and heliports near primarily to reductions in the lead to engine exhaust emissions, pilots can water bodies can enter the aquatic content of motor vehicle gasoline. be exposed to evaporative emissions of ecosystem by either deposition from Sources of contamination of lead to TEL during aircraft fueling, and fuel ambient air or runoff of lead deposited waterways frequently noted include sump checks during preflight to surface soils. As noted in Section lead gunshot, lead sinkers, and 187 inspections. IV.A, lead halides (the primary form of Superfund sites. Lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft may contribute to 5. Bioaccumulation of Lead in Aquatic lead emitted by engines operating on fish tissue lead concentrations in water Organisms leaded fuel) are slightly water-soluble bodies that are in close proximity to As discussed in Section II.C.2 of this and may be more readily dissolved into water than other inorganic forms of piston-engine aircraft activity. In one ANPR, lead bioaccumulates in the case, a State reported lead contaminated tissues of aquatic organisms through lead. The EPA Office of Water maintains a fish in a lake on airport property. ingestion of food and water. Because of Piston-engine aircraft emissions of lead the potential for significant deposition database of the National Listing of Fish Advisories (NLFA) which is made also have the potential to contribute to of lead compounds to water bodies, EPA fish tissue lead concentrations at water researches and reports on the available on the Internet to provide information regarding locally-issued bodies throughout the U.S. due to the atmospheric deposition of lead emission of lead in-flight. These in- compounds to the Great Waters (the fish advisories and safe eating 183 flight emissions are greatly dispersed in Great Waters include the Great Lakes, guidelines. States, territories, and Tribes (collectively referred to here as the environment and have been Lake Champlain, Chesapeake Bay and providing a source of lead to the many U.S. coastal estuaries).181 Alkyl ‘‘States’’) provide this information to EPA every year. The most recent year environment for over 80 years. lead, in particular, has been identified The Fond du Lac Band of Lake for which data are available is 2008. by EPA as a Level I Persistent, Superior Chippewa, the Leech Lake States provide information regarding Bioaccumulative, and Toxic (PBT) Band of Ojibwe and the Mille Lacs Band contaminant levels of bioaccumulative pollutant. Level I substances are of Ojibwe submitted comments to the toxins measured in fish including lead, targeted for virtual elimination through Lead NAAQS docket noting the mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls pollution prevention and other importance of fish consumption in their (PCBs) and dioxin. Based on these data incentive-based actions that phase out diet.188 The Fond du Lac Band of Lake their use, generation or release in a cost- states issue fish consumption advisories effective manner within the most that provide information regarding 184 In some instances States supply individual expedient timeframe. In 2002, EPA water bodies for which fish tissue fish tissue sample results and in some instances concentrations of these pollutants are States supply averages of multiple fish tissue sample results. 178 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). found by the State criteria to be safe or 185 ‘‘Become a Pilot—Student Pilot’s Certificate unsafe for consumption. The EPA State-specific fish advisories for lead can be Requirements.’’ Retrieved on August 17, 2009 from: downloaded from: http://oaspub.epa.gov/nlfwa/ recommends that if fish are detected as _ _ _ http://www.faa.gov/pilots/become/student_cert/. nlfwa.bld qry?p type=advrpt&p loc=on. 179 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). having any measureable level of 186 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000) ‘‘Types of Pilot Schools & Choosing a Pilot School’’. Guidance for Assessing Chemical Contaminant Data Retrieved on August 17, 2009 from: http:// 182 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for Use in Fish Advisories. Volume 1: Fish www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/ Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Pollutants Sampling and Analysis. EPA 823–B–00–007. p. 4– pilot_schools/. (PBT) Program (2002) PBT national action plan for 59. Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/ 180 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). ‘‘Pilot alkyl-Pb. Washington, DC. Available online at: waterscience/fish/advice/volume1/index.html. Schools—Search’’. Retrieved on August 17, 2009 http://www.epa.gov/pbt/pubs/ 187 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ‘‘Lead from: http://av-info.faa.gov/PilotSchool.asp. Alkyl_lead_action_plan_final.pdf. Fishing.’’. Retrieved on August 17, 2009 from: 181 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ‘‘The 183 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ‘‘The http://www.epa.gov/owow/fish/animals.html. Great Waters Program.’’ Retrieved on August 17, National Listing of Fish Advisories.’’ Retrieved on 188 See Docket ID Number EPA–HQ–OAR–2006– 2009 from: http://www.epa.gov/air/oaqps/ August 17, 2009 from: http://www.epa.gov/ 0735. The Tribes that submitted comments were: gr8water/. waterscience/fish/advisories/. Continued

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Superior Chippewa also noted in their the PM2.5 annual standard, there is at International Agency for Research on comments, ‘‘As a reservation with a least one lead monitor at which design Cancer (IARC) has classified ethylene municipal airport within its exterior values for 2006–2008 are greater than dibromide as a Group 2A carcinogen: boundaries with two schools and Tribal the 2008 Lead NAAQS and two of these probably carcinogenic to humans.¥ housing in close proximity to the airport counties have PM2.5 concentrations In the additive package used to dose (one half mile), leaded aircraft fuel is a exceeding the 24-hour PM2.5 NAAQS. fuel with lead, ethylene dibromide is concern.’’ The Leech Lake Band of Reductions in lead emissions in these added to achieve a lead-to-bromine Ojibwe noted in their comments, ‘‘Along counties would help bring the area into atom ratio of 1:2 and a bromine-to-lead with the concerns over the emission attainment. weight ratio of 1:2.193 The concentration inventory, the Tribes have great concern of ethylene dibromide in leaded avgas is 2. Ethylene Dibromide regarding the amount of lead from listed as less than 4 milliliters per gallon ‘‘small’’ prop engine airports. On or very As noted in Section IV.A, ethylene (<9 grams per gallon).194 Since ethylene near the Leech Lake Reservation there dibromide (1,2-dibromoethane) is added dibromide was measured in the exhaust are seven prop plane airports with many to leaded avgas to scavenge lead in and evaporative emissions from light- private air strips scattered throughout order to prevent the deposition of lead duty vehicles in the U.S. when they the area.’’ EPA is requesting comment on oxide to valves and spark plugs. were operated on leaded fuel containing any information regarding the potential Emissions of ethylene dibromide are a ethylene dibromide we anticipate impact of lead emissions from piston- concern to the EPA. Ethylene dibromide piston-engine aircraft are currently a engine aircraft on aquatic environments. is classified in EPA’s Integrated Risk source of ethylene dibromide to air.195 Information System database as likely to Measurements of ethylene dibromide B. Related Exposures of Concern be carcinogenic to humans, and a have not been made that would allow While the subject of this ANPR is number of chronic noncancer effects estimation of the exhaust and focused on the emissions of lead from have been observed in animals and evaporative emissions from piston- piston-engine aircraft, the use of humans exposed to ethylene dibromide engine aircraft as well as the emissions tetraethyl lead in fuel contributes to by inhalation and ingestion.190 EPA associated with refueling and pre-flight additional public health and welfare developed an inhalation reference fuel checks. issues that are also of concern to the concentration, ingestion dose and In addition to contributing to ambient Agency. Among these issues are: (1) The cancer unit risk estimates for inhalation concentrations, ethylene dibromide may contribution of lead emissions to and ingestion of ethylene dibromide.191 also enter underground aquifers via ambient PM, especially in areas in Evidence of nasal tumors, leaking underground storage tanks or nonattainment with the PM2.5 NAAQS; hemangiosarcomas and mesotheliomas fuel spills. Studies demonstrate that (2) the emissions of ethylene dibromide in rodents was used by EPA to develop ethylene dibromide may persist for long to the environment; and (3) the inhalation unit risk estimates (central periods of time in certain groundwater evaporative emissions of tetraethyl lead. tendency estimates and 95% upper environments.196 The EPA established a × ¥4 × ¥4 Maximum Concentration Level (MCL) of 1. Lead Contribution to Ambient bound estimates) of 3 10 to 6 10 μ 3 0.05 μg/L for ethylene dibromide, which Particulate Matter per g/m . Evidence of forestomach tumors, hemangiosarcomas, thyroid is 100-fold lower than the MCL for As discussed in Section IV.A of this follicular cell adenomas or carcinomas benzene and 300-fold lower than the ANPR, lead emitted by piston engines is was used by EPA to develop drinking MCL for lead. The MCL is the highest expected to be predominantly in the water unit risk estimates (central level of a contaminant that is allowed in particle phase and will contribute to tendency estimates and 95% upper drinking water and is an enforceable ambient PM. There are two U.S. bound estimates) of 3 × 10¥5 to 6 × 10¥5 drinking water standard.197 National Ambient Air Quality Standards per μg/L assuming consumption of 2 L The EPA Office of Underground (NAAQS) for PM2.5: an annual standard of water per day by a 70 kg human. EPA Storage Tanks (OUST) and Office of μ 3 (15 g/m ) and a 24-hour standard (35 developed a reference concentration for Research and Development’s National μ 3 g/m ). As of March 4, 2009 there are chronic inhalation of 9 μg/m3 based on Risk Management Research Laboratory 39 1997 PM2.5 nonattainment areas. the critical effect of nasal inflammation (NRMRL) in association with the Area designations for the 2006 24-hour and a reference dose for chronic Association of State and Territorial PM2.5 NAAQS were promulgated in ingestion of 9 μg per kg per day based 2009 for 31 areas.189 All of these U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, on the critical effects of testicular Research Triangle Park, NC. Available from: nonattainment areas have at least one atrophy, liver peliosis, and adrenal airport servicing aircraft using leaded http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov. cortical degeneration. The National 193 Thomas VM; Bedford JA; Cicerone RJ. (1997) avgas and most nonattainment areas Toxicology Program listed ethylene Bromine emissions from leaded gasoline. Geophys have several airport facilities. The Los dibromide as ‘‘reasonably anticipated to Res Letters 24(11):1371–1374. Angeles-South Coast Air Basin has 343 ’’ 194 Chevron Material Safety Data Sheet for be a human carcinogen in the Eleventh aviation gasoline. Available online at: http:// airport facilities which have a 192 Report on Carcinogens in 2005. The www.chevronglobalaviation.com/docs/ cumulative lead inventory of 15.0 tons. aviation_gas.doc. The contribution of PM-lead to these 190 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2004) 195 Sigsby, J.E.; Dropkin, D.L.; Bradow, R.L.; Lang, nonattainment areas ranges from 0.001 Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), IRIS J.M. (1982) Automotive Emissions of Ethylene to 0.7% of the mobile source PM2.5 Summary for 1,2-dibromoethane CASRN 106–93–4. Dibromide. SAE Technical Paper Series 820786. inventory in these areas. In each of four Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/ 196 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office subst/0361.htm. of Research and Development (2008) Natural areas designated as nonattainment with 191 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2004) Attenuation of the Lead Scavengers 1,2– Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), Dibromoethan (EDB) and 1,2–Dichloroethane (1,2– The Bad River Band of Lake Superior Tribe of Toxicological Review of 1,2-dibromoethane in DCA) at Motor Fuel Release Sites and Implications Chippewa Indians, The Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma, support of summary information on the Integrated for Risk Management, Chapter 2. EPA 600/R–08/ The Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe, The Lone Pine Risk Information System. Available online at: 107. Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/ada. Paiute-Shoshone Reservation, The Fond du Lac http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/toxreviews/ 197 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, and The Mille 0361tr.pdf. ‘‘Drinking Water Contaminants’’ Available online at: Lacs Band of Ojibwe. 192 National Toxicology Program (NTP) (2005) http://www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/ 189 http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations/. 11th Report on Carcinogens. Public Health Service, index.html.

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Solid Waste Management Officials Pilots, aviation fuel attendants and A. The Lead NAAQS and Lead (ATSWMO) have formed a team to mechanics are likely to be among the Emissions From Piston-Engine Aircraft evaluate the potential for public health most highly exposed population to alkyl On November 12, 2008, when EPA and welfare effects attributable to lead. These populations are at risk due promulgated revisions to the Lead ethylene dibromide from past or present to both inhalation and possible dermal NAAQS, EPA also adopted revisions to 198 fuel leaks and spills. Among the goals exposure. Absorption of inhaled alkyl ambient air monitoring requirements for of the EPA/ATSWMO team is to lead into the bloodstream is higher than lead, described the approach for develop information on the distribution that for inorganic lead compounds implementing the revised standards, of ethylene dibromide in groundwater at which are generally in particulate form and provided an implementation leaking underground storage tank sites (AQCD for Lead, Section 4.2.1). In timeline. We describe each of these in States that do not routinely monitor addition to exposure to lead in the activities as well as more recent this contaminant. Water samples for this exhaust emissions from piston-engine activities below. This section also study were provided by State agencies aircraft, the PBT National Action Plan discusses the most current information to EPA between October 2005 and July for Alkyl-lead 200 noted that aviation available regarding how implementation 2007. Of the 802 groundwater samples fuel attendants and mechanics are of the Lead NAAQS may provide provided from 102 sites, ethylene additional data on the potential for lead dibromide was detected in 54 samples, potentially exposed to alkyl lead emissions due to inhalation of alkyl lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft to 43 of which had ethylene dibromide cause or contribute to ambient air concentrations above the MCL.199 These compounds released to the air during fueling, via evaporative emissions from concentrations that exceed the 2008 sites did not include analysis of Lead NAAQS. groundwater at airports. spills, or via evaporative emissions from unused gasoline remaining in the engine Acknowledging that the existing While not the focus of this ANPR, monitoring network for lead is not or fuel tanks. Further, these populations ethylene dibromide exposure from sufficient to determine whether many are also at risk because of possible inhalation or ingestion pathways is an areas of the country would meet the dermal absorption of gasoline ongoing concern for EPA, and reduction 2008 Lead NAAQS, the EPA re-designed containing alkyl lead compounds. Due in the use of leaded gasoline containing the nation’s lead monitoring network to ethylene dibromide may reduce to the lipophilic nature of alkyl lead and allow assessment of compliance with exposure and risk to public health and its ability to permeate biological the revised lead standard. Lead welfare from ethylene dibromide. membranes, alkyl lead is absorbed monitoring requirements promulgated rapidly and extensively through the skin 3. Non-Exhaust Exposure to Tetraethyl in 2008 stipulate that, at a minimum, Lead (AQCD for Lead, page 4–12). In addition monitoring agencies must place to direct human exposure, runoff and monitors at maximum impact areas Tetraethyl lead is a volatile deposition of alkyl lead to waterways where lead emissions are greater than or component of leaded avgas. The largest would increase the amount of lead equal to one ton or more per year. We source of tetraethyl lead exposure is available for uptake by aquatic plants refer to these monitors as source- expected to originate from evaporative and animals (see Section V.A.7 of this oriented monitors. EPA Regional emissions associated with fuel ANPR for more information). Administrators may waive the source- production, fuel distribution, aircraft oriented monitoring requirements if the refueling, pre-flight fuel checks, VI. Additional Information Available monitoring agency can demonstrate that accidental spills, and fuel tank venting. for the NPRM To Evaluate the Potential emissions from the source will not Pilots check fuel for contaminants by for Public Health and Welfare Impacts contribute to maximum air lead draining a small amount of fuel from and Considerations Regarding Engine concentrations greater than 50 percent each tank sump before flight and after Emission Standards of the revised standard, or 0.075 ug/m3 refueling. This fuel is frequently . deposited onto the tarmac after the fuel As noted in the Overview section of EPA estimated that approximately 135 check. EPA is interested in data this ANPR, in this action we are facilities emit lead at levels over the one regarding this practice and any describing information currently ton emission threshold, making them estimates of lead emitted to the air by available and information being subject to the lead monitoring evaporation of the alkyl lead in the fuel collected that will be used by the requirements. Lead monitors are deposited on the tarmac. Alkyl lead Administrator to subsequently exercise operating at a small number of these sources (described in Section VI.A.2 becomes oxidized in the atmosphere by her judgment regarding whether aircraft below). For the remainder, source- direct photolysis, reaction with ozone, lead emissions from avgas use cause or oriented monitors are to be operational and by reaction with hydroxyl contribute to air pollution which may compounds. Therefore, depending on by January 1, 2010. reasonably be anticipated to endanger EPA also required monitors to be ambient conditions, alkyl lead may exist public health or welfare. These operated in each of the 101 urban areas in the atmosphere for hours to days. additional data will come from lead with populations greater than 500,000 monitoring being planned to satisfy in order to gather information on the 198 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office requirements of the Lead NAAQS, air of Research and Development (2008) Natural general population’s exposure to lead in Attenuation of the Lead Scavengers 1,2– quality modeling planned at EPA that is air. We refer to these monitors as Dibromoethan (EDB) and 1,2–Dichloroethane (1,2– described below and any information population-oriented monitors. DCA) at Motor Fuel Release Sites and Implications submitted to EPA during the comment Following promulgation of the 2008 for Risk Management. p.3. EPA 600/R–08/107. Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/ada. period for this ANPR. Lead NAAQS and monitoring 199 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office requirements, the Natural Resources of Research and Development (2008) Natural 200 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Defense Council, the Missouri Coalition Attenuation of the Lead Scavengers 1,2– Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Pollutants for the Environment Foundation, Dibromoethan (EDB) and 1,2–Dichloroethane (1,2– (PBT) Program (2002) PBT national action plan for DCA) at Motor Fuel Release Sites and Implications alkyl-Pb. Washington, DC. Page 14. Available online Physicians for Social Responsibility, for Risk Management. p.4. EPA 600/R–08/107. at: http://www.epa.gov/pbt/pubs/ and the Coalition to End Childhood Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/ada. Alkyl_lead_action_plan_final.pdf Lead Poisoning (Petitioners) petitioned

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EPA for reconsideration of the lead 1. Monitoring Lead at Airports To In those areas, EPA will retain the 1978 emission rate at which we required Evaluate Ambient Concentrations to standard until the area submits, and monitoring (the ‘‘emission threshold,’’ Which Lead Emissions From Piston- EPA approves, attainment and/or currently 1.0 tpy).201 EPA granted the Engine Aircraft Contribute maintenance demonstrations for the petition to reconsider aspects of the Among the estimated 135 source- new standards. Only two areas, East monitoring requirements and proposed oriented lead monitoring sites, there are Helena, MT (including Lewis and Clark revisions to lead ambient air monitoring four airports where we expect lead counties), and part of Jefferson County requirements in December 2009 (74 FR monitoring to begin in January 2010. in Herculaneum, MO, are designated 69050). These airports are the Van Nuys Airport nonattainment with the 1978 Lead NAAQS. The industrial facility causing Also as part of promulgating the 2008 in Van Nuys, CA; the Phoenix Deer nonattainment with the Lead NAAQS in Lead NAAQS, EPA described the Valley Airport in Phoenix, AZ; the the East Helena area closed in 2001. approach for implementing the revised Centennial Airport in Englewood, CO; Eleven areas are designated as standards and provided an and the Daytona Beach International Airport in Daytona Beach, FL. In each maintenance areas, only three of which implementation timeline. EPA will use currently have lead monitors. These county boundaries as the presumptive of these areas, we will, as data becomes available, evaluate the impact of lead three locations (Iron County, MO, boundaries for nonattainment areas, and Dakota County MN, and Collin County, adjustments to boundaries will be made emissions from piston-engine aircraft on air quality. TX) have lead monitors with design on case-by-case bases. States in which value concentrations exceeding the 2008 there is sufficient monitoring data made 2. Evaluating the Contribution of Lead Lead NAAQS. The design value is the recommendations for areas to be Emissions From Piston-Engine Aircraft highest ‘‘rolling’’ three month average designated attainment, nonattainment, to Areas Approaching or Exceeding the over a three-year period that is relevant or unclassifiable in October 2009. States Lead NAAQS for comparison to the level of the 2008 update their recommendations to EPA In this section we discuss available Lead NAAQS. in October 2010 using any additional information and information that will Implementation of the 2008 Lead monitoring data available from the become available in 2010 that can be NAAQS is underway, and we have not increased source-oriented monitoring used to evaluate the potential for lead yet designated areas under it. When network described above. Final emissions from piston-engine aircraft to EPA promulgated the 2008 Lead designations of all attainment, contribute to ambient concentrations in NAAQS, EPA provided a list of 18 nonattainment and unclassifiable areas areas exceeding the Lead NAAQS. This counties with design values exceeding will be effective no later than January evaluation may include the following: the 2008 lead standard of 0.15 μg/m3. 2012. Where data are sufficient from the (1) Areas currently out of attainment or Using more recent data from EPA’s Air currently existing lead monitoring designated as maintenance with the Quality System, there are 14 sites at network, we expect that initial 1978 Lead NAAQS; (2) areas with which design values exceed the 2008 designations will be effective January current lead monitors that are out of Lead NAAQS (Table 3). Over 4.6 million 2011. States are directed to submit State attainment with the 2008 Lead NAAQS; people live in the counties where design Implementation Plans (SIPs) no later and (3) locations that will have new values are greater than the 2008 Lead than eighteen months after designation, lead monitors to meet the 2008 Lead NAAQS. After EPA designates areas that outlining how they will reduce NAAQS source-oriented monitoring currently have sufficient lead pollution to meet the lead standards. requirements. In each of these areas, we monitoring data, no later than October States are required to attain the will, as data become available, evaluate 15, 2010, we will evaluate the standards no later than five years after the contribution of lead emissions from contribution of lead emissions from designation. Additional information piston-engine aircraft to lead inventories piston-engine aircraft to lead inventories regarding the lead standard and air quality. in nonattainment, maintenance and in implementation is available at http:// The EPA is retaining the 1978 Lead some cases, unclassifiable areas, www.epa.gov/air/lead/actions.html and NAAQS until one year after depending on the presence of point in the 2008 Lead NAAQS (73 FR 67030– designations for the 2008 Lead NAAQS, sources of lead and the status of ambient 67043). except in current nonattainment areas. lead monitoring in those areas.

TABLE 3—COUNTIES WITH MAXIMUM ROLLING QUARTERLY AVERAGE LEAD CONCENTRATIONS EXCEEDING THE 2008 LEAD NAAQS

County popu- Design value, County, state EPA region lation (2000 2006–2008 Census) (μg/m3)

Jefferson, MO ...... 7 198,099 2.89 Iron, MO ...... 7 10,697 2.46 Delaware, IN ...... 5 118,769 2.16 Hillsborough, FL ...... 4 998,948 1.77 Collin, TX ...... 6 491,675 1.26 Pike, AL ...... 4 29,605 1.21 Dakota, MN ...... 5 355,904 0.70 Fulton, OH ...... 5 42,084 0.69 Berks, PA ...... 3 373,638 0.36 Madison, IL ...... 5 258,941 0.28 Logan, OH ...... 5 46,005 0.27

201 The petition is available at: http:// www.epa.gov/air/lead/pdfs/OAR.09.000.7687.pdf.

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TABLE 3—COUNTIES WITH MAXIMUM ROLLING QUARTERLY AVERAGE LEAD CONCENTRATIONS EXCEEDING THE 2008 LEAD NAAQS—Continued

County popu- Design value, County, state EPA region lation (2000 2006–2008 Census) (μg/m3)

Sullivan, TN ...... 4 153,048 0.26 Beaver, PA ...... 3 181,412 0.20 Cuyahoga, OH ...... 5 1,393,978 0.17

Lead emissions from piston-engine scale gradient in lead concentrations on- We selected the Santa Monica aircraft operating at airports outside and near airport facilities with piston- municipal airport for this study because nonattainment areas can also contribute engine powered aircraft activity.202 This of the data available from the to lead measured in the nonattainment study focused mainly on developing an monitoring study conducted by the area. In addition, other sources of lead approach for modeling lead emissions SCAQMD in 2005–2007 discussed in that do not, by themselves, exceed the from piston-engine aircraft using the Section IV.B of this ANPR. In addition, lead emission monitoring threshold may Meteorological Society (AMS)/EPA there are no major point sources of lead be located near airports. For example, at Regulatory Model (AERMOD), and in close proximity to the airport, some airports in the U.S., race track evaluating it using air quality simplifying the model development and venues are located immediately adjacent measurements. For purposes of local- interpretation of monitoring results. to runways where piston-engine aircraft scale dispersion modeling, AERMOD is EPA intends to use this modeling operate. We are seeking information EPA’s preferred model.203 The approach approach to evaluate potential for regarding ambient concentrations of developed includes apportioning lead exceedance of the Lead NAAQS on lead that can result from the combined emitted during landing and take-off to airport property and surrounding areas, emissions of leaded fuel used in some different altitudes in order to as well as providing an approach to race vehicles, lead emissions from characterize emissions during these characterize the contribution of lead piston-engine aircraft and other sources modes of operation in a realistic emissions from piston-engine aircraft to of ambient lead. manner. In addition, this modeling areas with ambient lead concentrations The EPA intends to conduct modeling study includes analysis of the spatial currently exceeding the 2008 Lead analyses to evaluate the contribution of and temporal emissions from piston- NAAQS. This modeling approach will these lead emissions to nonattainment engine aircraft during the other modes also allow us to quantify the changes in areas and areas that may be approaching of aircraft operation (e.g., taxi, run-up ambient lead concentrations following nonattainment concentrations. Lead check, take-off, landing). The modeling the implementation of different piston- emitted by piston-engine aircraft flying results include an evaluation of the engine control strategies. The through nonattainment areas may also relative contributions of all known application of this modeling approach contribute to lead measured in the sources of lead to the local ambient air, to a case-study airport could also be nonattainment area. These emissions including piston-engine aircraft, local used as input to conduct a risk would be potentially challenging to traffic, resuspended road dust, and assessment evaluating the potential quantify, although a series of scoping industrial sources within 20 km of the contribution of lead from piston-engine analyses could be conducted. We seek airport selected for our case study. The emissions on blood lead levels and IQ comment on characterizing the EPA study at the Santa Monica Airport deficits for those living near or contribution of lead emissions from was recently completed.204 attending school near general aviation piston-engine aircraft flying through As part of this work, we collected air, activity. areas that are not attaining the 2008 soil and house dust samples for lead We request comment on all Lead NAAQS and the potential analysis in order to conduct a model-to- information EPA is collecting to contribution of piston-engine lead monitor evaluation, and to evaluate the evaluate ambient lead concentrations emissions that may be transported into potential for lead emissions from piston- attributable to emissions from piston- lead nonattainment areas. engine aircraft to create a gradient in air, engine aircraft and risk posed by As noted above, approximately 135 soil and house dust concentrations of emissions of lead from piston-engine new lead monitors will begin collecting lead in proximity to the airport aircraft. ambient lead samples starting in January activities. C. Considerations Regarding Engine 2010 in order to satisfy the source- Emission Standards oriented monitoring requirements of the 202 U.S. EPA (March 2010) Memorandum from 2008 Lead NAAQS. In the NPRM we Marion Hoyer to the docket EPA–HQ–OAR–2007– A positive endangerment and cause or will discuss the potential contribution 0294, titled, ‘‘Work Plan for Air Quality Modeling contribute finding with respect to the and Monitoring of Lead Emissions from Piston- of lead from piston-engine aircraft to Engine Powered Aircraft.’’ Docket number EPA– emissions of lead from general aviation these areas where the ambient data HQ–OAR–2007–0294. aircraft would trigger EPA’s duty to set suggest lead concentrations are close to 203 The EPA provides modeling guidance for emission standards. In considering or exceeding the 2008 Lead NAAQS of AERMOD at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/scram/ emission standards, EPA would μ 3 guidanceindex.htm and http://www.epa.gov/ consider controlling emissions from 0.15 g/m . scram001/dispersion_prefree.htm#aermod. A post- piston engines using aviation gasoline B. Additional Information EPA Is processor for AERMOD that reads model output and calculates rolling 3-month averages for the period in aircraft. In cooperation with FAA, Collecting To Evaluate Ambient Lead modeled to provide lead concentrations that can be EPA would evaluate the technical Concentrations Attributable to compared with the Lead NAAQS is available online feasibility of a possible phase-down or Emissions From Piston-Engine Aircraft at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/files/ambient/pb/ leadpost.zip. elimination of leaded aviation gasoline. In 2008 EPA initiated a study to 204 The report from this study is posted at One option to consider, for example, provide information regarding the local- http://www.epa.gov/otaq/aviation.htm. could be an emissions standard

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(established under 40 CFR 87) that this approach including suggested leaded avgas and how these might be would require all newly-manufactured modifications, improvements, or other integrated into the fuel supply and general aviation piston engines to be approaches. EPA is requesting comment distribution system. able to operate with appropriate on potential implications for reliability and durability on unleaded international import and export of VII. Statutory and Executive Order aviation gasoline by some future date. piston engines and aviation fuel, as well Reviews Such a standard might require that new as potential impacts on international Under Executive Order 12866, engines used in aircraft would have to transport. Finally, EPA requests entitled Regulatory Planning and receive an FAA type certificate that comment on how market incentives Review (58 FR 51735, October 4, 1993), reflects achievement of these might be developed to encourage this is a ‘‘significant regulatory action’’ requirements under FAA regulations set modification to run on unleaded because of the cross-agency nature of forth at 14 CFR parts 33/34. aviation gasoline as part of a regulatory this issue. Accordingly, EPA submitted Beyond this, EPA recognizes that requirement. this action to the Office of Management there is a big challenge in dealing with As part of the responses to the and Budget (OMB) for review under the in-use fleet. Converting in-use Federal Register notice EPA published Executive Order 12866 and any changes aircraft/engines to operate on unleaded in November 2007 entitled ‘‘Petition made in response to OMB aviation gasoline would be a significant Requesting Rulemaking to Limit Lead recommendations have been logistical challenge, and in some cases Emissions from General Aviation documented in the docket for this a technical challenge as well. In many Aircraft,’’ EPA received a number of action. Because this action does not cases, the implementation of this comments addressing both technology propose or impose any requirements, concept might depend upon efforts and and fuel-based options as potential other statutory and Executive Order actions of aircraft and engine measures to reduce or eliminate lead in reviews that apply to rulemaking do not manufacturers in identifying the avgas.205 In addition to these comments, apply. Should EPA subsequently necessary modifications and developing EPA is aware of completed and ongoing determine to pursue a rulemaking, EPA hardware as necessary. Depending on work done under the auspices of the will address the statues and Executive timing, these engines might need to be Coordinating Research Council and Orders as applicable to that rulemaking. able to operate on either leaded or more recent viewpoints and efforts put unleaded aviation gasoline, or a blend forth by industry trade associations, Nevertheless, the Agency welcomes thereof. EPA recognizes that in many airframe/engine manufacturers, comments and/or information that cases these modifications could trigger specialty vendors, aviation user groups, would help the Agency to assess any of the need for FAA regulatory approval of and other innovators. The work and the following: Tribal implications the modifications for both the engines perspectives of these groups on pursuant to Executive Order 13175, and airframes. Given the potentially technology and avgas fuel quality entitled Consultation and Coordination large number of affected aircraft and the options are important, and EPA asks for with Indian Tribal Governments (65 FR potential complexities involved, a further comment reflecting any new 67249, November 6, 2000); program affecting in-use aircraft engines data on technology developments, fuel environmental health or safety effects would need careful consideration by formulation approaches, or other on children pursuant to Executive Order both EPA and FAA and the two agencies technical viewpoints. 13045, entitled Protection of Children would need to work together in According to Department of Energy from Environmental Health Risks and considering any potential program data, annual demand for aviation Safety Risks (62 FR 19885, April 23, affecting the in-use fleet. gasoline is very small in comparison to 1997) and human health or EPA requests comment on this outline motor gasoline yet its use is as environmental effects on minority or of approaches for transitioning the fleet geographically widespread. This of low-income populations pursuant to to unleaded aviation gasoline, as well as course creates challenges for supply, Executive Order 12898, entitled Federal potential implementation dates, if EPA distribution, and storage. EPA asks for Actions to Address Environmental were to trigger the duty to set emission comment on the avgas refining locations Justice in Minority Populations and standards. Comment is also requested and practices, supply (including Low-Income Populations (59 FR 7629, on how a program could be best imports and exports, if any), details on February 16, 1994). The Agency will structured to assure that conversions distribution to terminals and airports, consider such comments during the conducted by engine manufacturers and storage practices for avgas at development of any subsequent (OEMs), independent shops, and in the terminals and airports across the rulemaking. field by certified power plant mechanics country. EPA is also interested in Dated: April 20, 2010. are performed to fully meet the intent of comments on progress and timeframes Lisa P. Jackson, a possible program without for developing alternatives to current compromising the safety of those Administrator. aircraft and engines. EPA also asks for 205 72 FR 64570 (Nov. 16, 2007); EPA Docket [FR Doc. 2010–9603 Filed 4–27–10; 8:45 am] comment on potential problems with EPA–HQ–OAR–2007–0294. BILLING CODE 6560–50–P

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