Index

Aaen, S. 18, 123, 124 China’s admission see China’s admission to Aalbu, H. 411 the Arctic Council Aalto, P. 128–43, 536 climate change studies 312, 313–14 Abele, F. 482 Communication Strategy 308 aboriginal communities see indigenous Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna communities (CAFF) 302, 312 Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic deputy ministers meetings 308, 579 (AACA) project 308, 313 Draft Arctic Treaty: Arctic Regional Council Afonso, O. 5 301 Agius, C. 501, 504 environmental protection mandate Alaska see US, Alaska 305–6 Aldrich, H. 338 exploitation and management of marine Alexeeva, O. 393 resources 150–51 Allison, D. 51 funding issues 306, 311 Alper, S. 27 Heads of Delegation (HoD) meetings Alta Declaration 303 308 Alter, K. 340 High Representatives of the Arctic Council Alto, P. 575 member-states’ meetings 315 aluminium smelters 7–8, 112, 115, 124–5 Host Country Agreement 310 Amin, A. 412, 413 indigenous peoples’ organizations as Anderson, A. 571 Permanent Participants (PIs) 306 Anderson, B. 424–5, 426 Indigenous Peoples Secretariat (IPS) Anderson, D. 178, 224, 225 incorporation 303 Andresen, S. 335, 340 institutional archives 311 Anido, D. 571 international collaboration 314 animal migration patterns, disruption to 284 Kiruna Declaration 321, 375–6, 378–9, Aniol?, W. 576 400–401 Antrim, C. 572 legal status, criticism of 311 Appel, P. 114 long-range transport of POPs see long- appurtenance test 230–31, 237 range transport of persistent organic Archer, C. 89, 299, 314 pollutants (POPs) into the Arctic, Arctic Biodiversity Assessment 154–5, 161, Arctic Council 162, 163 marine environment studies 312 ‘Arctic Circle’ creation 383 marine shipping assessment 255, 312, 313, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) 316, 318, 345–6 272, 283, 298, 312, 313 military cooperation involvement 314–15, see also environmental impact assessments 330, 331, 332, 335 Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) ministerial meetings 307, 309 309, 312, 364–5, 366 MOPPR Agreement (Cooperation on Arctic Council 298–327 Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Action Plan to Eliminate Pollution in the Response) 169, 172, 176, 269–70, 306–7, Arctic 332 316, 317–18, 319 Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic observer status see observer status (AACA) project 308, 313 Offshore Oil and Gas Guidelines 166, 167, biodiversity studies 312 169, 171, 172–3, 269–70 capacity enhancement 315–20 oil and gas assessment 312 capacity enhancement, legally binding Ottawa Declaration 55–6, 305, 306 agreements 315–19 pollution studies 312, 313

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Protection of the Arctic Marine Poland, international scientific cooperation Environment (PAME) 302, 312, 314, 573, 575 316, 364, 366 pollution concerns 299–300, 302 scientific assessments and policy Rovaniemi Declaration and Process 301–2, recommendations 306–7, 321 303, 304, 575 Search and Rescue (SAR) agreements Arctic Council and ecosystem-based involvement 269, 306, 314, 316–17, 318, management 154, 157, 158, 265–80 319 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) Secretariat 308, 310–11, 315 272, 283, 298, 312, 313 seminal work 312–15 Arctic, definition of 277 Senior Arctic Officials (SAOs) 303, 306, 308, Arctic Ocean extent 265–6 309, 316, 377–8 Arctic Ocean Review (AOR) projects 266–8, Senior Arctic Officials (SAOs), and China’s 269, 273, 274 admission to Arctic Council 391–2, biodiversity assessment 272 398–400, 401, 402, 403 climate change, sea ice reduction and ocean structure and proceedings 307–11 temperatures 266, 275 sustainable development mandate 305–6, 312 collaboration and common understanding, Task Force for Institutional Issues (TFII) promotion of 273–4, 276 310, 319, 320 economic development 266 Terms of Reference 306, 310 ecosystem-based management definitions three-level consensus 309 270–71, 273 Tromsø Declaration 308, 316, 488–90, 577, fisheries 266, 269, 271, 273 579 governance implementation concerns US security issues 304, 305 275–6 US–Russia maritime cooperation 33, 35, 45, Ilulissat Declaration see Ilulissat Declaration 48 international architecture for Arctic Ocean working groups 302–3, 304, 305, 309, governance 274–7 312–14, 576, 577, 579, 580 international regimes in the Arctic 266–70 Arctic Council, Arctic Environmental living marine resources 268–9, 273 Protection Strategy (AEPS) 298–305 marine environment and economic activities Action Plan 303 265–6 Alta Declaration 303 marine scientific research 270, 272 ‘Arctic Council’ proposal 301 marine shipping assessment 269 ‘Arctic Eight’ concept 300–301, 304, 429, Marine Strategic Plan endorsement 272 430–31 ‘Observed Best Practices for the Ecosystem- Finnish Initiative (FI) on international based Oceans management in the relations 299, 300–301 Arctic’ endorsement 272–3 as foundation for Arctic Council 302–5 oil and gas reserves 266, 272 indigenous peoples’ organizations as pollution issues 272 observers 306 role in advancing 270–74 Indigenous Peoples Secretariat (IPS) 303 science bodies, cooperation through institutional complexity 331 international 274 International Arctic Science Committee strategic plans and guidelines 272–4 (IASC) 270, 299, 331, 526 UN Commission on the Limits of the international cooperation commitment Continental Shelf (UNCLCS) 132, 303–4 149–50, 174, 257–8, 269, 380, 382, 523 Inuit foreign policy see under Inuit foreign UN Convention on the Law of the Sea policy and international relations constitutive status 268, 269, 270, 271, Japan observer status 523 275 marine environment preservation 302 Arctic Council management and contemporary Murmansk Initiative 88, 299, 301–2, 316, geopolitics 375–87 468, 484–5 ‘Arctic Circle’ creation 383 Nuuk Declaration on sustainable China’s growing involvement 375–6 development 303, 377–9, 385, 518–19, ‘Common Concern for the Arctic’ 523, 542 conference 384

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global commons of Arctic Ocean 344, 381, common geographic location and export- 382, 385 oriented economies 519 global warming see climate change energy policy 135 Ilulissat Declaration see Ilulissat Declaration Northern Sea Route (NSR) concerns 519, indigenous peoples’ organizations, 520, 522, 523 involvement concerns 384 and Nuuk Declaration 518–19, 523 Kiruna Declaration 321, 375–6, 378–9, Asian States and regional governance, China 400–401 520–22 Lomonosov Ridge 231, 232, 233, 238, 239, Arctic Council permanent observer 243, 382, 511 application 520–21, 522 Nuuk Declaration 303, 377–9, 385, 518–19, Arctic policy, lack of official 522 523, 542 climate change and associated scientific observer status see observer status research efforts 520 permanent Secretariat and institutional climate change and resource development strengthening 384 521–2 Polar Code (IMO) 63, 276, 314, 328, 333, India seen as competitor 527 339, 346, 383, 525 Northern Sea Route (NSR) concerns Russian flag on seabed, significance of 520 379–80, 381, 448 Polar Research Plan 520 sovereignty issues 379–80, 381–2 shipping and resources issues 520 sustainable development and environmental sovereignty and sovereignty rights, views on protection 381 520 UNCLOS, shipping safety and regulation Asian States and regional governance, India 383, 384–5 525–7 Arctic definition 148, 277 Arctic Council permanent observer ‘Arctic Eight’ concept 300–301, 304, 429, application 526–7 430–31 Arctic region interests 525–6 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy China seen as competitor 527 (AEPS) see Arctic Council, Arctic climate change concerns 526 Environmental Protection Strategy energy sector interest 527 (AEPS) polar scientific research 526, 527 Arctic Human Development Report (AHDR) Svalbard, Himadri research facility 526 312, 408 Asian States and regional governance, Japan Arctic Marine Agreement on Search and 522–3 Rescue and Oil Pollution 132, 137, 138 Arctic Council permanent observer Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme application 523 (AMAP) 302, 312, 313, 335–6, 338, 341, Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, 345, 364, 366, 523 observer status 523 Arctic Ocean extent 265–6 Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Arctic Ocean Review (AOR) 169–70, 172, Programme (AMAP) participation 266–8, 269, 273, 274 523 Arctic Paradox, ethical dilemma and Arctic Task Force 522–3 exploitation of oil and gas 91–2, 98–9 imported oil and gas reliance 522 Arctic Resilience and Social Indicators projects legal constraints, concerns over 523 56 Northern Sea Route (NSR) concerns 522, Arctic Zephyr exercise 36 523 Ármannsson, P. 6 polar research credentials 523 Arter, D. 536 Svalbard research station 522 Aruliah, C. 520 Asian States and regional governance, Asian States and regional governance Singapore 525 517–32 Arctic Council permanent observer Arctic Council, permanent observer status application 525 application 517–19, 520–21, 522, 523, infrastructure contribution interests 524–5, 526–7 525 Arctic indigenous peoples’ concerns 519 shipping and energy resources 525

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Asian States and regional governance, South Arctic Council studies 312 Korea 524–5 assessment, and ecosystem-based Arctic Council permanent observer management 272 application 524–5 human–environment relations, Greenland Arctic Policy Basic Plans 524 108, 110, 119–20, 122 energy supply as security issue 524 Bird, K. 244 memorandum of understanding with Birkenmajer, K. 575 Norway on Arctic shipping 524 Birnie, P. 201, 202 polar research programme 524 Bjørst, L. 109 shipping and resource exploitation focus 524 Blakkisrud, H. 66 Svalbard, Dasan research station 524 Blank, S. 392, 394, 396 Aslaksen, I. 411 Bloom, E. 304, 306, 307, 322 Åtland, K. 66, 88, 299, 480, 572 Blumenthal, D. 34 Auburn, F. 249, 250 Blunden, M. 376, 405, 409 Audet-Delage, Y. 354 Bógdał-Brzezińska, A. 575 Axelrod, M. 330 Bolton, J. 34 Axelrod, R. 27 Bone, R. 55 Axworthy, T. 298, 301, 388, 482, 484 Borgerson, S. 30, 34, 265, 343, 344, 376, 388, 394, 396, 459, 511, 570–71 Badowski, R. 574 Borkowski, J. 577 Baev, P. 29, 30, 405 Boswell, R. 297 Baker, B. 34, 178, 182, 269 Bourne, C. 252–3 Baker, T. 106 Brander, K. 266 Balton, D. 178 Bråthen, S. 571 Balyberdin, A. 455 Brekke, H. 234, 245 Bambulyak, A. 66–86 Brigham, L. 30, 396, 484, 570, 571, 572 Banana Hole 154, 156, 235–6, 241 Broadhead, L. 281–97 Bankes, N. 93, 163, 180, 181, 182, 185–206 Brooke, J. 35 Barents Euro-Arctic Region (BEAR) 132, 138, Browder, J. 110 331–2, 339, 467–8, 469–70, 575 Browman, H. 271 Barents Health Programme, Norway 467–8 Browning, C. 502 Barents Sea and Norway Brubaker, R. 337, 458 cooperation with Russia, 472, 473 Brun Pedersen, R. 504 extraction projects 135 Brunnée, J. 178 oil and gas reserves 474–6, 477–8 Budzik, P. 97 Barney, K. 111 Burke, W. 343 Barrett, S. 342 Burleson, E. 354, 360 Bartenstein, K. 337 Buzan, B. 87 baselines 209–10, 251, 253, 254, 257 Byers, M. 30, 61, 90, 93, 132, 136, 224, 225, Bates, N. 266 259, 317, 386, 487, 488, 490, 494 Baur, D. 203 Beck, P. 526 Campbell, D. 5 Beesley, J. 252–3 Canada Bennett, M. 524 Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act 251, Berbrick, W. 26–50 252, 383 Berger, T. 299, 300 blocking of observer membership 540, 542, Bergman Rosamond, A. 501–16 545 Bering Sea 34–5, 36, 46–7 energy policy, military and civilian Berkman, P. 376, 573 authorities control capabilities 135 Bertelsen, R. 1–25, 389 indigenous peoples’ percentage 57 Bicchi, F. 534, 543 Integrated Ocean Management Plan for Biermann, F. 330, 340, 341, 342 Beaufort Sea 154 biodiversity Inuit Declaration on Sovereignty as foreign Arctic Biodiversity Assessment 154–5, 161, policy 490–94 162, 163 Joint Commission with Greenland for

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Conservation of Narwhal and Beluga UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 251, 161 252, 256, 258, 259 maritime limits and boundaries see under Canada, sovereignty and its legal significance, maritime limits and boundaries Northwest Passage 251–7, 287–8, 292 NORDREG database 259, 383 Arctic Maritime Shipping Assessment Northern Watch project 383 (AMSA) Report 255 seaward limits of continental shelf beyond commercial shipping, viable 251 200 nautical miles 237–8, 243 cooperation agreement with US, research US alliance, collaborative security for the conditions 253–5 Arctic 564, 569 Corfu Channel case comparison 256, 257 Canada, Arctic agenda and economic as international strait 256–7 development 51–65 straight baselines around outer limits of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Arctic islands 251, 253, 254, 257 Development (AAND) 59 US and Manhattan and Polar Sea transits Arctic Council Chairmanship 51–4, 290, 293 252–3, 254, 256, 259 Arctic Council common agendas, building and US National Strategy for the Arctic 52–3 Region 255–6 Arctic Council discourse 58–9, 61–2 Canadian sovereignty versus northern security Arctic Economic Council, establishment of 281–97 62, 63, 64 animal migration patterns, disruption to 284 Arctic Resilience and Social Indicators Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) projects 56 272, 283, 298, 312, 313 Canada’s Northern Strategy 60–62 Arctic Council chairmanship 290, 293 circumpolar agenda 51, 54, 55–6, 57, 58–9 clean-up activities 284 economic development as ‘Arctic’ theme climate change effects 282–3, 289 55–6 colonial nature of Canadian Arctic 287–8, environmental discourse 52, 55, 56, 60, 61 289–90 geopolitical context 57, 62–3 conceptual ecology of Arctic security, Northern Economic Development Agency requirements of move towards 291–3 (CanNor) 53, 59–60, 61 conceptual imagination, lack of 289–91 Ottawa Declaration 55–6, 305, 306 environmental protection strategies 290–91, resource extraction industries 55 292 science agenda 54–5, 60 International Panel on Climate Change sustainable community as parochial agenda projections 283 54–5, 56, 57–8, 59 Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), Arctic US economic interests 53–4 summit exclusion 289–90 Canada, sovereignty and its legal significance Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) and 90–91, 247–61 climate change 282–3 accessibility improvements, effects of 249 Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), Hans Island dispute with Denmark 91, Declaration on Sovereignty in the 216–19, 247, 250 Arctic 291–2 international law and sovereignty 248, Inuit lifestyle damage 284, 285, 288, 292–3 249–50 Inuit settlement relocation programmes mandatory Arctic shipping registration 288–9 system 259 marine and air pollution from weapons maritime sovereignty 251–9 testing and flight training 284 navigational rights within the EEZ 258–9 maritime and continental shelf boundaries, outer continental shelf and CLCS priority given to 285 submissions 257–8 mental maps and Arctic conceptual sea melt effects 247 coordinates 281–2 ‘sector’ principle and lines of latitude 249–50 militarism legacy 283–6 technology access, effects of 249 military surveillance, Distance Early UN Commission on the Limits of the Warning (DEW) Line 284 Continental Shelf (UNCLCS) 257–8, mining sector and training of indigenous 259 peoples 286

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Naats’ihch’oh National Park Reserve 290–91 observer number increases, concerns over northern spirit of Canadian identity and 397–8, 399–400, 403 Arctic jingoism 286–7, 288–9 Permanent Participants (PPs), role of 389, oil and gas development concerns 292–3 390–91, 397, 398–9 oil spill pollution concerns 293 Russian concerns 393 resource development and sovereignty Senior Arctic Officials (SAOs) and emphasis 285, 286, 289, 290–91, 292–3 Permanent Participants (PPs) Russian nuclear testing 284 perspective 391–2, 398–400, 401, 402, scientific mapping work 292–3 403 US B-52 bomber crash 284 China’s admission to the Arctic Council, Cantir, C. 503 observer application process 396–9 Carayannis, E. 5 and Arctic Council’s Arctic policy Caron, D. 203 development role 398 Casey, K. 136 climate change effect 397, 400 Castberg, R. 411 evolution of 396–8 Caulfield, R. 55, 56 rules governing participation of existing Cavnar, A. 244 observers, application of 398–9 central Arctic basin 211–12 Chircop, A. 255 fishing moratorium call 154, 156–7, 158 Chivers, C. 257 Chang, G. 517 Christensen, N. 271 Chaturvedi, S. 527 Christie, G. 490 Chen, G. 344, 375 Churchill, R. 147–84, 223, 244, 246, 333 Chepoi, A. 457 Claes, D. 334, 577 Cheung, W. 266 Clarke, A. 410 China Clarke, C. 270 Arctic Council management, growing Clegg, S. 422 involvement 375–6 climate change Permanent Observers in Arctic Council 344 adaptation and flooding 416–17 regional governance see Asian States and adaptation and socially sustainable regional governance, China communities 414–15 China’s admission to the Arctic Council Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) 388–407 272, 283, 298, 312, 313 Arctic Council, openness and transparency Arctic Council studies 312, 313–14 commitment 400, 403 China and associated scientific research Arctic Council, opinions of extra-Arctic efforts 520 countries 395–6 China, climate science involvement, China not seen as threat 393, 394, 402 importance of 392 China seen as potential threat, mass media China, and resource development 521–2 portrayal 389, 391, 392, 395 Denmark, Arctic identity and policies Chinese focus similar to Arctic Council’s 396 511–12, 513 Chinese interpretation of own Arctic effects, and Canadian sovereignty versus interests 394 northern security 282–3, 289 climate science involvement, importance of energy as developmental strategy 17, 22 392 EU security challenges 535, 539, 543, 546 common interests and common concerns Greenland, extractive industries 107, 109–10 equated as common entitlements 395 and increased access 428 ‘curiosity’ factor 391 India, concerns 526 economic interests, emphasis on 391, 392, institutional complexity in Arctic 393, 394 governance 331, 334–5, 339, 341 exclusion, Chinese sense of 395 monitoring and predicting, Poland, Iceland’s involvement in attracting Chinese international scientific cooperation 576, investment 392–3 578 international coverage of China, Chinese Norway, Fram Centre 471 responses to 395 and securitization see securitization and Kirkuna ministerial decision 400–401 climate change

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and US economic and energy issues 554, Convention on the Conservation of Migratory 564, 568 Species of Wild Animals (Bonn see also environmental protection Convention) 160, 161, 163, 189, 191 climate change, and melting sea ice Convention on International Trade in Arctic Council management and Endangered Species (CITES), marine contemporary geopolitics 381 mammals see marine mammals in Canada, sovereignty and its legal international environmental law and trade significance 247 law, Convention on International Trade in commercial fishing expansion 152, 154–5, Endangered Species (CITES) 156–7 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary marine mammals, effects on 159, 163 Air Pollution (CLRTAP) 341, 345 ocean temperatures 266, 275 cooperation oil and gas exploration effects 165 Arctic Council commitment 303–4, 314–15 US, collaborative security for the Arctic 556, collaboration and common understanding, 558, 559, 564–5, 569 promotion of 273–4, 276 US–Russia maritime cooperation 29, 31, 37, collaborative security, US see US, 42–3 collaborative security for the Arctic Coalson, R. 572 information sharing 362, 563 Coates, K. 55, 529 institutional, Russia and Norway, High Cochran, P. 488 North policies 462–3, 467–9, 474 Colgan, J. 330 Northwest Passage research conditions Collie, J. 271 253–5 Collins, G. 20 Council of Baltic Sea States 332, 575 Colson, D. 244 Crampton, J. 423, 425 Conley, H. 396 Crawford, A. 428, 431 Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Crawford, J. 250 (CAFF) 302, 312 Cunningham, N. 297 conservation measures see exploitation and Curtin, R. 265, 271 management of marine resources Constable, A. 271 Dacks, G. 428 continental shelf Daemers, J. 541, 542, 544 Canada, continental shelf boundaries, Dagg, J. 182 priority given to 285 Dahl, J. 108 claims, US–Russia maritime cooperation Dahlström, M. 411 31, 34 Dalby, S. 292 institutional complexity in Arctic Daly, M. 297 governance 333 Daniels, S. 27, 44 international law definition 445 Darby, A. 201 natural resources in and on 269 Davies, P. 201 seaward limits see seaward limits of Day, D. 248 continental shelf beyond 200 nautical De Angelis, M. 108 miles and UNCLOS De Carvahlo, B. 501, 503 and sovereign rights 149–50, 164–5 De Goede, M. 411 Spitsbergen Treaty 153, 165, 210 De La Fayette, L. 183 UN Commission on the Limits of the De Wit, C. 353, 354 Continental Shelf (UNCLCS) 132, Dean, R. 482, 484 149–50, 174, 257–8, 269, 380, 382, 523 defence see military security uncertainties, central Arctic Ocean 211–12 delimitation boundaries see also delimitation boundaries; exclusive maritime limits see maritime limits and economic zones (EEZs) boundaries, delimited maritime Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) boundaries 168, 271, 341 and overlapping seabed claims 241, Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic 243 Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) Russia, and Norway, High North policies 271, 273 463–5, 466, 469, 471

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see also continental shelf; exclusive economic Dodson Dougherty, S. 354, 360 zones (EEZs) Donaldson, S. 352 Denmark Doran, C. 483, 495 Hans Island dispute with Canada 91, Downes, D. 360 216–19, 247, 250 Downie, D. 313 maritime limits and boundaries see under Drezner, D. 342 maritime limits and boundaries Drivenes, E. 480 Permanent Court of International Justice Drucker, P. 5 (PCIJ), Eastern Greenland (Norway v. Duhaime, G. 55, 411 Denmark) 249 Duus, S. 122, 123 seaward limits of continental shelf 238–9, 242–3 Ebinger, C. 136 see also Greenland economic interests and development Denmark, Arctic identity and policies Arctic Council and ecosystem-based 501–16 management 265–6 Arctic five framework, position within 507, Canada see Canada, Arctic agenda and 512 economic development climate change effects 511–12, 513 constraints, Russian defence policy 451 coastguard and rescue services 510 economic advantages, oil and gas foreign policy trends 503–4 exploration within national jurisdiction Ilulissat Ocean Conference 507–8 166 immigration restrictions 504 economy diversification, Faroe Islands indigenous governance and influence, 13–15 commitment to 505–6, 512–13 emphasis, China 391, 392, 393, 394 joint Arctic preparedness force 510 energy policy 131–2 military involvement 503–4, 505, 509–11, financial infrastructure investment reliance, 513 Russia 443–4 multilateralism and international global economic balance changes, effects of commitment 501, 503–4, 507, 509, 330–31, 334 510–11 political aspects of Arctic change 411, NATO membership 509, 510 412–13 self-perception as ‘good state’ 505 ecosystem-based management, Arctic Council as small state 502–3, 507 see Arctic Council and ecosystem-based sovereign claims 511–12 management UNCLOS and continental shelf extension EEZs see exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 511 Eide, A. 482 Denmark, Arctic identity and policies, Ekins, P. 181 Greenland Elden, S. 423, 425 extraction industries’ investment 509 Elferink, A. 34, 177, 181, 223, 226, 245 future independence implications 506, 508 Elias, R. 525 as key component of Arctic identity 505–7, Eliasen, M. 11, 12 508–9 Emerson, M. 539 Lomonosov Ridge as part of Greenland Emmerson, C. 80, 98, 181, 182, 183, 249 territory claim 511 energy as developmental strategy 3–25 peoples’ right to be recognized under human capital requirements 5 international law 508–9 see also oil and gas exploration; Russia, protection of sovereignty over 506 Arctic interests and policies, energy Depledge, D. 54, 55, 388–407 development and offshore energy Dicken, P. 413, 414, 418 reserves Dickins, D. 82 energy as developmental strategy, Faroe discourse analysis see spatial systems, discourse Islands analysis in understanding competence development fund 12 Dittmer, J. 54, 107–8, 141, 313 economy diversification 13–15 Dodds, K. 54, 306, 320, 343, 375–87, 389, 494, English/Faroese ‘oil dictionary’ development 543, 545, 546 12

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Faroese Oil Industry Group (FOÍB) news Kárahnjúkar Dam and power station 8 portal 15 knowledge sector development 7, 8, 9, 10, guaranteed equal opportunity for Faroese 11, 21 businesses 13 Marshall Aid 7 history 4 political independence 5–11 hydrocarbon search 11 post-war import restrictions and export knowledge export economy implications 16, subsidies 7 21 Sogsvirkjun project 7 oil industrial cluster 11–16 sub-sea power-line to Scotland, oilrigs transportation to pass through consideration of 8 Faroese harbour or airport 13 UN University Geothermal Training Sindri fund for geological research 12 Programme (UNU-GTP) 9 university BA programme 15 welfare state development 6 welfare state development 6 energy policy 128–43 energy as developmental strategy, Greenland Alaska, licensing restrictions 136 administration and institutional capacity 19 Arctic Council involvement, scientific Arctic Council influence and Danish research to protect Arctic ecology 134 membership 20 Asian powers assessment of region 135 Arctic infrastructure development Barents Sea projects see Barents Sea possibilities 19–20 Canada, military and civilian authorities Bureau of Minerals and Petroleum (BMP), control capabilities, improved 135 personnel limitations 17–18 compensation for lost lands 139 Danish block grant 16–17 competition regulation 137 energy policy, 16-year licensing 136 ecological dimension 133–4 history 4 environmental issues and sustainability 138, international geopolitics and energy 139 resources 20 EU environmental stewardship frame 133–4, knowledge-based economy, creation of 139 18–20, 22 EU–Russia relations, Northern Dimension large-scale projects, risks and challenges (ND) policy 132 17–18 exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 132 oil companies, Impact Benefit Agreement financial dimension 131–2 (IBA) 19 geopolitical frame 134–5 oil and gas resources 17–18, 19–20 global level 128, 133–4 onshore mineral resources 17–18, 19, 20 indigenous peoples’ rights 138 self-rule agreement 16–18 institutional dimension 132, 134 welfare state development 6 insurance rates 131 energy as developmental strategy, Iceland international energy companies, investments aluminium smelter, Hvalfjörður 7 and consortia format 136–7 Búrfellsvirkjun power station 7, 8 investments and consortia format 136–7 economic downturn and calls for new power- licensing variations 136, 137 intensive projects 8 local developmental programmes on European Economic Area (EEA) education and preservation of cultural membership 10 values 139 foreign power-intensive industry, attracting 7 military build-up concerns 135 geothermal revolution 8–9 monitoring and joint exercise agreements, history 3–4 call for 134 hydro-electric power for fertilizer and national sovereignty 128, 134–6 manufacturing 6 Northern Sea Route and trade 133 hydrocarbon search 9–11 oil and gas reserve estimates 131 hydropower electrification, bottom-up 6–7 oil prices and global financial crisis 132 Icelandic Continental Shelf committee and pre-sales agreements 131 hydrocarbon exploration 10 public consultation and information Icelandic–Norwegian Jan Mayen Accord campaigns, scarcity of 138–9 10, 11 regional level 128–9, 138–9

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renewables, competition from 132 environmental stewardship and energy resource geographic dimension 130–31, policy 133–4, 139 133–4 EU–Russia relations, Northern Dimension Russia, majority state-owned companies (ND) policy 132 involvement 135 policy involvement, Poland 577, 578, 580–81 Russian dominance and potential for REACH Regulation (chemical toxicity and conflict 134–5 safety) 350, 367 Search and Rescue and Oil Pollution Seal Regime see marine mammals in agreements 132, 137, 138 international environmental law and single-industry towns 139 trade law, WTO GATT, EC – Seal state-controlled companies, private energy Products, EU Seal Regime firms dependence on 136 see also individual countries tax breaks 136 EU Arctic policy 533–49 transnational level 128, 136–7 Arctic Charter, call for 537 UN Commission on the Limits of the Arctic Council observer status rejection 540 Continental Shelf (UNCLCS) 132, Arctic Council, permanent observers’ 149–50, 174, 257–8, 269, 380, 382, 523 criteria 542 unconventional oil and gas commodities Canada’s blocking of observer membership boom, effects of 132 540, 542, 545 Yamal liquefied natural gas (LNG) project EU Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP) 536 131, 135 EU member states’ role, recognition of energy sector interest, India 527 540–41, 544 energy security provisions 524, 561, 565 ‘EU’s Northern Dimension’ (ND) launch English, J. 301, 322, 375, 484 536 Englund, W. 31 and EU’s space programme 541 environmental activist protests see Greenpeace Finland and Sweden EU membership environmental impact assessments 115, 117, 535–6 118–19, 167–9 foreign policy 533–5, 543–5 see also Arctic Climate Impact Assessment future direction 547 (ACIA) global warming and security challenges 535, environmental protection 539, 543, 546 Arctic Council mandate 305–6 Greenland’s EU membership 535, 538 and conservation of natural resources 554–5, knowledge and policy search in formative 556–7, 558, 559–60, 561, 562, 567 years 537–41, 543–4 and economic development 52, 55, 56, 60, liberal intergovernmentalism 533–4, 535 61 Norwegian role 538, 544–5 energy policy and sustainability 138, 139 permanent observer status 541–2 Greenland, extractive industries concerns postponement until Swedish presidency 113, 122 539–40, 544 institutional complexity in Arctic governance strategic issues reporting 536–7 335, 336, 338, 339, 341, 345 UNCLOS as legal framework 538, 539, 541, Joint Norwegian–Soviet Commission 468, 542, 545 469, 472 Evers, K. 82 strategies, Canadian sovereignty versus exclusive economic zones (EEZs) northern security 290–91, 292 Canada, navigational rights within 258–9 sustainability dimensions, and extreme energy policy 132 weather concerns 415–16 Russian Arctic, oil spill response strategy technology development 333–4 66–7 see also climate change sovereign resource rights 149, 150, 151–3, Erickson, A. 20 154, 156, 159, 336–7, 344, 346 Escobar, A. 106, 119, 120 UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, 200- Etzkowitz, H. 5 mile EEZs 463–5, 466, 469, 471 EU see also continental shelf; delimitation Arctic Council observer status 319–20, 384, boundaries 401 Exner-Pirot, H. 64

Leif Christian Jensen and Geir Hønneland - 9780857934741 Downloaded from Elgar Online at 09/26/2021 11:47:03AM via free access Index ­597 exploitation and management of marine sea ice retreat and commercial fishing resources 147–84 expansion 152, 154–5, 156–7 Arctic Council 150–51 shared stocks and cooperation 152, 156 Arctic definition 148 straddling stocks, conservation and coastal State sovereignty 149, 152 management 155, 156, 157 continental shelf, sovereign rights for Total Allowable Catches (TACs) 152–3 exploring and exploiting natural UN Fish Stocks Agreement 155, 156, 157 resources 149–50 US Arctic Fisheries Management Plan 154 exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and see also fisheries management sovereign resource rights 149, 150, exploitation and management of marine 151–3, 154, 156, 159 resources, living resources, marine high seas zone 150 mammals 158–63 Ilulissat Declaration see Ilulissat Declaration Arctic Biodiversity Assessment 154–5, 161, international legal and institutional 162, 163 framework 148–51 Canada and Greenland Joint Commission International Seabed Area 150, 174–5 for the Conservation of Narwhal and mineral resources beyond limits of national Beluga 161 jurisdiction 174–5 cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) MOPPR Agreement (Cooperation on 159–61 Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Coalition to Abolish the Fur Trade 162 Response) 169, 172, 176, 269–70, 306–7, Convention on the Conservation of 316, 317–18, 319 Migratory Species of Wild Animals UNCLOS 148–50, 152, 154, 155, 158, 159, (Bonn Convention) 160, 161, 163, 189, 165–9, 171–5 191 exploitation and management of marine indigenous peoples, limited exploitation by resources, living resources, fish 151–8 158, 160, 161, 162, 163 Arctic Biodiversity Assessment 154–5, 161, international law framework 159–61 162, 163 International Whaling Commission 159–60 Arctic Council, ecosystem-based moratorium on all commercial whaling, and management call 154, 157, 158 exemptions 160 ‘Banana Hole’ and ‘Loophole’ 154, 156, 212, North Atlantic Marine Mammal 235, 466 Commission (NAMMCO) 160, best fishing practices and precautionary 189–90 approach, need for 154, 155 pinnipeds (seals and walrus) 161–2 Canada, Integrated Ocean Management polar bears 162–3 Plan for Beaufort Sea 154 pollution threat 159 central Arctic basin and moratorium call sea ice loss implications 159, 163 154, 156–7, 158 see also marine mammals in international conservation and management measures environmental law and trade law 152–3, 155–6 exploitation and management of marine fisheries regime of high seas 154–8 resources, oil and gas exploration within fisheries regime within limits of national national jurisdiction 164–74 jurisdiction 151–4 accidental pollution, minimizing risk of global warming effects 152 171–2 international negotiations, need for 157–8 Arctic Council, Offshore Oil and Gas migratory species, conservation and Guidelines 166, 167, 169, 171, 172–3 management 155 Arctic Council, Task Force on Arctic Marine North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission Oil Pollution Prevention 171 (NEAFC) 156, 158, 333, 346 Arctic Ocean Review (AOR) 169–70, 172 Norway and geographical application of coastal State regulation 164–5, 166, 167 Spitsbergen Treaty 153, 165, 210 continental shelf and sovereign rights 153, Norwegian–Russian Fisheries Commission 164–5 151–3, 154, 156, 161, 333, 346, 463 Convention on Biological Diversity 168 regional fisheries management organizations Convention for the Protection of the 155, 157, 158 Marine Environment of the North-East

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Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) 170–71, Finnemore, M. 424 271, 320, 333, 341 fisheries management economic advantages 166 Arctic Council and ecosystem-based environmental impact assessment 167–9 management 266, 269, 271, 273 Greenland licensing restrictions 166 exploitation and management see Greenpeace ‘Save the Arctic’ campaign 165, exploitation and management of 381 marine resources, living resources, fish International Convention for the Prevention grounds, opening of new, US–Russia of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL maritime cooperation 29 Convention) 170 institutional complexity in Arctic governance International Court of Justice and 333, 336, 340, 344, 346 obligation to undertake environmental US, collaborative security for the Arctic 555, impact assessments 168–9, 170 564–5 International Maritime Organization Fleischer, C. 178 (IMO), Code for the Construction and Flyvbjerg, B. 424, 432 Equipment of Mobile Offshore Drilling Fold, N. 108 Units 171 Foote, L. 202, 203 liability and compensation for pollution Foucault, M. 414, 421, 422–4, 425, 427 damage and polluter pays principle Francione, G. 200 173–4 Franck, T. 342 London Dumping Convention 170 Franckx, E. 202 monitoring activities 169–70 Frantzen, B. 66 moratorium suggestion 165–6 Freeman, J. 338 Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response Freeman, M. 202, 203 Convention (OPPR Convention) 172–3 Freire-Gibb, L. 271 operational pollution 170–71 Friðleifsson, I. 9 pollution and biodiversity concerns 165–6, Friedheim, R. 201 167, 168, 169 Friis, H. 108 pollution emergencies, responding to 172–3 Furlong, P. 409, 410 safety technology and industry standards 171–2 Gad, U. 506, 508 sea ice reduction effects 165 Gadihoke, N. 526, 527 UNCLOS regulations 166–7, 168, 169, 171, Galloway, G. 201 172, 173, 174 Gallucci, V. 496 UNEP Guidelines 167, 169, 171, 173 Gant, E. 317 extractive industries Gänzle, S. 332 Greenland see Greenland, extractive Gao, Z. 182 industries Gautier, D. 112, 266, 296 see also oil and gas headings Gavrilenko, A. 460 Gayazova, O. 247 Fabbi, N. 482–500 Gehring, T. 330, 340, 343 Faegteborg, M. 484, 485 geopolitics, contemporary see Arctic Council Faroe Islands, energy as developmental management and contemporary strategy see energy as developmental geopolitics strategy, Faroe Islands Gillespie, A. 180, 187, 201, 202 Feder, E. 421, 422 global commons of Arctic Ocean 344, 381, Fenge, T. 51, 54, 308, 313 382, 385 Fikkan, A. 203 Global Programme of Action (GPA) for the Filimonova, N. 135, 137, 410 Protection of the Marine Environment Fineberg, R. 297 354–6 Finger, M. 133, 136 global warming see climate change Finland globalization and neoliberalization effects EU membership 535–6 412–13, 414, 415 Finnish Initiative (FI) on international Glomsrød, S. 411 relations 299, 300–301 Goldenberg, A. 482, 486, 489

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Gordy, K. 248 state-formation process and home rule Gorski, T. 226 effects 110, 111–12 Graczyk, P. 298–327, 378, 542, 574, 575, 576, surveying, mapping and prospecting 109–13 580, 581, 582, 583 uranium mining 111 Graham, A. 428 wilderness, Greenlanders understanding of Grant, S. 247, 252 120 Gray, D. 225 zero-tolerance policy, lifting 111 Greenland Greenland, extractive industries, Isukasia iron Canada and Greenland Joint Commission ore mine project 113–23 for the Conservation of Narwhal and archaeological finds 116 Beluga 161 area described as empty and wild 118 Danish Arctic identity and policies see deliberative democracy process, lack of 123 Denmark, Arctic identity and policies, environmental and social impact assessments Greenland 115, 117, 118–19 energy as developmental strategy see energy geological importance 114–15 as developmental strategy, Greenland ice removal and zone of sacrifice 115, 118 EU membership 535, 538 independent experts, need for 121, 122, 123 independence issues and economic self- indigenous livelihoods and rights of access, sufficiency 91–2 concerns over 116–17, 119, 120–21 indigenous peoples’ percentage 57 large-scale project legislation approval 123 oil and gas exploration licensing restrictions pollution concerns 115–17 166 public information sessions 117–18, 121, 123 see also Denmark public protest 121–3 Greenland, extractive industries 105–27 Greenpeace access rights and ownership concerns Arctic Council observer status 320, 379, 384 112 Arctic Ocean as global commons 381 Alcoa aluminium smelter project 112, 115, MOPPR Agreement publication 317–18 124–5 and Prirazlomnaya oil platform see climate change effects 107, 109–10 securitization and climate change, commodification of natural things, concerns Greenpeace and Prirazlomnaya oil over 107 platform Danish dependency history 108 ‘Save the Arctic’ campaign 165, 381 environmental concerns 113, 122 Gregoire, L. 519 exclusive licence issues 112–13 Griffiths, F. 57, 283 Fiskenaesset Ruby Project 121 Grydehøj, A. 135 future industrialization possibilities 109, Grzela, J. 577, 582 112–13 Gudkov, A. 457 history of 108, 110, 112 Guo, P. 394 human–environment relations and Gupta, A. 409, 526 biodiversity 108, 110, 119–20, 122 ice melts and easier access 107–8, 110 Haas, P. 368 indigenous peoples as pioneers 108 Haavisto, P. 307, 311 Innajuattoq feldspar mine licence Hálfdanarson, G. 6 application 122 Hamelin, L. 428 international energy and mining companies’ Hannan, M. 338 interest 105, 106, 110–13 Hans Island dispute 91, 216–19, 247, 250 planning procedures and frontier encounters Hansen, K. 93 106–7 Hansen, L. 100, 502, 504, 505, 510, 514 political discourse about economic Hara, K. 529 opportunities 111, 112 Harding, L. 571 public consultation concerns 105, 106, Hardy, B. 190, 203 117–18, 122, 123 Harhoff, F. 11 regulatory processes, concerns over 109 Harsem, Ø. 131, 133, 577 resource frontier 107–9, 112 Harvey, D. 121, 124 royalties payments 111 Hasanat, W. 302, 322, 365

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Häyrynen, N. 89 Arctic Council management and Headland, R. 251, 256 contemporary geopolitics 381–3 Heinämäki, L. 306, 484, 489 divisive nature of 383–5 Heininen, L. 89, 90, 91, 99, 138, 365, 377, 409, exploitation and management of marine 494–5, 583 resources 148–9, 150 Henriksen, N. 114 Inuit foreign policy and international Henriksen, T. 138, 179, 224 relations 485–7, 491 Herberg, M. 519 maritime limits and boundaries 207 Hey, J. 502 Ocean Conference, and Denmark’s Arctic Heynen, N. 107 identity 507–8 high seas zone 149, 150, 154–8, 160, 175, 176, Incidents at Sea Agreement (INCSEA) 36 252–3, 268, 269 India, regional governance see Asian States global commons 344, 381, 382, 385, 38582 and regional governance, India Loophole 154, 156, 212, 235, 466 indigenous communities Hill, M. 275 aboriginal subsistence whaling exception Hirsch, P. 108, 110 186 Hix, S. 533, 545 Arctic Council observer status 306 Ho, J. 137 Asian States’ concerns 519 Høegh-Dam, B. 19 Canada, mining sector and training of Hoel, A. 177, 179, 184, 265–80, 313, 322, 329, indigenous peoples 286 344, 575 Denmark governance and influence, Hong, N. 141 commitment to 505–6, 512–13 Hønneland, G. 51, 52, 63, 81, 88, 98, 138, 178, and energy policy 138 223, 224, 269, 302, 306, 331, 332, 462–81, food chain risks, and persistent organic 573 pollutants (POPs) 353–4 Hopson, E. 483–4, 487 Greenland, Isukasia iron ore mine project Horensma, P. 30 concerns 116–17, 119, 120–21 Hovelsrud-Broda, G. 180 human security issues 92, 93 Howard, R. 376, 459 Indigenous Peoples Secretariat (IPS) 303 Howse, R. 200 Inuit foreign policy see Inuit foreign policy Hubel, H. 332 and international relations Huebert, R. 29, 32, 135, 178, 184, 225, 301, Inuit lifestyle damage, Canada 284, 285, 288, 311, 404, 552, 570, 571 292–3 Humpert, M. 54, 389, 536, 544 marine mammals, limited exploitation by Huntington, H. 177 158, 160, 161, 162, 163 Hupe, P. 275 organizations, Arctic Council involvement Husdal, J. 571 concerns 384 Huxley, M. 424 percentage of indigenous people living in Arctic region 57 ice melting see climate change, and melting sea as pioneers, Greenland, extractive industries ice 108 Iceland seals obtained from (IC exception) 195, 196, aluminium smelter 7–8 198 ‘Arctic Circle’ creation involvement US commitment to, and consultation 383 process 557, 558, 563, 566 Chinese investment, involvement in Ingebritsen, C. 501, 502 attracting 392–3 institutional archives, Arctic Council 311 energy as developmental strategy see energy institutional complexity in Arctic governance as developmental strategy, Iceland 328–51 maritime limits and boundaries see under ambiguity and contradiction concerns 341 maritime limits and boundaries Arctic Council Action Plan to Eliminate Iliff, M. 201 Pollution in the Arctic 332 Ilulissat Declaration Arctic Council, Arctic Marine Shipping Arctic Council and ecosystem-based Assessment 345–6 management 268 Arctic Council, Arctic Monitoring and

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Assessment Programme (AMAP) OSPAR Convention on Marine Pollution in 335–6, 338, 341, 345 the North East Atlantic 170–71, 271, Arctic Council, Task Force for Institutional 320, 333, 341 Issues (TFII) 310, 319, 320 pollution concerns 333, 335, 337, 339, 341, Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy 345 (AEPS) see Arctic Environmental regional institutions, rise of 330–32 Protection Strategy (AEPS) regulation in broader institutions 332–4 Barents Euro-Arctic Region (BEAR) 132, resource pooling for reasons of efficiency 138, 331–2, 339, 467–8, 469–70, 575 338–9 continental shelf resources 333 rule enforcement effects 342–3 cooperative problem solving 344 search and rescue and oil-spill preparedness Council of Baltic Sea States 332, 575 332, 339, 345–6 division of labour among sub-regional, shipping 333, 336–7, 339, 345–6 circumpolar and global institutions soft-law basis 332 338 sovereign rights to regulate and exploit duplication and normative tension risks 342 natural resources in exclusive economic energy policy 132, 134 zones (EEZs) 336–7, 344, 346 environmental protection 335, 336, 338, 339, UNCLOS 336–7, 343–4, 345 341, 345 international architecture for Arctic Ocean environmental technology development governance 274–7 333–4 International Arctic Science Committee external dependency and Arctic commodities (IASC) 270, 299, 331, 526 334–6, 339–40, 344–5 international control of Arctic, call for 95, 97, fisheries 333, 336, 340, 344, 346 98, 157–8 global economic balance changes, effects of International Convention for the Prevention 330–31, 334 of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL global warming and climate change effects Convention) 170 331, 334–5, 339, 341 International Convention for the Regulation of governance tasks and niche advantages Whaling (ICRW) 186 337–40 International Council for the Exploration of International Arctic Science Committee the Sea (ICES) 152, 153, 161, 270 331 International Court of Justice (ICJ) International Maritime Organization Corfu Channel 256, 257 (IMO) see International Maritime delimitation and overlapping seabed claims Organization (IMO) 241 interplay management and conducive and obligation to undertake environmental complexity 345–6 impact assessments 168–9, 170 interstate conflict effects 343–5 International Hydrographic Organization knowledge building and capacity (IHO) 314, 320 enhancement 338–9, 340–41, 342 international law leadership provision by smaller set of states and Arctic sovereignty 248, 249–50 agreeing on more ambitious norms marine mammals see exploitation and 341–2 management of marine resources, maritime infrastructure development 333–4 living resources, marine mammals; military involvement, changing 314–15, 330, marine mammals in international 331, 332, 335 environmental law and trade law negative framing 340 International Maritime Organization (IMO) North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission 171, 269, 316, 318, 337 (NEAFC) 333, 346 Polar Code 63, 276, 314, 328, 333, 339, 346, Norway, Norwegian–Russian Fisheries 383, 525 Commission 151–3, 154, 156, 161, 333, International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 346, 463 283 nuclear installation safety levels 335–6, 342 International Seabed Area 150, 174–5 oil and gas exploration 334, 336, 344 International Seabed Authority 150, 175, 382, oil-spill risks 333 529

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International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Canada’s Arctic Sovereignty: Report on (ITLOS) National Defense 492–3 Bay of Bengal and natural prolongation and Canadian Arctic domestic policy 490–94 232–3, 241 Controlling Canada’s Arctic Waters report Greenpeace and Prirazlomnaya oil platform 491–2 93, 97 and international customary law 489–90 Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) see under Rising to the Arctic Challenge report 490–91 Canadian sovereignty versus northern Irwin, M. 487 security Ísleifsson, S. 6, 7 Inuit foreign policy and international relations Isukasia iron ore mine project see Greenland, 482–500 extractive industries, Isukasia iron ore Arctic Council, Permanent Participant mine project status for indigenous organizations 484, Ivanchin, A. 69 488, 489–90 Ivanov, Y. 69 Arctic Council, Tromsø Declaration 308, Ivanova, M. 67, 69, 76, 342 316, 488–90, 577, 579 Ivison, J. 571 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) 484 Jaakkola, I. 128–43 Arctic Oceans Conference, lack of Inuit Jabour, J. 377 inclusion in 485–6 Jacobs, J. 106 First Arctic Peoples’ Conference 483 Jakobsen, P. 503 Ilulissat Declaration 485–7, 491 Jakobson, L. 344, 375–6, 389, 393–4, 395, 404, International Inuit Day 487 517, 522, 542 Inuit Circumpolar Conference 483–4 Jalonen, O. 88 Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) 482, 483, Japan, regional governance see Asian States 484, 485, 486, 487 and regional governance, Japan Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), A Järvenpää, P. 135 Circumpolar Inuit Declaration on Arctic Jegorova, N. 133 Sovereignty 487 Jenkins, R. 202 Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), Inuit Jennings, R. 248, 250 Arctic Policy 485 Jensen, L. 99, 462–81 Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), Inuit Jensen, Ø. 227–46 Declaration on Sovereignty 485, 487 Jessup, P. 249 Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), Joenniemi, P. 575 Ministerial Meeting of the Arctic Ocean Jølle, H. 480 Coastal States, non-inclusion 494 Jones, M. 412 Murmansk initiative and international Jónsson, B. 6, 7, 8 cooperation 88, 299, 301–2, 316, 468, Jørgensen, J. 81 484–5 Jørgensen, K. 545 Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples Jull, P. 483 of the North (RAIPON) 484 Jungcurt, S. 330, 340, 341 Saami Council 484 Justinussen, J. 1–25 sovereignty issues 485–6, 487, 488–90 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea as Kaarbo, J. 503 governance instrument 486, 487 Kakebeeke, W. 368 UN Declaration on the Rights of Kamińska, J. 580 Indigenous Peoples 367–8, 487, 489–90 Kankaanpää, P. 274, 311, 312, 364, 365, 576, World Council of Indigenous Peoples 579 483 Kao, S. 132, 136, 318, 322, 332 see also indigenous communities Kapyla, J. 377 Inuit foreign policy and international relations, Karlsdóttir, U. 6, 7, 8 Inuit Declaration on Sovereignty as Karski, K. 576 foreign policy 488–90 Keil, K. 88, 90, 97, 98, 131, 134, 136, 546 budget allocation for housing, health care Kelman, I. 139 and education 492 Keohane, R. 27, 330, 534, 535

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Keskitalo, E. 51, 52, 54, 299, 301, 304, 305, legal issues 421–33, 485 Arctic Council legal status, criticism of 311 Keukeleire, S. 533, 543 legal foundations, Russia see Russia, Arctic Kiruna Declaration 321, 375–6, 378–9, interests and policies, legal foundations 400–401 and sources of inconsistency Kleist, M. 20 seaward limits of continental shelf beyond Kleivan, I. 483 200 nautical miles 227–35 Klepsvik, K. 317–18 see also International Court of Justice; Knecht, S. 546 Permanent Court of International knowledge building and capacity enhancement Justice (PCIJ) 338–9, 340–41, 342 Leland, S. 575 knowledge and policy search, EU Arctic policy Lempinen, H. 415 537–41, 543–4 Lengell, S. 246 knowledge sector development 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, Lenton, T. 107 16, 18–20, 21, 22 Lerner, S. 124 Knudsen, P. 571 Letcher, R. 353 Koivurova, T. 138, 247, 298–327, 328, 331, 344, Levin, P. 270 363, 364, 375, 378, 388, 404, 409, 482, 484, Levy, M. 329 489, 490, 517, 542 Li, P. 201 Kola Peninsula and nuclear safety concerns Lidegaard, M. 504, 512, 513 468–9, 470, 476–7 Lind, O. 295 Kolodkin, A. 458 Link, J. 271 Korenev, V. 74, 75, 77 Linklater, A. 502 Koring, P. 58, 59 Liu, Z. 520 Korppoo, A. 98 living resources, exploitation see exploitation Kramer, D. 295 and management of marine resources, Kraska, J. 30, 31, 36, 376 living resources Krasner, S. 27 Loganathan, B. 352, 357 Krause, K. 87 Loibl, G. 368 Kristinsson, G. 6 Lomonosov Ridge 231, 232, 233, 238, 239, 243, Kristjánsson, H. 6, 7 382, 511 Krivyakina, E. 455, 459 London Dumping Convention 170 Kudsk, H. 322 long-range transport of persistent organic Kuletz, V. 115, 124 pollutants (POPs) into the Arctic 352–74 Kunoy, B. 244 financial and technical support, lack of adequate 355 La Fayette, L. 257 future management 367–8 Lacey, S. 31 global initiatives 354–63 Lackenbauer, P. 62, 392, 393, 396, 517–32 Global Programme of Action (GPA) for the Lahn, G. 80, 181, 182, 183 Protection of the Marine Environment Laidler, G. 55, 56 from Land-based Activities 354–6 Laitos, J. 368 global reverse-listing approach suggestion Lalonde, S. 182 367 Lam, P. 352, 357 and human rights relating to health and the LaMourie, M. 484 environment 367–8 Lan, L. 521–2 mammals’ health vulnerability and Inuit Langhoff, R. 123 food chain risks 353–4 Langille, J. 200 political interest, waning 355–6 Lanteigne, M. 520 POPs characteristics 353–4 Larner, W. 414, 417 and UN Declaration on the Rights of Larsen, T. 181 Indigenous Peoples 367–8, 487, 489–90 Lasserre, F. 393, 396, 517 UNEP, Global Chemicals Outlook report 368 Latour, B. 410 UNEP, Resolution on Chemicals and Lawler, P. 501, 504, 505, 506, 507 Wastes, Special Programme trust fund Leary, D. 266 363, 366

Leif Christian Jensen and Geir Hønneland - 9780857934741 Downloaded from Elgar Online at 09/26/2021 11:47:03AM via free access 604 Handbook of the politics of the Arctic long-range transport of persistent organic financial needs of developing nations, pollutants (POPs) into the Arctic, Arctic addressing 362–3 Council 363–6 Global Plan of Action 361, 362 Arctic Contaminants Action Program information sharing, weak approach to 362 (ACAP) 309, 312, 364–5, 366 political engagement and implementation of Arctic Monitoring and Assessment relevant agreements 361 Programme (AMAP) 364, 366 POPs management initiatives 361 observer States, addition of 365 Quick Start Programme (QSP) 362–3 policy-related POPS guidance, scarcity of soft-law status and diluted commitments 362 365–6 Loophole 154, 156, 212, 235, 466 Protection of the Arctic Marine Lorimer, S. 296 Environment (PAME) Working Group Loukacheva, N. 482 364, 366 Lowe, A. 246 Regional Programme of Action (RPA) 364, Łuszczuk, M. 573–85 365–6 Lynge, A. 486 scientific research and policy actions’ funding 365 MacDougall, D. 245 long-range transport of persistent organic Machlup, F. 5 pollutants (POPs) into the Arctic, Machowski, J. 321, 574 Rotterdam Convention 356–8, 363, 367 Mackinder, H. 572 compliance and enforcement mechanism, Macnab, R. 244, 245, 250 lack of 358 MacNaughtan, J. 533, 543 hazardous chemicals listings and decision Mahmoudi, S. 244 guidance documentation 357 mammals see marine mammals human health and environment protection Manicom, J. 392, 393, 396, 517–32 356 Mansurov, M. 67 international chemicals information sharing Marie, C. 32 promotion 356–7 marine mammals’ health vulnerability 353–4 political engagement and financial and marine mammals in international technical assistance, low 357–8 environmental law and trade law 185–206 trade ban in listed chemicals, absence of aboriginal subsistence whaling exception 186 357 Agreement on the Conservation of Polar long-range transport of persistent organic Bears (ACPB) 190–91 pollutants (POPs) into the Arctic, Convention on the Conservation of Stockholm Convention 275, 335, 358–60, Migratory Species of Wild Animals 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367 (Bonn Convention) 160, 161, 163, 189, adoption contribution 355 191 compliance and enforcement tools, lack of ethical argument 185 360 International Convention for the Regulation exemption provisions 360 of Whaling (ICRW) 186 financial and technical support, inadequate North Atlantic Marine Mammal 360 Commission (NAMMCO) 160, 189–90 human health and environment protection WTO Appellate Body, US – Tuna II 194 358 see also exploitation and management of implementation planning concerns 360 marine resources, living resources, listing opt out options 360 marine mammals listing recommendations and process 358–60 marine mammals in international management funding generation 359 environmental law and trade law, long-range transport of persistent organic Convention on International Trade in pollutants (POPs) into the Arctic, Endangered Species (CITES) 186–9, 191 strategic approach to international listing requirements 186–7 chemicals management (SAICM) 360–63, minke and other species of whales proposals 367 187–8 emerging policy issues, willingness to address narwhal, proposed trade review 188–9 361–2 polar bear uplisting proposal 188

Leif Christian Jensen and Geir Hønneland - 9780857934741 Downloaded from Elgar Online at 09/26/2021 11:47:03AM via free access Index ­605 marine mammals in international Russian Federation–United States 214–15 environmental law and trade law, WTO ‘three-stage approach’ 208 GATT 192–3, 197 maritime limits and boundaries, overlapping most-favoured-nation (MFN) provision 192, claims 219–20 197 Canada–Russian Federation 220 national treatment (NT) principle 192, Canada–United States and Russia–Great 197 Britain Treaty (1825) 219–20 public policy exceptions 193 and confrontation avoidance 208, 212–16 marine mammals in international Denmark (Greenland)–Russian Federation environmental law and trade law, WTO 220 GATT, EC – Seal Products 193, 194–8 maritime limits and boundaries, partially animal welfare concerns 194–5, 197, 198 agreed boundaries 216–19 disjointed regulation affecting trade 195–6 Canada–Denmark (Greenland) (and EU ban on seal products, effects of 162, 319, sovereignty dispute over Hans Island) 538, 540, 542 216–19 Framework and Implementing Regulation Denmark (Faroe Islands)–Iceland and 194–6 Norway – Agreed Minutes 219 indigenous communities, seals obtained from Denmark (Greenland)–Norway (Svalbard) (IC exception) 195, 196, 198 216 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami v. European Marsh, D. 409, 410 Commission 196–7 Marsz, M. 585 marine resource management purposes Martin, A. 360 (MRM exception) 195, 196, 197 Mason, E. 352–74 Panel Decision 197–9 Mathis, J. 266 WTO Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) May, B. 33 Agreement 193–4, 197 McBride, C. 31 marine resources, exploitation and McDorman, T. 177, 207–26, 245, 246, 252, management see exploitation and 254–5, 356, 357 management of marine resources McGlade, C. 181 maritime domain awareness (MDA), US– McGrath, M. 318 Russia maritime cooperation 36, 41, 42–3, McGrath-Hanna, N. 369 48 McKibben, B. 295 maritime infrastructure development 333–4 McLaughlin, K. 486 maritime limits and boundaries 207–26 McSweeney, B. 100 central Arctic Ocean, continental shelf claim McVeigh, T. 201 uncertainties 211–12 Meese, E. 246 continental shelf beyond 200 NM 210–12 Mehlum, H. 18 Ilulissat Declaration see Ilulissat Declaration Meier-Wehren, B. 355 low-water line movement 209 Mel’nikov, K. 457 Norway and Spitzbergen Treaty issues 210 Mendez, T. 257 offshore claims 209–12 mental maps and Arctic conceptual sector lines 209, 214 coordinates 281–2 UNCLOS 207, 208, 211–12 Mered, M. 404 see also seaward limits of continental Mettiäinen, I. 410 shelf beyond 200 nautical miles and Meunier, S. 340 UNCLOS Mihaela, D. 54 maritime limits and boundaries, delimited Mikkola, H. 377 maritime boundaries 212–16 military involvement Denmark (Greenland)–Iceland–Norway Arctic Council military cooperation (Jan Mayen) 215–16 involvement 314–15, 330, 331, 332, Norway–Russian Federation 212–14 335 Norway–Russian Federation, Grey Zone and Canadian sovereignty see under 212, 465–6 Canadian sovereignty versus northern Norway–Russian Federation, ‘Loophole’ security 154, 156, 212, 235, 466 changing 330, 331

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concerns, and energy policy 135 Northern Sea Route (NSR) 29, 30, 33, 34–5, defence policy, Russia see Russia, Arctic 36, 46–7, 133 interests and policies, defence policy concerns, Asian States and regional Denmark 503–4, 505, 509–11, 513 governance 519, 520, 522, 523 military presence, Norway 471 development, Russia see Russia, Arctic see also securitization and climate change interests and policies, maritime Miller, P. 411 transportation, Northern Sea Route Mills, S. 422, 423, 425, 427, 431 (NSR) development Milner, H. 27 maritime transportation increase 66–7, Minamata Convention on Mercury 335, 363 69–72 mining see also shipping Isukasia iron ore mine project see Northern Watch project, Canada 383 Greenland, extractive industries, Northwest Passage 29, 30, 33, 34 Isukasia iron ore mine project and Canadian sovereignty see Canada, training of indigenous peoples, Canada sovereignty and its legal significance, 286 Northwest Passage Miranda, L. 367 Canadian sovereignty versus northern Mitchell, R. 268 security 287–8, 292 Moe, A. 334, 456, 457 US, collaborative security for the Arctic 552, Molenaar, E. 178, 179, 180, 181, 311, 316, 318, 553, 555 320, 328, 575 see also shipping Möller, F. 88, 511 Norway MOPPR Agreement (Cooperation on Marine Banana Hole, Loophole and Western Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response) Nansen Basin 154, 156, 212, 235–6, 241, 169, 172, 176, 269–70, 306–7, 316, 317–18, 466 319 and EU Arctic policy 538, 544–5 Moravcsik, A. 533–4 maritime limits and boundaries see under Muir, D. 353, 354 maritime limits and boundaries Murmansk Initiative 88, 299, 301–2, 316, 468, Norwegian–Russian Fisheries Commission 484–5 151–3, 154, 156, 161, 333, 346, 463 Murphy, S. 244 Permanent Court of International Justice Myrup, M. 112, 124–5 (PCIJ), Eastern Greenland (Norway v. Denmark) 249 Næss, M. 139 polar bear hunting 190 Najam, A. 340 South Korea, memorandum of NATO membership 463, 509, 510, 575 understanding 524 Nayar, K. 527 Spitsbergen Treaty 153, 165, 210 Neumann, I. 401, 426, 501, 503 Norway, High North policies 462–81 Newell, P. 416 and Barents Sea see Barents Sea Nicol, H. 51–65, 409 climate change and the environment, Fram Nielsen, J. 16, 17, 19 Centre 471 Nilsen, T. 310 Cold War legacy 463–6, 472–4 Nilson, H. 304 discourse 471–8 Nilsson, A. 312, 313, 410 foreign policy debate 471 Nirmala, M. 525 Globus II Radar Station, Vardø 471 Nord, D. 89 government project rationale, criticism of Nordicity 427–8 476 Norendal, T. 342 Grey Zone fisheries agreement with Russia North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission 212, 465–6 (NAMMCO) 160, 189–90 institutional cooperation with Russia 462–3, North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission 467–9, 474 (NEAFC) 156, 158, 333, 346 Joint Norwegian–Soviet Commission on Northern Eagle joint exercise 36 Environmental Protection 468, 469, 472 Northern Economic Development Agency Kola Peninsula and nuclear safety concerns (CanNor) 53, 59–60, 61 468–9, 470, 476–7

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marine resources and EEZs 463 of marine resources, oil and gas military presence 471 exploration within national jurisdiction as national priority 469–71 Faroe Islands, oil industrial cluster 11–16 NATO membership 463 Greenland 17–18, 19–20 New Building Blocks in the High North 471 institutional complexity in Arctic nuclear security concerns 468–9, 470, 471, governance 334, 336, 344 472, 476–7 Japan, imported oil and gas reliance 522 Orheim Report and science, trade and Norway, High North policies 474–6, 477–8 industry development 469–70, 473, 474 oil prices and global financial crisis, energy Russian mafia and corruption concerns policy 132 472–3 reserves 131, 266, 272 Shtokman project 440–41, 470, 471, 474–6, Russia see Russia, Arctic interests and 477–8 policies, energy development and Strategy on the High North 470–71 offshore energy reserves Svalbard Treaty 465–6, 469, 574–5 US–Russia maritime cooperation 29–30, tourism and cross-border population 31 movement between Norway and Russia see also ‘energy’ headings 467 oil spills UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, 200- Arctic Marine Agreement on Search and mile EEZs 463–5, 466, 469, 471 Rescue and Oil Pollution 132, 137, 138 nuclear capabilities, Russia 284, 444, 449, 450 MOPPR Agreement (Cooperation on nuclear safety 299, 335–6, 342, 468–9, 470, 471, Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and 472, 476–7 Response) 169, 172, 176, 269–70, 306–7, Nuttall, M. 105–27, 139, 389 316, 317–18, 319 Nuuk Declaration 303, 377–9, 385, 518–19, Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response 523, 542 Convention (OPPR Convention) 172–3 Nye, J. 534, 535 pollution concerns, Canadian sovereignty versus northern security 293 Oberthür, S. 330, 340, 341, 345 risks, institutional complexity in Arctic observer status, Arctic Council governance 333 application process, China see China’s Russia response strategy see Russian Arctic, admission to the Arctic Council, oil spill response strategy observer application process US–Russia oil pollution strategies 31–2, 35, Asian States 517–27 48 capacity enhancement 319–20 see also pollution EU 540, 541–2, 545 Olsen, E. 265, 270 indigenous organizations 306, 484, 488, Olsen, M. 352, 353, 360 489–90 Olsson, E. 425 management and contemporary geopolitics Olsvig, S. 506 375–6, 377–9, 384, 385 Orellana, M. 367 number increases 365, 397–8, 399–400, 403 Orheim Report 469–70, 473, 474 Nuuk Declaration 303, 377–9, 385, 518–19, Orsini, A. 330 523, 542 Osherenko, G. 265 Poland 573, 575, 576, 579, 580 Osica, O. 574, 576, 577 O’Connell, D. 250 Osofsky, J. 367 Offerdal, K. 506 OSPAR Convention on Marine Pollution in oil and gas exploration the North East Atlantic 170–71, 271, 320, Arctic Council assessment 312 333, 341 Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas Guidelines 166, Østhagen, A. 543 167, 169, 171, 172–3, 269–70 Østreng, W. 458 development concerns, Canadian Ottawa Declaration 55–6, 305, 306 sovereignty versus northern security Øverland, I. 55, 306, 313, 412 292–3 Overland, J. 266 exploration within national jurisdiction overlapping claims see maritime limits and see exploitation and management boundaries, overlapping claims

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Paasi, A. 426–7 climate change, monitoring and predicting Pallin, C. 459 576, 578 Palonen, K. 408, 410, 411, 412 Committee on Polar Research of the Polish Palosaari, T. 87–104, 133, 136, 410, 511 Academy of Science 579 Pálsdóttir, S. 6, 7, 8 cooperation and engagement discrepancies Papanicolopulu, I. 244 575 Parfitt, T. 257 Council of the Baltic Sea States membership Park, Y. 524 575 Parson, L. 244 early involvement 574–5 partially agreed boundaries see maritime EU policy involvement 577, 578, 580–81 limits and boundaries, partially agreed NATO membership 575 boundaries ‘On Top of the World – Addressing Patin, S. 67 Challenges of the Arctic Region’ Patrushev, N. 315 meeting 581 Pauwelyn, J. 204–5 Poland’s unique position 573–4 peace and stability promotion, US 557, 558, Polar Task Force Group 579 562–3, 564 political involvement, reasons for 575, 576–7 Pedersen, T. 178, 315, 480 public diplomacy activity 578, 581–2 Peimani, H. 525 Rovaniemi Process participation 575 Peng, J. 344, 389, 393, 522, 542 scientific research freedom advocacy 578 Penikett, T. 482, 484, 486, 489, 490 Svalbard Treaty 465–6, 469, 574–5 Permanent Court of International Justice Tromsø, Arctic Council Deputy Ministers (PCIJ), Eastern Greenland (Norway v. unofficial meeting 577, 579 Denmark) 249 and UNCLOS 577 Perrez, F. 361 Warsaw Format Meeting initiative for Petersen, N. 502, 506, 507 observers 579–80 Petersen, R. 108 polar bears 162–3, 188, 190–91 Petersen, S. 122 Polar Code see under International Maritime Petrov, A. 55, 56, 404 Organization (IMO) Pfeifer, S. 17 polar research programme, Asian States 520, Pharand, D. 251, 252, 254, 256, 301, 337 524, 526, 527 Pilyavsky, V. 97 political aspects of Arctic change 408–20 Plaut, S. 482 Arctic Human Development Report 408 Poland, international scientific cooperation Arctic as political scene 410–12 573–85 climate change adaptation and flooding ‘A More Accessible Arctic’ meeting 581–2 416–17 Ambassador for the Legal Affairs of the climate change adaptation and socially Arctic and the Antarctic, post creation sustainable communities 414–15 576 economic developments and political Arctic Council Deputy Ministers Meetings significance 411, 412–13 (DMMs), introduction of 579 environmental dimensions of sustainability, Arctic Council, permanent observer status extreme weather concerns 415–16 573, 575, 576, 579, 580 fundamental change 409 Arctic Council Working Groups 576, 577, globalization and neoliberalization effects 579, 580 412–13, 414, 415 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy governmentalization of communities 415 (AEPS) involvement 573, 575 integration concerns 412 Arctic science diplomacy development interpretist analysis 409–10 576–82 knowledge, power of 417–18 Arctic Science Summit Week (2013) political interest analysis and implications participation 582 for regions and peoples 424–7 Barents Euro-Arctic Region Council political science perspective 409–10 observer 575 realist position 409 bilateral relations with Arctic states relationality as alternative to dominant 581 approaches 412–14

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relationality as alternative to dominant Prirazlomnaya oil platform see securitization approaches, in practice 414–17 and climate change, Greenpeace and territorialization practice 410–11 Prirazlomnaya oil platform transregionalization 411–12 Prontera, A. 129 political nature of discourse, spatial systems, Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment discourse analysis in understanding 423–4 (PAME) 302, 312, 314, 316, 364, 366 Pollack, M. 533 public consultation 105, 106, 117–18, 121, 122, pollution 123, 138–9 accidental, minimizing risk of 171–2 public diplomacy activity, Poland 578, 581–2 Arctic Contaminants Action Program public protest (ACAP) 309, 312, 364–5, 366 Greenland, Isukasia iron ore mine project Arctic Council, Action Plan to Eliminate 121–3 Pollution in the Arctic 332 Greenpeace see Greenpeace Arctic Council studies 312, 313 Pufall, E. 369 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy Pullen, T. 252 (AEPS) see Arctic Council, Arctic Pungowiyi, C. 177 Environmental Protection Strategy Purver, R. 484 (AEPS) and biodiversity concerns 165–6, 167, 168, Ragnarsson, S. 6 169 Ragner, C. 458 Canada, Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Rahbek-Clemmensen, J. 507, 510–11 Act 251, 252, 383 Rajakoski, E. 300 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Rakusa-Suszczewski, S. 583 Air Pollution (CLRTAP) 341, 345 Ramachandaran, R. 527 damage and polluter pays principle 173–4 Ramachandaran, S. 518, 527 and ecosystem-based management 272 Ramsay, A. 30 Greenland, Isukasia iron ore mine project Raspotnik, A. 389 115–17 Raustiala, K. 330, 340, 341 institutional complexity in Arctic governance Rautio, R. 66, 411 333, 335, 337, 339, 341, 345 Reed, M. 223 man-made and natural disasters, dealing region-building concept 318–19, 426–7, 428–9 with, US, collaborative security for the regional descriptions, problems in relation to Arctic 566, 567 425, 430–31 marine mammals, threat to 159 regional governance operational, oil and gas exploration within Asian States see Asian States and regional national jurisdiction 170–71 governance POPs (persistent organic pollutants) see energy policy 128–9, 138–9 long-range transport of persistent regional institutions, rise of 330–32 organic pollutants (POPs) into the regionalization process 89, 99 Arctic Ren, Q. 394 weapons testing and flight training, Canada renewables, competition from 132 284 Revkin, A. 571 see also oil spills Richardson, T. 424, 432 Popov, V. 460 Riddell-Dixon, E. 100 POPs (persistent organic pollutants) see long- Ridgway, L. 177, 178 range transport of persistent organic Ries, T. 135 pollutants (POPs) into the Arctic Ringsmose, J. 503 Potapov, E. 93, 511 Risse-Kappen, T. 533 Potts, T. 257 Roach, J. 177, 223, 224, 246, 247, 251, 253, 254, Poulsen, J. 12 256, 257 Powell, C. 377 Robbins, P. 107 Powers, A. 352, 355, 356 Robert, Z. 317, 318 Prellezo, R. 265, 271 Roberts, P. 54 Pressmann, J. 275 Robinson, R. 389, 522 Prestrud, P. 203, 204 Roche, D. 299, 300

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Rockstrom, J. 270 US–Russia maritime cooperation see US– Rød, E. 541 Russia maritime cooperation Rodon, T. 482 Russia, Arctic interests and policies 437–61 Røgeberg, O. 339 ‘Russian Arctic zone’, extent of 451–2 Romanyshyn, I. 541 Strategy for Development of the Arctic Zone Rosamond, B. 501, 502, 506, 507, 511, 513 437–8, 451–2 Rose, N. 411, 424 Russia, Arctic interests and policies, defence Rosen, Y. 571 policy 449–51 Rothwell, D. 54, 201, 247–61, 299, 300, 301 economic constraints 451 Rottem, S. 318, 332 military expansion 30–31 Rotterdam Convention see long-range military modernization programmes 447–8, transport of persistent organic pollutants 449–50, 451 (POPs) into the Arctic, Rotterdam naval modernization programme 450 Convention nuclear capabilities 284, 444, 449, 450 Rovaniemi Declaration and Process 301–2, and Russian–Western relations, deteriorating 303, 304, 575 448, 451 Rowe, L. 332, 468 Russia, Arctic interests and policies, energy Russia development and offshore energy reserves Barents Sea, cooperation with Norway 472, 438–42 473 access restrictions by privately owned oil China’s admission to the Arctic Council, companies to offshore petroleum fields concerns over 393 439–40, 441–2 ‘Development of Safety Systems’ 319 Arctic as heavily militarized area, energy policy, dominance and potential for restrictions caused by 442 conflict 134–5 exploration projects 441–2 energy superpower status, hoped for 98 hydrocarbon potential assessments 439 flag planted on Arctic Ocean seabed 379–80, infrastructure problems 440 381, 448 national oil companies (NOCs) involvement Joint Norwegian–Soviet Commission on effects 440–42 Environmental Protection 468, 469, obstacles 439–40 472 Prirazlomnoe field development 440 Komsomolets sinking 299 Programme for the Development of the Kursk disaster 89 Continental Shelf in the Period up to mafia and corruption concerns 472–3 2030 441 maritime limits and boundaries see under Shtokman project 440–41, 470, 471, 474–6, maritime limits and boundaries 477–8 Murmansk Initiative 88, 299, 301–2, 316, tax reform legislation for shelf projects 468, 484–5 442 Norway and Russia, continental shelf and see also energy as developmental strategy fishing management 151–3, 463 Russia, Arctic interests and policies, legal Norwegian–Russian Fisheries Commission foundations and sources of inconsistency 151–3, 154, 156, 161, 333, 346, 463 451–4 offshore boundaries, defining limits of administrative boundaries, need for precise 568–70 definition 453 Prirazlomnaya oil platform see securitization Fundamentals and Strategy adoption 452 and climate change, Greenpeace and management problems 452–3 Prirazlomnaya oil platform ‘On the Russian Arctic zone’ draft law 452, Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples 453 of the North (RAIPON) 484 Russia, Arctic interests and policies, maritime seaward limits of continental shelf beyond transportation, Northern Sea Route 200 nautical miles 231, 234, 237, 241, (NSR) development 442–5 243 continental shelf and international law tourism and cross-border population definition 445 movement with Norway 467 financial infrastructure investment reliance US military cooperation halted 566 443–4

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future development trends, uncertainty emergency prevention, monitoring and surrounding 443 response system and SAR centres 78, 82 legal definition and status 444–5 knowledge gaps 80 nuclear-powered icebreakers, availability mechanical means 80, 82 concerns 444 oil-dispersant application 80, 82 and oil and gas interests domination 444 rescue centres, establishment of new 77 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 445 vessels equipped for effective response 77–9, Russia, Arctic interests and policies, security 82 challenges 446–9 Ryerson, C. 30 accidents and emergency response 446 Arctic Brigades 447 Said, E. 425, 428 Georgia and Ukraine conflicts, effects of Sakakibara, C. 368 448–9 Sakhuja, V. 344, 519, 526, 527 military modernization programmes 447–8, Sale, R. 93, 100, 511 449–50, 451 Salomone, G. 296 Russian–Western relations, deteriorating Sand, P. 201, 202, 342 448, 451 Sanderson, D. 29 scientific expeditions and illegal tourism Saran, S. 526, 527 446 Savitsev, A. 460 search and rescue (SAR) role 447 Schoenbaum, T. 343 ‘State Border of the Russian Federation Schofield, B. 415 (2012–2020)’ programme 446 Schofield, C. 207–26, 257 terrorism and smuggling concerns 446 Scholz, D. 80 Russian Arctic, oil spill response strategy Schouenborg, L. 501 66–86, 94 Schøyen, H. 571 Arctic Policy (2008) 66 science agenda, Canada 54–5, 60 Arctic Strategy (2013) 66, 77 science bodies, cooperation through contingency planning 72–3 international 274 Emergency Commission 76 science and traditional knowledge, use of 557, exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 66–7 558, 561 Federal Task Programmes 77 scientific assessments and policy hydrocarbon resource development 66 recommendations, Arctic Council 306–7, Law on the Northern Sea Route (Federal 321 Law 132) 69–72 scientific expeditions and illegal tourism 446 Law on the Protection of the Sea (Federal scientific mapping work, Canada 292–3 Law 287) 69 scientific research and cooperation Marine Rescue Coordination Centres Arctic Council involvement 134, 270, 272, (MRCC) 74 321 Marine Rescue Service (Morspasslužba) India 526, 527 responsibility 73–4, 77–9, 80 Poland see Poland, international scientific maritime transportation increase along cooperation Northern Sea Route (NSR) 66–7, 69–72 US, collaborative security for the Arctic 554 oil company obligations 76 Scovazzi, T. 223 oil spills as ‘state of emergency’ 69 Scrivener, D. 299, 300, 301, 302, 305, 322, 484, oil-spill response teams 73 485 regional contingency planning 74, 76 seafloor highs 231–2, 234–5, 237, 238, 243 system at sea 73–4 seal products, WTO GATT see marine system on land 72–3, 74–6 mammals in international environmental and UNCLOS shipping rules 72 law and trade law, WTO GATT, EC – Seal Unified State System of Emergency Products Prevention and Response (USSEPR) Search and Rescue (SAR) agreements 68–9, 76 Arctic Council and ecosystem-based Russian Arctic, oil spill response strategy, management 269 capacity and technology 77–80 Arctic Council involvement 269, 306, 314, ecological and economic efficiency 80 316–17, 318, 319

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Arctic Marine Agreement on Search and Western Nansen Basin 154, 156, 212, Rescue and Oil Pollution 132, 137, 138 235–6, 241, 466 institutional complexity in Arctic Norway, delimitation agreement between governance 332, 339, 345–6 Norway and Russia in Barents Sea, Russia, security challenges 447 effects of 236 US–Russia maritime cooperation 26, 28, 32, Norway, and Denmark/Greenland 35, 36, 43, 45, 48 overlapping claims to seabed areas seaward limits of continental shelf beyond 200 236 nautical miles and UNCLOS 227–46 Russia 231, 234, 237, 241, 243 coastal state’s rights in exclusive economic US Extended Continental Shelf Task Force zone 228 240 coastal state’s rights to determine outer USA, and non-ratification of UNCLOS limits of continental shelf 228–9 239–40, 242, 243 continental shelf definition 228, 240 ‘sector’ principle and lines of latitude 249–50 delimitation and overlapping seabed claims securitization and climate change 87–104 241, 243 accessibility and navigability improvements delineation entitlement (test of 90–91 appurtenance) 230–31, 237 Arctic Paradox, ethical dilemma and discontinuities in continental margins, exploitation of oil and gas 91–2, 98–9 problems with 231 Canada, sovereignty issues 90–91 foot-of-the-continental-slope point 235–6, changing agenda 88–9 241 Copenhagen School position 87, 90 International Court of Justice, delimitation environmental issues 88, 89, 91, 99 and overlapping seabed claims 241 globalization and climate change 90–92 International Tribunal for the Law of the Greenland independence issues and Sea (ITLOS), Bay of Bengal and natural economic self-sufficiency 91–2 prolongation 232–3, 241 Hans Island dispute 91, 216–19, 247, 250 legal framework 227–30 indigenous peoples and human security legal issues 230–35 issues 92, 93 Lomonosov as part of continental shelf, international control of Arctic, call for 95, debate over 231, 232, 233, 238, 239, 97, 98 243 Kursk disaster 89 natural prolongation 230–33, 241 military security 88, 89, 90, 99 procedures by which outer limits of Murmansk Initiative 88, 299, 301–2, 316, continental shelf are determined 229–30 468, 484–5 seafloor highs 231–2, 234–5, 237, 238, 243 regionalization process 89, 99 sediment thickness formula 235–6 Russian energy superpower status, hoped sovereign rights 227–8 for 98 substantive rights 227–8 sea-level rises, effects of 91, 92, 99 time limits and mapping od seabed, concerns sovereignty issues 90–92, 95, 98 over 242 UNCLOS 91 UN Conference on the Law of the Sea see also climate change; military involvement 463–5, 466, 469, 471 securitization and climate change, Greenpeace US and Chukchi Plateau 214, 234–5, 240, and Prirazlomnaya oil platform 92–7, 440, 441 446 US Geological Survey (USGS) on likelihood action as threat to Arctic ecology and of finding new oil and gas fields 228 human life, suggestion of 95–6 see also maritime limits and boundaries chronology of events 92–3 seaward limits of continental shelf beyond 200 conspiracy theories 95 nautical miles and UNCLOS, submissions direct action as means of enhancing and recommendations 235–40 environmental security 96–7 Canada 237–8, 243 environmental threat as primary security Denmark/Greenland 238–9, 242–3 threat 93–4 Norway 235–6, 243 International Tribunal for the Law of the Norway, Banana Hole, Loophole and Sea lawsuit 93, 97

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negative impacts of Arctic oil production, Sikkink, K. 424 emphasis on 95 Simons, J. 427 oil spill dangers and Russian spill-reaction Singapore, regional governance see Asian plans 94 States and regional governance, Singapore Russian depoliticization of event 97 Sinha, U. 345, 526 Russian economic security priority 94–5, 96, Skogan, J. 300, 301 97–8 Sliggers, J. 368 Russian media, lack of discussion on effects Smedal, G. 250 of oil production on indigenous peoples Smirnov, D. 74 93 Smith, G. 29 Russian national/state security issues 95 Smith, H. 98, 482 Russian technological interpretation of Smith, K. 539 environmental protection 96 Smith, M. 533 Russian technological shortcomings claim 94 Smith, R. 177, 223, 224, 246, 251, 253, 254, security issues 256, 257 and Canadian sovereignty see Canadian Smits, C. 1–25 sovereignty versus northern security Solli, P. 393 cooperation, US–Russia maritime Sørstrom, S. 80 cooperation 27, 28, 46 South Korea, regional governance see Asian and defence, Denmark 509–11 States and regional governance, South and global warming, EU Arctic policy 535, Korea 539, 543, 546 Southcott, C. 90, 377, 494–5 maritime security (MARSEC) missions 44 sovereignty issues Russia see Russia, Arctic interests and Arctic Council management and policies, security challenges contemporary geopolitics 379–80, US collaborative see US, collaborative 381–2 security for the Arctic Canada see Canada, sovereignty and its legal sediment thickness formula 235–6 significance Selin, H. 335 China 520 Sellheim, N. 319 coastal State sovereignty, exploitation and Semanov, G. 69 management of marine resources 149, Shadbolt, T. 181 152 Shadian, J. 403, 482, 508 Denmark, Arctic identity and policies Shapley, D. 572 511–12 Sharma, R. 526 and energy policy 128, 134–6 Shaw, M. 250 exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and Shearer, I. 248 sovereign resource rights 149–50, 151–2, Sheehan, L. 368 154, 156, 159 Shields, R. 428 Greenland 506 Shin, H. 524 institutional complexity in Arctic shipping governance 336–7, 344, 346 Arctic Council and ecosystem-based Inuit foreign policy and international management 269, 272 relations 485–6, 487, 488–90 Arctic Council marine shipping assessment seaward limits of continental shelf beyond 255, 312, 313, 316, 318, 345–6 200 nautical miles 227–8 Asian States 520, 524 securitization and climate change 90–92, 95, Canada, registration system 259 98 institutional complexity in Arctic governance spatial systems, discourse analysis in 333, 336–7, 339, 345–6 understanding 421–33 see also Northern Sea Route (NSR); Arctic, conception of 421 Northwest Passage Arctic Council and inclusion of eight states, Shtokman project 440–41, 470, 471, 474–6, reasons for 300–301, 304, 429, 430–31 477–8 Arctic Council and selection of areas Shukla, A. 527 429–30 Sigurðsson, H. 6, 7 Arctic perceived as frontier 428

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categorization of spatial descriptions 427 sustainable community as parochial agenda, climate change and increased access 428 Canada 54–5, 56, 57–8, 59 descriptive violence extent 423 sustainable development 271, 305–6, 312, 381 discourse role 422–4, 427 Svalbard research station 522, 524, 526 dominant descriptions as basis of knowledge Svalbard Treaty 465–6, 469, 574–5 426 Svarlien, O. 250 framing theory and political decision- Svensson, B. 411 making 425 Sweden geographical scope and negative impact, Arctic Council presidency, EU Arctic policy links between 426 postponement until539-40 544 governmentality of populations 424 ‘Common Concern for the Arctic’ large-scale descriptive processes 426 conference 384 nations as imagined communities 426 EU membership 535–6 Nordicity and latitude 428–9 Sydnes, A. 66–86 Northern areas, examples of risks inherent Sydnes, M. 66–86 in discourse 427–31 Symonds, P. 234, 245 political nature of discourse 423–4 Szpunar, M. 578, 582 region-building concept 426–7, 428–9 Szupryczyński, J. 574 regional descriptions, problems in relation to 425, 430–31 Takei, Y. 316, 322 resistance to discourse 422–3 Tallis, H. 271 spatiality of reason 424 Talus, K. 137 strategic considerations 428 Tam, C. 200 Spears, J. 392 Tamnes, R. 135, 506 Spence, J. 62 Tarnogórski, R. 577 Spies, R. 29 Taubenfeld, H. 249 Springer, S. 413, 417 taxation 136, 442 Starzyk-Sulejewska, J. 575 Teeple, N. 296 Steinberg, P. 54, 55, 320, 375, 379 Tennberg, M. 302, 304, 305, 408–20 Stemplowski, R. 577 terrorism and smuggling concerns 446 Stenlund, P. 332 Thompson, C. 17 Stensdal, I. 393, 528 Tonami, A. 525 Stepanov, I. 30 tourism 29, 446, 467 Stephens, T. 265 Triggs, G. 249 Stevenson, C. 247 Tromsø Declaration 308, 316, 488–90, 577, Stirling, I. 181, 203, 204 579 Stockholm Convention see long-range Tsing, A. 106, 108–9 transport of persistent organic pollutants Tuchman Matthews, J. 87 (POPs) into the Arctic, Stockholm Tunander, O. 88, 331, 332 Convention Turekian, V. 573 Stokke, O. 51, 52, 63, 178, 179, 269, 273, 275, Turner, F. 430 299, 300, 301, 302, 304, 306, 312, 314, 318, Turunen, M. 311, 416 322, 328–51, 388, 393, 573 Tynkkynen, N. 87–104, 134 Stoller, M. 317 Storey, K. 51, 55 Ulfstein, G. 138, 178, 224, 480 Stow, J. 295 UN Commission on the Limits of the Strandsbjerg, J. 501 Continental Shelf (UNCLCS) 132, Strange, S. 129, 340 149–50, 174, 257–8, 269, 380, 382, 523 Stroeve, J. 295 UN Conference on Environment and Stuhl, A. 54, 55, 57 Development (UNCED) 271 Styszyńska, A. 576 UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, 200- Sumerkin, N. 460 mile EEZs 463–5, 466, 469, 471 Sun, K. 542 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Sunderarajan, P. 526 (UNCLOS) 26, 27, 34, 45, 268, 269, 270 Sus, M. 579 Arctic Council constitutive status, and

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ecosystem-based management 268, 269, and Chukchi Plateau 214, 234–5, 240, 441 270, 271, 275 economic interests, Canada, Arctic agenda Canada, sovereignty and its legal and economic development 53–4 significance 251, 252, 256, 258, 259 Extended Continental Shelf Task Force 240 continental shelf extension, Denmark 511 Geological Survey (USGS) on likelihood of exploitation and management of marine finding new oil and gas fields 228 resources 148–50, 152, 154, 155, 158, Manhattan and Polar Sea transits and 159, 165–9, 171–5 Northwest Passage 252–3, 254, 256, as governance instrument, Inuit foreign 259 policy and international relations 486, maritime limits and boundaries see under 487 maritime limits and boundaries institutional complexity in Arctic maritime strategy recommendations, US– governance 336–7, 343–4, 345 Russia maritime cooperation 48 as legal framework, EU Arctic policy 538, National Strategy for the Arctic Region 539, 541, 542, 545 255–6 maritime limits and boundaries 207, 208, non-ratification of UNCLOS 239–40, 242, 211–12 243 Poland, international scientific cooperation US, Alaska 577 indigenous peoples’ percentage 57 promotion, US, collaborative security for the licensing restrictions, energy policy 136 Arctic 557, 562 oil and gas fields 29, 31, 131, 136, 166, 251 ratification, US–Russia maritime oil spills 293, 299 cooperation 27, 31, 33–4, 36, 45–6, 47 polar bear hunting 190 Russia, maritime transportation, Northern US, collaborative security for the Arctic 304, Sea Route (NSR) development 445 305, 550–72 seaward limits of continental shelf see Arctic states’ national interests and seaward limits of continental shelf resources, protection of 561, 562, 565 beyond 200 nautical miles and Canada alliance 564, 569 UNCLOS climate change and economic and energy securitization and climate change 91 issues 554, 564, 568 shipping rules, and Russian Arctic, oil spill climate change and melting of sea ice effects response strategy 72 556, 558, 559, 564–5, 569 shipping safety and regulation 383, 384–5 energy security provisions 561, 565 UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous ‘Enhance Arctic Domain Awareness’ 560 Peoples 367–8, 487, 489–90 environmental protection and conservation UN Environment Programme (UNEP) of natural resources 554–5, 556–7, 558, capacity-enhancement activities 342 559–60, 561, 562, 567 chemicals management assessment 361 fisheries management 555, 564–5 exploitation and management of marine guiding principles 562–3 resources, oil and gas exploration indigenous peoples, commitment to, and within national jurisdiction 167, 169, consultation process 557, 558, 563, 566 171, 173 information and knowledge sharing 563 Global Chemicals Outlook report 368 innovative arrangements, use of 557, 563 Regional Seas Programme (RSP) 355 international cooperation, strengthening Resolution on Chemicals and Wastes, 557–9, 562, 564, 565–6, 567 Special Programme trust fund 363, 366 man-made and natural disasters, dealing UN Fish Stocks Agreement 155, 156, 157, 271 with 566, 567 UN ‘World Ocean Assessment’ 270 maritime boundary agreements 562 uranium mining, Greenland, extractive multilateral dimensions overlooked by media industries 111 552–5 US new national strategy (2013) and Arctic Fisheries Management Plan and US Department of Defense (DoD) strategy EEZ 154 563–8 Arctic and Policy Act 33, 35 Obama Administration multilateral strategy B-52 bomber crash 284 (2013) 555–63

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peace and stability promotion 557, 558, Northern Sea Route and Northwest Passage 562–3, 564 as new trade routes 29, 30, 33, 34 ‘Preserve Arctic Region Freedom of the offshore gas and oil exploration 29–30, 31 Seas’ 560–61 oil pollution strategies 31–2, 35, 48 regional cooperation and the rule of law, present day cooperation 36–7 promotion of 567 research methodology 37–41 Russia, military cooperation halted 566 research methodology, ethical considerations Russian offshore boundaries, defining limits 40–41 of 568–70 Review of U.S. Ocean and Coastal Law science and traditional knowledge, use of report 31 557, 558, 561 Russian military expansion 30–31 scientific cooperation, promotion of 554 Russian strategic interests 29–30 security issues 552, 553, 556, 557, 558, 560, Search and Rescue (SAR) Agreement 26, 28, 561, 564, 565–8 32, 35, 36, 43, 45, 48 shipping and Northwest Passage 552, 553, security cooperation 27, 28, 46 555 study significance 28–9 stewardship responsibilities 561, 564, 567 tourism industry 29 strategic approach and guiding principles UNCLOS ratification 27, 31, 33–4, 36, 45–6, 557 47 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea US Arctic and Policy Act 33, 35 promotion 557, 562 US Arctic policy recommendations 47–8 US Arctic policy changes and collaboration US Coast Guard and Russia’s Border Guard 551, 553–5 bilateral agreement 26, 28, 36, 42, 44, waterways management 561 45, 48 US–Russia maritime cooperation 26–50 US Defense Strategic Guidance 32 accords and agreements 32–3 US maritime strategy recommendations Arctic Council 33, 35, 45, 48 48 Arctic Domain Awareness Agreement 48 US military expansion 31–2, 42–3 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy US policy formulation 32–3, 42–3 Agreement 33 US strategic interests 31 Arctic Zephyr exercise 36 USGS Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal Beringia ecosystem and environmental (2008) 29 protection 35 US–Russia Bilateral Commission 35–6, 45, bilateral cooperation between US and 48 Russian maritime forces, strengthening US–Russia Maritime Boundary Agreement 44–5 26, 27, 28, 45, 48 climate change and melting sea ice 29, 31, US–Russia Maritime Boundary Agreement, 37, 42–3 along Bering Sea 34–5, 36, 46–7 continental shelf claims 31, 34 US–Russia Reset Policy 26 cooperative mission agreement 41–2 Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Van Asselt, H. 330 Seapower (CS 21) 48 Van Oostdam, J. 354 Crimea annexation effects 36 Vanderklippe, N. 296, 297 exploitation of energy resources 29–30 VanderZwaag, D. 265, 302, 306, 311, 322, 337, fishing grounds, opening of new 29 352–74, 517 Fleet Arctic Operations Game Report 32 Vasiliev, A. 316, 317, 319 humanitarian assistance and disaster relief Vassiliev, A. 74, 75, 77 (HADR) 43–4 Verhoef, J. 245 Incidents at Sea Agreement (INCSEA) 36 Verville, E. 224 Law of the Sea Convention 26, 27, 34, 45 Veselov, I. 316, 322 maritime domain awareness (MDA) 36, 41, Victor, D. 330, 339, 340, 341 42–3, 48 Vilhjamsson, H. 266 maritime security (MARSEC) missions Vinogradov, S. 182–3 44 Virtanen, V. 392 Northern Eagle joint exercise 36 Vivoda, V. 519, 522

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Vogt Andresen, R. 460 Wolfke, K. 330 Voiland, A. 295 Wong, K. 246 Vola, J. 416 Wood, M. 224 Volosov, M. 458 World Council of Indigenous Peoples 483 Vuojala-Magga, T. 416, 417 World Summit on Sustainable Development Vyatkin, Y. 459 (WSSD) 271 Vylegzhanin, A. 480 Wright, D. 392, 517, 522 WTO (World Trade Organization) Wæver, O. 87 Dispute Settlement Understanding, trade in Wagner, J. 182–3 seal pups 162 Walker, A. 108 enforcement measures and closer Walker, G. 27, 44 institutional integration 342–3 Wallis, D. 537 GATT (General Agreement on Trade Walters, W. 414, 417 and Tariffs), marine mammals see Wang, Z. 394 marine mammals in international Warner, R. 182 environmental law and trade law, WTO Wassmann, P. 107, 266 GATT (General Agreement on Trade Watt-Cloutier, S. 354 and Tariffs) Watters, S. 525 WWF (World Wildlife Fund), Arctic oil and Watts, A. 248, 250 gas moratorium proposal 165 Weaver, O. 504 Webb, W. 108 Xing, L. 389 Weber, B. 61, 62, 488, 520 Weber, M. 377 Yamal liquefied natural gas (LNG) project, Weber, S. 541 energy policy 131, 135 Wegge, N. 133, 533–49 Yang, J. 394, 395, 520–21 Weinberg, J. 354, 360 Yarovoi, G. 135 Weiss, E. 330, 340 Yeager, B. 178, 184, 311, 571 Westermeyer, W. 304 Yeung, H. 412, 413 whales 159–61, 161, 186, 187–9 Yoon, S. 524 Whitsitt, E. 185–206 Young, O. 184, 265, 274, 275, 299, 300, 303, Wiberg, U. 411–12 304, 306, 311, 312, 313, 318, 330, 331, 365, Wildavsky, A. 275 375, 485, 535, 546, 573, 583 Wilkening, D. 459 Yu, F. 394, 395 Williams, M. 87 Willis, M. 388–407 Zambetakis, E. 136 Wilson, E. 55, 306, 313 Zellen, B. 488, 550–72 Wilson, G. 482 Zhang, Y. 394 Wilson Rowe, E. 66, 98 Zilanov, V. 480 Winther, G. 412–13 Þórðarson, S. 6–7 Wivel, A. 503 Zysk, K. 29, 30, 66, 97, 437–61

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