Geographical Pattern of Muslim Population in India, 2001

Mehar Singh Gill Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 Geography Department, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

P. D. Bhardwaj Geography Department, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India

Firuza Binti Mustafa Geography Department, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

The pattern of Muslim population in India reflects the contribution of a number of factors: proselytization, migration, and natural growth rate. The partition of the country in 1947 made its own important contribution, effecting profound changes in the distribution pattern of Muslims that resulted in the migration of about 10 million people to and from the newly created country of Pakistan, but natural growth has been the chief determinant of the growth of India’s Muslim population during the post-independence period. Relatively high growth of the Muslim popu - lation in this period is mainly attributable to two factors: a higher incidence of poverty, which is closely correlated with higher fertility; and the persistence of a pro-natal attitude among this population. Higher concentrations of Muslims are found in two types of areas: (a) those that experienced a longer duration of Muslim rule and (b) those located at the margins of the Hindu heartland.

Keywords: Muslims, distribution, religious conversions, castes, poverty

La distribution de la population musulmane en Inde reflète un certain nombre de facteurs: le prosélytisme, la migration, et le taux de croissance naturelle. La parti - tion du pays en 1947 a fortement contribué à la situation actuelle, modifiant profondément la répartition des musulmans par le déplacement d’environ 10 millions de personnes entre les deux États nouvellement crées, l’Inde et le Pakistan. Cependant, c’est la croissance naturelle qui a été le principal détermi - nant de l’augmentation de la population musulmane indienne au cours de la période qui a suivi l’indépendance. La croissance relativement élevée du nombre de musul - mans pendant cette période est principalement attribuable à deux facteurs : une plus grande incidence de la pauvreté, étroitement corrélée avec une fécondité plus élevée et la persistance d’une attitude pro-nataliste dans cette population. Des concentrations plus fortes de musulmans sont observées dans les espaces qui ont connu depuis longtemps une domination musulmane et dans ceux qui se trouvent à la périphérie du foyer hindou.

Mots-clés: musulmans, répartition, conversions religieuses, castes, pauvreté

Introduction

The present study is an attempt to understand the spatial fabric of India’s Muslim population. In the case of such a large country marked by huge

cultural, religious, and historical diversity, any socio-religious and histor - Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 ical discourse happens to fall short of requisite “scientific” rigour in one way or another (see Figure 1). This is more so concerning sensitive issues such as religious conversions and the growth of various religious commu - nities in the plural societies of developing countries. As per the 2001 census data, 1 India ranked second in the world, after Indonesia, in terms of the size of its Muslim population. Constituting the largest religious minority in the country, Muslims have been playing a signal role in various socio-political fields at different areal scales; that is, from local to national. Muslims accounted for 13.43 % of the total popu - lation of India in 2001. In 5 of the 35 states and union territories 2 of the country, their proportion was greater than 20 %. The spread of Islam in the Indian subcontinent commenced in the 8th century AD. This period witnessed rapid growth of the Muslim popula - tion in India because of the following factors. Migration of a notable number of soldiers and artisans from Central and West Asia was a catalytic agent. Their migration was the result of better economic oppor - tunities in India, which was much ahead economically from the migrants’ semi-arid homeland, characterized by indifferent agricultural conditions and a general paucity of resources. Such people happened to settle primarily in main cities, which often served as headquarters for different hierarchies of Muslim rulers and officials. A majority of the immigrant soldiers, artisans, and traders married locally in their new homes in India. So, at this time immigrants as well as the children from their Indian marriages provided the core population of India’s Muslim community. Subsequently, religious conversions—forced, induced, and voluntary— worked to swell the ranks of this community, particularly during the period of Muslim rule in the country. Generally speaking, from the 11th to the 16th centuries forced conversions to Islam played a major role in the growth of India’s Muslim population (Schermerhorn 1978, 158), particu - larly in pockets of strong dominance of Muslim rule. Later on, however, voluntary conversions to Islam played a major role in this regard. This period of British rule in India saw a notable decline in religious conversions to Islam. This decline occurred partly because of the loss of Muslim political power in several areas of the country and partly because of a religious resurgence following the emergence of reformation movements among the Hindus, beginning in the late 1860s and the early 1870s. However, in the Muslim-ruled states, especially the larger ones, conversions to Islam continued at a perceptible pace, because the British

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) Geographical Pattern of Muslim Population in India, 2001 365 Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021

FIGURE 1 rulers did not interfere in such matters of the then individual princely states. Apart from minor and sporadic instances, the post-independence period in India has been free from active religious conversions to Islam. However, this period has witnessed a very rapid growth of the Muslim population as compared to that of Hindus and other religious communi - ties. Consequently, the population of Muslims in the country has gone up from 10.69 % in 1961 to 13.43 % in 2001, attributable to the community’s notably higher fertility rates (Tables 1 and 2). Relatively high fertility rates in the Muslim community in India stem mainly from: (a) a greater incidence of poverty, which limits access to family planning resources, and (b) the persistence of a pro-natal attitude (Bhagat and Praharaj 2005,

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) 366 Mehar Singh Gill, P. D. Bhardwaj, and Firuza Binti Mustafa

413; Dharmalingam, Navaneetham, and Morgan 2005, 435).

TABLE 1 India: Total fertility rate (TFR) by religion Religion TFR Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 2.65 Hindus Muslims 3.09 Christians 2.35 Sikhs 1.96 Buddhists/Neo-Buddhists 1.96 Jains 2.02 Others 2.65 Source : International Institute of Population Sciences (IIPS) and Macro International 2007, National Family Health Survey-3, 2005-06, Mumbai: IIPS, p. 80

TABLE 2 India: Percentage of different religious communities in total population, 2001

Hindus Muslims Sikhs Christians Jains Buddhists Others India 80.46 13.43 1.87 2.34 0.41 0.77 0.65 Jammu & Kashmir 29.63 66.97 2.04 0.20 0.02 1.12 0.00 Himachal Pradesh 95.43 1.97 1.19 0.13 0.02 1.25 0.01 Punjab 36.94 1.57 59.91 1.20 0.16 0.17 0.04 Chandigarh 78.61 3.95 16.12 0.85 0.29 0.15 0.03 Uttaranchal 84.96 11.92 2.50 0.32 0.11 0.15 0.01 Haryana 88.23 5.78 5.54 0.13 0.27 0.03 0.01 Delhi 82.00 11.72 4.01 0.94 1.12 0.17 0.02 Rajasthan 88.75 8.47 1.45 0.13 1.15 0.02 0.01 Uttar Pradesh 80.61 18.50 0.41 0.13 0.12 0.18 0.01 Bihar 83.23 16.53 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.06 Sikkim 60.93 1.42 0.22 6.68 0.03 28.11 2.39 Arunachal Pradesh 34.60 1.88 0.17 18.72 0.02 13.03 30.73 Nagaland 7.70 1.76 0.06 89.97 0.11 0.07 0.31 Manipur 46.01 8.81 0.08 34.04 0.07 0.09 10.86 Mizoram 3.55 1.14 0.04 86.97 0.02 7.93 0.27 Tripura 85.62 7.95 0.04 3.20 0.01 3.09 0.04 Meghalaya 13.27 4.28 0.13 70.25 0.03 0.20 11.53 Assam 64.89 30.92 0.08 3.70 0.09 0.19 0.09 West Bengal 72.47 25.25 0.08 0.64 0.07 0.30 1.12 Jharkhand 68.57 13.85 0.31 4.06 0.06 0.02 13.04 Orissa 94.35 2.07 0.05 2.44 0.02 0.03 0.98 Chhattisgarh 94.70 1.97 0.33 1.92 0.27 0.31 0.46 Madhya Pradesh 91.15 6.37 0.25 0.28 0.90 0.35 0.68 Gujarat 89.09 9.06 0.09 0.56 1.04 0.04 0.06 Daman & Diu 89.69 7.76 0.09 2.13 0.17 0.08 0.07 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 93.52 2.96 0.06 2.75 0.39 0.21 0.04

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) Geographical Pattern of Muslim Population in India, 2001 367

Maharashtra 80.37 10.60 0.22 1.09 1.34 6.03 0.24 Andhra Pradesh 89.01 9.17 0.04 1.55 0.05 0.04 0.01 Karnataka 83.86 12.23 0.03 1.91 0.78 0.74 0.22 Goa 65.78 6.84 0.07 26.68 0.06 0.05 0.03

Lakshadweep 3.66 95.47 0.01 0.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 Kerala 56.16 24.70 0.01 19.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 Tamil Nadu 88.11 5.56 0.02 6.07 0.13 0.01 0.01 Pondicherry 86.77 6.09 0.01 6.95 0.10 0.01 0.02 Andaman & Nicobar 69.24 8.22 0.45 21.67 0.01 0.12 0.07 : Source Census of India 2001; The First Report on Religion Data , New Delhi, 2004 Spatial Pattern of the Muslim Population

Expectedly, very large inter-district variations are found in the percentage of Muslims to the total population, ranging from 98.49 % in the Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir in north India to 0.09 % in the West Khasi district in Meghalaya in the north-east. These large differences in the proportion of Muslims to the total population across India reflect the important role of different past socio-political processes. Significantly, in 2001 Muslims recorded the lowest level of literacy (59.1 %) as compared to those of all other religious communi - ties in the country. Similarly, in 2001 the work participation rate in this community was 31.3 % against the national average of 39.1 %; the situ - ation regarding female work participation was even more dismal in this regard—14.1 % compared to the total population at 25.6 %. When viewing the relatively high level of urbanization of Muslims (35.74 % compared to the national average of 27.78 % in 2001), one needs to keep in mind that the figure reflects only the fact that the pace of conversion to Islam in the past had occurred notably more frequently in urban centres. The relatively high level of urbanization of Muslims than that of the total population cannot be taken as an indicator of the economic dynamism of the Muslim population in India. This point is further supported by the fact that the urbanization of Muslims has gone up only marginally, from 34.01 % to 35.74 %, during the previous two decades, 1981–2001. In fact, the Muslims in the country are socio- economically marginalized because “the community exhibits deficits and deprivation in practically all dimensions of development” (Sachar Committee Report 2006, 237).

Areas with a Relatively Large Muslim Population (>20 %)

The distribution of the Muslim population in India is characterized by strong regional variations, reflecting quite different durations as well as forms of Islamic contact. A relatively high proportion of Muslims

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) 368 Mehar Singh Gill, P. D. Bhardwaj, and Firuza Binti Mustafa characterize diverse areas across the length and breadth of the country (Figure 2). Among the 35 states and union territories in India, the union territory of Lakshadweep, comprising about three dozen small islands off the Malabar coast in the Arabian Sea, had recorded the

highest proportion of Muslims (95.47 %) in 2001, owing primarily to Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 its much longer history of trading contacts with the Arab world (Table 3).

TABLE 3

FIGURE 2

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) Geographical Pattern of Muslim Population in India, 2001 369

India: Muslims as a percentage of total district population Serial Number District % State/Union Territory

1 Anantnag 98.49 Jammu and Kashmir 2. Badgam 98.08 Jammu and Kashmir 3 Pulwama 97.61 Jammu and Kashmir Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 4 Baramula 97.55 Jammu and Kashmir 5 Kupwara 97.37 Jammu and Kashmir 6 Lakshadweep 95.47 Lakshadweep 7 Srinagar 94.65 Jammu and Kashmir 8 Punch 91.92 Jammu and Kashmir 9 Kargil 80.43 Jammu and Kashmir 10 Dhubri 74.29 Assam 11 Malappuram 68.53 Kerala 12. Kishanganj 67.58 Bihar 13. Murshidabad 63.67 West Bengal 14. Rajauri 60.23 Jammu & Kashmir 15. Barpeta 59.37 Assam 16. Doda 57.92 Jammu & Kashmir 17. Hailakandi 57.63 Assam 18. Goalpara 53.71 Assam 19. Karimganj 52.30 Assam 20. Nagaon 50.99 Assam 21. Maldah 49.72 West Bengal 22. Rampur 49.14 Uttar Pradesh 23. Marigaon 47.59 Assam 24. Uttar Dinajpur 47.36 West Bengal 25. Moradabad 45.54 Uttar Pradesh 26. Katihar 42.53 Bihar 27. Bijnor 41.71 Uttar Pradesh 28. Hyderabad 41.17 Andhra Pradesh 29. Araria 41.14 Bihar 30. Jyotiba Phule Nagar 39.38 Uttar Pradesh 31. Saharanpur 39.11 Uttar Pradesh 32. Bongaigaon 38.52 Assam 33. Muzaffarnagar 38.09 Uttar Pradesh 34. Kozhikode 37.47 Kerala 35. Gurgaon 37.22 Haryana 36. Purnia 36.76 Bihar 37. Balrampur 36.72 Uttar Pradesh 38. Cachar 36.13 Assam 39. Darrang 35.54 Assam 40. Birbhum 35.08 West Bengal 41. Bahraich 34.83 Uttar Pradesh 42. Kasaragod 34.31 Kerala 43. Bareilly 33.89 Uttar Pradesh 44. South Twenty Four Pargana 33.24 West Bengal 45. Hardwar 33.05 Uttarakhand Source : Census of India 2001: First Report on Religion Data , New Delhi, 2004.

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) 370 Mehar Singh Gill, P. D. Bhardwaj, and Firuza Binti Mustafa

Jammu and Kashmir

The state of Jammu and Kashmir, particularly the Kashmir Valley region, stands out prominently in terms of its large Muslim population.

Among 8 of the country’s 593 districts that recorded a more than 90 % Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 share of India’s Muslim population in 2001, seven belonged to this area; in three other districts of the state, the percentage of Muslims ranged from 57 % to 81 % (Figure 2). Owing to its close proximity to and history of close trade relations with Central and West Asia, some inci - dence of conversions to Islam had already started happening in the Kashmir Valley region by the beginning of the second millennium. However, this phenomenon accelerated after the seizure of the Kashmir throne by Shah Mir in 1339 (McLeod 2002, 45). Moreover, the strong influence of Sufism has also made a vital contribution to the spread of Islam in the area. Interestingly, unlike other areas in the country, in this region all the castes, except a large section of Brahmins, have adopted Islam.

West Bengal and Parts of Assam

A relatively large population of Muslims in West Bengal and parts of Assam needs to be viewed along with a heavy percentage of this commu - nity in Bangladesh. Toward the final years of the rule of King Asoka (269–232 BC), who himself adopted Buddhism after his Kalinga battle of about 265–263 BC, Buddhism attained a notable visibility in this area, along with many other parts of South Asia and even beyond. Buddhism continued to spread and even enjoyed political support until about the end of the 12th century. However, during the Turko-Afghan invasion in AD 1202, thousands of Buddhist monks were killed and others fled toward the Himalayan region (Wolpert 2004, 109). Consequently, the Buddhist population of the area lost the benefit of a Buddhist priesthood. At about the same time, some Hindu rulers and elites were making efforts to motivate people to join the Hindu fold, while the local Muslim rulers were interested in spreading the message of Islam. The Sufi saints were imparting their message of love in the countryside of Bengal. In this back - ground, the then Buddhist populace opted en masse for Islam instead of adopting the caste-ridden Hinduism (Brush 1949). The fact that the Bengal region occupied a marginal position vis-a-vis the “ritually pure Brahman homeland” centred in the middle Ganga plain (Sopher 1967, 48) further made for easy conversions to other religions; that is, first to Buddhism and then to Islam. Further, being the religion of the rulers, Islam also carried some economic attraction, especially for the middle and the upper strata of

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) Geographical Pattern of Muslim Population in India, 2001 371 people. Similarly, “Bengali translations of epic Sanskrit literature,” which were done during this period at the encouragement of the local rulers, worked to dilute the very relevance of Brahmanism (Wolpert 2004, 118), which was already quite weak in the Ganga delta region (Sopher

1967, 48). As per the 2001 census, the highest percentage of the Muslim Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 population in West Bengal (Table 3) was recorded in the Murshidabad district (63.67 %), followed by the districts of Hailakandi (57.63 %), Karimganj, (52.30 %), Maldah (49.72 %), and Uttar Dinajpur (47.36 %). The same factors were largely responsible for a higher proportion of Muslims in the adjacent districts of Assam (Table 3). In 2001 the largest amount of the Muslim community in Assam was found in Dhubri district (74.28 %), followed by Barpeta (59.37 %), Goalpara (53.71 %), Nagaon (50.99 %), and Marigaon (47.59 %).

Western Uttar Pradesh

Western Uttar Pradesh, particularly the Rohilkhand tract, also emerges as a prominent area with a relatively high concentration of Muslims (Figure 2), attributable mainly to the longer duration of Muslim rule in the area since the end of the 12th century (Dutt and Davgun 1979, 206). According to the census of 2001, the size of this Muslim community was notably large in the following districts: Rampur (49.14 %), Muradabad (45.54 %), Bijnor (41.71 %), Muzaffarnagar (38.09 %), Meerut (32.55 %), Baghpat (24.73 %), and Ghaziabad (23.79 %). It is significant to note that even within areas in north India with a relatively high percentage of Muslims, river flood plains have recorded a larger proportion of this community as compared to the upland plains of the interfluves. There are three reasons for this distribution: (a) the flood- plain areas had remained, even until the early decades of the 20th century, in largely frontier conditions, and were hence not attractive to Brahmanism, which generally thrived well only among well-settled communities; (b) the rulers of the day made allotments of most of the jagirs , or lands, to Muslim officials and other elites in these thinly popu - lated flood plains; and (c) the flood-plain areas during the period of Muslim rule, even until the beginning of the 20th century, were also the domain of semi-sedentary pastoral and semi-nomad communities. Such people not only happened to be “less inclined to trouble themselves over religious matters” (Census of Punjab 1881 [1883], 107), they also were virtually free from any perceptible influence of the defining caste hierarchy of Hinduism. Consequently, most of the population at that time living in the river flood plains in north India adopted Islam. Some castes, such as Arains, Dogars, and Gujars, who had adopted Islam almost to a person, were mostly found in flood-plain tracts (Gill 1986, 26). Additionally,

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) 372 Mehar Singh Gill, P. D. Bhardwaj, and Firuza Binti Mustafa conversions to Islam in the upland plain areas of the river interfluves had mainly taken place either in urban centres or larger villages, which during that time often housed different levels of Muslim officials and other elites (Raza, Ahmad, and Siddiqui 1975, 115; Gill 1986, 27). Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 Malabar Tract

The Malabar region is another prominent area with a relatively large population of Muslims (Figure 2 and Table 3). Commencing sometime at the beginning of the 8th century AD, the trade links with Arab countries played a major role in the spread of Islam in the area. Apart from their trade connections, the Arab traders had developed good social linkages in the area, and many of them had started to marry local women even before the emergence of Islam in the 7th century. When their own home areas adopted Islam, these traders became instrumental in spreading the message of the Prophet in the area. The highest proportion of Muslims in Kerala (Table 3) was found in Malappuram (68.53 %), followed by Kozhikode (37.47 %), Kasaragod (34.31 %), Kannur (27.63 %), Palakkad (26.88 %), and Wayanad (26.87 %). It becomes clear from Figure 2 that the relatively high proportion of Muslims was mostly found in the peripheral areas of the country. Even in the Ganga plain, which has a notable population of Muslims, the higher percentage was largely in the tracts bordering Nepal; at a micro level, river flood plains were ahead in this regard. In other words, despite a very long period of Muslim rule, the core area of Hindu religion in the Ganga plain was able to withstand both political pressures and economic attrac - tions that in the past favoured conversions to Islam. Thus, the areas in which all four Hindu castes were in well-knit positions experienced fewer conversions than those areas where the top caste (i.e. the Brahmin) was relatively weak or virtually missing altogether. The only notable excep - tion to this rule was the Kashmir Valley region where all the castes, save a large number of Brahmins, embraced Islam. The mass conversions to Islam in the Ganga delta region and the Indus Valley area are attributable to the same phenomenon because these two areas had long been consid - ered to be “polluting alien” territories until about the beginning of the Christian era (Sopher 1967, 48). No wonder both of these areas would have had a much weaker, if any, caste system at that time compared to the ritually pure Hindu core areas of the central Ganga plain.

Areas with a Relatively Small Muslim Population (<5 %)

Figure 2 highlights the following four major areas where the percentage of Muslims in the total population was less than 5 %: (a) the Himalayan

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) Geographical Pattern of Muslim Population in India, 2001 373 tract; (b) tribal areas; (c) large parts of Tamil Nadu; and (d) Punjab plains. During the medieval period India confronted several invasions from across its north-western border by Muslim rulers with quite different ethnic affiliations, such as Mongols, Mughals, Afghans, and so

on. Those who established their rule in different parts of the country were Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 primarily interested in controlling the cities as well as the agriculturally rich and densely populated areas that were essential for both maintaining effective political control and for obtaining requisite revenue for their kingdoms. Also, sparsely populated as well as economically less attrac - tive areas, such as the Himalayan region, did not attract much attention from the Muslim rulers during that period. Besides, there was no danger of invasion from that area because the Himalayas provided a very effec - tive barrier against a large movement of persons and materials. Owing to the absence of organized missionary activity in Islam in the past, all such areas of indifferent economic and political importance at that time remained virtually unaffected by conversions to Islam.

Tribal Areas

The tribal areas in central and south India, which existed in profound isolation and benign neglect, also did not attract much attention from the successive Muslim rulers of India. All of these areas had a sparse popula - tion without any significant economic development at that time, and, hence, did not carry much revenue value. No doubt, these areas could have been fecund targets for proselytization, as they later came to be during the time of British rule. However, conversion did not take place in these areas because of a lack of sustained contact with Muslim rulers, or even with common Muslims. Consequently, the large tribal areas of Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh have had remained to this day without any notable Muslim population (see Figure 2 and Table 3). Almost the whole of present-day north-east India beyond Bangladesh remained outside the control of successive Muslim kings at Delhi, even outside the boundaries of local Muslim rulers in the Bengal region at that time. The area was mostly populated by various tribal communities, which enjoyed distinct concentrations in different areas. No wonder, then, that the population of Muslims has remained extremely low in many states of north-east India. The present distribution of the Muslim population in that area is the result of immigration, conversions in subsequent periods, and redistribution consequent on the 1947 partition of the country into India and Pakistan. Additionally, some component of unaccounted migration from then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) seems to have made some contribution in this regard.

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) 374 Mehar Singh Gill, P. D. Bhardwaj, and Firuza Binti Mustafa

Large Parts of Tamil Nadu and Punjab

A very small Muslim population in Tamil Nadu is attributable to the fact that much of this territory has never been under Muslim rule, not even

during the largest expanse of the Mughal Empire at the beginning of 18th Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 century. The area also did not experience any significant contact with the Arab traders who were chiefly instrumental in introducing and spreading Islam in Tamil Nadu’s adjoining state, Kerala. Alternatively, a very low proportion of Muslims in Punjab in 2001 (Figure 2) was solely the outcome of a forced mass exchange of religious communities, involving the outflow of Muslims to Pakistan and a corresponding inflow of Sikhs and Hindus to India in the wake of the 1947 partition of the country. Thus, relatively a small population of Muslims, save in Punjab, has emerged in three types of areas: (a) those that never experienced any Muslim rule or had it for only short periods of time; (b) those that in the past had low economic and strategic value; and (c) those that in the past were marked by profound isolation. Additionally, this distribution may also be the result of the fact that Islam, unlike other religions, had in the past stayed quite indifferent to organized missionary institutions (Sopher 1967, 8).

Summing Up

Islam was first introduced in the Malabar coastal area of India by Arab traders at about the beginning of the 8th century. However, in other parts of the country it came and spread in the wake of various invasions into India by Muslim rulers from Afghanistan, Central Asia, and beyond, some of whom later opted to settle in India. Thus, in the pre-British period, conversions to Islam, both forced and voluntary, as well as immi - gration of soldiers, traders, artisans, and so on, played an important role in increasing the size of the Muslim population in India. During the British period, conversion to Islam experienced a notable decline, although its pace continued to be quite perceptible in the Muslim-ruled princely states. It is notable, however, that despite the occasional use of force “to secure conversion, most conversion was voluntary in character” (Davis 1951, 192). However, as compared to other religious communities, the growth rate of the Muslim population continued to be higher during the British period, owing mainly to higher total fertility rates within this community. The post-independence period has witnessed almost a total halt of conversions to Islam. However, the growth of the Muslim population in India remains highest among other various religious groups because of relatively higher birth rates, stemming from relatively higher incidence of

The Arab World Geographer / Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 16, no 4 (2013) Geographical Pattern of Muslim Population in India, 2001 375 poverty among this community and the persistence of pro-natal atti - tudes, which result in late and less adoption of family planning. As required by political strategy, the first and foremost focus of past Muslim rulers was to control the densely populated and fertile agricul -

tural areas as well as to secure control of the main routes connecting Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/16/4/363/1447305/arwg_16_4_w27123w42833514v.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 different parts of the country. Accordingly, a higher concentration of Muslims was found in the Ganga plain, in the areas that stayed under Muslim rule for quite long periods of time, and also along the main routes running across the country. A very large population of Muslims in the Ganga delta region and its adjoining parts, as well as in pre-partition Punjab, was attributable to the fact that these two areas remained largely outside the effective influence of Hinduism until about the resurgence of that religion in the middle of the first millennium. Conversely, a small population of Muslims is found in areas that had never been under Muslim rule and also in areas that had not much strategic and politico- economic importance at that time.

Notes 1 The Census of India has been collecting data on the socio-economic aspects of religious communities since the first census in 1881. The 1951 census, which was the first after the religion-based partition of the country in 1947, did not collect any information on religion. However, data from the censuses of 1961, 1971, 1981, and 1991 were limited to population numbers (persons, males and females) in both rural and urban areas. Significantly, the 2001 census published detailed data regarding the population of those age 0–6, literacy, and broad occupational categories of each religious community in the country. 2 In 2001 India had 35 main administrative divisions: 28 states and 7 union territories.

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