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Article Environmental and Management Considerations for Adopting the Halophyte Salicornia bigelovii Torr. as a Sustainable Seawater-Irrigated Crop.

Rodolfo Garza-Torres 1 , Enrique Troyo-Diéguez 2,*, Alejandra Nieto-Garibay 2,* , Gregorio Lucero-Vega 3, Francisco Javier Magallón-Barajas 4, Emilio García-Galindo 5, Yenitze Fimbres-Acedo 5 and Bernardo Murillo-Amador 2

1 Nayarit Unit of the Center for Biological Research of Northwest México (UNCIBNOR+), Aquaculture Program, Tepic CP: 63173, Mexico; [email protected] 2 Center for Biological Research of Northwest México (CIBNOR), Arid Zone Agriculture Program, La Paz CP: 23096, Mexico; [email protected] 3 Baja California Sur Autonomous University (UABCS), Academic Department of Agronomy, La Paz CP: 23085, Mexico; [email protected] 4 Center for Biological Research of Northwest México (CIBNOR), Aquaculture Program, La Paz CP: 23096, Mexico; [email protected] 5 Center for Biological Research of Northwest México (CIBNOR), Graduate Studies and Human Resources Program, La Paz CP: 23096, Mexico; [email protected] (E.G.-G.); yﬁ[email protected] (Y.F.-A.) * Correspondence: [email protected] (E.T.-D.); [email protected] (A.N.-G.)

Received: 12 December 2019; Accepted: 15 January 2020; Published: 18 January 2020

Abstract: Salicornia bigelovii Torr. is a potential new crop for coastal and saline lands, because of the oil content of its seeds, its properties as fresh vegetable, forage, and other uses. As a true halophyte, it can grow with seawater irrigation. The aim of this study was to determine the phenology and water requirements of Salicornia as a new plant resource in growing areas for salt-tolerant crops in coastal and saline lands, and elucidate scenarios of sustainability about these issues. Water requirements were estimated in experimental plots on the coastal line and fulfilled with drip irrigation connected to seawater aquaculture discharge ponds, 30 m from the sea. The recorded phenological events were germination, flowering, fructification, maturation, and physiological death. Results reflect the difficulty to adopt it as a new crop because of its long-life cycle, around nine months, contrasting with the life cycle of common crops, from three to four months. Irrigation needs reached a depth of 240 cm, significantly exceeding those of conventional crops. Such limitations are highlighted, but also its potential use as a biofilter of coastal aquaculture effluents, being a productive target-biomass, feasible to be used as a dual-purpose use of water and energy required in aquaculture farms.

Keywords: Salicornia; sea asparagus; coastal agro-aquaculture; seawater irrigation; allometric equation

1. Introduction

1.1. Water Shortage Limitations for Conventional Agriculture in Arid Zones At present and in the near future, agriculture will need to develop new sustainable schemes to feed future populations. It is clear that water use increases in a parallel rate to total production, and this is going to be a serious problem unless drastic measures are taken [1]. Freshwater limitations in some heavily irrigated regions could necessitate reversion of 20–60 Mha of cropland from irrigated to rainfed management or another source of water [2], as water is a critical resource for farmers, and ensuring access to water is quite important for reducing poverty in rural areas, because poverty reduction

Sustainability 2020, 12, 707; doi:10.3390/su12020707 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020, 12, 707 2 of 14 will lead to food security [3]. In this context, mankind will have to diversify production schemes, including the integration of livestock, aquaculture, or other, less fresh water-demanding activities; in this context, the proximity of aquaculture to and use of limited high-quality water resources gives a highly site-speciﬁc potential for minimizing environmental impact [4]. During the last decades, the use of plant resources of marine or coastal origin is gaining attention, but their use must be sustained on detailed studies, to face the freshwater scarcity and the lack of food [5,6]. Northwest México is an arid region where freshwater availability for agriculture is drastically decreasing, but on the other hand, it has a long coast sustaining a diversity of biota; the Mexican coastal ecosystems are located in the tropical and subtropical zones between 30◦ N 116◦ W and 15◦ N 90◦ W, with mild temperatures only on the north, neighboring with the USA border [7]. For the development of this area, regional policies based on the analysis and participatory use of water and natural resources are highly important for a rational planning approach [8]. The above is relevant to mitigate the overexploitation of water in this arid zone, whose main source is groundwater; this issue has become extremely crucial in the last decades, especially in similar arid and semi-arid regions, where the coastal aquifers are particularly at risk due to intrusion of seawater [9]. The shortage of high-quality water is an issue in arid and semi-arid regions. In consequence, the use of water resources of marginal quality is gaining important consideration, particularly in arid regions where large quantities of saline water are used for irrigation. Nevertheless, the use of these kinds of water in irrigated lands requires the control of soil salinity [10].

1.2. The Cultivation of Halophytes as an Option to Reduce the Demand for Fresh Water in Agriculture As an alternative option for coastal development where shortage of freshwater prevails, several species of wild halophyte vegetation are used seasonally for human consumption and grazing [11]. In México, halophytes are distributed along the Pacific Ocean coast and the Gulf of México and grow on saline soils, which are particularly frequent in places close to the coast, as many of them are permanently wet. Under these conditions, true halophyte species are plants that grow in saline environments, with the capacity to develop true tolerance to salts. The importance of the world’s halophyte resources is shown for obtaining fodder, grass forage, and medicinal and oil raw materials, as well as biological agents for reclaiming degraded lands, especially in arid regions, where dire shortages of food are observable [12]. These communities include genera and species with wide distribution [13]. In coastal plant communities in northwestern México, two of the most common plant families are Gramineae and Chenopodiaceae, with several halophytic species [14]. Among the attributes of halophytes, succulence is a common feature in different families, and their tolerance to high osmotic pressure caused by salinity [15]. The annual halophyte Salicornia bigelovii Torr., also known as ‘sea asparagus’ or ‘Salicornia’, of the family Chenopodiaceae, is an annual plant with succulent stems; the whole plant is divided into branches and leaves that are not apparent; groups of plants form compact and frequently extensive colonies. Representative plants reach a height up to 50 cm height, with stems articulated, crass and fleshy, of bright green color; the flowers are inconspicuous and of reduced size [16]. They usually inhabit saline terrains (inland or coastal) such as salt marshes. It is found in flood-prone salt marshes along the northern coast of the Mexican Pacific Ocean, on plains and alkaline coastal plains of the Baja California Peninsula, and on the islands Tiburón and Angel de la Guarda [14,17]. The differences in growth between halophyte plants as Salicornia and glycophytes such as tomato or lettuce, when subjected to salinity conditions require, for the former, salts for their proper development, while glycophytes reduce their growth and productivity, even with minimum increases in salinity [11,18]. The promising importance of Salicornia not only lies in the oil content of its seeds, or its potential use as fresh vegetables with high mineral content of their forage, but also because its response to watering, it is suitable candidate as a biofilter to recycle water and nutrients contained in effluents from marine aquaculture [19,20]. Salicornia has been studied by several researchers, studying its ecology, physiological responses to salinity changes, agricultural management, and utilization [18,20,21], also Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

Salicornia and glycophytes such as tomato or lettuce, when subjected to salinity conditions require, for the former, salts for their proper development, while glycophytes reduce their growth and productivity, even with minimum increases in salinity [11,18]. The promising importance of Salicornia not only lies in the oil content of its seeds, or its potential Sustainabilityuse as fresh2020 vegetables, 12, 707 with high mineral content of their forage, but also because its response 3to of 14 watering, it is suitable candidate as a biofilter to recycle water and nutrients contained in effluents from marine aquaculture [19,20]. Salicornia has been studied by several researchers, studying its theecology, phenology physiological of related responses species with to salinity an emphasis changes, on floristicagricultural aspects, management, the nutrient and content utilization [22,23 ], and[18,20,21], other issues. also the On phenology the coast of of re thelated Bay species of La with Paz an BCS, emphasis México, on itfloristic is possible aspects, to the find nutrientSalicornia associatedcontent [22,23], to halophytic and other vegetation issues. On and the with coast diversified of the Bay of soil La microbiota, Paz BCS, México, both in it winter is possible and to in find spring, whichSalicornia decreases associated in summer to halophytic and autumn vegetation due and to a with change diversified in seasonal soil microbiota, climate [24 ].both in winter and in spring,Even when which a decreases productive in potentialsummer and of Salicornia autumn dueis perceived, to a change taking in seasonal advantage climate of [24]. seawater from aquacultureEven when effluents a productive and reducing potential the of demandSalicorniafor is perceived, fresh water taking required advantage by agriculture, of seawater variousfrom management-relatedaquaculture effluents di andfficulties reducing in the the soil-agroecosystem demand for fresh relationshipwater required hinder by agriculture, its adoption. various Among othermanagement-related aspects, the duration difficulties of the in the life soil-agroe cycle, thecosystem obvious relationship low inclusion hinder in its traditional adoption. Among foods, its managementother aspects, at the diff erentduration scales, of the and life the cycle, real availabilitythe obvious oflow land inclusion compatible in traditional with aquaculture foods, its are importantmanagement issues at todifferent investigate scales, in and greater the real detail. availability Accordingly, of land the compatible purpose of with the presentaquaculture study are is to corroborateimportant theissues viability to investigate of the halophyte in greaterSalicornia detail. Accordingly, bigelovii Torr. the as purpose a new crop of the irrigated present withstudy seawater is to andcorroborate verify the the cultivation viability periodof the forhalophyte further adjustmentsSalicornia bigelovii in the Torr. design as ofa coastalnew crop farms. irrigated with seawater and verify the cultivation period for further adjustments in the design of coastal farms. 2. Materials and Methods 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Area 2.1. Study Area The study was conducted in El Comitán, a coastal town at La Paz Bay and Lagoon, in the southern portionThe of thestudy Baja was California conducted Peninsula, in El Comitán, focused a oncoastal the phenologicaltown at La Paz monitoring Bay and andLagoon, watering in the of a Salicorniasouthern bigelovii portionplot, of the developed Baja California from seeds Peninsul harvesteda, focused from on a natural the phenological population monitoring during 2016–2018, and watering of a Salicornia bigelovii plot, developed from seeds harvested from a natural population which was the establishment and observational period. The experimental plots were established during 2016–2018, which was the establishment and observational period. The experimental plots at a stripe adjacent to aquaculture ponds and on a flooded marsh on the coastal line at the Center were established at a stripe adjacent to aquaculture ponds and on a flooded marsh on the coastal line for Biological Research of Northwest México (CIBNOR), 17 km west of La Paz City, BCS, Mexico. at the Center for Biological Research of Northwest México (CIBNOR), 17 km west of La Paz City, The coastal area of the Salicornia natural population and plot are located at coordinates 24 10’ N and BCS, Mexico. The coastal area of the Salicornia natural population and plot are located at coordinates◦ 11024°10’◦20’ WN (Figureand 110°20’1). W (Figure 1).

FigureFigure 1. 1.Geographic Geographic locationlocation of the ‘Center for for Biolog Biologicalical Research Research ofof Northwest Northwest México’ México’ (CIBNOR, (CIBNOR, S.C.),S.C.), 17 17 km km west west La La Paz Paz City City atat thethe southernsouthern tip of of the the Baja Baja California California Peninsula, Peninsula, northwest northwest México. México.

2.2. Experimental Site Irrigations of Salicornia plots were applied using effluent waters from seawater aquaculture ponds, being a way to promote their reuse (Figure2). The southwest portion of Ensenada de La Paz, known as Chametla–El Centenario salt marsh, in its natural environment is a floodplain influenced by tides, with more than 1000 linear meters of wetlands. The soil of the experimental site was a sand type, with granular structure, high permeability, and efficient drainage; however, it contrasts with the SustainabilitySustainability 20202020,, 12,12, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 44 ofof 1414

2.2. Experimental Site IrrigationsIrrigations ofof Salicornia plotsplots werewere appliedapplied usingusing effluenteffluent waterswaters fromfrom seawaterseawater aquacultureaquaculture ponds, being a way to promote their reuse (Figure 2). The southwest portion of Ensenada de La Paz, known as Chametla–El Centenario salt marsh, in itsits naturalnatural environmentenvironment isis aa floodplainfloodplain influencedinfluenced bySustainability tides, with2020 more, 12, 707 than 1000 linear meters of wetlands. The soil of the experimental site was a 4sand of 14 type,type, withwith granulargranular structure,structure, highhigh permeability,permeability, and efficient drainage; however, it contrasts with thethe soil/sedimentsoil/sediment thatthat sustainssustains thethe naturalnatural populationspopulations ofof Salicornia,, whichwhich isis aa mediummedium sandsand type,type, soil/sediment that sustains the natural populations of Salicornia, which is a medium sand type, similar similarsimilar toto thethe beachbeach [25].[25]. TheThe region’sregion’s climateclimate isis aridarid withwith anan historicalhistorical annualannual rainfallrainfall ofof 180180 mm,mm, to the beach [25]. The region’s climate is arid with an historical annual rainfall of 180 mm, constantly constantlyconstantly outpacedoutpaced byby evaporation;evaporation; thethe hottesthottest monthsmonths areare July–September,July–September, reachingreaching aa meanmean outpaced by evaporation; the hottest months are July–September, reaching a mean temperature of temperaturetemperature ofof 3030 °C;°C; annualannual rainfallrainfall forfor thethe studystudy periodperiod waswas lowerlower thanthan thethe historicalhistorical meanmean (Figure(Figure 30 C; annual rainfall for the study period was lower than the historical mean (Figure3). 3). ◦

Figure 2. SeawaterSeawater aquaculture aquaculture ponds ponds and and Salicornia bigelovii irrigatedirrigated plotsplots establishedestablished atat CIBNOR,CIBNOR, S.C.,S.C., 17 17 km km west west La La Paz Paz City, City, MMéxico.México.éxico.

40 250 Precipitation, Evaporation (mm) Precipitation, Evaporation 35 (mm) Precipitation, Evaporation C) C) o o 200 30

25 150 20

15 100 Eo pp 10 Min Temp Avg Temp 50 5 Min, Avg and Max Temperature ( Min, Avg and Max Min, Avg and Max Temperature ( Min, Avg and Max 0 0 JanJan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec

Figure 3.3. MainMain climatic variables for for the study period (1916–1918) (1916–1918) inin the the coastal coastal area area of of CIBNOR’sCIBNOR’s Research Station, 17 km westwest LaLa PazPaz City,City, MMééxico.xico.xico. (Eo:(Eo: evaporation; evaporation; pp: pp: precipitation).precipitation).

2.3. Water Quality Irrigation water quality was a water-dependent factor of aquaculture ponds, in this sense, the water source originated from white shrimp and yellow snapper farming ponds. Water analysis was performed according to the standards and procedures of the water quality laboratory. pH was measured with Sustainability 2020, 12, 707 5 of 14 an Orion® 620 pH meter (Beverly, MA, USA), and salinity were measured according to the Mexican Norm NMX-AA-034-SCFI-2015 (Water analysis: Measurement of salts and solids dissolved in natural water, wastewaters and treated wastewaters—Test method) [26].

2.4. Plant Materials and Irrigation Methods Salicornia seeds were collected from natural populations established on the coast of La Paz, BCS. The phenological events perceivable in the field were recorded, including germination, flowering, fructification, lignification, maturation, and physiological death; also, its growth throughout the life cycle, including the variables height above ground, the number of internodes and ramifications. Salicornia was established in the period 2016–2018; four measurements were made per month, from 25 January to 30 October 2017, for eight sub-populations chosen previously at random. A flexible metric tape and millimeter ‘vernier’ were used. The water requirement was estimated in experimental plots established in CIBNOR’s coastal line and fulfilled with drip irrigation connected to the aquaculture discharge ponds, 30 m from the sea; arrays were established by the design of borders and furrows with a spacing of 70 cm; borders were 2 m wide by 4 m long. A 10 m 7 m plot with drip irrigation × connected to the aquaculture ponds. The optimal irrigation was applied to simulate moisture caused by tides in the natural environment of Salicornia, trying to maintain a humidity similar to that of the floodable salt-marshes. Irrigation water was pumped from an open-air aquaculture pond, 5 m high, located 150 m from the coastal line of CIBNOR. Water flow for irrigation was measured with in-line hose meters NDJ Model BH (diameter 12.7 mm). Irrigation was applied daily, at an estimated rate of 2 cm during 120 days.

2.5. Statistical Analysis The data obtained were captured and processed with an Excel spreadsheet; for growth monitoring, we measured 8 groups of plants, with n: 6 and N: 48. The statistical analyzes were performed in triplicate for the variables of seawater quality and in quadruplicate for plant growth. The mean values obtained were compared according to the Tukey procedure; statistical procedures were carried out using the SAS software (Statistical Analysis System) with an institutional license [27].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Water Quality Analysis of the seawater quality parameters were carried out in the laboratories of CIBNOR, showing means of pH = 7.82 and salinity = 37.6 ppt; maximum values of 45 ppt were recorded in the summer of 2017, due to the effect of higher temperatures and evaporation rate in the aquaponic ponds. The main aquaculture species cultivated in CIBNOR’s ponds were White shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and Yellow snapper (Lutjanus argentiventris, L. peru). For pH and salinity (ppt) of the irrigation water, no significant differences were observed among the years of the study period. By applying analysis of variance, for pH, an observed value of F = 0.53 (p = 0.62 ns) was calculated, and for salinity F = 0.84 (p = 0.48 ns). According to Tukey’s comparison test, the widest difference was detected for the years 2017 and 2016 (39.5 and 37.0 ppt), when an average increase of 2.8 ppt was reflected, compared to 2015 (36.3 ppt) (Table1, Figure4); however, this di fference was statistically non-significant.

Table 1. pH and salinity of seawater obtained from aquaculture ponds with cultivated species.

Aquacultured Species Water Variables Period Common Name Scientiﬁc Name pH ppt (o/oo) 2015–2016 White shrimp, Yellow snapper Litopenaeus vannamei, Lutjanus argentiventris 7.7 36.3 2016–2017 White shrimp, Yellow snapper Litopenaeus vannamei, Lutjanus peru 7.9 37.0 2017–2018 White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei 7.8 39.5 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

Table 1. pH and salinity of seawater obtained from aquaculture ponds with cultivated species.

Aquacultured Species Water Variables Period Common Name Scientific Name pH ppt (o/oo) 2015–2016 White shrimp, Yellow snapper Litopenaeus vannamei, Lutjanus argentiventris 7.7 36.3 2016–2017 White shrimp, Yellow snapper Litopenaeus vannamei, Lutjanus peru 7.9 37.0 Sustainability 2020, 12, 707 6 of 14 2017–2018 White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei 7.8 39.5

FigureFigure 4.4. MeanMean valuesvalues andand datadata dispersiondispersion seawaterseawater qualityquality variables;variables; ((leftleft):): pH,pH, ((rightright):): SalinitySalinity inin ppt.ppt. Periods—2015: July 2015–June 2016, 2016: July 2016–June 2017, 2017: July 2017–June 2018. 3.2. Plant Establishment and Growth 3.2. Plant Establishment and Growth The germination starts from the second half of November until early January. The formation The germination starts from the second half of November until early January. The formation of of the first articles was observed in January and February; the initial emergence occurs in times of the first articles was observed in January and February; the initial emergence occurs in times of cool cool temperature and when the substrate salinity has decreased slightly as a consequence of the light temperature and when the substrate salinity has decreased slightly as a consequence of the light winter rains. The emerged seedlings were relatively uniform. The flowering stage starts around winter rains. The emerged seedlings were relatively uniform. The flowering stage starts around four four months after the germination process ends, towards the beginning of March, by the end of the months after the germination process ends, towards the beginning of March, by the end of the winter winter season, appearing the ninth and tenth articulations. For reaching the stage of fructification, season, appearing the ninth and tenth articulations. For reaching the stage of fructification, the the flowering period is relatively short; one month after 75% of the population finishes it, the fruiting flowering period is relatively short; one month after 75% of the population finishes it, the fruiting starts by April–May, which was verified for more than 92% of the plants, while the lignification stage starts by April–May, which was verified for more than 92% of the plants, while the lignification stage was observed in June, when temperature begins to increase. From the lignification stage, near 70% was observed in June, when temperature begins to increase. From the lignification stage, near 70% of of the entire population reached the final stage of growth and finally, its life cycle. The population the entire population reached the final stage of growth and finally, its life cycle. The population on on which the samplings were carried out did not evidence a desirable uniform and homogeneous which the samplings were carried out did not evidence a desirable uniform and homogeneous development, since the phenological stages showed a slight shift among plants (near 8% of individuals development, since the phenological stages showed a slight shift among plants (near 8% of respect the population). Height data of sampled Salicornia plants are shown in Table2. individuals respect the population). Height data of sampled Salicornia plants are shown in Table 2. Table 2. Average plant height per month for each sampled plots of Salicornia (cm). Table 2. Average plant height per month for each sampled plots of Salicornia (cm). Naturally Flooded Plots Seawater Irrigated Plots Naturally Flooded Plots Seawater Irrigated Plots DateDate 11 2 23 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 MeanMean S DevS Dev CVCV cmcm 2525 Jan–25 Jan–25 Feb Feb 5.2 5.2 5.8 5.8 5.5 5.5 7.7 7.7 8.5 8.5 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.2 5.2 5.2 6.8 6.8 1.5 1.5 21.7 21.7 5–25 March 6.1 7.4 6.1 8.9 9.6 10.2 10.9 9.3 8.6 1.8 21.3 5–255–25 March April 6.1 9.1 7.4 9.0 6.1 7.9 8.9 11.9 9.612.3 10.2 13.0 10.9 14.6 9.316.8 12.6 8.6 3.0 1.8 24.1 21.3 5–255–25 April May 9.1 16.8 9.0 14.6 7.9 11.1 11.9 14.8 12.3 17.3 13.0 17.8 14.6 20.8 16.8 22.1 16.9 12.6 3.5 3.0 20.9 24.1 5–255–25 May June 16.8 20.2 14.6 20.5 11.1 14.5 14.8 17.4 17.3 19.4 17.8 20.8 20.8 23.7 22.1 27.4 20.5 16.9 3.9 3.5 18.9 20.9 55–25 July–15 June Aug 20.2 19.9 20.5 20.7 14.5 17.0 17.4 20.6 19.4 21.7 20.8 24.1 23.7 25.0 27.4 29.9 22.4 20.5 3.9 3.9 17.6 18.9 5 July–15 Aug 19.9 20.7 17.0 20.6 21.7 24.1 25.0 29.9 22.4 3.9 17.6 Plant height evidenced the highest rates from late March to mid-July, then growth appeared to stabilize (Figure5). However, by 15 September, a high percentage ( >95%) of the plant population was virtually dehydrated and evidenced a physiological death, beginning the release of mature seeds to the soil at the surrounding environment, to be ready for the next cycle; different values of plant growth were observed for both sites because of the natural variability exposed by seeds. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

Plant height evidenced the highest rates from late March to mid-July, then growth appeared to Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14 stabilize (Figure 5). However, by 15 September, a high percentage (>95%) of the plant population was virtually dehydrated and evidenced a physiological death, beginning the release of mature seeds to Plant height evidenced the highest rates from late March to mid-July, then growth appeared to the soil at the surrounding environment, to be ready for the next cycle; different values of plant Sustainabilitystabilize (Figure2020, 12 5)., 707 However, by 15 September, a high percentage (>95%) of the plant population7 ofwas 14 growth were observed for both sites because of the natural variability exposed by seeds. virtually dehydrated and evidenced a physiological death, beginning the release of mature seeds to the soil at the surrounding environment, to be ready for the next cycle; different values of plant 35.0 growth were observed for both sites because of the natural variability exposed by seeds. 30.0 35.0 25.0 30.0 20.0 25.0 15.0 20.0 10.0 Plant height, cm Plant height, 15.0

5.0 1 N.F. 2 N.F. 3 N.F. 4 N.F. 10.0 Plant height, cm Plant height, 5 S.I. 6 S.I. 7 S.I. 8 S.I. 0.0 5.0 25 Jan-25 Feb 05-25 March 05-251 AprilN.F. 05-252 MayN.F. 05-253 June N.F. 05 July-154 N.F. Aug 5 S.I. 6 S.I. 7 S.I. 8 S.I. 0.0 Period of growth 25 Jan-25 Feb 05-25 March 05-25 April 05-25 May 05-25 June 05 July-15 Aug FigureFigure 5. 5.Plant Plant heightheight reachedreached afterafter thethe periodperiod ofof growthgrowth ofofSalicornia Salicornia bigeloviibigelovii,, in in a a coastal coastal area area of of La La PazPaz BayBay B.C.S., B.C.S., northwest northwest of of Mexico. Mexico. (N.F.:(N.F.: NaturallyNaturallyPeriod of flooded;flooded; growth S.I.:S.I.: SeawaterSeawater irrigatedirrigated plots).plots). Figure 5. Plant height reached after the period of growth of Salicornia bigelovii, in a coastal area of La AccordingAccording toto thethe climaticclimatic datadata registeredregistered forfor thethe periodperiod ofof growth,growth, thethe averageaverage temperaturetemperature Paz Bay B.C.S., northwest of Mexico. (N.F.: Naturally flooded; S.I.: Seawater irrigated plots). exertedexerted an an influence influence on on the the growth growth reflected reflected on the on height the height of the plant,of the since plant, it issince a factor it is that a factor fluctuates that significantlyfluctuates significantly in such period; in such the period; growth the pattern growth reflected pattern as reflected plant height as plant evidenced height evidenced a power function, a power According to the climatic data registered for the period of growth, the average temperature knownfunction, as Freundlichknown as Freundlich equation or equation allometric or allometric model [power model curve: [power f(x) curve:= kxn], f(x) expressed = kxn], expressed as: as: exerted an influence on the growth reflected on the height of the plant, since it is a factor that y = 0.0035 × 2.5375 fluctuates significantly in such period; the growth pattern reflected as plant height evidenced a power y = 0.0035y = 0.00532.5375 × 2.495 function, known as Freundlich equation or allometric× model [power curve: f(x) = kxn], expressed as: The obtained functions are valid up to a mean temperature of 32 °C (Figure 6), registered for the y = 0.0035 × 2.5375 hottest months (July–September), wheny Salicornia= 0.0053 plants2.495 stop growing and start the grain-filling y = 0.0053× × 2.495 stage. These records agree with a former study, which reported that days to seed production do not TheThe obtained functions are are valid valid up up to to a amean mean temperature temperature of of32 32°C◦ (FigureC (Figure 6),6 registered), registered for for the differentiate to a large extent among S. bigelovii populations, which was an average of 264 days [28]. thehottest hottest months months (Jul (July–September),y–September), when when SalicorniaSalicornia plantsplants stop stop growing growing and and start start the grain-fillinggrain-filling stage.stage. These records agree with a former study, whichwhich reportedreported thatthat daysdays toto seedseed productionproduction dodo notnot differentiate to35 a large extent among S. bigelovii populations, which was an average of 264 days [28]. differentiate to a large extentNaturally among floodedS. bigelovii populations, which was an average of 264 days [28]. 30 Seawater irrigated 35 Power (Naturally flooded) 25 Naturally flooded 30 Seawater irrigated 20 Power (Naturally flooded) 25 y = 0.0053x2.495 15 20 R² = 0.9117

10 2.495 Plant height, cm Plant height, y = 0.0053x 15 R² = 0.9117 y = 0.0035x2.5375 5 10 R² = 0.8869 Plant height, cm Plant height, 0 y = 0.0035x2.5375 5 15 17 19 21 23 25R² = 270.8869 29 31 33 o 0 Mean temperature, C Figure 6. Effect15 of 17the environmental 19 21 temperature 23 on 25 the plant 27 height 29 of Salicornia 31, in 33eight o subpopulations in the Bay of La Paz BCS, NWMean Mexico temperature, (n: 64); eight C data sets, from January to August.

FigureFigure 6.6. EffectEﬀect of of the environmental temp temperatureerature on the plant height ofof SalicorniaSalicornia,, inin eighteight subpopulationssubpopulations inin thethe BayBay ofof LaLa PazPaz BCS,BCS, NWNW MexicoMexico (n:(n: 64);64); eighteight datadata sets,sets, fromfrom JanuaryJanuary toto August.August.

SustainabilitySustainability 2020,2020 12, x, 12FOR, 707 PEER REVIEW 8 of 148 of 14

Based on the collected and analyzed data, a clear limitation related to its life cycle was detected for adoptingBased this on species the collected as a new and crop, analyzed contrasting data, a clearwith traditional limitation relatedcrops, towhose its life life cycle cycle was usually detected rangesfor adoptingbetween three this species and four as months. a new crop, Moreover, contrasting one of with the traditional fundamental crops, objectives whose lifeof the cycle classic usually plantranges breeding between is the three shortening and four months.of the life Moreover, cycle, which one of entails the fundamental a saving in objectives the cost of of the crop classic managementplant breeding and agronomic is the shortening inputs of [29]. the life cycle, which entails a saving in the cost of crop management and agronomic inputs [29]. 3.3. Irrigation Requirements 3.3. Irrigation Requirements The water needs and irrigation requirements were estimated in four weekly applications, The water needs and irrigation requirements were estimated in four weekly applications, estimating estimating a total of 80 irrigations, distributed in seven months, until the mid-period of maturation, a total of 80 irrigations, distributed in seven months, until the mid-period of maturation, by early by early September; by combining the saline quality of the aquaculture discharge water with the September; by combining the saline quality of the aquaculture discharge water with the prevailing prevailing high temperatures and evaporation, deposition of precipitated salts is observed on the outerhigh surface temperatures of the irrigation and evaporation, hoses, in deposition the location of precipitated sections of salts the is emitters observed (Figure on the outer7). Each surface applicationof the irrigation of water hoses,consisted in theof light location irrigation, sections calc ofulated the emitters at 2 cm (Figureof water7 ).depth, Each with application the available of water consisted of light irrigation, calculated at 2 cm of water depth, with the available water derived from water derived from seawater aquaculture ponds, a highly-saline type, with a CE of 49.6 dS m−1; 1 therefore,seawater a total aquaculture irrigation ponds, depth a was highly-saline estimated type, in 240 with cm, a for CE a of cycle 49.6 of dS 120 m− days; therefore, (from germination a total irrigation to seeddepth maturity). was estimated Such inwater 240 cm, requirement for a cycle ofis 120sign daysificantly (from higher germination than conventional to seed maturity). agricultural Such water crops.requirement For corn, the is significantlymaximum production higher than a medium conventional maturity agricultural crop requires crops. between For corn, 50 theand maximum80 cm (avg.production 65 cm) of water; a medium in the maturity case of wheat, crop requires for high between yields water 50 and requirements 80 cm (avg. are 65 45 cm) to of65 water;cm (avg. in the 55 cm),case both of wheat, depending for high on yieldsclimate water and length requirements of the growing are 45 to period 65 cm [30]. (avg. On 55 the cm), other both hand, depending alfalfa on waterclimate requirements and length vary of from the growing80 to 160 periodcm (avg. [30 120]. On cm)/growing the other hand, period, alfalfa also depending water requirements on climate vary andfrom length 80 of to growing 160 cm (avg.period; 120 other cm) estimates/growing have period, been also published depending elsewhere on climate [31]. and Possible length scenarios of growing Salicornia of Salicorniaperiod; other water estimates requirements have beenper ha, published compared elsewhere with alfalfa, [31]. corn, Possible and scenarioswheat, are of presented waterin Tablerequirements 3, estimating per a significantly ha, compared higher with amount alfalfa, corn,of water and for wheat, Salicornia are presented irrigation inas Tablecompared3, estimating to the a othersignificantly crops. For the higher case amountof Mexico, of waterelectricity for Salicornia costs for pumpingirrigation water as compared for irrigation to the are other low, crops. because For the agriculturecase of Mexico,receives electricity an electric costs subsidy for pumping for this purpose water for (Table irrigation 4), in are consequence, low, because with agriculture low energy receives costsan and electric readily subsidy available for thisconnections, purpose (Tablethere 4are), in few consequence, financial disi withncentives low energy for farmers costs andto limit readily pumpingavailable [32]. connections, there are few financial disincentives for farmers to limit pumping [32].

Figure 7. Irrigation system with Salicornia bigelovii at the coastal line of CIBNOR, S.C., at the west side Figure 7. Irrigation system with Salicornia bigelovii at the coastal line of CIBNOR, S.C., at the west side of La Paz Lagoon, Sea of Cortés, Baja California Sur, Mexico. of La Paz Lagoon, Sea of Cortés, Baja California Sur, Mexico.

Sustainability 2020, 12, 707 9 of 14

Table 3. Scenarios of water requirements per ha and per cycle for Salicornia, as compared to corn and wheat [30], and alfalfa [31].

Crop Main Use Water Depth Water Vol/ha Water Vol 65% Space Distribution cm m3 m3 Salicornia Forage/vegetable 240 24,000 15,600 Alfalfa Forage 120 12,000 7800 Corn Grain/forage 65 6500 4225 Wheat Grain 55 5500 3575 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Land and water—Databases and software [31]; FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 1994, 29. Rev. 1. Reprinted 1989 [33].

Table 4. Estimated electric energy from the Electricity Federal Commission (CFE, México) required for irrigation pumping and its cost in a one-ha Salicornia coastal plot.

Water Depth Water Electricity Consumption Irrigations Water Depth Pump Electric Cost Per Per Depth Per Day Per Cycle Eﬃciency Per Per Per Cycle/ha * Irrigation Per Day Day Month Cycle Mex Number mm % kW h $USD Peso 1 20 20 2400 70 11.3 337.9 900.9 764.90 38.30 2 15 30 3600 70 16.9 506.8 1351.4 1147.40 57.40 3 15 45 5400 70 25.3 760.2 2027.1 1721.10 86.10 Note: * The electric cost is an average from a sample of 15 electrical bills (Federal Commission of Electricity CFE, México) from local farms. Currency: $1 USD = 20 Mex pesos.

Since many decades ago, increasing salinity of soil and water threatens agriculture in arid and semiarid regions, in this sense, the idea of harnessing seawater to diversify food production is interesting and promising [34]. On the other hand, targeting Salicornia towards agri-aquaculture integrated farms, the use of water in aquaculture activities near coastal lines can reach sustainability by using this halophyte as a biofilter barrier, when irrigated with discharged effluents. In southern Israel, Salicornia persica was used as a biofilter for seawater-culture effluents, effectively removing N, P, and suspended solids from this activity with proven emissions [35,36].

3.4. Environmental Regulations Because Salicornia is associated with mangroves in their natural environment, for the use of coastal soils, the main regulation is linked to its protection. In this sense, Baja California Sur is one of 17 Mexican states that protects mangrove zones with the oﬃcial Mexican norm NOM 059 SEMARNAT-2010, which includes four mangrove endangered species, Rhizophora mangle (endemic), Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and Conocarpus erectus [37].

3.5. Scenarios Towards Sustainability of Seawater Irrigation The idea of domesticating halophyte plants dates back to 1972, in the case of Mexico, when experiments in the Texcoco Lagoon project aimed at a uniform vegetation cover on the lake’s silted lands and, in this way, diminishing the water-funnels that affected Mexico City [38]. In previous trials carried out in Puerto Peñasco and Bahía Kino, Sonora, no negative effect on soil characteristics or an elevation of the water table has been observed, even though some of the fields were in continuous operation from 1984 to 1988 [11,39]. However, this was expected, since most of the coastal soils have predominantly a sandy texture, with a natural drainage to the ocean [40]. Anyway, agro-aquacultural producers will have to face the risk of salinization after scaling a cropping system on other texture soils, including the clayey fraction is evident, due to the intensity and frequency of irrigation that will have to be programmed, exacerbating the high evaporative rate and the high water demand of this species [41]. About the implications related to the change of land use, the identification of this geographical modification must be done through photointerpretation with field verification, whose Sustainability 2020, 12, 707 10 of 14 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14 Sustainability 20202020,, 12,12, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 1010 ofof 1414 SustainabilitySustainability 20202020,,, 12,12,12, xxx FORFORFOR PEERPEERPEER REVIEWREVIEWREVIEW 1010 ofof 1414 results mustgeographical be processed modification in a geographic must be done information through photointerpretatio system, accordingly,n with field to verification, consider S. whose bigelovii as an geographicalgeographical modificationmodification mustmust bebe donedone throughthrough photointerpretatiophotointerpretationn withwith fieldfield verification,verification, whosewhose resultsgeographical must be modification processed in must a geographic be done through information photointerpretatio system, accordingly,n with tofield consider verification, S. bigelovii whose as emergentresultsresults or optional mustmust bebe resource,processedprocessed inin a aa careful geographicgeographic inventory informationinformation ofthe system,system, vegetation accordingly,accordingly, and toto land considerconsider use S.S. must bigeloviibigelovii be asas carried out anresults emergent must beor optionalprocessed resource, in a geographic a careful information inventory of system, the vegetation accordingly, and landto consider use must S. bigeloviibe carried as in order toanan emergent knowemergent the oror composition optionaloptional resource,resource, and aa careful distributioncareful inventoryinventory of ofof the thethe areas vegetationvegetation susceptible andand landland to useuse exploitation mustmust bebe carriedcarried [13 ,39,42]. outan emergent in order orto optional know the resource, composition a careful and inventory distribu oftion the of vegetation the areas and susceptible land use mustto exploitation be carried outout inin orderorder toto knowknow thethe compositioncomposition andand distribudistributiontion ofof thethe areasareas susceptiblesusceptible toto exploitationexploitation In any[13,39,42].out case, in order environmental to know the impactscomposition on natural and distribu resourcestion of must the areas be anticipated; susceptible possibleto exploitation modifications [13,39,42].[13,39,42]. or alterations[13,39,42].In in any natural case, resourcesenvironmental and theirimpacts environment on natural asresources a result must of saline be anticipated; irrigation possible are presented in InIn anyany case,case, environmentalenvironmental impactsimpacts onon naturanaturall resourcesresources mustmust bebe anticipated;anticipated; possiblepossible modificationsIn any case, or alte environmentalrations in natural impacts resources on andnatura theirl resourcesenvironment must as a beresult anticipated; of saline irrigation possible Table5. modificationsmodifications oror altealterationsrations inin naturalnatural resourcesresources andand theirtheir environmentenvironment asas aa resultresult ofof salinesaline irrigationirrigation aremodifications presented inor Tablealterations 5. in natural resources and their environment as a result of saline irrigation areare presentedpresented inin TableTable 5.5. Tableare 5. presentedPossible environmentalin Table 5. impacts expected from the use of resources for the establishment of a Table 5. Possible environmental impacts expected from the use of resources for the establishment of halophyteTableTable plot 5.5. to PossiblePossible irrigate environmentalenvironmental with seawater impactsimpacts on expectedexpected a coastal fromfrom zone. thethe useuse ofof resourcesresources forfor thethe establishmentestablishment ofof Tablea halophyte 5. PossiblePossible plot to environmentalenvironmental irrigate with seawaterimpactsimpacts expected expectedon a coastal fromfrom zone. thethe useuse ofof resourcesresources forfor thethe establishmentestablishment ofof a halophyte plot to irrigate with seawater on a coastal zone. aa halophytehalophyte plotplot toto irrigateirrigate withwith seawaterseawater onon aa coastalcoastal zone.zone. Issue Expected Environmental Impact Bio-Economical Significance Issue Expected Environmental Impact Bio-Economical Significance IssueIssue Expected Expected EnvironmentalEnvironmental ImpaImpactct Bio-EconomicalBio-Economical SignificanceSignificance Issue Null; theNull; use Expectedthe of use seawater of Environmental seawater in agriculture in agriculture Impa willct will HighlyBio-Economical positive Significance 1. Freshwater1. Freshwater demand demand Null;Null; thethe useuse ofof seawaterseawater inin agricultureagriculture willwillHighly Highly positive positive 1.1. FreshwaterFreshwater demanddemand mitigate mitigateNull; the the intense the use intense of demand seawater demand for in freshwater. agriculture for freshwater. will HighlyHighly positivepositive 1.1. FreshwaterFreshwater demanddemand mitigate the intense demand for freshwater. Highly positive mitigatemitigateIt increases. thethe intenseintenseBirdlife, demanddemand entomofauna forfor freshwater.freshwater. and soil It increases.It increases. Birdlife, Birdlife, entomofauna entomofauna and soil and soil Positive 2. Biodiversity2. Biodiversity ItIt increases.increases. Birdlife,Birdlife, entomofaunaentomofauna andand soilsoilPositive Positive 2.2. BiodiversityBiodiversity microorganismsmicroorganismsIt increases. are Birdlife, increased are increased entomofauna by oasis by e oasisffect. and effect. soil PositivePositive 2. Biodiversity microorganismsmicroorganisms areare increasedincreased byby oasisoasis effect.effect. Minimummicroorganisms if it is coupled are increased to aquaculture, by oasis effect. but as Positive when properly 3. Land-use change MinimumMinimumMinimum if it is ifcoupledif itit isis coupledcoupled to aquaculture, toto aquaculture,aquaculture, but as butbut Positive asas PositivePositive when whenwhen properlyproperly 3. Land-use3.3. Land-useLand-use change changechange Minimummonoculture if it is coupled may cause to aquaculture, soil damages. but as plannedPositive when properly 3. Land-use change monoculturemonoculturemonoculture may cause maymay soilcausecause damages. soilsoil damages.damages. properlyplannedplanned planned 4. Soil/substrate quality It deterioratesmonoculture gradually may cause but soil stabilizes damages. with Positiveplanned if managed 4. Soil4.4. / substrateSoil/substrateSoil/substrate quality qualityqualityIt deterioratesItIt deterioratesdeteriorates gradually graduallygradually but stabilizes butbut stabilizesstabilizes with withwith Positive if managed 4. inSoil/substrate irrigated plot quality It deterioratesproper gradually management. but stabilizes withPositive PositivePositive if managed ifif managedmanaged in irrigatedinin plotirrigatedirrigated plotplot properproperproper management. management.management. 5. Surroundingin irrigated plot soil It can be salinizedproper andmanagement. degraded in physical Negative; it needs to be 5. Surrounding5.5. SurroundingSurrounding soilsoil It can beItIt salinized cancan bebe salinizedsalinized and degraded andand degradeddegraded in physical inin physicalphysical and Negative; Negative;Negative; it needs itit needsneeds to toto bebe 5. qualitySurrounding soil It canand be chemical salinized properties and degraded in a few in years.physical monitoredNegative; it needs to be soil qualityqualityquality chemicalandand chemicalchemical properties propertiesproperties in a few in years.in aa fewfew years.years. be monitoredmonitoredmonitored quality Theand markets chemical are smallproperties and specialized;in a few years. it is a Atmonitored this time, it is negative; 6. Harvest—marketing TheThe marketsmarkets areare smallsmall andand specialized;specialized; itit isis aa AtAt thisthis time,time, itit isis negative;negative; 6. Harvest—marketingThe marketsTheThe markets aremarketsfood small that areare and has smallsmall specialized; yet andandto be specialized;specialized; promoted. it is a food itit isis Ataa thisAtnew time, this markets ittime, is negative; it are is negative;needed new 6. Harvest—marketing6.6. Harvest—marketingHarvest—marketing food that has yet to be promoted. new markets are needed 6. Harvest—marketing thatfoodfood has yetthatthat to hashas be yetyet promoted. toto bebe promoted.promoted. marketsnewnew are marketsmarkets needed areare neededneeded 7. Harvest—economic Becausefood it has that been has subsidized yet to be promoted. for research, its Atnew this markets time it are is negative; needed 7.7. Harvest—economicHarvest—economic BecauseBecause itit hashas beenbeen subsidizedsubsidized forfor research,research, itsits AtAt thisthis timetime itit isis negative;negative; 7. Harvest—economic7. profitabilityHarvest—economic Because Because it has beenrealit has profitability subsidized been subsidized foris unknown. research, for research,its Atits thisdetailedAt time this ittime analysis is negative; it is negative; is needed profitability realreal profitabilityprofitability isis unknown.unknown. detailed analysis is needed profitabilityprofitabilityprofitability real profitabilityrealreal profitabilityprofitability is unknown. isis unknown.unknown. detaileddetaileddetailed analysis analysisanalysis is needed isis neededneeded 4. Conclusions 4. Conclusions 4.4. ConclusionsConclusions 4. ConclusionsThe life cycle of Salicornia was estimated at nine months, which is inappropriate for common TheThe lifelife cyclecycle ofof SalicorniaSalicornia waswas estimatedestimated atat ninenine months,months, whichwhich isis inappropriateinappropriate forfor commoncommon agriculturalThe life practices cycle of sinceSalicornia it would was virtuallyestimated cove at niner an entiremonths, annual which cycle, is inappropriate which would for correspond common Theagriculturalagricultural life cycle practices ofpracticesSalicornia sincesince ititwas wouldwould estimated virtuallyvirtually covecove at ninerr anan entireentire months, annualannual which cycle,cycle, whichwhich is inappropriate wouldwould correspondcorrespond for common toagricultural two conventional practices crops, since agreeing it would withvirtually other cove studier ans thatentire this annual issue iscycle, costly which and inoperativewould correspond for the toto twotwo conventionalconventional crops,crops, agreeingagreeing withwith otherother studiestudiess thatthat thisthis issueissue isis costlycostly andand inoperativeinoperative forfor thethe agriculturalconventionalto two practices conventional farmer since crops,[43,44]. it would agreeing The virtuallyestimated with other irrigation cover studie an sneeds entirethat this reached annual issue ais depth costly cycle, of and which 240 inoperative cm, would significantly for correspond the to conventionalconventional farmerfarmer [43,44].[43,44]. TheThe esestimatedtimated irrigationirrigation needsneeds reachedreached aa depthdepth ofof 240240 cm,cm, significantlysignificantly two conventionalexceedingconventional those crops, farmer of conventional agreeing [43,44]. The with crops,estimated other which irrigation studies would needsbe that unacceptable thisreached issue a depthfor is conventional costly of 240 andcm, significantly inoperativeagriculture, for the exceedingexceeding thosethose ofof conventionalconventional crops,crops, whichwhich woulwouldd bebe unacceptableunacceptable forfor conventionalconventional agriculture,agriculture, becauseexceeding of thosethe energy of conventional and management crops, whichrequirements. would be unacceptable for conventional agriculture, conventionalbecausebecause farmer ofof thethe energyenergy [43,44 and].and The managementmanagement estimated requirements.requirements. irrigation needs reached a depth of 240 cm, significantly becauseAnyway, of the forenergy seawater and management irrigation purposes, requirements. the ex ploitation of mudflats and salt marshes can exceeding thoseAnyway,Anyway, of conventional forfor seawaterseawater irrigationirrigation crops, whichpurposes,purposes, would thethe exexploitationploitation be unacceptable ofof mudflatsmudflats for andand conventional saltsalt marshesmarshes cancan agriculture, relieveAnyway, the stress for ofseawater inadequate irrigation land resources,purposes, thein this exploitation sense, aquaculture of mudflats and and agriculture salt marshes are canthe relieverelieve thethe stressstress ofof inadequateinadequate landland resources,resources, inin thisthis sense,sense, aquacultureaquaculture andand agricultureagriculture areare thethe because ofprimaryrelieve the energythe modes stress of and ofutilization inadequate management of mudflats land requirements.resources, [45]. in this sense, aquaculture and agriculture are the primaryprimary modesmodes ofof utilizationutilization ofof mudflatsmudflats [45].[45]. Anyway,primaryFrom for modes the seawater detailed of utilization analysis irrigation of of mudflats the purposes, halophytic [45]. ve thegetation exploitation and its environmental of mudflats environment, and salt marshesand can FromFrom thethe detaileddetailed analysisanalysis ofof thethe halophytichalophytic vevegetationgetation andand itsits environmentalenvironmental environment,environment, andand consideringFrom the the detailed availability analysis of Salicornia of the halophytic genotypes, ve getationviable areas and forits environmentalits management environment, and sustainable and relieve theconsideringconsidering stress of thethe inadequate availabilityavailability ofof land SalicorniaSalicornia resources, genotypes,genotypes, in viableviable this areas sense,areas forfor aquaculture itsits managementmanagement and andand agriculture sustainablesustainable are the productionconsidering can the beavailability identified of according Salicornia to genotypes, its life cy cleviable [46,47]. areas In for relation its management to the water and requirements sustainable primaryproduction modesproduction of can utilizationcan bebe identifiedidentified of mudflats accordingaccording [toto45 itsits]. lifelife cycyclecle [46,47].[46,47]. InIn relationrelation toto thethe waterwater requirementsrequirements fulfilledproduction with can seawater, be identified the total according irrigation to itsdepth life cyescletimated [46,47]. in In240 relation cm represents to the water an obvious requirements risk to Fromfulfilledfulfilled thedetailed withwith seawater,seawater, analysis thethe totaltotal of irrigation theirrigation halophytic depthdepth esestimatedtimated vegetation inin 240240 and cmcm representsrepresents its environmental anan obviousobvious riskrisk environment, toto salinizingfulfilled with the seawater,soil sustaining the total the irrigationagroecosystem, depth ines timatedaddition in to 240 exacerbating cm represents the problem an obvious related risk to salinizingsalinizing thethe soilsoil sustainingsustaining thethe agroecosystem,agroecosystem, inin additionaddition toto exacerbatingexacerbating thethe problemproblem relatedrelated toto and consideringmarinesalinizing intrusion the the availability soil in sustaining coastal ofareas theSalicornia [47].agroecosystem, genotypes, in addition viable to areas exacerbating for its managementthe problem related and sustainableto marinemarine intrusionintrusion inin coastalcoastal areasareas [47].[47]. productionmarine canSalicornia intrusion be identified or seain coastal asparagus, according areas may [47]. represent to its life a solution cycle [ 46for, 47the]. use In of relation saline soils, to thealthough water the requirements salt SalicorniaSalicornia oror seasea asparagus,asparagus, maymay representrepresent aa solutionsolution foforr thethe useuse ofof salinesaline soils,soils, althoughalthough thethe saltsalt balanceSalicornia should or be sea monitored. asparagus, Irrigated may represent agricultur a solutione is dependent for the onuse adequate of saline watersoils, althoughsupply of the usable salt fulfilledbalance withbalance seawater, shouldshould bebe monitored.monitored. the total irrigationIrrigatedIrrigated agriculturagricultur depthee estimated isis dependentdependent in onon 240 adequateadequate cm represents waterwater supplysupply an ofof obvious usableusable risk to quality.balance Watershould quality be monitored. concerns Irrigated have often agricultur been neglectede is dependent because on good adequate quality water water supply supplies of usable have salinizingquality.quality. the soil WaterWater sustaining qualityquality concernsconcerns the agroecosystem, havehave oftenoften beenbeen neglectedneglected in addition becausebecause to goodgood exacerbating qualityquality waterwater the suppliessupplies problem havehave related to beenquality. plentiful Water qualityand readily concerns available. have often In this been se neglectednse, groundwater because good has qualitybeen considered water supplies the mosthave beenbeen plentifulplentiful andand readilyreadily available.available. InIn thisthis sesense,nse, groundwatergroundwater hashas beenbeen consideredconsidered thethe mostmost marine intrusionimportantbeen plentiful infreshwater coastal and readily resource areas available. [ 47for]. drinking In this and se irrigationnse, groundwater in coastal regionshas been with considered an arid or thesemiarid most importantimportant freshwaterfreshwater resourceresource forfor drinkingdrinking andand irrigationirrigation inin coastalcoastal regionsregions withwith anan aridarid oror semiaridsemiarid Salicorniaclimateimportant or[48]. freshwater sea One asparagus, of the resource main may forbenefits drinking represent to develop and irrigation a solutionand adopt in coastalfor new the regionsseawater-irrigated use with of saline an arid crops soils,or semiarid is although the the climateclimate [48].[48]. OneOne ofof thethe mainmain benefitsbenefits toto developdevelop andand adoptadopt newnew seawater-irrigatedseawater-irrigated cropscrops isis thethe salt balanceoptimizationclimate should [48]. Oneof be land monitored.of theand main water benefits Irrigatedalready to ta developrgeted agriculture for and aquaculture. adopt is dependent new Inseawater-irrigated this sense, on adequate Salicornia crops watermay is thebe supply of optimizationoptimization ofof landland andand waterwater alreadyalready tatargetedrgeted forfor aquaculture.aquaculture. InIn thisthis sense,sense, SalicorniaSalicornia maymay bebe consideredoptimization as ofa potentialland and new water crop already if it is managedtargeted forsustainably aquaculture. on land In thisnot suitablesense, Salicornia for conventional may be usable quality.consideredconsidered Water asas aa quality potentialpotential concerns newnew cropcrop ifif have itit isis managedmanaged often been sustainablysustainably neglected onon landland because notnot suitablesuitable good forfor quality conventionalconventional water supplies agricultureconsidered asand a potentialif it does newnot compete crop if it withis managed commercial sustainably agricultural on land crops not forsuitable available for conventional fresh water, have beenagricultureagriculture plentiful andand and ifif ititreadily doesdoes notnot available. competecompete withwith In commercialcommercial this sense, agriculturalagricultural groundwater cropscrops for hasfor availableavailable been considered freshfresh water,water, the most butagriculture must be and adequately if it does coupled not compete with a with feasible commercial seawater agricultural source. crops for available fresh water, butbut mustmust bebe adequatelyadequately coupledcoupled withwith aa feasiblefeasible seawaterseawater source.source. important but freshwater must be adequately resource coupled for drinking with a feasible and irrigationseawater source. in coastal regions with an arid or semiarid climate [ 48]. One of the main benefits to develop and adopt new seawater-irrigated crops is the optimization of land and water already targeted for aquaculture. In this sense, Salicornia may be considered as a potential new crop if it is managed sustainably on land not suitable for conventional agriculture and if it does not compete with commercial agricultural crops for available fresh water, but must be adequately coupled with a feasible seawater source. Other environmental advantage relates to restoration; in this context, Salicornia has been studied under different factors as fresh vegetable and valuable oilseed, additionally, the setting up of a Salicornia Sustainability 2020, 12, 707 11 of 14 plantation on coastal land has a real potential to sustainably restore affected or threatened mangroves forests [49]. There have been reports of successful projects of mangroves afforestation, and other failed attempts [50]. A former research studied critical factors as to understand the hydrologic patterns of the site’s tide (depth, duration, and frequency of tidal flooding) for establishing and growing mangrove species to successfully restore this ecosystem [51]. In summary, in this work we corroborate the duration of the period of life of Salicornia, which in agricultural terms can be very long, which can increase handling costs. Even when the demand for water is high, in the case that it can be satisfied with the same energy invested for the management of aquaculture ponds, this may represent an advantage, in the sense that agricultural water is not used. The real possibility of providing a dual-purpose use of the water resource destined to aquaculture is perceived. Finally, it is important to remark that the notion of irrigation sustainability will vary among regions and over time with differences in public preferences [52].

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.T.-D.-D. and A.N.-G.; methodology, R.G.-T.-T. and E.G.-G.-G.; software, B.M.-A.-A. and G.L.-V.; validation, A.N.-G. and E.T.-D.; formal analysis, E.T.-D., R.G.-T., and E.G.-G.; investigation, A.N.-G. and Y.F.-A.; resources, B.M.-A. and F.J.M.-B.; data analysis, R.G.-T. and E.T.-D.; writing-original draft preparation, R.G.-T. and Y.F.-A.; writing-review and editing, E.T.-D.; visualization, F.J.M.-B.; supervision, G.L.-V. and A.N.-G.; project administration, B.M.-A. and G.L.-V.; funding acquisition, E.T.-D., F.J.M.-B., and B.M.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was supported by the National Council of Science and Technology of México (CONACYT), Project 4631 ‘Conacyt—Problemas Nacionales 2017-I’, and by the Water Consortium (Consorcio Agua-Conacyt), through the Project 0297116 Acknowledgments: Rodolfo Garza Torres acknowledges financial support given by the National Council for Science and Technology of Mexico (CONACYT) to ‘Cátedra’ position at CIBNOR. Authors give thanks to the technical staff of the Water and Soil Analysis Labs, and to the Hydrology and Irrigation Lab technicians of CIBNOR SC (La Paz, BCS). Financial and administrative support was given by the Project 0297116 “Cluster Bioturbosina”, and by the Water Consortium (Consorcio Agua-Conacyt) based at CIMAV-Durango. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest of any kind; the funders had no role in the design and implementation of this research and its data interpretation, nor in the decision to write and submit this manuscript.

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