The Spatiality of the Hispanic Avant-Garde
Founding Editors
Ferd Drijkoningen† Klaus Beekman
Series Editors
Hubert van den Berg Günter Berghaus Sascha Bru Geert Buelens
International Advisory Board Henri Béhar – Sophie Berrebi – Ralf Grüttemeier – Hilde Heynen – Leigh Landy – Ben Rebel – Jan de Vries – Willem G. Weststeijn
volume 37
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/agcs
Ultraísmo & Estridentismo, 1918–1927
Claudio Palomares-Salas
leiden | boston
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Palomares-Salas, Claudio, author. Title: The spatiality of the Hispanic avant-garde : ultraísmo & estridentismo, 1918-1927 / Claudio Palomares-Salas. Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill Rodopi, [2020] | Series: Avant-garde critical studies, 1387-3008 ; volume 37 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020009942 (print) | LCCN 2020009943 (ebook) | ISBN 9789004406766 (hardback) | ISBN 9789004406773 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Spanish poetry--20th century--History and criticism. | Latin American poetry--20th century--History and criticism. | Space and time in art. | Space and time in literature. | Ultraism (Literary movement) | Estridentismo (Art movement) | Estridentismo (Literary movement) | Avant-garde (Aesthetics)--Spain--History--20th century. | Avant-garde (Aesthetics)--Latin America--History--20th century. Classification: LCC PQ6085 P277 2020 (print) | LCC PQ6085 (ebook) | DDC 861/.609--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020009942 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020009943
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Acknowledgements ix List of Illustrations xi
Introduction: Spatiality and the Hispanic Avant-Garde 1 1 Space, Place, and the Avant-Garde 3 2 The Perspective of Experience 7 3 Representing Space 10 4 The Hispanic Transatlantic Avant-Garde 14 5 Transatlantic Scholarship 23 6 Itinerary 28
1 Cities 30 1 Madrid 33 2 Mexico City 40 3 Skyscrapers 49 4 The Eiffel Tower 55 5 The Viaduct 62 6 Electrical Wiring 70
2 Cafés 75 1 El Colonial and Pombo 77 2 Café de Nadie 81 3 Doors 86 4 Windows 89 5 Tables 93 6 Mirrors 100
3 Mobile Spaces 106 1 Trams 106 2 Automobiles 113 3 Airplanes 120 4 Pilots 124 5 Ships 128
4 The Ultraísta Sea 136 1 Borges’s Sea 140 2 Adriano del Valle’s Foam 142
3 Humberto Rivas’s Ocean 146 4 Guillermo de Torre’s High Tide 150 5 Harbours 153 6 Cathedrals 156
Conclusion 162 Bibliography 165 Index 189
In his long war-poem “Ecuatorial” (Equatorial, 1918), a tour of multiple spaces and times, Vicente Huidobro wrote: “To leave / And then from far away / To watch the windows burning /And the shadows crossing the mirrors.”1 The drive of the Hispanic avant-garde to leave aimed to reconfigure European and Latin American geographies. The late 1910s and early 1920s was a period in which both Latin American nations and Spain were desperately trying to map themselves. National discourses constrained their complex spatial and historical realities through social, cultural, and aesthetic agendas that aimed to build both a local and a cosmopolitan identity. The Hispanic vanguards appeared at a moment in which Latin American writers and artists wanted, apparently, to avoid any as- sociation with the former colonizer and in which their Spanish counterparts were, with some exceptions, mostly ignoring the former colonies. The result was a sense of disjunction, a tension resulting from trying to belong to an imag- ined modern space produced in Paris or New York while submitting to the in- creasing aesthetic obligations of localism. All this, while simultaneously trying to represent a personal and intimate experience of space that had nothing to do with political agendas. This tension is best exemplified in Manuel Maples Arce’s “Prisma” (Prism, 1922), the poem that opens the collection Andamios interiores (Interior Scaffoldings, 1922), the first collection of avant-garde poetry produced in Mexico, which for many in the Hispanic world was the first glimpse of Estri- dentismo. The well-known first lines are a powerful declaration that in a way summarizes the Hispanic vanguard’s new spatiality: “I am a dead point in the middle of the hour/ equidistant to the castaway scream of a star.”2 “Prisma” cre- ates a floating geography that does not relate to any precise location other than “the city.” A typical Estridentista case, the poem mixes amorous and social themes with modern spaces and objects producing an ambiguity that makes the reader hesitate between a desire to dwell (in the city, in the lover, in the
1 “Partir / Y de allá lejos / Mirar las ventanas encendidas / Y las sombras que cruzan los espejos.” El espejo de agua y Ecuatorial. Santiago: Pequeño Dios Editores, 2011: 34. Translation by David M. Guss, The Selected Poetry of Vicente Huidobro. Ed. David M. Guss (New York: New Direc- tions Pub. Corp, 1981): 31. 2 “Yo soy un punto muerto en medio de la hora / equidistante al grito náufrago de una estrella.” Andamios interiores. Poemas radiográficos (México: Editorial Cultura, 1922: n.p.). Reprinted in Las semillas del tiempo: Obra poética 1919–1980 (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1981): 35. My translation.
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1 Space, Place, and the Avant-Garde
The study of space has mostly occurred on two levels. The first considers the physical aspects of space, that is, its materiality. The second deals with the sto- ries and meanings that individuals and cultures assign to it. To understand the first level, we need the language of mathematics, a quantitative vocabulary to measure and make sense of locations from a presumably detached perspec- tive. To understand the second level, we need to study the social and affective experiences of locations and of crossing between locations by people. We experience space through sensation, perception, and conception (Tuan 1979, 388). We certainly do not move through it as within a frame of a painting or as we would move through an empty container, to borrow the famous anal- ogy used by Henri Lefebvre in The Production of Space (1974).3 We assign emo- tions and meanings to it. At every single moment, we feel space, we produce and decode spatiality, and we imagine locations. More importantly, we repre- sent these locations through art and literature. In geography and critical theo- ry, experience-based approaches to space (affective approaches) have been commonly associated with the idea of place. Places, as Yi-Fu Tuan has ex- plained, are locations with history and meaning which incarnate the “experi- ences and aspirations of a people” (1979, 387). Art and literature, since their inception, have had a preoccupation with space. The portrayal of physical lo- cations has been at the core of religious and popular stories and the descrip- tion of the affective relations with these locations is what has given art and literature their most profound legacy. It is through art and literature that peo- ple have more effectively reproduced their individual spatial experiences. In the Hispanic avant-garde, we see an unsolvable tension between place— a sense of dwelling, home, nation, identity, attachment; and space—the temp- tation of movement, change, and freedom. Turning places into spaces—that
3 Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991): 93–94.
Every work of art arouses differences of opinion. Some like it, some do not; some like it more, some like it less. Such disagreements have no or- ganic character, they are not a matter of principles. A person’s chance disposition determines on which side he will fall. But in the case of the new art the split occurs in a deeper layer than that on which differences of personal taste reside. It is not that the majority does not like the art of
4 See Franco Moretti, Atlas of the European Novel, 1800–1900. (London: Verso, 1998): 3–10; Peter Turchi, Maps of the Imagination: The Writer as Cartographer (San Antonio: Trinity University Press, 2004): 11–26. See also Robert Tally, Spatiality (London: Routledge, 2013): 44–78.
the young and the minority likes it, but that the majority, the masses, do not understand it. (1968, 5)
This lack of understanding becomes a problem if the works of the vanguards are read as maps, for they often disorient the reader. Avant-garde art was gener- ally unpopular, except among avant-garde artists themselves and a very small number of loyal followers, because it did not provide the spatial or conceptual tools for the reader to easily grasp it. It deliberately disoriented and, as Robert Tally persuasively has put it in his discussions on spatiality: “there is something truly terrifying in being lost, or at least rather frustrating, in being lost” (2013, 2). Frustration, as Ortega y Gasset noticed, was a recurring attitude toward the new art. As he mentioned in The Dehumanization of Art, most people were frustrated with the works because they were not capable of looking at what was in front of them and rather looked for the narratives portrayed in them. People looked at avant-garde art searching for place and familiarity, and often they could not find it. Their gazes passed through the works without paying attention to form, and instead looked desperately for coherent narratives and spaces. As he put it, “Not many people are capable of adjusting their perspec- tive apparatus to the pane and the transparency that is the work of art. Instead they look right through it and revel in the human reality with which the work deals” (1968, 11). To understand avant-garde art and the geographies it propos- es, one should constantly shift attention not only between form and content, but also between the disjointed places and spaces portrayed in the works. Moreover, one needs to develop, even today, the emotional and intellectual skills that will allow us to locate ourselves in and enjoy the aesthetics of dis- juncture that the works produce.5 It was not until the second half of the twentieth century that literary critics started to pay attention to the sites of the Hispanic avant-garde, and found, not surprisingly, that the works created by Ultraísta and Estridentista poets and painters were in fact fascinating from a spatial perspective. As complicated, trivial, or often frustrating as they were, these works propose an intriguing geography and an exceptional viewpoint of the spatial transformations occur- ring in Spain and Latin America in the first decades of the twentieth century.
5 Six years before the publication of The Dehumanization of Art, Rafael Cansinos Assens pub- lished an article titled “Literary Theorems: The Two Aesthetic Categories” (Teoremas liter- arios: Las dos categorías estéticas, 1919) where he argues in very similar terms to Ortega y Gasset against realism and calls for new forms of representation. As Andrew A. Anderson notices, it is possible that Cansinos Assens’s text was a major influence for Ortega y Gasset’s essay; see “Teoremas literarios: Las dos categorías estéticas,” La Correspondencia de España (7 August 1919): 1.
Above all, they offer an invaluable testimony of the affective impact those transformations had. Being lost is the message of the vanguards’ maps. The works want the reader and viewer to be disoriented since that feeling repre- sents the prevailing mood of modernity. Being lost while reading the works of the Hispanic avant-garde, then, is a triumph, not a failure. The poems and paintings studied in this book ask the reader to pay attention not only to the new spatiality brought about by the social, cultural, and technological revolu- tions, but also to the bodily and emotional experiences it produced. Accord- ingly, the challenge for us is to be able to find comfort in the unstable geogra- phy the works propose. Historically, space has been associated with “a sense of movement, of be- coming” while place has tended to imply “a static sense of location, of being, or of dwelling” (Thacker 2003, 13). If, on the one hand, mathematics is the lan- guage that has allowed us to measure and represent space, on the other hand, art and literature constitute the language that has allowed us to represent and to assign meaning to place. Until the early 1970s, space was conceived in critical social theory as a sort of neutral basin, somehow independent of the affectiv e events that occurred within it. The dominant idea in academic and scientific circles was that space was something objective, measurable, and predictable. Space was something to be mapped, not something to be studied from a psy- chological or emotional perspective. Human activity was often reduced to quantifiable dynamics leaving emotional concerns literally “out of the map.” It was not until the 1970s that geographers concluded that space was a social product that simultaneously shapes and is shaped by human emotions. This new approach to space spread rapidly out of the realms of geography and into disciplines such as history, literature, philosophy, sociology, economy, and the arts. Space, thus, became a fertile terrain to study human experience, as well as issues of class, race, gender, and identity. Urban space acquired an unprece- dented status in critical discussions. The city became a battlefield of theoretical perspectives lead by philosophers and urban sociologists such as Henri Lefeb- vre, who in The Production of Space solidified the concept of space as a social construct, made a strong critique of the alienating conditions of urban life in modern societies, and acknowledged that our understanding of space has, in fact, a history.6 For Lefebvre, space cannot be understood without considering the political, economic, and historical conditions of the society that produced
6 See The Production of Space (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991). See also, Neil Brenner and Stuart Elden, Henri Lefebvre: State, Space, World: Selected Essays. Ed. Neil Brenner and Stuart Elden (Min- neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); and Chris Butler, Henri Lefebvre (London: Routledge-Cavendish: 2013).
2 The Perspective of Experience
The publication of Space & Place: The Perspective of Experience (1977) by Yi-Fu Tuan was crucial for a humanistic approach to space that situates people and their emotional experiences at the core of geographical inquiry. It is at this same time that the idea of place emerged in critical social theory as something distinct and relevant for the study of spatial dynamics. If space was neutral, impersonal, and measurable, place was subjective, intimate, and unquantifi- able. For French philosopher Gaston Bachelard, place was something warm, secure, and familiar. In The Poetics of Space (1958), one of the most fascinating studies on spatiality in the second half of the twentieth century, Bachelard developed what he called topoanalysis, that is: “[the] systematic psychological study of the sites of our intimate lives” (1994, 8). He carried out his topoanalytic study by focusing on what he considered the primal location of human exis- tence: the house. Reading the house as a depository of human memories, Bachelard examined each of its parts: the cellar, the rooms, the corridors, the doors, the attic, and nooks. The result was a comprehensive and very human chart of memories and emotions in which the house, through topoanalysis, is turned into “home,” a symbolic affective location, or as Andrew Thacker has called it, a site of “pleasurable belonging” (2003, 15). Bachelard’s approach to space, although beautiful and innovative, was nonetheless limited since it did not consider other important locations of early life such as the classroom, the schoolyard, the medical room or, for some people, the church. Nor did he transpose his topoanalysis to open public spaces such as parks, streets, squares,
7 For a study on the history of spatiality as a field, see Robert Tally, Spatiality. London: Rout- ledge, 2013.
3 Representing Space
In Species of Spaces, Perec wrote that: “Our gaze travels through space and gives us the illusion of relief and distance. That is how we construct space, with an up and down, a left and right, an in front and a behind, a near and far” (1999,
81). Spatial dichotomies function dialectically, with one site inferring the other, one location—concretely or symbolically—excluding the other (e.g., town vs. city, farm vs. factory, Europe vs. Latin America, etc.). For the avant-garde, spa- tial oppositions were crucial. The very notion of avant-garde itself was origi- nally based on the opposing geographical notions of ahead and behind. The avant-garde capitalized on the former to sell themselves as the leading units of the cultural army, bravely advancing toward uncharted territories. To be mod- ern meant, above all, to be ahead occupying new spaces. Ahead suggested promising lands filled with cars, planes, and skyscrapers; behind, on the con- trary, evoked the provincial geographies of tradition. Thus, Hispanic poets on both sides of the Atlantic accurately choose the term ultra (beyond) as the core of their new identities. Ahead and behind are mutually contingent terms that serve to conceptually organize the physical world and help us construct a sense of place. Place is behind (tradition); space is ahead (innovation). Fortunately, the avant-gardes went beyond these reductive spatial oppositions and opened the door to a new way of understanding and representing the physical world. They did that by means of innovative aesthetic devises such as nonreferential meta- phors, geometric and abstract art, and narrative techniques such as stream of consciousness. Nonfigurative, nonrealistic representation of locations broke conventional spatial categories by synthetizing conflicting polarities into new visual codes. To understand these codes, we require a poetic imagination capable of subverting rational and mimetic depictions of the world in order to make sense of, or rather to consciously accept, illogical spatial situations. This, of course, complicates the representation of place, for place requires stability—precisely what the vanguards rejected. They turned familiar loca- tions (the house, the town, the café) into fragmented, broken, and multifac- eted sites, for to them that was a more accurate representation of their spatial experiences. Arqueles Vela, in one of the few attempts by the Estridentistas to clarify their aesthetic program, commented: “The real and natural in life is absurdity. The disjointed. No one feels or thinks in a perfect continuum. No one lives a life like that of characters in Romantic novels. Our life is arbitrary and our brains are full of disjointed thoughts.”8 This approach to life was also the
8 “Lo real y lo natural en la vida es lo absurdo. Lo inconexo. Nadie siente ni piensa con una perfecta continuidad. Nadie vive una vida como la de los personajes de las novelas románti- cas. Nuestra vida es arbitraria y los cerebros están llenos de pensamientos incongruentes.” In “El estridentismo y la teoría abstraccionista,” Irradiador 2. México (October 1923): 1. My translation.
Hispanic avant-garde’s approach to space. No one experiences space as a continuum, but rather as a fragmented juxtaposition of sites. Space is multiple and through poetic imagination the juxtaposition of numerous locations, even opposing ones, such as ahead and behind, is possible. This requires the forma- tion of nonrational images that can only be understood through certain sensi- tive and intellectual skills that construct the world differently. The poems and paintings that gave Estridentismo and Ultraísmo their iden- tity were not only an obsessive study of form, but also the convoluted transla- tion of the locations that shaped the lives of its members. The fragmented and geometrized spaces present in the works respond to a necessity to find new emotional languages capable of reproducing space as a territory of crossings and relations between things and people. As Manuel Maples Arce put it in his Estridentista manifesto, Actual No. 1: Hoja de vanguardia (1921): “Things do not have a potential intrinsic value, but their poetic equivalence blossom from their relations and coordinates.”9 In spatial terms, Maples Arce’s words might be translated as this: places do not have a meaning; their meaning emerges relationally. The vanguards’ literary production turned these relations and coordinates into poetic language. The goal of the new poetry was to go beyond the simile to produce autonomous images. Poets wanted to delocate objects, ideas, and places, often by locating them in unexpected new positions. Pure poetry pro- vided the freedom to invent displaced metaphors or images nondependent on stable spatial signifiers. Their images worked by joining opposite elements to create something new or by subverting and transforming familiar images. The more transgressive a metaphor was—that is, the more it linked two diametri- cally opposed objects, ideas, or places—the higher its value among avant- garde artists and poets. Let us focus on an example. In one of his “Poemas automáticos” (Automatic Poems, 1921), Ultraísta poet Rafael Lasso de la Vega writes: “The enclosed inte- riors of the twilight / parade in the yards along the elevators.”10 This surprising image goes against coherent notions of space. The interiors (inside) parade in the yards (outside). The image destabilizes our sense of location, making it
9 “Las cosas no tienen un valor intrínseco posible, y su equivalencia poética, florece en sus relaciones y coordinaciones.” El estridentismo: La vanguardia literaria en México. Ed. Luis Mario Schneider (México: unam, 2013): 4. Translation by Lynda Klich in “Revolution and Utopia: Estridentismo and the Visual Arts (1921–1927).” PhD diss., Institute of Fine Arts, New York Universtiy, 2008: 504. 10 “Los interiores encerrados al crepúsculo / desfilan por los patios a lo largo de los eleva- dores.” Rafael Lasso de la Vega, “Poemas automáticos,” Ultra 2. Madrid (10 February 1921): 4.
11 “Y me eché a andar yo solo. Hacia el lado opuesto de su mirada.” El estridentismo: La van- guardia literaria en México. Ed. Luis Mario Schneider (México: unam, 2013): 57. For a study on Arqueles Vela’s importance in the development of avant-garde prose in Spanish, see Nieves Martín Rogero, “Arqueles Vela: máximo representante de la prosa Estridentista en México,” Anales de Literatura Hispanoamericana 26 (1997): 221–248; Jorge Mojarro Romero, Multánime: la prosa vanguardista de Arqueles Vela. Manila: Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española, 2011; Stephan González, “La narrativa del estridentismo: ‘El café de nadie’ de Arqueles Vela,” Nuevo Texto Crítico 1.1 (1988): 133–149; Evely Garfield and Ivan A. Schulman, “La estética extravasante de la innegausencia o la modernidad de Arqueles Vela,” Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 29.1 (1980): 204–212; Carmen De Mora, “Notas sobre ‘El café de nadie’ de Arqueles Vela,” Anales de Literatura Hispanoamericana 26.2 (1997): 249–257; and Sandra Benedet, “La narrativa del estridentismo: La Señorita Etc. de Arqueles Vela,” Revista Iberoamericana 74.224 (2008): 753–775.
4 The Hispanic Transatlantic Avant-Garde
In 1901, Henri Bonnal (a French military general) defined the avant-garde as “a strong force (one, two, or three army corps) pushed out a day’s march to the front, immediately behind the cavalry screen [whose] mission is vigorously to engage the enemy wherever he is found, and [ … ] binding him to ensure lib- erty of action in time and space for the main army” (1907, 123). Following this spatial definition, it could be argued that the Hispanic avant-garde’s “strong force,” included figures such as Vicente Huidobro, Jorge Luis and Norah Borges, Ramón Gómez de la Serna, Manuel Maples Arce, Guillermo de Torre, Arqueles Vela, Ramón Alva de la Canal, Rafael Barradas, Francisco Bores, Humberto Ri- vas, Adriano del Valle, Luis Quintanilla, among several other members of the Ultraísta and Estridentista movements.13 In the late 1910s and early 1920s, this select group of artists and writers advanced to the cultural front and vigorously engaged the enemy—the literary and artistic establishment—wherever they found it. They did not bind it completely, but they ensured liberty of action for the main army that followed them: the massive number of writers and artists
12 “Cuando la vi por primera vez, estaba en un rincón obscuro de la habitación de su timi- dez.” In “La señorita etcétera,” El estridentismo: La vanguardia literaria en México. Ed. Luis Mario Schneider. (México: unam, 2013): 58. My translation. 13 The forerunner of the whole Hispanic transatlantic avant-garde adventure, bearing in mind the transformative impact he had on Spanish language, was, of course, Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío (1867–1916). Darío initiated the path of renovation that would become the norm in the years to come. His book Azul (Blue, 1888) along with Prosas profanas (Prosane Prose, 1896) established Modernismo as a powerful revolutionary literary force that influenced an entire generation of poets on both sides of the Atlantic.
14 For an interesting discussion on this topic in the Spanish context, see José Luis Bernal Salgado, “Los frutos de la vanguardia histórica,” Voces de vanguardia. Ed. Fidel López Cri- ado (A Coruña: Universidade da Coruña: 1995): 97–121. On the Latin American side, see Noé Jitrik, “Papeles de trabajo: Notas sobre vanguardismo latinoamericano,” Revista de Crítica Literaria Latinoamericana 8, no. 15 (1982): 13–24. 15 See Nelson Osorio, Manifiestos, proclamas y polémicas de la vanguardia literaria hispano- americana (Caracas, Venezuela: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1988); Vicky Unruh, Latin American Vanguards: The Art of Contentious Encounters (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Jorge Schwartz, Las vanguardias latinoamericanas: textos programáticos y críticos (Madrid: Cátedra, 1991); Hugo Verani, Las vanguardias literarias en hispanoamérica: Manifestos, proclamas y otros escritos (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1990). 16 See Guillermo de Torre, “Para la Prehistoria Ultraísta de Borges,” Hispania, Vol. 47, No. 3 (September 1964): 457–463. 17 Estridentismo published few magazines: Ser (Puebla, 1922), Irradiador (México, 1923); Semáforo (México, 1924); and Horizonte (Jalapa, 1926–27). Ultraísmo produced much
more: Los Quijotes (Madrid, 1915–18); Cervantes (Madrid, 1916–20); Baleares (1917–1923); Grecia (Sevilla y Madrid, 1918–20); Perseo (Madrid, 1919); Ultra (Oviedo, 1919–20); Cosmópolis (Madrid, 1919–22); Gran Guiñol (Sevilla, 1920); Reflector (Madrid, 1920); Alfar (La Coruña y Montevideo, 1920–54); Ultra (Madrid, 1921–22); Tableros (Madrid, 1921–22); Horizonte (Madrid, 1922–23); Prisma (París y Barcelona, 1922); Vértices (Madrid, 1923); Parábola (Burgos, 1923–28); Tobogán (Madrid, 1924); Ronsel (Lugo, 1924); and Plural (Ma- drid, 1925). Besides these magazines, the Hispanic vanguards edited several collections of poems, novels, and essays. The Estridentista books are: Andamios interiores (1922) by Maples Arce; Esquina (1923) by Germán List Arzubide; Avión (1923) and Radio: Poema ina- lámbrico en trece mensajes (1924) by Luis Quintanilla; Urbe: Súper-poema bolchevique en cinco cantos (1924) by Maples Arce; El pentagrama eléctrico (1925) by Salvador Gallardo; El café de nadie (1925) by Arqueles Vela; El viajero en el vértice (1926); El movimiento estriden- tista (1926) by Germán List Arzubide; and the late Poemas interdictos (1927) by Maples Arce. The ultimate Ultraísta book is Guillermo de Torre’s Hélices (1923). 18 “¡Cosmopoliticémonos!” El estridentismo: La vanguardia literaria en México. Ed. Luis Mario Schneider (México: unam, 2013): 9.
participating in a common enterprise” (1994, 11).19 In Unruh’s words, the avant- garde comprised a series of transnational activities that included:
The emergence of small groups of writers committed to innovation; the affirmation by groups or individuals of aesthetic or cultural positions of- ten designated by a particular “ism” or more broadly as Arte Nuevo (new art) or vanguardismo; the dissemination of these positions through writ- ten manifestos or public manifestations; engagement by some groups in debates and polemics with others; experimentation in multiple literary and artistic genres and across generic boundaries; the publication of of- ten ephemeral little magazines as outlets for both artistic experiments and cultural debates; the organization of study groups or seminars; and serious investigations by these study groups or by individual writers into language, folklore, and cultural history. (1994, 3)
Unruh’s approach opened our critical interpretative spectrum and freed us from the limitations of country-based analyses. My intention is to expand this scope even more by highlighting the common ground (in both symbolic and spatial terms) that tied avant-garde activity together in the Hispanic world. That common ground is, of course, the Atlantic Ocean. The earliest attempt to forge a Hispanic transatlantic avant-garde was that of Chilean poet Vicente Huidobro, who in 1914 launched his Manifesto Non Serviam, a staunch emancipation from Nature as the paramount poetic refer- ent that set the premises for a new aesthetic doctrine: Creacionismo.20 Non Serviam represents the ground-zero of the Latin American vanguards, and it is not surprising that the poem/manifesto ends indeed with a spatial metaphor, a door opening toward a new poetic landscape: “A new era is beginning. Open- ing its jasper doors, I bend one knee to the ground and salute you respectfully.”21 In 1916, two years after reading Non Serviam at the Ateneo de Santiago, Vicente
19 Unruh considers Latin American vanguardism as a continental phenomenon following previous important studies such as Hugo Verani’s Las vanguardias literarias en Hispano américa: Manifiestos, proclamas y otros escritos (1986); Nelson Osorio’s Manifiestos, procla- mas y polémicas de la vanguardia literaria hispanoamericana (1988); Merlin H. Forster and K. David Jackson Vanguardism in Latin American Literature: An annotated Bibliographical Guide (1990); and Jorge Schwartz’s Las vanguardias latinoamericanas: Textos programáti- cos y críticos (1991). 20 For a comprehensive chronology of avant-garde activity in Europe between 1900 and 1937, see Bert Cardullo, Theories of the Avant-Garde Theatre: A Casebook from Kleist to Camus (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2013): 7–98. 21 “Una nueva era comienza. Al abrir sus puertas de jaspe, hinco una rodilla en tierra y te saludo muy respetuosamente.” Vicente Huidobro. Obra selecta. Ed. Luis Navarrete Orta.
Huidobro crossed the Atlantic and went to Paris, where he mingled with the effervescent Parisian avant-garde. In Paris, a year later, he published Horizon Carré (Square Horizon, 1917), his first book of poems written in French and a milestone for the Hispanic avant-garde. He was also a frequent contributor to the magazine Nord-Sud (1917), although he was not his founder, as he regularly claimed.22 In Madrid, in 1918, he published five books: El espejo de agua (The Mirror of Water), which he claimed to have published in Buenos Aires in 1916, but was most probably published in Madrid, that year, with an altered date.23 He also published Poemas árticos (Arctic Poems), the first collection of avant- garde poetry in Spanish (Anderson 2017, 296); the long poem Ecuatorial (Equa- torial); Tour Eiffel; and the collection Hallali. “Arte poética,” the poem that opens El espejo de agua, is one of the most in- fluential poems of the twentieth century in the Spanish-speaking world. It is a text whose influence exceeded borders and generations and continues to stand as a poetic paradigm even today. In it, Huidobro calls for a rejection of spatial referentiality and invite poets to produce new imagined spaces removed from the traditional territories of previous poetry. He famously opens the poem by calling poets to take control of their itineraries by means of turning the poem into a key opening a thousand doors, a reappearing spatial metaphor also found in Non Serviam that should not be overlooked:
Let poetry be like a key Opening a thousand doors. A leaf falls; something flies by; Let all the eye sees be created And the soul of the listener tremble.
Invent new worlds and watch your word; The adjective, when it doesn’t give life, kills it.
Caracas: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1989: 291–292. Translated by Mary Ann Caws. Manifesto: A Century of Isms. Ed. Mary Ann Caws. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001: 376. 22 See Andrew A. Anderson, El momento ultraísta: Orígenes, fundación y lanzamiento de un movimiento de vanguardia (Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2017): 280–284. 23 On the polemic surrounding the publication date of El espejo de agua, see Juana Truel, “La fecha de publicación de El espejo de agua de Vicente Huidobro.” Lexis 2.1 (July 1978): 71–85; Cedomil Goic, “El espejo de agua. Introducción,” Vicente Huidobro: Obra poética. (Madrid: allca xx, 2003): 379–389); and Andrew A. Anderson, El momento ultraísta: Orígenes, fun- dación y lanzamiento de un movimiento de vanguardia (Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2017): 280–284.
We are in the age of nerves. The muscle hangs, Like a memory, in museums; But we are not the weaker for it: True vigor Resides in the head.
Oh Poets, why sing of roses! Let them flower in your poems;
For us alone Do all things live beneath the Sun. The poet is a little God.24
Huidobro’s visits to Madrid in 1918 did not go unnoticed and soon after, a young generation of poets, encouraged by figures such as Rafael Cansinos Assens, adopted Creacionismo as their new aesthetic doctrine. These young poets then incorporated Futurism and developed the very plural Ultraísmo (1918), the first avant-garde movement of the Spanish-speaking world.25 The role that Huido- bro played in the Spanish avant-garde scene proves that the Hispanic avant- garde was a transatlantic phenomenon from its inception.26 Transatlantic crossings continued and in 1921, after having played an active role in Ultraísta activity, the young Jorge Luis Borges and his sister Norah took the baton and travelled westward from Spain to Argentina. This return trip would eventually spread the avant-garde drive all over the Southern Cone and
24 “Que el verso sea como una llave / Que abra mil puertas. / Una hoja cae; algo pasa volando; / Cuanto miren los ojos creado sea, / Y el alma del oyente quede temblando. / Inventa mundos nuevos y cuida tu palabra; / El adjetivo, cuando no da vida, mata. / Estamos en el ciclo de los nervios. / El músculo cuelga, / Como recuerdo, en los museos; / Mas no por eso tenemos menos fuerza: / El vigor verdadero / Reside en la cabeza / Por qué cantáis la rosa, ¡oh Poetas! / Hacedla florecer en el poema; / Sólo para nosotros / Viven todas las cosas bajo el Sol. / El Poeta es un pequeño Dios.” In El espejo de agua y Ecuatorial. Santiago: Pequeño Dios Editores, 2011: 13. Translation by David M. Guss, in The Selected Poetry of Vicente Huidobro. Ed. David M. Guss (New York: New Directions Pub. Corp, 1981): 3. 25 The 1921 Dada manifesto “Dada Excites Everything” (1921), described Ultraísmo as a mix- ture of Cubism, Expressionism, Simultaneism, Futurism, Unanimism, Neo-classicism, and Paroxysm. See Mary A. Caws. “Dada Excites Everything,” Manifesto: A Century of Isms (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001): 291. To that mix we could certainly add Huidobro’s Creacionismo. 26 For a review of Huidobro’s transatlantic experiences and work, see, for example, René De Costa, “Del Modernismo a la vanguardia: El creacionismo pre-polémico,” Hispanic Review 43, no. 3 (1975): 261–274.
27 “Han viajado en uno de esos vagones de la Compagnie des Grands Exprès Europeéns que para Blaise Cendrars, Valery Larbaud and Paul Morand son sin duda los vehículos de la unidad europea, además de los elementos indispensables de una nueva sensibilidad lite raria.” José Carlos Mariátegui, “Nacionalismo y vanguardismo en la literatura y en el arte.” Peruanicemos al Perú (Lima: Amauta, 1970): 77. 28 It did not take long after Borges’s arrival in Buenos Aires for a series of manifestos and avant-garde texts to appear in Latin American publications. In Santiago, the Movimiento Vanguardista Chileno published the “Rosa Nautica” (Nautic Rose, 1922) manifesto; in Mexico, Manuel Maples Arce published his Actual No. 1 (1921) and Andamios Interiores (Interior Scaffoldings, 1922); in Peru, César Vallejo published Trilce (1922); in Puerto Rico, Tomás L. Batista and Vicente Palés Matos published the two “Manifiestos Euforista” (Eu- phorist Manifestos, 1922 and 1923), and in 1927, the Uruguayan magazine La pluma (The Pen, 1927–1931) showcased late Ultraísta experiments.
29 For a discussion on the connection between Actual No. 1 and 3 Llamamientos see Lynda Klich, The Noisemakers: Estridentismo, Vanguardism, and Social Action in Postrevolution- ary Mexico (1921–1927). Berkeley: University of California Press, 2018: 73–81. And Tatiana Flores. Mexico’s Revolutionary Avant-Gardes: From Estridentismo to ¡30–30! (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013): 39–44. 30 “Iluminaciones subversivas de Renée Dunan, F.T. Marinetti, Guillermo de Torre, Lasso de la Vega, Salvat Papasseit, etcétera y algunas critaliazaciones marginales.” El estridentismo: La vanguardia literaria en México. Ed. Luis Mario Schneider (México: unam, 2013): 267. Translation by Lynda Klich, “Revolution and Utopia: Estridentismo and the Visual Arts (1921–1927).” PhD diss., Institute of Fine Arts, New York Universtiy, 2008: 504. 31 “Esas rosas eléctricas …” El estridentismo: La vanguardia literaria en México. Ed. Luis Ma- rio Schneider (México: unam, 2013): 4. 32 He also cites Blaise Cendrars from another Cosmópolis article appeared in the number 33. See Manuel Maples Arce, “Actual No. 1,” El estridentismo: La vanguardia literaria en Méxi- co. Ed. Luis Mario Schneider (México: unam, 2013): 8. 33 The complete passage reads: “Cuanta mayor y más honda emoción he logrado vivir en un recorte de periódico arbitrario y sugerente, que en todos esos organillerismos seudo- líricos y bombones melódicos, para recitarles de changarro gratis a las señoritas, declama- toriamente inferidos ante el auditorio disyuntivo de niñas fox-troteantes y espasmódicas y burgueses temerosos por sus concubinas y su caja de caudales, como valientemente afirma mi hermano espiritual Guillermo de Torre, en su manifiesto yoista leído en la pri mera explosión ultráica de Parisiana.” Manuel Maples Arce, “Actual No. 1,” El estridentismo: La vanguardia literaria en México. Ed. Luis Mario Schneider (México: unam, 2013): 5.
34 “La liquidación de las hojas secas reciamente agitada en periódicos y hojas subversivas.” El estridentismo o una literatura de la estrategia. Ed. Luis Mario Schneider. México: Conaculta, 1997: 269–270. Translation by Linda Klich in Revolution and Utopia: Estriden- tismo and the Visual Arts (1921–1927). PhD diss., Institute of Fine Arts, New York Universtiy, 2008: 508. 35 Ortega y Gasset, although not an avant-garde writer, was a sharp observer of the Hispanic literary and art world. He visited Argentina several times and edited the famous Revista de Occidente in Madrid, a reference journal for writers and poets both sides of the Atlantic. Among the writers that engaged in literary discussions with Ortega’s The Dehumanization of Art were Mexican Jaime Torres Bodet and Peruvian José Carlos Mariátegui. For a de- tailed account of Latin American responses to The Dehumanization of Art, see Vicky Un- ruh, Latin American Vanguards: The Art of Contentious Encounters (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994): 21–29.
participant in the Estridentista movement, illustrating the poem Urbe: Súper- poema bolchevique en cinco cantos (Metropolis, 1924) by Maples Arce, among other works.36 The Directorio de Vanguardia is evidence of the pivotal influence European and Ultraísta writers and artists had in the development of the Estridentista movement and a testimony of the unequivocally transatlantic character of the Hispanic avant-garde.37
5 Transatlantic Scholarship
One curious attempt to introduce the transatlantic perspective in critical dis- cussions of the Hispanic vanguards was carried out in 1927 by Guillermo de Torre. This attempt, nonetheless, had calamitous and lasting results.38 In the article “Madrid: meridiano intelectual de Hispanoamérica,” (Madrid: Intellec- tual Meridian of Hispanic America, 1927) published in the Spanish magazine La Gaceta Literaria, de Torre proposed to group all intellectual production in Spanish under a common denominator, arguing that people and works of art should be judged in the same manner both sides of the Atlantic.39 De Torre’s idea of cultural and spatial unity was so awkwardly articulated that the simple evocation of a transatlantic intellectual or artistic union between Spain and Latin America caused mockery, anger, and rejection in literary circles. Jorge Luis Borges, for example, quickly wrote a response to de Torre’s piece titled “Sobre el meridiano de una gaceta” (On the Meridian of a Gazette, 1927) in which he bluntly stated, “Madrid does not understand us.”40 The central prob- lem was that de Torre posited Madrid as the cultural zenith of Hispanic Amer- ica, a suggestion that even today causes some people to bristle. The piece had
36 Another important member of the movement, Luis Quintanilla, was also French. Quinta- nilla, who used to sign his works as Kyn Taniya, was born in Paris in 1900 and did not go to Mexico until 1917; his first poems were written in French. 37 For a recent and excellent review of Estridentismo’s Ultraísta and international connec- tion see Lynda Klich, The Noisemakers: Estridentismo, Vanguardism, and Social Action in Postrevolutionary Mexico (1921–1927). Berkeley: University of California Press, 2018: 26–45. 38 For a study on Guillermo de Torre’s work and life from a transatlantic perspective, see Emilia Zuleta. Guillermo de Torre entre España y América. Mendoza: ediunc, 1993. 39 “Agrupar bajo un mismo común denominador de consideración idéntica toda la produc- ción intelectual en la misma lengua […] juzgando con el mismo espíritu personas y obras de aquende y allende el Atlántico.” Guillermo de Torre, “Madrid: meridiano intelectual de Hispanoamérica,” La gaceta literaria. 1.8. (April 15, 1927): 1. 40 “Madrid no nos entiende.” In “Sobre el meridiano de una gaceta.” Martín Fierro: Periódico quincenal de arte y crítica libre, vol. 4, no. 42 Buenos Aires (June 1927): 7.
Spain is the land of emotion, of enthusiasm, of faith. It is the land of youth, of great kernels and transformations. America’s youth has all its eyes and hopes put on Spain. All thinking men know that the future of the world, and specially our future, is in your hands. The Americas, moved and full of passion, follow the events in Spain. We get joyful with your joy and cry your pains. Your enthusiasm is ours your tears are ours. Spain is today more than ever the Mother Land, Mother Spain.42
41 For a detailed study of the repercussions of the article in both Spanish and Latin Ameri- can literary circles, see Matías Barchino Pérez, “La polémica del meridiano intelectual de Hispanoamérica,” Tema y variaciones de literatura 2. México (uam Azcapotzalco, 1993): 93–115. 42 “España es la tierra de la emoción, del entusiasmo, de la fe, o sea la tierra de la juventud, la tierra de los grandes gérmenes y de las grandes transformaciones. La juventud de América tiene sus ojos puestos en España y en ella todas sus esperanzas. Todos los
In the most dramatic circumstances, the idea of a united transatlantic Spanish-speaking world was received as a positive and necessary perspective. After the fascist military coup and the terrible repression that followed, trans- atlantic crossings increased, confirming once again the unavoidable transat- lantic condition of the Hispanic world. Today, as Alejandro Mejías-López mentions, “any discussion about Spanish national identity that does not acknowledge the active role that Spanish Amer- ican writers and intellectuals themselves had in shaping literary, cultural and political debates in the Peninsula is bound to remain partial” (Mejías-López 2008, 8). Similarly, one would remain partial if one ignores the active role that Spanish writers and intellectuals played in shaping Latin American identities and their significance in twentieth-century literary, artistic, cultural, and po- litical debates. To provide an accurate and comprehensive view, this book asserts the Hispanic avant-garde as a transatlantic phenomenon. This is, I believe, the only way to fully appreciate the varied intercontinental pulsa- tions that define the works of the vanguards. In “Stridentism Revisited?” I have examined the historiography of Estriden- tismo and explained how studying the Mexican vanguards in the 1960s–1970s was, in fact, a very avant-garde endeavour. There were few sources available to scholars at the time, and a hostile scholarly climate against Estridentismo (which was considered a minor event in Mexican literature) was palpable (Palomares 2017, 409). Luis Mario Schneider’s groundbreaking study El Estri- dentismo. Una literatura de la estrategia (1970) renewed interest in the move- ment and paved the way for future studies.43 Two key books were the anthol- ogy Estridentismo: Memoria y valoración (1983) edited by Gabriela Becerra,44 and Les peintres révolutionnaires mexicains (1985) by Serge Fauchereau. Becer- ra’s book included works by Schneider, Stefan Baciu, Jorge Ruffinelli, Esther
hombres que piensan saben que de vosotros depende el provenir del mundo y el nuestro en especial. América sigue emocionada y llena de pasión los acontecimientos de España, se alegra con sus alegrías y llora sus dolores, vuestro entusiasmo es nuestro entusiasmo, vuestras lágrimas son nuestras lágrimas. España es hoy más que nunca la Madre Patria, la Madre España.” Qtd. in Matías Barchino Pérez, “La polémica del meridiano intelectual de Hispanoamérica,” Tema y variaciones de literatura 2. México (uam Azcapotzalco, 1993): 114. My translation. 43 To Schneider it is necessary to add Stefan Baciu, whose significant work was compiled in Estridentismo Estridentistas (1995), as well as Merlin H. Foster and Kenneth Monahan, whose studies were among the first to recognize and reassert the relevance of Estriden- tismo in the history of Mexican literature. In the 1980s, a major exhibition on Estriden- tismo (1983), along with the special issue that the magazine La palabra y el hombre (1981) dedicated to the movement also helped generate interest among scholars. 44 The collection includes papers from a congress of the same name held in Jalapa in 1981.
Hernández Palacios, Gerardo García, and Otto-Raúl González, among others, and it was the first critical collection dedicated exclusively to the movement (2017, 409). In the 1990s there was an explosion of historical and critical research on Estridentismo. There were important monographs such as Librado Basilio’s Ramón Alva de la Canal (1992), Francisco Reyes Palma’s Leopoldo Méndez. El oficio de grabar (1994), Leticia López’s Un suspiro fugaz de gasolina. Los mur- mullos estridentes de Salvador Gallardo Dávalos (1998), Teresa Bosch Romeu’s Germán Cueto: Un artista renovador (1999), Francisco Javier Mora’s El ruido de las nueces: List Arzubide y el estridentismo mexicano (1999), and Silvia Pappe’s study El movimiento estridentista atrapado en los andamios de la historia (1998). In 1997 a second edited volume on Estridentismo was published, this time by Kenneth Monahan. Appropriately called Estridentismo vuelto a visitar (1997), it included texts by Monahan himself, Luis Leal, Miguel Bustos Cerecedo, Esther Hernández Palacios, and Angel José Fernández. The book followed the steps of Estridentismo: Memoria y valoración (Becerra, 1983) in its effort to boost discus- sion and went further by revaluating critical perspectives in a moment when Estridentismo was no longer something to be discovered. The 1990s also produced relevant studies on the Latin American vanguards, such as Hugo Verani’s Las vanguardias literarias en Hispanoamérica (1990), the essential Las vanguardias latinoamericanas: Textos programáticos y críticos (1991) by Jorge Schwartz, and the already mentioned Vicky Unruh’s Latin Amer- ican Vanguards: The Art of Contentious Encounters (1994). A substantial body of innovative theoretical and historiographical works was published the following two decades. Among them were: Elevación y caída del estridentismo (2002) by Evodio Escalante; Fermín Revueltas, constructor de espacios (2002) by Carla Zurián de la Fuente, a beautiful book that shed new light on the study of the painter’s relationship with the Mexican avant-garde; La poética del estridentismo ante la crítica (2003) by Clemencia Corte Velasco; the very influential Mexican Modernity: The Avant-Garde and the Technological Revolution (2005) by Rubén Gallo; Silvia Pappe’s Estridentópolis: Urbanización y montaje (2006); Leopoldo Méndez: Revolutionary Art and the Mexican Print (2007) by Deborah Caplow; The Estridentista Movement in Mexico: The Avant- Garde and Cultural Change in the 1920s (2009) by Elissa Rashkin; Salvador Albi- ñana’s México Ilustrado: Libros, Revistas y Carteles, 1920–1950 (2010); Tatiana Flores’s Mexico’s Revolutionary Avant-Gardes: From Estridentismo to ¡30–30! (2013); and the now essential The Noisemakers: Estridentismo, Vanguardism, and Social Action in Postrevolutionary Mexico (2018) by Lynda Klich. All these works set a high standard of archival research, intellectual rigour, and innova- tion in the critical literature of the movement and are now essential readings
45 For a study on the historiography of Estridentismo, see Elissa Rashkin and Carla Zurián. “The Estridentista Movement in Mexico: A Poetics of the Ephemeral.” International Year- book of Futurism Studies. Vol. 7. Ed. Aguirre et al. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017: 309–334. 46 See also Anderson’s own review of texts in El momento ultraísta: Orígenes, fundación y lanzamiento de un movimiento de vanguardia (Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2017): 12–19. As well as the survey of critical texts in the introduction to Eduardo Gregori and Senés J. Her- rero. Avant-garde Cultural Practices in Spain (1914–1936): The Challenge of Modernity. Bos- ton: Brill, 2016.
6 Itinerary
Chapter One examines how technological innovations defined the vanguards’ representation of city space. One of the key tools with which the Hispanic avant-garde attempted to redraw the cultural contours of society was through a conscious study of movement. Moving through the city, through its avenues and roundabouts, through its buildings, was a spatial practice full of cultural and aesthetic implications. The avant-garde proposed a different way of mov- ing, a chaotic way. Crossings defined their modernity, and so, several locations portrayed in the works of the Hispanic vanguards are spaces of crossing, that is, locations of social and spatial interaction such as streets, buildings, cafés, harbours, squares, and so forth, in which the simultaneous experience of mul- tiple sites was lived, perceived, and represented. When we move through the city, we produce a spatial syntax; our itineraries, like sentences, write a story that resists or accepts the directions imposed on us by urban planners and ar- chitects. Poetry and the visual arts are cultural devices that also form spatial syntaxes, either by locating people and things in their supposed places or by relocating them, therefore resignifying the meaning of space. In this chapter, I explore how avant-garde poets and painters narrated their cities and how they mapped the spaces they both inhabited and crossed. Chapter Two is an exploration of the vanguard’s cafés, where I follow Gaston Bachelard’s concept of topoanalysis. In The Poetics of Space, Bachelard sug- gests the house is the first depository of human memories, and he investigates every one of its corners to generate an emotional map of “home.” In this map, the windows, doors, rooms, and corridors, all become sites of affective signifi- cation; each one a part of our own personal topography. The chapter applies Bachelard’s topoanalysis to the café. For young artists and poets coming of age
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, , PhD (University of Toronto CLAUDIO PALOMARES-SALAS 2013) is Assistant Professor of Hispanic Studies at Queen’s University, Canada. of the Ultraism & Stridentism, 1919-1927 HISPANIC AVANT- Palomares-Salas by Claudio
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