MORRIS E. OPLER perts, their neighbor's fears were some- down. Suffering of the toad was supposed times well grounded. Murder by magic or to pass into the enemy. poison was one of the most heinous crimes Another method was to spin a thread of under Inca law, and conviction meant black and white wool, twisting it to the death for the sorcerer and all his family. left (the reverse of the customary direc- Sorcerers were called kawchu in Inca; in tion) , and then place a noose of it on a modern times, the Aymara word layqa is path where the enemy might pass so that it would catch his foot. A sorcerer could more generally used. Sorcerers used the principles of sympa- spoil a man's harvest by burning a bundle thetic and contagious magic, and worked of maize ears, fat, thorns, and some of the with human exuviae (teeth, hair, nails, enemy's hair in his field with the proper etc.), shells, animal figurines and amulets, ceremonies. The power of the "devil" was toads, animal heads, small dried animals, so real to the Spanish writers of the six- large hairy spiders kept in closed jars, teenth and seventeenth centuries, and roots, herbs, and ointments. A sorcerer who this sort of black magic was so similar to wished to bring sickness or death to an en- that practiced in their own country towns, emy might make an image of him, dress it that they were as reluctant to write about in his clothes, hang it up, and spit on it, it as the Incas were to explain it. or he might burn a figurine of clay or wax Some sorcerers furnished love charms for representing the enemy, or otherwise mis- a price. The charms, of many different treat it. Another method was to take a kinds, were made of feathers, thorns, toad, sew up its eyes and mouth with stones, or herbs, and had to be secreted in thorns, tie its feet, and bury it in a place the garments or bed of the person whose where the enemy would be likely to sit affections were desired.

SPIRIT POSSESSION IN A RURAL AREA OF NORTHERN INDIA *

Morris E. Opler

Hinduism is often described mainly in terms of the philosophical concepts that have grown out of the interpretation of the Vedas and other important sacred texts. It then presents an impression of a very abstract and intellectualized religious system. On the level of action and participation it is usually denned in terms of adherence to the cults of such important deities as Vishnu and Siva, and worship at temples and shrines dedicated to diem. There may also be references to im- portant calendrical rites, such as Diwali and Holi, and to major life-cycle cere- monies such as the sacred thread ritual, marriage, and the death ceremonies. Yet, without denying the place and significance of all this, it should be pointed out that a great deal, perhaps most, of the religious activity of the ordinary Hindu, and especially of the Indian village, is concerned with the propitiation and control of protective godlings, of deities that control disease, and of malignant ghosts that haunt the localities where they have died or the individuals and * This article was written especially tor this volume and has never before been pub- lished. 553 PORTRAITS OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

families that have made difficulties for them in life. This article attempts to introduce and describe this less well-known but very prevalent aspect of popular Hinduism, and to relate it to the typical anxieties of certain groups and to the most common stresses and psychological needs of society. The material on which this article is based was gathered from 1947 to 1957 in a rural area of eastern Uttar Pradesh by a Cornell University research team directed by the author.

Tt is widely believed in India, especially through their devotees or those they have among the rural folk and the less edu- possessed, or during which the malevolent cated, that misfortune and_egidemic__pr spirit speaks through the victim it has persistent sickness are in--actuality_punish- "caught" and from whose body it must be m_ent_and persecution, \risitei-upoiuthe,.kt ousted. In instances where a malevolent caluyj,__the,...family,. or the individual by ghost has entered the body of the sufferer a displeased god or goddess or a malevolent and speaks through him, the shaman or re- ghost. Consequently, in order to right mat- ligious practitioner acts to hasten the ters, it is necessary to determine what trance state, questions the possessing spirit deity or ghost is involved, why the super- and argues with it, pits his tutelary gods natural attack has been launched, and against the invading spirit, and either per- what is required to pacify the deity or suades it to leave or sets a trap for it which banish the ghost. Often the identity of will force departure, capture, or transfer. the troublesome supernatural power can It is not the intention here to describe be established rather readily. A specific the phenomenon of possession in detail goddess is identified with smallpox, and if and at length. For the purposes of this arti- an epidemic of smallpox rages it is quite cle it is not necessary to dwell upon the re- certain that the smallpox goddess is dis- cruitment of devotees and shamans or to pleased and has grievances or unfulfilled discuss their procedures. The emphasis will demands. It is, however, less easy to learn be, rather, on the areas of anxiety that are the cause of the goddess' ire and what suggested by the nature of the illnesses and must be done to hasten her departure. Of- misfortunes and by the identity of the spir- ten, too, it is rather easy to guess that a cer- its or individuals who are held responsible tain malevolent ghost is at the root of a for the onslaught. For it must be remem- personal misfortune, for the difficulty may bered that in these cases of possession it is have arisen soon after a weird or unpleas- the victim through whom the invading or ant experience at a place where some per- troublesome spirit speaks. Consequently son met a violent and untimely death and the victim has an unusual opportunity to where his restless spirit is reputed to hover. identify anyone whom he believes has sent But why the shade should pick the particu- the ghost to persecute him, and to air any lar victim and what must be done to force opinion he has concerning why this was it to release its baneful hold is, again, done. Such cases, considered in their gen- much harder to settle. eral social and psychological setting, may Obviously the surest guide to all these point to the conditions that stimulate pos- questions, and especially to the more subtle session and to the functions that spirit pos- ones, will be the words of the deity or ghost session serve, at least in the region from itself. And pronouncements from these which the data come. sources are precisely what are sought. In or- The widow of a man who had recently der to obtain the explanations and direc- been beaten to death as a result of a politi- tions of the supernaturals involved, a state cal and intercaste feud suddenly began to of trance and possession develops or is in- curse and snap at those around her, shout- duced in which the deities enter and speak ing that she would bite and eat them. Her

554 MORRIS E. OPLER diatribes were directed particularly at a land. This he refused to do. Soon after, woman of her own caste with whom she he became ill and it was only a few weeks had quarreled and at members of another, before he, too, was dead. It was accepted higher caste who had been involved in the that the ghost had entered his body and assault on her husband. Normally she laid him low. That this man had a guilty would have been expected to show respect conscience in regard to the land transac- and deference to members of the latter tion is very clear, and it is also certain that caste. The woman, who was now recog- the circumstances of his rival's death aggra- nized as being possessed, started to run vated this feeling. To what extent the fear away, but was caught and held down. A and despondency arising from this contrib- shaman who was working in a nearby field uted to his sickness and death is not was summoned and began to carry out his known, for he had no adequate medical ritual for her. When he demanded to know examination and treatment. But whatever who the spirit possessing the woman was, the origin of his sickness, the despair and the spirit, using the voice of the woman, the terror induced by the attentions of his identified itself as a churain or malevolent rival's ghost did him no good. female ghost. It was the usual voice of the A young man of untouchable caste, a woman that was heard, except that the Hindu, left the village and found employ- words were uttered somewhat more slowly ment in a mill in a city. He was told that a and deliberately. After further ministra- path he took from his place of residence to tions of the shaman the ghost announced: the mill was infested with ghosts of Mus- "I am going; I am going." The shaman lims, but he laughed at such tales and con- acidly expressed his disbelief that the ghost tinued to take this route. Then he had a se- was really departing and demanded that vere and persistent case of boils and had to the ghost lick its own spittle as an earnest leave his job and return to the village. In of its intention. At this the woman spat the village he became violent and abusive in her hand and licked up the saliva. The and was constantly in trouble. He would ghost then announced: "I am leaving." speak out against the high-caste landlords The woman now seemed to recover and and tell them he was a Muslim spirit and spoke in a normal and calm manner to couldn't be harmed by them. He narrowly those around her. She professed to have escaped a beating at the hands of these in- no recollection of what happened during dignant prominent villagers. It was appar- the period of active possession. This ent to his kinfolk that he was in the woman, who is short-tempered and moody clutches of a ghost, and a shaman was at best, had more than enough cause for brought to treat him. At first the spirit or smoldering anger. It is possible to interpret spirits which had entered him would not this attack as a case of hysteria associated^ reply to the shaman's questions, though with attempts to master an overwhelmingV they caused his body to move convulsively urge toward overt aggression, something/ and with great violence. It turned out that unseemly in a woman and socially unac-t there were four Muslim spirits within him, ceptable when directed toward those of who identified themselves and made their higher status, but understandable and for-''; wishes known after three days of ceremony. givable as the activity of a malevolent and ; When the ceremony had been concluded reckless ghost. and the offerings for which the spirits asked A villager met a violent death and there- had been given, the patient began to re- fore it was expected that he would become cover. a vengeful ghost. Another villager who had Villagers who go to urban industrial es- quarreled with the dead man about the tablishments to work ordinarily live in ownership of a piece of land was visited cramped, unhygienic quarters and have a one night by the ghost of the deceased, very inadequate diet. Often, as in this case, which demanded that he surrender the they fall sick and .have to return to their

555 PORTRAITS OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

homes. But often, too, the greater social that the dead woman has become a ghost, freedom and anonymity enjoyed in the city is likely to result in psychological uneasi- make it more difficult for them upon their ness. return to accept the more rigid caste and A young man attributed violent attacks status restrictions of the rural environment. from which he suffered and during which In this case the young man apparently he spoke abusively to those around him scoffed at the tales of evil spirits of Mus- and sought to strike them, to the activities lims (in the city to which he went there of a number of ghosts of Muslims who had was a large Muslim population and con- "caught" him when he was working in an siderable tension between Hindus and Mus- industrial center some distance away from lims) until he himself became sick. Then the village. It took several people to hold he became thoroughly frightened and was him down when he had such seizures and convinced that evil influences were work- not even close relatives, such as his mother ing against him. Possession allowed him and sister, were immune from his invective. to objectify these causes of fear and make The attacks had continued for about a year them available for treatment. Possession when he gave his account, and he had suf- and the attribution of what he said and did fered an attack about twenty days before he to the invading Muslim spirits also allowed was interviewed. Shamans had identified him to vent his feelings with a minimum of three of the ghosts while he was possessed; danger on the proud high-caste group for but a fourth one had not yet spoken whom his own caste have been traditional through him, and this elusive and resistant servants. spirit presumably was the cause of his con- A woman who was sure she was being tinued trouble. This case presents some persecuted by a ghost was told by a shaman familiar features. The affliction begins when whom she consulted that her tormentor was the youth is employed in the city. Muslim the spirit of her husband's first wife. The ghosts cause him to be rancorous toward first wife had been attacked by ghosts while his Hindu relatives and neighbors. He is in Calcutta and had come back to the vil- abusive toward persons to whom he nor-, lage to die. Having been killed by ghosts, mally shows respect. It might be mentioned ; she herself became one and now made dif- that these events occurred during a period -; ficulties for her successor. There are two in- when there was quite a bit of tension teresting facets to this situation. It will be tween India and Pakistan and between noted that the first wife was attacked by Hindus and Muslims in India. The young;* ghosts and sickened when she joined her man was undoubtedly impressed by the husband who was working in a city far ference in the attitudes toward such matters^ from their home. Villagers, and especially in the village, which is almost entirely;: village women, are often lonely and un- Hindu and in which the Muslims are sub^j happy in such circumstances and live un- missive and unimportant, and the city;;! der conditions that invite sickness. Such an where the Muslims were a sizable group| illness, contracted in a strange place and and where strained relations existed for in frightening circumstances, is then fre- time. Some unconscious scapegoating oral quently attributed to ghosts unless another the part of this young man, in which Musll origin is very obvious or the malady yields lim ghosts conveniently serve to mask hisjj readily to ordinary treatment. The other own aggressions and adequacies, can be inl| matter which deserves attention is that the ferred. dead woman caused difficulty for the sec- Eight of ten children born to a village! ond wife of the man to whom she had been woman died in infancy. Finally a shamanf married. A woman who marries a widower was called. He traced the cause of the| is expected to honor and worship the de- deaths to a ghost and named a family which! ceased wife. Any laxity or reluctance in he said had sent the unfriendly spirit. Since! this, or anything that gives cause for belief the sufferer was of the same caste as thosef

556 MORRIS E. OPLER

fused to contribute to the cause, on the who had sent the ghost, a caste assembly grounds that the sickness was continuing was called. The evidence concerning the unabated and the visitors were accomplish- ghost and its provenience was reviewed, and ing no good. Then thirteen members of the accused family was ordered to take back this man's extended family caught the dis- its ghost. This they agreed to do. In this ease. The villager still refused to contrib- instance the early death of so many chil- ute, for he suspected that it was the dev- dren gave rise to the suspicion that ghosts otee, angered by his attitude, who had and some kind of sustained attack were in- sent the smallpox goddess (the disease) to volved. One of the most common fears his house. Instead he himself made ritual among women is that ghosts will impair offerings to the goddess, who is the per- their childbearing capacities or destroy sonification of the disease. Early one their infants, and a good many precautions morning, when he was carrying out a fire are taken to prevent such occurrences. Also, ritual or sacrifice to the goddess, his it is generally believed that ghosts are sel- youngest son, who was one of those ill with dom destroyed or reformed; they are most smallpox, spoke to him disrespectfully, often merely transferred. Usually a shaman an evidence that the boy was possessed can persuade a ghost to leave its host only and that in reality it was the small- if he provides or promises to provide an- pox goddess who was speaking. The god- other "vehicle." Often the transferral is dess continued to speak to him through accomplished without malice. The ghost is his son. She praised him for his ceremonial secured by the shaman in some ritual ob- offerings, advised him about future offer- jects which are then buried at a crossroad. ings to her, and informed him that she The first vulnerable person who passes this would respond if he would carry out such place becomes the new host for the spirit. ceremonies whenever smallpox or cholera Or the ghost may be imprisoned by the sha- spread. Following this all of his family man in a clove or a flower which he touches members recovered and this man himself to the garment of almost any person at became a devotee of the smallpox goddess. some large gathering. In such a case he It is interesting that the onset of possession may not even know the person to whom and the appearance of the goddess was sig- the ghost is being transferred. But whether naled in this case by the breakdown of in- the ghost is specifically intended for them hibition and social convention, by the dis- or not, the family to which it becomes respect shown by the son for his father. The transferred will be indignant and will be deities so often display attitudes forbidden aggressive in their demands that the ghost by convention to man! be recalled by its former owners. In May, 1953, during a cholera epidemic, An epidemic of smallpox was raging in this new devotee played a prominent part a hamlet of the village. Two outsiders in attempting to pacify the sickness goddess. were invited to the hamlet to use ritual He and others arranged and purified an means to arrest the sickness. During their outdoor site for a ceremony and kindled a stay they were being provided for and paid fire of mango leaves there. While a drum by contributions from the inhabitants of was beaten and the names of various gods the hamlet. One of these visitors was a dev- and goddesses were uttered, he and an- otee of the smallpox goddess, a person who other man ladled clarified butter into the had directed so much ritual attention and fire. One o£ the group of men present lit a propitiation to the goddess that he had a stick of incense in the fire and stared at it special relation to her, received messages fixedly as prayer and the mention of the from her, and was believed to have influ- names of the deities continued. Finally he ence over her. The second person was a leaped up, jumped forward and backward, gardener and flower seller, a member of a extended his arms and then fell to the caste which traditionally is involved in the ground. When he arose his forearms and curing of smallpox. One family head re- 557 PORTRAITS OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS hands were shaking violently. It was evi- otee was one of the leaders of the proces- dent that he was possessed by a spirit. In a sion and a director of the ritual acts which restrained and respectful voice the devotee punctuate it. Two days later a very similar asked him who he was. He answered that rite of possession and divination was held he was Sitala, one of the personified aspects in another hamlet of the village. of the disease goddess, in fact the aspect About ten days after these appearances usually associated with smallpox. The dev- of the disease goddess in public rituals, she otee drew out the information that the god- possessed and spoke through the body of a dess was visiting the village in the terrible woman of the grain-parcher caste. The guise of disease because she was dissatisfied hands of the woman began moving back with the offerings made to her. She wanted and forth, her face became expressionless, certain songs to be sung in her honor and she fell to the ground and rolled back and a band provided for the music. Hastily forth rhythmically as her hair fell around women were summoned to sing the re- her in disorder. Frequently she would quired songs. At that the possessed man scream in a high-pitched voice and an- recovered, stopped shaking, and sat down nounce that she was the disease goddess. and looked into the fire. During the singing Her husband and a caste-fellow sought to of the songs still another man became pos- induce the goddess to leave her body by sessed, leaped into the air, and fell writhing offering a sacrificial fire and repeating pray- to the ground. Soon he rose to his knees, ers. The unhappy husband, who was not at shook his hands back and forth, and invited all pleased with the visit of the goddess to the devotee to ask him who he was. It was his home, kept repeating, "You are not the learned that he was possessed by a different disease goddess, you are my wife." A brah- aspect of the disease goddess who demanded man priest had been sent for, and his first still more singing and a brighter ceremonial act upon arrival was to offer still another fire. At this the women sang with increased fire sacrifice to the goddess. The possessed vigor. The fire was fed again and the pos- woman tried several times to brush glowing sessed person stopped shaking and resumed coals from the fire into the folds of her his place. No sooner was he relaxed than garment, and her husband was kept busy the man who had first been possessed brushing them away and restraining her. showed evidence of agitation. The devotee The ability to handle fire and hot objects requested that he identify himself and the is often considered a sign of the presence of disease goddess spoke through him, issuing a deity or of a grant of supernatural power. some general and vague warnings. She said A group of men and women had gathered that the people were overproud of their by this time, and some of them began to hamlet and of its increase in size and had ask the "goddess" questions. One high-caste become too self-satisfied. When asked what woman repeatedly inquired about the na- -• specific things they should do to regain ture of the sickness of her daughter-in-law. her favor, she would say no more than that This apparently annoyed the goddess, for," they should be careful and should remem- the possessed low-caste woman slapped the ber that she lives everywhere and goes any- questioner, something that a woman of her ' where she likes. She admitted that she was caste could never do with impunity in nor- pleased with the ceremony but warned them mal circumstances. Yet in this setting the again to be careful unless they wished to be rebuff was taken calmly. Another woman obliged to spend a great deal of money in asked whether her son, who was reported corrective ceremonies. Now drumming and to be sick in Bombay, would recover. The singing were resumed and a procession answer was in the affirmative. Whenever which circled the hamlet counterclockwise the goddess spoke through the possessed ' was begun. During the march ritual ob- woman, those who were present would bowf 's jects were left at the four cardinal direc- reverently and touch the earth. Finally the? tions, beginning with the north. The dev- brahman's prayers and sacred fire ceremony4.,

558 MORRIS E. OPLER achieved their purpose, for the possessed and father's brothers who were working in woman collapsed on the ground and slowly the city as grain parchers and venders. The returned to her normal state. It was men- father went back to the village to visit, leav- tioned by someone present that the pos- ing the boy in the custody of the uncles. sessed woman's father had been a well- Soon after the departure of the father the known devotee of the disease goddess and boy's "brain became hot." He talked wildly that she herself had had a similar experi- and incessantly, saying that all people ence of possession only a year before. around him were evil and crazy. He re- When a. certain woman of the village peatedly ran away. The unhappy uncles married, she and her husband took up resi- took the boy to shamans in Bombay, who dence in her parents' home. The usual cus- told them the boy was possessed by three tom is for the woman to accompany her types of ghosts of deceased Muslims. They husband to his father's village and home at were not successful in inducing all three to marriage. Since the young man was more leave the boy at once and so the boy did not or less cut off from his patrilineal kin by fully recover. He was therefore brought this move, he made no efforts to worship back to the village and to his parents, where the family gods of his paternal line regu- other ceremonies conducted by a religious larly. Matters continued like this until the practitioner of another village proved ef- oldest son of this couple was about fifteen fective. years old. This boy then began to act When the news of the ceremonies to be strangely. He would disobey his parents, conducted for this boy spread, a young man curse them, and remain away from home with broadly similar but even more acute for long periods. A diviner was hired who complaints was brought for treatment at told the parents that the boy was possessed the hands of the same imported religious by a displeased goddess who expected hom- practitioner. This young man, who was age from members of the father's' line. A also of the grain-parcher caste, had been shaman of a nearby village was next con- living in Bombay too. His father was dead sulted and, during the ritual which he con- and his mother asked the boy's married sis- ducted, the goddess spoke through the son ter who lived in the city to make room for and complained of neglect. When the him in her household. The young man mother pointed out that the father's family found employment in a Bombay mill. But worshiped not one but three family deities the boy and his brother-in-law disliked one and that the two others would be angry if another, and the situation was soon very this goddess alone were honored, the god- unpleasant. One day the boy began to act dess spoke through the son to say that she strangely. He made obeisance to donkeys would prevent the other godlings from caus- on the street. He began to sprinkle the ing difficulty to the family. This greatly re- urine of cattle and his own urine on his lieved the mother, for ceremonies of this head and body. He showed symptoms of kind are expensive, involving as they do great fear and declared that a ghost in a the sacrifice of animals and much else. And nearby tree was trying to devour him. His so the goddess was formally installed as a delusions had a political note, for, though family deity of this branch of the line. Once he is a Hindu, he shouted that Pakistan is every three years the family arranges an going to beat India, that Muslims are fine impressive ceremony in her honor, during people, and declared that he would shoot which the son becomes possessed, makes Gandhi and Nehru. Gandhi, incidentally, known the will and prophecies of the god- had been assassinated six years before. It dess, and, while still possessed, puts the sac- did not take his brother-in-law long to de- rificial fire out with his bare hands without cide to send him back to his mother. At the suffering any burns. ceremony arranged by his mother the sha- A village boy of about thirteen years of man cuffed the boy around rather harshly. age was staying in Bombay with his father This was intended as punishment of the 559 PORTRAITS OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS possessing spirits and a means of making The shaman addressed the ghost and de- them uncomfortable and willing to leave. manded to know where it had seized the Such forthright methods are not uncom- woman. The ghost, speaking through the mon in shamanistic practice when posses- voice of the afflicted woman, replied that it sion is certain. The shaman determined had "caught" her when she was returning that the boy was possessed by two malig- to her husband's house and village from her nant spirits, both of Muslim origin. One, father's home. The shaman then asked who a result of black magic which his brother- had sent the ghost to the woman. The ghost in-law had had worked on him, had at- refused to reveal this. Next the shaman tacked him while he was at the latrine and wanted to know the caste of the person re- this accounted for his unsavory behavior sponsible for the assault. This, too, the with urine. The other was able to enter his ghost refused to reveal. To the question, body because he stole and ate sweetmeats "How many other ghosts are with you?" which a woman was carrying to a temple. the ghost who was conversing with the sha- It was because of this spirit that he extolled man answered, "Four or five." The sha- Pakistan and voiced threats against India's man then asked the ghost, "Has any other leaders. Once these troublesome spirits were shaman looked at you?" and the ghost re- ousted, the youth became quiet and respect- plied, "Several, but they didn't make her ful and was able to leave for his home vil- speak." The shaman next asked bluntly, lage with his mother and younger brother. "Will you leave her?" The response was, It is to be noted that in both these cases "Only if I get another vehicle like her." the young men were far from home and un- The shaman then sought to persuade the happy when the evil spirits entered their ghost to leave. He told it that the woman bodies. Partition of India between Pakistan was very poor and hardly a fit vehicle for it- and India and resulting difficulties and riots He promised the ghost that at a certain between Hindus and Muslims were part of religious fair garlands of flowers, orna- the childhood memories of the youths. Con- ments, coconut, and other offerings would, tinued tension between the two countries be made to it. He also promised the ghost^ and between Hindus and Muslims in India that at the same time he would provide it was a theme of which they heard a great with another vehicle; that is, that he would deal in the new urban surroundings. It is make it possible for the ghost to enter some;' little wonder that die ghosts which both- other victim. During the dialogue, whenc* ered these Hindus, by a process of projec- the ghost was refusing to answer somejiofff tion and scapegoating, took on a Muslim the questions, other women sitting aroundf? coloring. urged that the ghost be induced to In early April, 1954, during a nine-day more "active" so that the woman eoul&fji period especially devoted to the worship more violently possessed and tell and propitiation of the goddess of disease, thing. The shaman agreed to ask the ; the house of a shaman, as was usual dur- to become more active. The ghost expl ing this period, was rilled with women seek- that it could possess her more violentl ing aid from troublesome spirits who had that, if it did, the patient would die. I "caught" or possessed them. The shaman end the shaman took a flower, placed p sang a type of song associated with the god- die ground, and asked the ghost to dess and beat a monotonous rhythm on his from the woman's body and enter the J drum until a woman who was seated in the som. He said that the ghost would back showed signs of the activity of the live with his tutelary godling, the ghost within her. He had her come forward spirit of a brahman, until he could I to the sacrificial fire and squatted before him to another person. It should ben her. Her hands, palms pressed together, tioned that the woman who was were before her, and her head was shaking like most of the other women back and forth. for help, was comparatively

560 MORRIS E. OPLER dressed the ghost and de. ' The factor to which particular attention any great unhappiness or mistreatment and where it had seized the should be called in this case is that the have them intervene on her behalf. it, speaking through the ghost, speaking through the victim, estab- Because of the sharp break in the life of :d woman, replied that it lished the onset of the trouble during the the newly wed woman, and because she is when she was returning journey from the parents' home to the hus- often so young at marriage, the society has Juse and village from her band's home. In this connection it should provided for frequent and prolonged visits shaman then asked who be kept in mind that village exogamy is of the married woman to her parents' to the woman. The ghost practiced in this part of India and that resi- home, especially during the early period of this. Next the shaman dence after marriage is patrilocal. Marriage matrimony. If the girl is fearful, uncertain ;e caste of the person re- also entails for the woman many restric- of her ability to cope with the situation, or assault. This, too, the tions on movement and behavior in her unhappy about her husband or his family, sveal. To the question, husband's village and many special forms the return trip to the husband's house after ghosts are with you?" of avoidance and polite usage to her hus- the relaxed atmosphere during a visit to conversing with the sha- band's kinsmen, and, by extension, to his the parental home and village may be an our or five." The sha- fellow villagers, particularly the males. anxious period. It is not unusual, there- ; ghost, "Has any other This contrasts markedly with the compar- fore, for a girl, as in the case just de- you?" and the ghost re- ative freedom a girl enjoys in her father's scribed, to be "caught" by a ghost on the t they didn't make her home and as a "daughter" of her father's journey from her parents' home to that of m next asked bluntly, village. Since marriage is ordinarily hyper- her husband and to become ill after her :r?" The response was,' gamous, with the husband's family be- arrival. 'ther vehicle like her." longing to a superior section of the same It may be well to mention here other sought to persuade the caste, at marriage a woman enters a family acute anxieties which not infrequently are told it that the woman which considers itself higher in status than associated with the early years of the mar- ardly a fit vehicle for it. the one from which she has come. As a ried state. A woman who does not conceive, host that at a certain new bride she comes as the most junior who suffers miscarriage, or who does not nds of flowers, orna- and subordinate member of the family bear a son after some years of wedded life other offerings would and only with time, with the arrival of may have reason to fear for her status and Iso promised the ghost new brides, and with the birth to her of happiness in the family circle. It is almost ie he would provide it sons, is her comparative position likely to certain that she, and her husband's family ; that is, that he would ~ improve to any extent. In story, proverb, too, will wonder if a ghost or malignant the ghost to enter some' and song, the society has from her earliest spirit is not at the root of her trouble. g the dialogue, whenj" years reminded her of the sharpness of One other potential cause of anxiety and ng to answer some of/' the transition at marriage, and of the pos- distress in the early phase of marital life women sitting around k sible hostility of the mother-in-law and might be added to the list. A girl who has be induced to become^ sisters-in-law. been a "pet" of her father's household (and t the woman could If it is a joint or extended family with a often the knowledge that a girl will be un- essed and tell number of sons to which she goes, she will der strict surveillance and will have to work greed to ask the ghc find there other wives from different vil- hard in her husband's household is the ra- e. The ghost explaine lages and family backgrounds with whom tionalization for leniency and permissive- icr more violently bu she must live at close quarters and with ness in the parental home) may find the ient would die. In t whom she may or may not get along well. restrictions and obscurity of her new role a flower, placed it . She comes as a stranger, for it would be difficult to accept. Possession by ghosts and i the ghost to descer most unseemly for her to have known her spirits calls attention to the young woman, dy and enter the hlc husband or his family beforehand. If she fosters a more solicitious attitude toward : ghost would have i has grievances, it would do her little good her, and makes her the center of dramatic ' godling, the deifit to complain to her husband, for he is ex- ritual activity. mtil he could transfe pected dutifully to support his parents in It must be remembered, too, that the n. It should be me their decisions, and would be most likely claim of possession by ghosts may be a pun- an who was treat to command his wife sternly to obey his ishment unconsciously meted out by a :r women who elders. Actually her main recourse is to get young woman to those about her for real atively young. word to her own parents and brothers of or fancied grievances. A ghost or malignant

561 PORTRAITS OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS spirit has a habit of persecuting a whole ghosts can be gathered from a few ex- family, once it enters the circle of a home amples, also. A girl of the potter caste had through an individual, and consequently been married to a man who deserted her its presence is most unwelcome to the whole for another woman. Against the advice of group. Also, its eradication or pacifica- her mother she went to the place where her tion is an expensive undertaking and often former husband and the other woman were a lengthy one. It may cause still other mar- staying. A very unpleasant scene resulted, riage difficulties, because few families but she made no progress in regaining her want to enter into marriage negotiations mate. Soon she had acute feelings of per- that will result in receiving a ghost in addi- secution and sought relief in a shamanistic tion to a new member. A number of sha- ceremony. During the ceremony she became mans have pointed out that a large per- actively possessed, beating her hands and centage of their clients are young women even her head on the ground in front of who were "caught" soon after joining their her. So violent were her exertions that she husband's families. A knowledge of the so- collapsed twice and had to be placed in cial and marital practices and the points of sitting position again. In an effort to iden- tension they involve goes far to explain the tify the ghost which was bothering her, concentration of hysteria, possession, and the shaman recited caste names, one after trance states in this group. the other. The ghost responded through the The importance of marital and child- woman when the correct caste was named. bearing functions in situations of sha- Before the end of the session both the un- manism and possession can be gathered sympathetic mother and the woman who from the following observations. Six ailing had stolen the husband were accused of women were present on an occasion when sending evil spirits to distress the patient. one of our observers visited a shaman. All In another case, where neglect seems to of them were sure that they were possessed have depressed the patient, the ghost, when by ghosts, and this was verified in each case it was asked why it had entered the woman, by the shaman. One woman was subject to replied, "Before, I was given every com- fits and was probably an epileptic. Another fort—nice meals, sweets. I was respected, suffered from acute menstrual pains and ir- admired, massaged with oil. But now I'm regularity. Still another had not conceived, denied all this." . although she had been married for a num- An association between the clash of wills ber of years. The shaman told her that a and possession by ghosts is reflected in family godling, who was not being wor- many other accounts. A woman brought an shiped by certain households since the sep- ailing daughter of about fourteen years o£ aration of the large family, was angry, had age to a shaman. When the shaman in- possessed her, and was denying progeny to formed her that the girl's illness could be the women of her line. A fourth woman traced to possession by a ghost of an aborted had twice been the victim of miscarriage fetus, the old woman cried out: "Oh^ it's in the fourth month of pregnancy. The par- true. She went against my wishes one day ticular difficulties of the fifth woman were Vith a Chamain [a woman of the untouch- not ascertained, but the sixth, too, had able caste from whom midwives are ~xi£ been unable to conceive. She was a woman cruited] to help her carry mud from a tanfc; in her thirties, who had been hopefully to the house. She fell ill and told us many coming to the shaman for years. Thus four secrets of the family. We couldn't under*:, of the five cases about which we have infor- stand how she knew these things so suidp*; mation appear to show complaints which denlvt . She broke out in boils and sinc• •• -^_fC are associated with the physiological func- then has not been well." Here the defiancet tions of the female. of this high-caste girl in associating with tfl* The part played by domestic tragedy in untouchable and her raking up of unsavo^ notions of persecution by evil spirits and family secrets, suggest a situation of tensioi|

562 MORRIS E. OPLER icred from a few ex- and conflict. The mother may be fairly brahm pacified and harmless by constant of the potter caste had close to the truth, after all, in connecting offerings, and stoutly denied that any man who deserted her these matters with the girl's physical symp- woman of the household had directed the . Against the advice of toms. spirit toward the married kinswoman. t to the place where her Not infrequently ghosts and possession When a woman is both childless and I the other woman were serve as a convenient explanation for ex- quarrelsome, if her barren state is attrib- pleasant scene resulted, treme or violent behavior. A woman who is uted to unfriendly ghosts, she is likely to be ogress in regaining her well-known for her moody nature and un- greatly feared. The possibility that a pos- 1 acute feelings of per- certain temper was found by another sessed person may persuade a ghost to enter : relief in a shamanistic woman trying to hang herself. She was led another "vehicle" is always present, and ic ceremony she became to an adjoining house and there she showed it is believed that a self-centered and aeating her hands and signs of being possessed. She announced strong-minded woman will not hesitate to the ground in front of that she was a godling which was worshiped take this step. One such woman came to ; her exertions that she by her family. Shamans were called to learn the village some years ago as a bride. For 1 had to be placed in the will of the godling and discovered that a long time she bore no children and it was in. In an effort to iden- a ceremony and animal sacrifice were de- whispered about that this was because she ch was bothering her, manded. As soon as the ceremony was was possessed by a vengeful ghost of a de- caste names, one after promised the woman became calm and ceased brahman. Actually it was this wom- : responded through the seemed normal. Later, when she was asked an's mother who had first drawn the ire of ^rrect caste was named. why she had attempted suicide, she denied the ghost. The mother had neglected to he session both the un- memory of such an act. She asked rhetori- pay a debt to a brahman and after his r and the woman who cally why she would do a thing like that, death was persecuted by his shade. When sband were accused of when she has four children to look after. the daughter came to the village, the brahm to distress the patient. She took the position that whatever hap- was transferred to her and came along. The where neglect seems to pened was due to the intrusion into her daughter was accused more than once of patient, the ghost, when body of an irritated godling who had not trying to pass the ghost along to others. So had entered the woman, been given sufficient ritual attention. bad did her reputation become that even was given every com- When a supernatural attack is assumed after she bore a son it was said that she had weets. I was respected, and the person responsible is being sought, managed to transfer the family ghost to a with oil. But now I'm the thinking often moves along traditional young girl who was leaving the village to ."VfSs' channels. It is proverbial that the daugh- marry. As a result all kinds of misfortunes itween the clash of wills ters of the household and their sisters-in- plagued the husband and his family as soon ghosts is reflected -in,, law, who enter the household through as the bride arrived. For one thing, the ts. A woman brought an . marriage, do not always get along well to- husband went blind—seemingly a case of about fourteen years of gether. The feelings of suspicion and resent- hysterical blindness. The bride was re- When the shaman &*• „ ment may persist even after the daughters turned to her father's home without delay. e girl's illness could be themselves leave the home in marriage. More than one ghostly attack has been by a ghost of an aborted' Charges that were raised in the summer of traced to compunctions of conscience over lan cried out: "Oh,2|fj» 1956 will illustrate what can happen. The unpaid debts. A Muslim cotton carder of inst my wishes one sister of a villager was married and went to the village died without leaving issue. One woman of the untot; live in her husband's village. No sooner had of the villagers had never repaid fifty rupees 'horn midwives she arrived than she became sick. A sha- which he owed this man. When the debtor : carry mud from a i manistic rite revealed that the ghost of a developed stomach pains and diarrhea, he ell ill and told us dead brahman had been sent to possess her. wondered whether he were not being per- ly. We couldn't une It also was alleged that her brother's wife secuted by the ghost of the Muslim. He con- ;w these things so was responsible for this. The basis for the sulted a shaman who verified this, and the out in boils and fear was the knowledge on the part of the matter was resolved by going to the spot well." Here the defi afflicted woman that the household from where the Muslim was buried, placing a rl in associating with I which she had come did have a ghost of a coin in the ground as a symbolic payment, :r raking up of unsa? deceased brahman attached to it. However, and making other offerings there. sst a situation of i this household asserted that it had kept the It is obvious that possession and the state

563 PORTRAITS OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS of being a channel for the voice of the gods sessed woman. The goddess asked for songs can be an attention-getting device for men and offerings of a certain type and advised as well as women. A villager who was un- that a full-scale ceremony should be carried married, asthmatic, and not particularly out on behalf of the woman at a given highly regarded became a devotee of the time. When she was asked whether she were high god, Shiva. When he was not in a "going to manifest herself on the body of religious setting, he gave the impression the woman" (that is, whether the woman of a person who lacked assertiveness and were going to contract the disease), she confidence, and yet who desired attention. answered in the affirmative, but added that In December, 1955, he arranged to have a it would be a mild case and that "every- brahman carry on a ceremony for him in thing will be all right." It is probable that honor of Shiva. As the rite progressed he at this time the possessed woman thought became increasingly excitable and very im- that she had caught or was getting the patient with the brahman. It was not long disease. Actually her fears were ground- before he was moving his head to and fro. less; she was not stricken with it during Then Shiva spoke through the possessed this epidemic. man chiding him for not serving him better Evidences of fear and wishful thinking but prophesying that he would do so in the also characterize a case of possession of an future. Shiva also called upon him to pro- eight-year-old girl during this same period. tect the Hindu religion and to protect cows. The mother of the girl had asked her to During the ritual this man was possessed in perform some task. The girl stretched out addition by Hanuman, Vishnu, and Par- her hands saying, "Don't you see my vati, the divine wife of Shiva—all very im- hands. You are asking me to work?" There portant deities of the Hindu pantheon. were pox marks on her hands. Soon the When the possessed man became the girl was possessed and the intruding spirit spokesman of Hanuman, he called to his identified itself as the godling of a shrine religious teacher in an argumentative in another village of the area. Through the tone, "Oh, you think I'm not as great as little girl it scolded the audience, saying, Shiva, don't you? I'll show you my power!" "Because I'm at a distance you people of By the time the ritual was over a rather this village have forgotten me. You don't good-sized group had gathered, and most offer ceremonies to me. Unless you worship of the onlookers were ultimately quite im- me, you'll all be in great trouble." She also pressed. assured her hearers, "There won't be any At a time of epidemic sickness, possession trouble in this house. There won't be any is encouraged by fear that the disease will smallpox." Just then a woman of a caste spread and strike and by desire to know much higher than that of the child ap- what acts of worship will mollify the dis- peared, and the godling, speaking through ease goddess. During a smallpox epidemic the little girl, upbraided the woman in these in February, 1955, a gardener, belonging to words, "Go away from here. You promised a caste whose members act as ritualists at that you would offer me a ceremony and such a time, heard that a woman of the fried bread if a boy would be born to your potter caste was sick and went to visit her. nephew. But when a girl was born, you She told him that she had been possessed didn't do it. You completely forgot me at by the disease goddess and that the goddess that time." ' •"-' had voiced her displeasure at having been Despite the youth of the girl many given an offering of unclean curd and had women accepted the authenticity of the threatened to take five lives in the village. possession, were much concerned at the dis- The gardener began to sing and make of- pleasure voiced by the godling, and forth- ferings, and the woman became possessed with planned a trip to his shrine. Yet, con- again. Then the gardener conversed with trary to the promises of the godling, twd the goddess through the person of the pos- cases of smallpox did develop in the fam-

564 MORRIS E. OPLER

The goddess asked for ily of the possessed girl, something that make a practice of appearing to persons of >f a certain type and —TMCn caused much puzzlement and comment the opposite sex and possessing them by en- : ceremony should be carried among the villagers. gaging in sexual intercourse with them of the woman at a given The fear of ghosts can lead to hysterical when they are asleep or dreaming. Ghosts : was asked whether she were symptoms at even more tender ages than are said to appear to young widows at night ifest herself on the body of this. A woman recalls that a place in the in the form of their deceased husbands and :hat is, whether the woman village of her birth was haunted by a fe- to have connection with them. More dis- contract the disease), rf^ male ghost of a certain type, a type noted turbing still, ghosts sometimes appear in : affirmative, but added'that for its unclean habits. The very branch of the guise of men other than the husband mild case and that "every- the tree in which the ghost was reputed to to "tease" and frighten a woman by such 11 right." It is probable that live was pointed out to the child, and she activities. The ghost of a young man who ; possessed woman thought was told that she was in imminent danger fell into a well and drowned has a reputa- :aught or was getting the of being caught by this unwholesome spirit. tion for this kind of knavery. ly her fears were ground- She was three or four years old when she Female ghosts tantalize men in a compa- ot stricken with it during learned about this. She began to be inconti- rable manner. One villager described how nent at night and was at first punished for a ghost took the form of an attractive young fear and wishful thinking it. She protested to her mother that she woman, the wife of another man, who had ; a case of possession of an never defecated at night. Her mother asked just returned to the village from a visit. T! during this same period. the child's grandfather about it. This man This apparition visited him at night and the girl had asked her to was a shaman and pronounced what was was having intercourse with him. Just as ask. The girl stretched out happening to be the work of a ghost. He he was about to ejaculate, he woke up ing, "Don't you see my conducted a ceremony over the child and and rushed out to the side of the field. It is asking me to work?" There ordered the ghost to leave. After that the apparent from these and other accounts s on her hands. Soon the child had no trouble of this kind. Appar- that illicit and socially unacceptable desires :d and the intruding spirit ently, either because of a feeling of hope- which cannot be repressed are rationalized as the godling of a shrine lessness at being in the grip of a defiling as the work of shameless ghosts. ;e of the area. Through the force, or because of projection of unpleas- In summary we can say that cases of spirit Ided the audience, saying, ant responsibilities upon the ghost, the possession do not occur in a random fash- a distance you people of child had regressed in its toilet-training ion throughout the society. Except when a : forgotten me. You don't habits. shaman or devotee calls upon the gods he to me. Unless you worship Concern over the consequences of impi- worships to enter him and speak through in great trouble." She also ety or contact with forbidden or dangerous him, spirit possession is almost inevitably •ers, "There won't be an/ ritual objects may also lead to seizures, pos- interpreted as an unhappy incursion into louse. There won't be a session, and the need for ceremonial aid. the human body in order to cause sickness then a woman of a After a ceremony to rid the village of epi- or misfortune. Consequently those who be- an that of the child demic disease, a shaman buried a covered lieve that their sickness and misfortune are godling, speaking pot filled with flowers in the waters of a due to evil forces of the outer world for >raided the woman in I tank at the edge of the village. A villager which they are the targets are prone to from here. You proc who was bathing in the tank and who had spirit possession. And it is those who are offer me a ceremony' forgotten the event, felt the pot with his particularly vulnerable or in a precarious >oy would be born to j foot and retrieved it. When he realized that social position who tend to decide that any icn a girl was born,*] it was the symbol of the disease which had reverse is a sign of spirit possession. The i completely forgot m been captured and banished from the vil- young married woman, beset by homesick- lage which he had disturbed and recovered, ness, anxious for acceptance by her rela- he was terror-stricken and began to vomit. tives-in-law, fearful that she may not be He made his way to his home with difficulty able to present sons to her husband and his and took to his bed. It took at least two family, may label her woes a form of specialists and considerable ritual to restore ghost possession. If she has been ignored him to health. and subordinated, the spirit possession may There is one other activity of the ghost take even more dramatic and strident that should be mentioned. Some ghosts form as a compensation for the obscurity

565 PORTRAITS OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS under which she has labored. Also there following partition. Persons of high caste seems to be a large number of cases of pos- tend to be persecuted by large, dark, low- session among young men who leave the caste spirits. And in speaking about scape- village for urban areas and who either fail goating and projection, the tendency to to make an adequate adjustment to that attribute unmanageable and socially rep- environment or who encounter difficul- rehensible sexual desires to the activities ties upon their return. Possession seems to of the ghosts of others should not be for- be correlated also with repressed aggression gotten. among low-caste persons and younger peo- Above all, a prevailing health anxiety is ple, for it allows the individual, through suggested by the data regarding ghost and the haughty spirit within, verbally to casti- spirit possession. I would venture to say gate his superiors or seniors with impunity. that the material on this topic strongly On the individual level possession often challenges the notion that the Indian vil- can be traced to unresolved interpersonal lager meets sickness and death with fatal- conflict. Unpaid debts and ungracious acts ism, resignation, and composure. There is, tend to reappear after the death of one of on the contrary, a determined effort the principals as intrusive ghosts. In this through possession to anticipate and fore- sense ghosts can be said to represent the stall disease, to deal with it when it is pres- standards and conscience of the community ent, and to learn why it claimed its victims. and, derivatively, of that of its individuals. And this is reasonable, for health and sur- There is a rather prominent amount of vival are the foundation upon which so projection and scapegoating in spirit pos- much else rests. The mother is in terror of session. Not only is there a reflection of losing her child. It is often not only a life the animosities that the victim believes are but her very status and future which are at directed toward him, but he tends to reveal stake. The family heads tremble lest the his suspicions and unfavorable attitudes to- sons be stricken by epidemic disease and ward other groups and individuals: ill-feel- the line become extinct. Ghosts do not wan- ing toward minority groups and intercaste der aimlessly though Indian village cul- rancor are sometimes mirrored in his con- ture. They gather at points of stress and ception of his troubles. The ghosts of de- they attack the soft spots of the social order. ceased Muslims were exceedingly active in To follow their movements is to learn a persecuting Hindus in the troubled days good deal about that social order.

566 / READER IN COMPARATIVE RELIGION

An Anthropological Approach

WILLIAM A. LESSA M University of California, Los Angeles

EVON Z. VOGT

Harvard University

ROW, PETERSON AND COMPANY Evanston, Illinois White Plains, New York