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The Political Thought of Tan Malaka

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The Political Thought of Tan Malaka The Political Thought of Tan Malaka Oliver Crawford, Trinity College, University of Cambridge December 2018 This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ‘The Political Thought of Tan Malaka’ Oliver Crawford Abstract In the course of a fairly brief lifetime, lasting only a little over fifty years (1897-1949), Tan Malaka was variously a schoolteacher, the chair of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), a Comintern agent, a political exile, and a revolutionary leader. He travelled the world, living for spells in the Netherlands, Germany, Russia, China, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Tan Malaka’s colourful life and political career have attracted comment from historians, but there has not yet been an in-depth treatment of his ideas, even though he produced a large corpus of writings and was acknowledged to be among the foremost political intellects of his generation in Indonesia. This thesis is an analysis and contextualization of Tan Malaka’s political thought. It places his writings within a series of contemporary debates: on the nature of the Indonesian past and the country’s potential for revolution; on imperialism and the post-colonial future of Asia; on the relationship between Islam, capitalism, and Communism; on the reformation of Indonesian thinking; and on the appropriate strategy and goals for the Indonesian revolution. These debates, and Tan Malaka’s interventions within them, reveal that Indonesia during the ‘national awakening’ period (1900-50) was the scene of great intellectual innovation, where foreign and indigenous concepts were fused, adapted and reworked. Tan Malaka’s writings provide a particularly vivid example of this, combining as they do the concepts and language of Marxism, Islamic morality, and Minangkabau custom, sometimes in tension, in other places flowing together without apparent strain. Tan Malaka was not unique in this respect, as the thesis shows, which suggests that late- colonial Indonesia provides promising terrain for the ‘global turn’ in intellectual history, that seeks to understand the circulation, interaction and transformation of ideas across national and cultural boundaries, especially in the non-Western world. i Contents Preface page iii Acknowledgements iv Note on Spelling and Translation v I Introduction I 2 Indonesian History and Revolution 39 3 World History and Revolution 84 4 Islam and Communism 115 5 Logic and Superstition 144 6 Tan Malaka and the Indonesian Revolution 170 7 Conclusion 202 Bibliography 213 ii Preface This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution. It does not exceed the prescribed word limit of 80,000 words. iii Acknowledgements While researching and writing this thesis, I have built up many debts and obligations to those who have been kind enough to help me along the way. My greatest debt is to my supervisor, Tim Harper, who encouraged me to undertake this project and whose patient advice and guidance helped me to negotiate the terrain of Southeast Asian history. Our conversations about Tan Malaka and his contemporaries really made the past come to life. While in Cambridge, Massachusetts I benefitted from illuminating discussions with Sunil Amrith and Kirsty Walker. The suggestions of Marieke Bloembergen and Carolien Stolte, made at various conferences, have also been extremely useful. I am also grateful to those friends who have been with me throughout the course of my PhD. Shijing and Jasmine have been there for me since my first weeks in Trinity. Their support over the years has been invaluable and I’m proud to have written my thesis alongside them. Moses, Ben, Joey, Cal and Bardia were all excellent companions and always willing to discuss Indonesian history, which for them must have seemed a pretty esoteric subject. Joe has been a constant source of warmth and motivation since we were both undergraduates. His encouragement has helped me more than he realizes. Melisa’s clarity of thought has been very valuable and Nurul’s enthusiasm for ideas was infectious – both helped me think through my own arguments at several stages. Aditya, Michael, and Sophie were all first-rate colleagues at the history faculty. I can only hope my ideas have been as useful to them as theirs have been to me. Finally, I owe thanks to my family – mum, dad, Joe, Rosa, and Sophie – whose unfailing love and support has seen me through. I dedicate this thesis to them. iv Note on Spelling and Translations The Indonesian system of spelling was reformed in 1972. Among other changes, ‘oe’ was replaced with ‘u’, ‘tj’ with ‘c’, and ‘sj’ with ‘sy’. As a result, the names of historical figures were also changed: Soekarno became Sukarno, Tjokroaminoto became Cokroaminoto, and Soetan Sjahrir became Sutan Syahrir. There is, however, no consistency with which historians have followed these changes. I have kept to the most common usage throughout (e.g. Sukarno, Tjokroaminoto, Sjahrir) to align with the rest of the secondary literature. Names of texts have been kept in their original form (e.g. Moeslihat rather than Muslihat). All translations from texts in Indonesian and Malay are my own. Two of Tan Malaka’s books have been translated into English: From Jail to Jail (1948), translated by Helen Jarvis in 1991, and Naar de ‘Republiek Indonesia’ (1925), translated by Geoffrey Gunn in 1996. Where these translations are used, it is marked in the footnotes. v I Introduction: Islam, Marxism, and Minangkabau In 1947, when he began composing his memoirs, Tan Malaka reflected that his life had been ‘full of up and down and containing much more down than up.’1 At the time, he was imprisoned in Ponorogo jail in East Java, and was being held, without charge or trial, by the authorities of the newly-formed Indonesian Republic. Only a year earlier, in 1946, he had seemed on the cusp of power, leading a coalition of opposition parties and riding a wave of popular support. Now, from his cell, he had time to contemplate the course of his life. His thoughts turned to the other prisons he had occupied, in the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines, and China. He took it as a badge of honour that so many authorities had tried to thwart him. It proved that ‘international imperialism regarded the struggles of the Indonesian people as significant.’2 He titled his memoir Dari Pendjara ke Pendjara, ‘From Jail to Jail’. But who was Tan Malaka, and why were so many governments determined to stop him? The handful of surviving photographs show a thoughtful, alert and, in later years, somewhat melancholic man. Though his life was not easy, it was extremely 1 Characteristically, he used the original English phrase ‘up and down’ in the text (all untranslated English words are marked in italics). Throughout his life he sprinkled his Malay prose with foreign words and expressions, mainly from Dutch and English. Tan Malaka, From Jail to Jail [1948], ed. and trans. Helen Jarvis (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1991), Vol. 1, p. 3. 2 Tan Malaka, From Jail to Jail, Vol. 1, p. 4. 1 full. In the course of a fairly brief lifetime, lasting only a little over fifty years (1897-1949), he was variously a schoolteacher, the chair of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), a Comintern agent, a political exile, and a revolutionary leader. He travelled the world, living for spells in the Netherlands, Weimar Germany, Soviet Russia, Republican China, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Interpretations of Tan Malaka have been as wide ranging as his own journeys. Some have cast him as a political visionary: his dream of unifying the vast Indonesian archipelago into a single self-governing state, recorded in his 1925 work Naar de ‘Republiek Indonesia’ (‘Towards the “Indonesian Republic”’), led the poet and politician Muhammad Yamin to describe him as the ‘bapak Republik Indonesia’ (‘father of the Indonesian Republic’).3 Others have seen him as a romantic figure and a tragic hero: reflecting on his long years spent in prisons and in exile, the historian Ibrahim Alfian labelled Tan Malaka a ‘revolusioner yang kesepian’ (‘lonely revolutionary’).4 During his own lifetime, his ability to elude colonial police earned him the title ‘patjar merah Indonesia’ (‘the scarlet pimpernel of Indonesia’).5 He is less commonly celebrated for his writings, even though he was an author of rare power and sophistication, who produced several important texts on Indonesian politics. He was among the first and most intelligent interpreters of Marxism in Indonesia and was a central theorist within the PKI during the 1920s, when the party was at the forefront of the anti-colonial movement. He was also a leading figure and polemicist in the Indonesian revolution, who campaigned for a policy of ‘perjuangan’ (‘struggle’) against the Dutch and fought for the cause of social revolution in the years after Sukarno’s proclamation of independence in 1945. Although he eventually lost out to his political rivals, who had him first imprisoned then killed during the revolution, he was unquestionably one of the outstanding political intellects of his generation. 3 See Muhammad Yamin, Tan Malaka: Bapak Republik Indonesia (Moerba Berdjoeang: Djawa Timur, 1946). This pamphlet was based on a series of newspaper articles written by Yamin on Tan Malaka in late 1945. 4 Alfian, ‘Tan Malaka pejuang revolusioner yang kesepian’, Prisma 6-8 (Agustus, 1977), pp.
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