Lloyd Edward Price Workers , m other s, pests : Co -evolutionary perspectives on domesticated cattle in early twentieth century North India Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) 2019 School of History, Archaeology and Religion Cardiff University ABSTRACT This thesis builds upo n political , environmental and veterinary histories of domesticated cattle in South Asia , by offering the first study of animal husbandry in British Imperial and Hindu Nationalist discourses at the turn of the twentieth century. Drawing upon English and vernacular Hindi archives, comparative analysis demonstrates that the socio -cultural, material and environmental dynamics of animal domestication were influence d by perceptions of animal behaviour. It shows that in textbooks, reports and journals published by agriculturalists, cattle breeders and dairy farmers , four primary behaviours of cattle became the subject of competing ideas about the development an d decline of cattle populations and agricultural society. These were the instincts to consume, rear, mate and live as a herd. North India offers a unique context in which to explore why colonial science and indigenous knowledge formed competing perspectives of how the se behaviours contributed towards the coevolution of humans and cattle. Previous narratives share d the assumption that prior to the formalisation of animal husbandry in imperial institutions of the 1930s, human -cattle relations were unchanged from time imm emorial. The purpose of this thesis is to challenge this assumption, to demonstrate that early twentieth century animal husbandry was shaped by a confluence of socio -cultural, environmental, and behavioural forces. Drawing on social, environmental, and ani mal histories, this thesis is able to demonstrate that changing norms of domestication were the product of compromise, interaction with and responses to , the physiology and behaviour of cattle . iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii LIST OF FIGURES ix GLOSSARY xi INTRODUCTION xii I Context of thesis xvii II Focus of t hesis xx III Theory and method xxi IV Plan of t hesis xxiv V Sources and l imitations xxvii i CHAPTER 1 - Cattle in colonial and religious nationalist discourse : A historiography 1 1.1 Colonialism, c attle and the discourses of mastery 1 1.2 Cow protectionism, religious n ationalism and the c ow 8 1.3 The a nimal in colonial and indigenous t hought 16 1.4 Conclusion 28 CHAPTER 2 - Pests, producer s and agricultural chemistry in late nineteenth century North India 30 2.1 Consuming fod der and producing dung: A socio -cultural history 31 2.2 People, pests and the animal geographies of North India 37 2.3 Chemistry, manure and cattl e as converters 45 2.4 Conclusion 54 CHAPTER 3 - Mother cow, milk and maternal behaviour 57 3.1 Milk, nationalism and the maternal bond 58 3.2 Milkmen, calves and military d airy f arms 62 3.3 Mothers in c olonial and Hindu n ationalist discourse 74 3.4 Conclusion 81 CHAPTER 4 - Stud bulls , agency and the breeding (or rearing) of cattle 82 4.1 Cattle breeding in the Punjab 84 4.2 Bre eding stud bulls at the Hissar cattle f arm 90 4.3 Rearing bulls in the sub -montane grazing lands 97 4.4 Conclusion 108 iv CHAPTER 5 - The “carnal desires” of wandering Brahmani bulls 110 5.1 Brahmani bulls and breeding in North India 111 5.2 Colonial law, Hindu nationalists and the wandering bull 117 5.3 Sacred spaces, “wild” bull s and colonial governance 127 5.4 Conclusion 138 CHAPTER 6 - Working bullocks , missionaries and machine s 140 6.1 Higginbottom, modernity and agricultural technology 142 6.2 Tractors, ploughs and development in No rth India 149 6.3 Agricultural pro gress in twentieth century India: A retrospective 161 6.4 Conclusion 169 CONCLUSION 171 APPENDIC ES 182 BIBLIOGRAPHY 190 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My journey to complete this thesis has led me to throw out much of what I understood about life, to jump out of my comfort z one and allow an entirely new culture, language and way of living to guide my path . From the first time I stepped off the plane and found myself overwhelmed by the bustling streets of Jaipur in 2015, my time researching South Asian history has challenge d me t o become a better researcher, linguist and person . Through all the challenges, struggle s and mo ments of euphoria, this journey has also taught me the importance of people, whether it is family, friends or all the kind -hearted souls that we cross paths w ith along the way . With this in mind, I will start by thanking Padma Anagol, my primary supervisor at Cardiff University. For many years Padma has been my teacher, mentor and friend . She has pushed me from strength to strength, helping me thr ough tough t imes and given me the keys to open new doors in academia, and as a person . Thank you for taking me under your wing all those years ago. Thanks to Peter Coates, my primary supervisor at the University of Bristol. For the past four years, Peter has provid ed a constant supply of ideas, creativity and focused guidance . He has always supported my ideas while pushing me to think outside the box, and encouraging me to truly give a voice to the animal in history. My thesis has benefited greatly from the advice , support and encouragement of my second supervisor at Cardiff University , Keir Waddington. At each stage of my thesis, Keir has posed questions that challenge d me to work hard , think creatively and bring animal history to a wider academic audience. This work was supported by the AHRC South, West and Wales Doctoral Training Partnership (grant number AH/L503939/1). My research would not be possible without the work of librarians, archivists and supporting staff at the Arts and Social Studies Library, Cardiff; British Library, London; Centre of South Asian Studies, Cambridge; National Archives of India, Delhi; Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, Delhi; Uttar Pradesh State Archives, Lucknow; Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, Allahabad; Nagari Pracharini Sabha; Vara nasi; Alber t and Shirley Small Collections, Charlottesville. Each stage of this thesis has been improved by the invaluable feedback and guidance of various academic staff at Cardiff University . I would like to thank Kevin Passmore, Ian Rapley, Gavin Murr ay -Miller, Rachel Her rmann and James Hegarty amongst others for their advice, support and the invaluable inspiration they have provided me over the past years . I w ould also like to thank Daniel Haines, Becky Whay and all staff and students at the Universit y of Bristol for a warm welcome and for offering their time to discuss and explore ideas duri ng the early stages vi of the PhD . I would also like to thank Rose Jones and Chantelle Paine at the DTP for going beyond the call of duty to help with every query and resolve any problems. Thank s to Shachi Chotia and all the s taff at the Hindihour L anguage school in Jaipur, for their patience and support in teaching me the language, as well as providing invaluable friendships and a home away from home . This thesis would not have been possible without the advice and escape provided by my friends and family in Cardiff. I also must open my heart and thank all the friends I have made on the road ; Ghee for all the adventures at home and in India; Shrey, Sindhu and Heeral in Delhi ; the Chotias, Khandals , footballers at Suraj Maidan and all my friends in Jaipu r; Rashmi, Abdesh and family in Lucknow. Finally , I need to thank every autowala, chaiwala, waiter, barber, revellers at Assi Ghat , any body that took the time to chat in Hindi. T hank you for making me feel at home in your country. I need to thank my parents Ken and Debbie and my sister Megan for supporting me along the way, listening patiently and for always giving me a home to return to after trips around the world. I would also like to thank our family dog Millie, for making me wonder why animals do the things they do. Finally, I woul d like to thank my partner Mira for her love, patience and support to get me over the finish line. What started as a cup of coffee wit h a Welsh woman of South Asian heritage bloomed into a loving relationship that intertwined two cultures. Her willingness to domesticate this wayward traveller and ground him in reality have helped me to overcome many challenging moments and learn to relax when the day is done . I would also like to thank her family for welcoming me with open arms . While my time in India may be over for now, they ensure that South Asia will always be part of my life. vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAI Allahab ad Agricultural Institute CTA Cattle Trespass Act of 1871 CVD Civil Veterinary Department EIC British East India Company ICAR Imperial Council of Agricultural Research IVRI Imperial Veterinary Research Institute MDF Military Dairy Farm NWP No rt h-Western Provinces and Oudh (18 78 -1902) RCA Royal Commission on Agriculture UP The United Provinces of Oudh and Agra (1902 -1947 ) viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 : ‘A cow wandering around a suburb of Jaipur ’ (p hoto by Lloyd Price, 30/07/ 2015). xii i Figure 2 : ‘Crest of the Darb hanga Gaush l Society,’ from Sharma Gaur, Gauraksh (Cow P rotection) (Darbhanga, 1937). 11 Figure 3: ‘Cattle breeds of India’, from Chandr vati R dh raman, Sandulita Gau -Plan ( Traditio nal Cattle B reeding ) (Allahabad, 1949) . 18 Figure 4: ‘ Characteristics of an Exceptionable Bull’, from Chandr vati R dh raman, Sandulita Gau -Plan (Traditiona l Cattle B reeding) (Allahabad, 1949).