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Colonial Hunting and Wildlife in British India, 1800-1935 By Sahibs and Shikar: Colonial Hunting and Wildlife in British India, 1800-1935 by Swati Shresth Department of History Duke University 12.03.2009 Approved: ___________________________ Sumathi Ramaswamy, Supervisor ___________________________ Leela Prasad ___________________________ Janet Ewald ___________________________ Philip Stern ___________________________ John Thompson Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2009 i v ABSTRACT Sahibs and Shikar: Colonial Hunting and Wildlife in British India, 1800-1935 by Swati Shresth Department of History Duke University 12.03.2009 Approved: ___________________________ Sumathi Ramaswamy, Supervisor ___________________________ Leela Prasad ___________________________ Janet Ewald ___________________________ Philip Stern ___________________________ John Thompson Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2009 Copyright by Swati Shresth 2009 i v Abstract This dissertation explores the colonization of wildlife in nineteenth and early twentieth century British India. It discusses hunting and colonial policies on wildlife to explore the political, social and cultural concerns that influenced British interactions with Indian wildlife, with their compatriots and with natives. Hunting, I argue was deeply implicated in the exercise of power in all these interactions. British policies on wildlife in the nineteenth century favored a neat categorization of wild animals as ‚vermin and ‚game.‛ By the beginning of the twentieth century however, with decreasing numbers of carnivores and native opposition, the perceived complementarily between game preservation and vermin extermination was shattered. While the colonial administration continued both these policies, they also actively sought to formulate policies to protect all animals in areas designated as sanctuaries and national parks. Colonial hunting as it emerged from the late nineteenth century reflects the changing nature of the colonial state and a new imperial ideology of dominance. I also argue racial differences between the colonialists and colonized were articulated in the domain of hunting. While hunting represented domination of nature and natives, the ‚colonial hunt‛ also came to signify a paternal benevolent British rule. The importance given to hunting and to the notion of fair play in their hunting served to ‚identify‛ the iv moral and physical superiority of British rulers. The new ideology of paternalism was realized in the figure of the hunter-officer, the Sahib who in hunting dangerous carnivores was seen to act as a protector of the native. The changing nature of the colonial state and creation of racial differences also had a profound impact on colonial society which became increasingly self conscious of its own identity and image. Given the metropolitan engagement with social Darwinism and their location on the fringes of civilization as it were, colonialists became the center of metropolitan preoccupation with racial contamination. The emphasis on fair play, I argue reflects the efforts of the colonial elite to enforce a model code of conduct on its members and reassure an anxious metropole of the racial distance with the native. Policing behavior of their own, through categories like fair play was therefore essential to the agenda of creating racial differences. Due to a perceived connection between hunting, power and privilege, hunting also played an important role in social relations in colonial society. As hunting came to be regulated by laws by late nineteenth century, it often became the focal point of tensions in class and power within the colonial elite on the question of access to animals. v Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... xii Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Sources and Methodology ..................................................................................................... 3 Issues and Themes .................................................................................................................. 9 Imperial Identity and the Colonial Hunt ..................................................................................... 11 Recreation and Power..................................................................................................................... 14 The Power of Fair Play ..................................................................................................................... 9 Existing Scholarship on Hunting ....................................................................................... 19 Relation to Broader Historiography .................................................................................. 33 Understanding Colonial Power .................................................................................................... 33 Colonial Bureaucracy ..................................................................................................................... 37 The Sporting Man and the Imperial Ethos .................................................................................. 43 Colonial Identity and Colonial Society ........................................................................................ 50 Metropole and Periphery in the Construction of Imperial Identities ...................................... 54 Sahibs and Shikar: Colonial Hunting and Wildlife in British India, 1800-1935 ........... 61 Chapter 1: British Fair Play in the Indian Jungle: The Evolution of the Colonial Hunter 65 British Character in the Land of Extremes ................................................................................... 69 vi Tradition, Power and Privilege: Hunting in Victorian England ............................................... 74 Making the Rural Hunt ‚Noble‛ ................................................................................. 77 Fair Play and Etiquette: Keeping Tradition Intact in a Time of Change ................ 81 Masculinity, Sport and Fair Play: The New Imperial Man ....................................................... 86 Colonial Hunting and Fair Play: The Evolution of the Sahib .................................................... 94 Game and Fair Play ....................................................................................................... 97 Kindness in Killing ...................................................................................................... 101 The Ruler as British Hunter ........................................................................................ 104 British Hunter versus the Indian Hunter: Creation of Difference .......................................... 108 The British Hunter and the Princely Hunter ............................................................ 108 The Village Shikari in the Colonial Hunt .................................................................. 119 Science, Technology and the Colonial Hunt ............................................................................. 128 Colonial Hunter as an Amateur Naturalist .............................................................. 131 Photography, Taxidermy and the Art of ‚Truthful‛ Representation ................... 134 The Dangers of Technology ........................................................................................ 139 Chapter 2: Hunting and Social Relations in Colonial India ................................................ 144 British Hunters: Defining Colonial Hunting .................................................................. 145 Hunting Clubs ..................................................................................................................... 152 The Calcutta Tent Club ................................................................................................................... 154 Clash of the Titans: The Nilgiri Game Association and The Ootacamund Hunt ............................ 166 Fair Play among Britons .................................................................................................... 173 Privilege and Access to Game: Hunting and Officers of the Raj ................................. 177 vii Chapter 3: Nature and the Exercise of Dominance ............................................................. 197 Danger in the Indian Jungle .............................................................................................. 199 Nobility and Violence ........................................................................................................ 204 Noxious Beasts: Contest and Control .............................................................................. 209 The Problem of ‚Noxious‛ Beasts:
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