CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

CHAPPELLET VINEYARDS:

A CASE STUDY

A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in

Geography

by

Lee Yassinski

I , :

May 1984 The Thesis of Lee Yassinski is approved:

William A. Bowen

Gordon R. Lewthwaite

Robert B. Lamb, c

California State University, Northridge

ii " '

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Unable to thank all those who participated in the preparation of this thesis, I will here thank only those whose contributions made the completion of this work possible. Dr. Robert Lamb more than chaired the committee, he inspired my initial interest in wine. Dr. Gordon

Lewthwaite time and again provided suggestions and en­ couragement whenever my inspiration waned. Dr. William

Bowen offered ideas and directions. Thanks also to

Robert Provin in the Cartography Laboratory, Robert Moore,

USDA soil conservationist in Napa, and finally to my father George Yassinski who helped by proof reading this work.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENT . iii LIST OF TABLES . . vi

LIST OF MAPS vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

ABSTRACT ix

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Areal Reconnaissance 4

Topography 5

Climate 9

Geology 17

Soil 18

Vegetation and Animal Life 20

II. HISTORY . • • . . . . 22

Chappel let 25

III. VITICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT . 30 Environmental Perils at Chappellet 35

IV. VITICULTURAL TECHNIQUES 56

Training . . • . . . 61

Pruning and Crop Control 64 Pests and Diseases ...... 66 Harvest 70

iv ~ '

Chapter Page v. WINE MAKING . . . . 72 Fermentation 76

Red Wines . 77 Malo Lactic Fermentation ...... 79 White Wines . 81

Clarification . 82 Aging 84 Blending and Bottling . 85

CONCLUSION 88

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 90 APPENDIX A . . .• 96

v TABLES

Table Page

1. Temperature Means and Extremes for Three Selected Napa County Weather Stations . 10

2. Mean Annual Temperature Ranges for Selected Stations • . • . . . • . 12

3. Mean Monthly and Yearly Precipitation for Selected Weather Stations . . .

4. Fermenting Vessels at the Chappellet Winery . 77

vi MAPS

Map Page

1. Napa County . . • 2

2. Chappellet Winery and Pritchard Hill 8

3. Chappellet Vineyards • 57

vii FIGURES

Figure Page 1. Cattle Guard and Deer Fence • ...... 39 2. The Chappellet Winery . . 41 3. Grape Crusher ...... 43 4. Fermentation Tanks ...... 45 5. Vineyards and Lake Hennessey • • • • • • • 47

6. Chappellet Winery Behind Deer Fence • • • • 49

7. Deer Fence, Vineyards and Winery 51 8. Fermentation Tanks ...... 53 9. Wooden Barrels ...... 55

viii ABSTRACT

CHAPPELLET VINEYARDS:

A CASE STUDY

by

Lee Yassinski

Master of Arts in Geography

Chappellet Winery is located in the Howell Mountains, east of the Napa Valley in California. Although this winery is unique in its physical setting and history, it is, like dozens of wineries throughout the state, producing limited quantities of distinguished wines. Many of these wineries make wines from the same varieties of Vitis vinifera as those grown in France and Germany. Despite location in completely different social and environmental settings, the wineries of both Napa and Northwestern Europe create wines that are, in many instances, virtually alike.

In this thesis, the geography of only one winery is examined; but Chappellet is representative of many modern

California wineries. Attention is focused first on the

ix " ' physical setting and then on the history of early old­ world cultivation in California, and ultimately at

Chappellet. Environmental factors in grape growing, viti­ cultural techniques, and finally, wine making are dis­ cussed.

As comparisons are made between Chappellet and Europe, it is argued that the great success of the same varieties of vinifera is due to more than the permissive California environment. It is here maintained that it is the people involved, the growers and wine makers, who deserve the most credit. California's strong tradition of experimentation, somewhat in contrast with prevailing old-world conservatism, has enabled Chappellet and other similar establishments to produce wines that may match the finest of Europe.

X " '

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Winemaking is a relatively new activity in California

begun by the Franciscan missionaries in the late Eighteenth

Century. In the two centuries that have passed since the

first grapes were crushed, a large industry,based on the

vision of a few pioneers and the toil of forgotten thou­

sands, has emerged.

The wine industry today is an economic giant, employ­

ing thousands of workers and contributing millions of dol­

lars to the state's economy. Every year, millions of gal­

lons of very drinkable "jug wines" are made in the state.

But the outstanding reputation of California wine is due in

large measure to the many, smaller, quality wine makers.

These latter-day pioneers have embraced both modern tech­

nology and proven, traditional methods. For them wine is

more than a beverage, an industry or an agricultural system.

Many California districts produce wines of distinction,

but the most celebrated area is the greater Napa Valley,

located north of San Francisco. Here, in a variety of

environments ranging from small, steep clearings carved

from the dense forests of the surrounding mountains to the

level expanse of the valley, the vine has truly found a

home (See Map 1, p.2 ). Much of the valley floor today is carpeted with vine­ yards. There are now well over one hundred wineries in the

1 2

5' Map 1 DAPA c 0 U N T Y

LAND OllER 300 meters

-BUILT-UP AREAS

10 o._::::II.:::..C===-=' lc.Hometen 0 5 ill-===•-=:::~...i miles Scale /:437,500

SAN PABLO 8AY p '

3

county and many of these make quality wine. In the Howell

Mountains to the east of the valley, on the slopes of

Pritchard Hill, lies one of these, the Chappellet Winery.

This establishment makes exceptional wines from many of the

same varieties as those of Europe. A Cabernet Sauvignon

from its cellars compares favorably to one from the chateaux of Bordeaux; its Chenin Blanc with those of the Loire, and

its Riesling with those of the Rhine. Yet, like all of

Napa and the rest of California,it is in a setting distinc­ tly different from the diverse native lands of these cultivars.

Why would two areas so different be able to produce so similar a wine? Naturally, not all factors diverge. The procedures for making a standard table wine, for instance, are essentially universal. But can this alone explain the likeness of wines? How can an area of a few hundred acres grow, side by side, varieties that in Ett~ope are cultivated hundreds of kilometers apart, such as the Cabernet in south­ west France and the Riesling in the Rhine Valley? And just how important are environmental factors in influencing qual­ ity in grapes for winemaking? Finally, which are the vari­ ables which have permitted two very different areas, thou­ sands of miles apart, to make very similar, and very good, wine? The purpose of this thesis is to present the reader with a picture of just one winery Chappellet. But this is a case study of one of dozens of similar small to medium­ sized wineries in California that make a remarkable product, 4

and it is a case study which involves a running comparison

with conditions and techniques of wine-making in other and

wider regions of the world.

AREAL RECONNAISSANCE

The Chappellet winery, of course, has its own distinc-

tive setting. The mountain wall of the Howells is broken

by the canyon of Conn Creek. The waters of this stream are

impounded,forming Lake Hennessey. Highway 128 follows the

southern shoreline of the reservoir. On the south side of

the road, two stone pillars mark the road up Pritchard Hill

to the Chappellet Winery. The route immediately steepens

as it winds firstly through an oak parkland and then into

a woodland of shrub. As the ascent continues, a cattle

guard marks the passage througha deer fence into a man-made

landscape of orderly spaced vines (Fig. 1, p. 39). A sign

points to the left, towards a structure partially obscured

by a grove of trees. What at first glance appears to be a

low, rust-colored mountain rising over a grassy embankment

is, in fact, composed of panels of COR-TEN steel obliquely

traversing the surface of the pyramidical roof of the 1 winery (Fig. 2, p. 41).

1 coR-TEN steel is a protective roofing panel that rusts only on its surfaces. 5

In front of the winery lies an expansive concrete

courtyard, with two gleaming stainless steel grape crushers

(Fig. 3 p. 43 ) . When the building is entered through mass-

ive wooden doors, the cool air is chilling. The wood- beamed ceilings of the three-sided pyramid converge at a

shallow angle to an apex high overhead. In the darkness two rows of stainless steel tanks stand on either side of a wide central corridor (Fig. 4, p. 45 ) . Small wooden barrels ar.d white cardboard cases of bottled wine fill both sides. At the end of the corridor, beyond a glass door,is the winery office. In the middle of the building, to one side of the aisle, is a staircase leading up to the trihed- ron's apex and the tasting room. Windows on three sides reveal a panorama of neat rows of vines, woodland, chaparral and grass-covered hills. The blue surface of Lake Hennessey lies below,and beyond that extend the Napa Valley and the

Mayacmas Mountains (See Fig. 5, p. 47 ).

TOPOGRAPHY

The lofty perch of the Chappellet Winery offers an impressive lookout to what is certainly the "winiest" county in the land. In a county of only 758 square miles

(1,963 km 2 ) and 99,199 (1980) people, there are over one hundred wineries, with most located in the Napa Valley it- self. From cool, marsh-covered tidal flats adjacent to the

San Pablo Bay on the south, the valley extends northwesterly 6

for more than forty miles, reaching to beyond the town of

Calistoga. Throughout its entire length and breadth of one to five miles the trough is generally flat, with occasiona~ but very abrupt,interruptions by hilly rock outcrops. Some, such as the Yountville Hills,cover hundreds of acres and rise several hundred feet above the plain.

To the west of the Napa Valley are the Mayacrnas Moun­ tains whose green summits, as seen from the Chappellet

Winery, form the western horizon. They rise steeply and crest along the Sonoma County border to the east. The flanks of the Mayacrnas, clothed with Redwood and Douglas

Fir,are horne to few wineries. The difficulties of growing grapes in a rough terrain which receives up to twice the precipitation of the valley below, makes wine production a challenge there.

Closer at hand, the Howell Mountains emerge abruptly from the valley and attain a plateau-like character. Here lighter precipitation is reflected in a shorter, more open forest. The passage of the seasons is also more apparent; the grasses shrouding the southern and western slopes turn a yellow ochre color by late surrroer, contrasting with the seemingly perpetual verdure of the Mayacrnas.

In terms of terrain, the Howell Mountains are a diffi­ cult environment for the vine, but patches of flat and gentl~ slopes of the Pritchard Hill region have been planted to vineyards,though elsewhere in these uplands few wineries exist. Pritchard Hill itself rises from the waters of Lake 7

Hennessey to the southeast, extending beyond the Chappellet property to an elevation of over two thousand feet.

There is extensive flat and gently sloping land on the estate, between the cellars and the residence, ranging from the 1,060 foot level at the property boundary, and then broadening at 1,160 feet to form an irregularly-shaped triangle. One corner of this area reaches the lower storage pond, the other corner is at the 1,160 level a quarter mile to the northeast, and the third corner is in the terraces above the Chappellet residence, at about 1,500 feet. The large area between 1,160 and 1,220 foot elevations is almost flat, having an average of a5.5% slope. Just above this, several rock outcrops occur {Map. 2, p. 8 }. This triangular area is fully covered with vineyards.

Another large expanse of relatively flat land is in the southwest portion of the holding, a section now planted with twenty acres of new vineyards. On the lower slope of

Pritchard Hill, below the Chappellet property, there is less flat land, and terraces have been constructed to accommodate the vines. On the Chappellet estate itself terraces have been carved from the slopes above and below the residence.

Uphill from Chappellet property, a considerable amount of flat land exists on the plateau above the 1,800 foot level.

Flat and gently sloping terrain is a distinct feature in an otherwise mountainous landscape.

Another important feature of Pritchard Hill is the small creek tumbling down through the Chappellet estate to 8

CHAPPELLET WINERY and PRITCHARD Topography and Chappellet Property Delimitations scale: 1/ 11,856

0 9

Lake Hennessey. Even though the brook carries only a small

volume at most times, it is nevertheless important: it

supplies water to three storage reservoirs on the estate.

The largest of these is located just east of the creek, at

the edge of a patch of vineyard.

CLIMATE

In addition to slope and stream flow, climate is one

of the most critical environme~tal factors affecting the

quality of grapes and the wine they yield. Pritchard Hill,

like the Napa Valley and ultimately the rest of California,

is caressed by westerly winds blowing across the western

edge of the continent, as in western Europe: westerly winds

and a westerly location prevail.

Thus, the vineyards of California and Western Europe enjoy relatively moderate and benign climates. Ocean-born winds mitigate extremes of temperature, bring much of the precipitation, and, to a significant extent, overlie local weather patterns.

Local climatic variations, however, result from differ­ ences in topographic features. Mountains, lowlands, local bodies of water, and other features, all act to modify the climate. Every important wine-producing region in Europe is affected by some aspect of the local topography. In

Germany's Rheingau, the Taunus Hills protect the area from TABLE I

TEMPERATURE MEANS AND EXTREMES FOR THREE SELECTED NAPA COUNTY WEATHER STATIONS*

STATION Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year

DUTTONS LANDING Highest 82 79 88 89 95 106 103 102 102 97 85 78 106 Mean Max. 55.3 60.1 63.9 78.2 70.9 76.4 76.9 78.1 78.9 74.4 65.7 56.8 68.9 Mean Min. 36.1 40.4 41.0 43.3 46.9 51.3 52.5 53.0 51.0 47.6 42.0 37.3 45.2 Mean Temp. 45.7 50.3 52.5 55.8 58.9 63.9 64.7 65.6 65.0 61.0 53.9 47.1 57.0 Lowest 24 26 30 32 34 39 43 40 42 33 28 26 24

ST HELENA Highest 83 80 90 95 105 111 111 111 113 103 92 83 113 Mean Max. 56.3 61.3 64.9 71.2 77.1 84.0 89.7 89.1 87.2 77.4 65.6 57.1 73.4 Mean Min. 35.5 38.1 38.8 41.7 46.1 50.2 51.9 51.1 48.9 45.2 40.6 37.0 43.8 Mean Temp. 45.9 49.7 51.9 56.5 61.6 67.1 78.8 70.1 68.1 61.3 53.1 47.1 58.6 Lowest 19 22 24 27 32 36 39 38 35 23 23 19 19

POPE VALLEY Highest 80 80 82 92 101 109 110 107 113 104 92 80 113 Mean Max. 56.4 60.9 64.6 71.5 76.5 83.8 93.0 92.5 89.0 78.6 68.5 58.5 74.6 Mean Min. 34.2 37.2 37.6 41.5 45.3 51.6 54.7 53.4 49.7 43.5 37.8 34.6 43.4 Mean Temp. 45.3 49.0 51.1 56.5 60.9 68.7 73.8 73.0 69.4 61.0 53.2 46.6 59.0 Lowest 15 19 23 27 32 35 41 44 33 27 18 16 15

* In degrees Fahrenheit. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, u.s. Weather Bureau, The Climate of Napa County, by c. Robert Elford, San Francisco, 1972.

1--' 0 11

2 cold, northerly winds. And in the Bordeaux, the nearby

Atlantic Ocean and Gironde estuary both lessen temperature differences. In the case of the Napa area, local topography is also very significant.

The Coast Ranges, a series of parallel mountains generally trending in a northwesterly direction and sepa- rated by alluvial plains, are completely severed at only one point, the San Francisco Bay area. Here the estuary permits maritime air to flow farther inland, and as the Napa

Valley extends northwesterly for some forty miles from the northern end of the.San Pablo Bay, it is penetrated by cool moist breezes. Dutton Landing, located on the Napa River some six miles south of the town of Napa, thus experiences lower monthly means and more moderate extremes than do St.

Helena and Pope Valley (See Table 1).

Somewhat similar conditions prevail at Bordeaux, Dijon and GeisenPeim, three European stations where the same vari- eties as Chappellet are grown. The annual range for Bor­ deaux near the Atlantic Ocean is less than that of Dijon in

Eastern France and Geisenheim in the Rheingau. St. Helena, near Chappellet, has a smaller range than any of the three

European stations above (Table 2).

2Alexis Lichine, Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), p. 392. 12

Table 2. Mean Annual Temperature Ranges forSelectedStations

Station Annual Range

a 0 California F. 0 c.

San Francisco 11.6 6.4 Dutton Landing 19.9 11.1 St. Helena 24.9 13.8 Pope Valley 28.5 15.8

Europe b

Bordeaux 25.9 14.4 Dijon 32.9 18.3 Geisenheim 32.6 18.1

a Ernest L. Felton, California's Many Climates, (Palo Alto, CA.: Pacific Books, 1965), p. 1. b CLINO data from U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA, World Weather Records 1961-1970. Vol. 2, Europe, (1979).

Besides temperature, precipitation is another signi- ficant variable. The same maritime winds which moderate temperatures bring winter storms that water the land.

Rains and, at higher latitudes, snow, are brought by the advancing fronts of middle latitude cyclones. In contrast to the French region$,the bulk of the moisture arrives in the winter rainy season lasting from November through

April, with only minimal amounts coming in the remainder of the year. Precipitation data for such California stations as Dutton Landing, St. Helena~ Pope Valley, Calistoga, and the four others placed in juxtaposition with data from 13

three European stations (Table 3) indicate the contrast; precipitation in California is winter maximum.

In Napa County, transitional in location, precipitation increases greatly from south to north. The extreme south- east corner receives an average of less than twenty inches a year, while portions of the Mayacmas Mountains, and the upper slopes of Mt. St. Helena, have averages which exceed sixty inches per.year.

Precipitation falls mainly as rain, but even at lower elevations some measurable snowfall,though commonly only a trace, is usually recorded yearly.

St. Helena, at an elevation of 225 feet, averages 0.1 inches of snow per year. Angwin, at an elevation of 1,815 feet in the Howell Mountains,has a yearly average of 3.1 inches, while a weather station at an altitude of 2,300 feet on the upper slopes of Mt. St. Helena has recorded 3 a yearly mean of 18.3 inches of snow. The Chappellet vine- yards located mainly above an elevation of 1,000 feet, are reported to receive some snowfalls on the property most 4 years; however, there is no accurate data.

3u.s. Department of Commerce, Climate of Napa Co., Table 23.

4rnterview with various winery personnel, Chappellet Winery, April 1980. TABLE 3

MEAN MONTHLY AND YEARLY PRECIPITATION FOR ELEVEN SELECTED WEATHER STATIONS*

STATION Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept.Oct. Nov. Dec. Year

NAPA COUNTYa Dutton Landing 4.27 3.70 2.84 1.37 0.69 0.18 0.01 0.03 0.14 1.04 2.04 3.94 20.25 St. Helena 8.30 5.60 4.08 2.59 0.73 0.29 0.03 0.11 0.24 2.11 4.27 7.03 35.40 Pope Valley 6.75 5.99 4.28 2.40 0.94 0.24 0.02 0.06 0.27 1.65 2.98 6.53 32.10 Calistoga 8.35 6.26 4.45 2.97 0.85 0.35 0.01 0.13 0.30 2.24 4.54 7.30 37.75

CALIFORNIAb Eureka 6.93 6.05 5.30 3.09 1.99 0.82 0.12 0.17 0.88 2.66 5.16 6.40 39.57 San Francisco 4.68 3.65 3.07 1.51 0.66 0.15 0.01 0.02 0.27 0.92 2.39 4.49 21.82 Fresno 1.72 1.51 1.63 0.91 0.37 0.11 0.01 0.01 0.15 0.56 0.89 1.57. 9.44 Los Angeles 3.01 3.12 2.67 1.02 0.35 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.19 0.58 1.18 2.79 15.02

EUROPEc Bordeaux 3.54 2.85 2.48 1.89 2.40 2.56 2.20 2.76 3.30 3.27 3.75 4.29 35.13 Dijon 2.52 1.65 1.65 1.81 2.57 3.19 2.29 3.03 2.83 2.36 2.95 2.24 29.09 Geisenheim 1.69 1.38 1.18 1.46 2.13 2.20 2.13 2.36 1.73 1.54 1.65 1.65 21.10

* in inches a SOURCES: u.s. Dept. of Commerce. The Climate of Napa County. b Ernest L. Felton, California's Many Climates (Palo Alto, CA: Pacific Books, 1965), pp. 149, 34, 106, 65. c CLINO data from U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, World Weather Records 1963-1970 Vol. 2, Europe (1979), pp.68, 72, 98.

~ ~ 15

Even though the region as a whole lies in a zone of prevailingwesterlywind, local winds from the San Pablo Bay predominate. The Napa Valley acts as a funnel, channeling moderating breezes deep inland. This is especially impor­ tant in summer, when cooling currents in the afternoon lower temperatures almost every evening -- a condition beneficial to grape growing.

Relative humidity, a measure of the potential amount of moisture in the air for a given temperature, is most significant during the arid summer season. At that time, moisture in the air lowers evaporation and modifies tem­ peratures. During winter storms, there is little variation in humidity within the county: these massive storms cover vast areas and topography plays a small role. In summer, on the other hand, local features in landscape predominate.

Hence, those areas near the bay have higher humidity. Up the valley, the same diurnal winds which moderate late afternoon temperatures also bring fog and low clouds. In the hills flanking the valley, and in northern Napa, these cooling moistening winds often do not reach the higher elevations, leaving these locations sunnier and warmer than the flatlands below.

Other aspects of weather which affect the amount of sunshine are fog and cloud cover. Late afternoon winds which modify temperatures and increase humidity also diminish potential sunshine in the dry surnrrter season, but during the winter, diurnal winds are not a major weather 16

p ' factor. Clouds in the winter season are related to winter ·I storms and then proximity to San Pablo Bay, topography, and

local winds, all cease to be important factors governing

potential sunshine and humidity. The winter storms affect

the cloud cover of the regions adjacent to the Bay in the

same ways as they affect regions further inland. Of course

certain areas in the mountains receive considerably more

precipitation than other lower areas, and cloud cover is by

no means uniform throughout Napa County and its vicinity.

In summary, Napa County is bathed by a moderate cli­ mate in which the elements are neither excessive nor defi­ cient. Temperatures are, even for the most continental

stations in the area, rather warm in the cold season, and even though occasionally hot in the summer, are tempered by cooling late-afternoon winds from the Bay. Precipita­ tion is primarily a winter phenomenon, ranging from 20 to

40 inches per annum. Even in the heat of summer, moist marine air reduces evaporation: it also contributes a small amount of moisture to the total. Essentially two patterns of weather overlie the climatic system, and to a signifi82nt degree are part of it: the first is the diurnal pattern of winds which predominate in summer, modifying temperatures, increasing moisture, reducing sunshine by means of clouds and acting to modify what would other- wise not be so moderate a climate. The second pattern is that of winter precipitation, a seasonal concentration which means that less moisture is lost in the form 17

of evaporation and plant transpiration. It also carries the implication that native vegetation is adapted to this condition, and that introduced vegetation must be either similarly adapted or be adjusted to resist summer drought.

One way plants resist drought is to do what grape-vines do -- sink their roots deep into the ground. At Chappellet, the vines penetrate into soils derived from the geological formations below them.

GEOLOGY

The geology of Pritchard Hill is the result of millions of years of forces raising, lowering, eroding anddepositing.

These forces have not ceased, but their actions today are almost imperceptible. Although there are geological variations on Pritchard Hill, the Sonoma Volcanics are dominant.

Although the Sonoma Volcanics overlie older strata, other rocks are also found on Pritchard Hill, and also contribute to the soil. Scattered about are igneous mate­ rials of serpentine, periodite and pyroxenite, all probably from the Jurassic which preceded the Pliocene by about 120 million years. At the base of Pritchard Hill is the only significant deposition of sandstone which dates from the

Knoxville epoch of the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous. periods.

The major geological agent in the area is the Conn 18

Valley Fault. This fault line lies at the bottom of Sage

Canyon, and under Lake Hennessey at the bottom of the hill.

The Conn Valley is probably associated with the St. John

Mountain thrust fault, a major east-west trending fault cutting across the Napa Valley and the Mayacmas Mountains.

The Sonoma Volcanics are the parent material of the reddish-brown Sobrante soil series which form the predo­ minant vine bearing soil of Chappellet.

SOIL

As elsewhere, the soil of Pritchard Hill is a frontier of the biosphre. Beneath it lie the inorganic rocks and minerals which provide about two-thirds of the bulk of the living soil: the remaining one-third is the organic.portion, much of which is composed of plant roots and decaying matter of recently introduced dead organisms. Various living creatures are significant members of the living soil.

These include the earthworms and the tiny nematodes, fungi and bacteria, and range in size up to small burrowing mammals.

The non-living portion of the organic fraction of soil includes organic compounds. The most important of these is calcium carbonate which wea~s rapidly in wet environ­ ments. Soil water is yet another component of the organic earth. But it is more than pure H 0. Soil water carries 2 in solution various salts and other nutrients which are 19

utilized by the vines.

Most of the soil consists of inorganic material, and

it contains minerals which often affect plant life. Soil

classification is ultimately based on the inorganic part,

and the classification of the soils of Pritchard Hill is

according to the system described in the Soil Survey of

Napa County. 5

Classification is based on distinct layers called horizons, several horizons together form a soil profile,

and the latter extends from surface to parent material below. Soil series include several different but similar types of profiles with arrangements and thicknesses that 6 are very much alike.

5 one of many such works that individually cover a series of California counties, and are, unless otherwise stated, the source of further definitions used here. United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, with University of California Agricultural Experiment Station, Soil Survey of Napa County, CA (Berkeley, 1978).

6 An association is a unit, larger than a series, for delimiting soils. Such an association is composed of several series adjacent to one another. All the series display several similarities, such as their situation (slope, elevation) and their general climatic circums­ tance. The soil survey indicates eleven such associations for Napa County. The primary association in the Pritchard Hill area is association number five, called Bressa-Dibble­ Sobrante, "moderately sloping to very steep, well drained loams, silt loams, and silty clay loams on uplands. 11 This association receives its triple name because ninety percent of the soils are actually composed of soils of the three named series. Together they cover 29 percent of the county. ibid. 20

On Pritchard Hill itself, it is the soils of the

Sobrante series which predominate. These occur on the slopes of 5 to 50 percent, between elevations of 400 and

2,000 feet. A typical soil includes a surface horizon about six inches thick, brown colored and slightly acidic.

Lower horizons may be reddish yellow, light brown and pink, about 24 inches thick; at a depth of 30 inches lies the parent material, which, in the case of Sobrante series soils is, as has been seen, sandstone derived from Sonoma Vol- canics. These soils are further divided into two catego- ries. The first has slopes of less than 30 percent, the second exceeding 30 percent. In the Sobrante series, both soil categories are essentially loam, with quartz, feldspar an d mica- as t h e pr1mary . const1tuents:. 7 the reddish-brown color of these soils is due to other components such as ferric hydrous oxides.

VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE

But soils are linked to vegetation too, and the vine- yard plots of Pritchard Hill are surrounded by a broadleaf evergreen forest community similar to that of vine-growing

7E. Walter Russell, Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, lOth ed. (London: Longman, 1973), p. 70. 21

areas of Mediterranean Europe such as southern France, 8 Spain and Italy. The principal trees in the Chappellet region include Oregon oak (Quercus garryana), interior live oak (Q. wislizeni} and tanbark oak (Lithocarpus densiflora), which grow to heights of between fifteen and forty feet in mixed groves or homogeneously. In addition to the previ- ously mentioned tanbark and interior live oaks, this community also includes the golden chinquapin {Castanopsis chrysolepis), California laurel {Umbellularia californica}, coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia and madrone (Arbutus menziesii}.

The animal members of this forest community include the m~le deer (Odocoileus hemionus}and r~coon (Procyon lotor), 9 both pests at Chappellet. Other conspicuous animals are the coyote (Canis latrans), black-tailed jack-rabbit (Lepus californicus}, and many species of birds including the red- tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) and brewer blackbird

(Euphaguscyanocephalus), though these impinge less directly on the success of the winery.

8 Geoffrey S. Browne, ed., The Atlas of Europe: A Profile of Western Europe, (Edinburgh: John Bartholomew, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974)

9see p. above for a review of animal pests at Chappellet. 0 •

CHAPTER II HISTORY

The modern method of grape growing and wine making employed at Chappellet and elsewhere throughout the world is the result of thousands of years of experimentation and . 1 re f 1nement. It was not, however, until the pioneering work of Louis Pasteur in the latter half of the nineteenth century that a scientific approach to the subject brought wine making out of its so-called dark age. 2 In addition, by the time Pasteur's wine-related studies ended in 1877, the growing of grapes had achieved a world- wide distribution: it was well established in Napa County. The vicissitudes of Prohibition, the Great Depression, World War II and overproduction in the 1950's were a troublesome fifty-year prelude to the Wine Revolution. When Donn Chappellet came to the Valley in 1967, the wine industry was beginning its most recent, and perhaps its most significant,period of development-- the "Wine

1see Appendix A for a Wine Chronology, outlining major events from the earliest cultivations of the vine, to Mr. Chappellet's arrival in the Napa Valley.

2 See page 72 below for a discussion on Pasteur's role in wine making.

22 23

Revolution." This period has been characterized by a rapid

increase in the premium grape acreage, an ever-expanding

number of quality "boutique" wineries, and an involvement

of large corporate enterprises in the industry.

In Napa County, the progress of the wine revolution

is recorded by statistics indicating acreage of vineyards.

In 1966 there were less than 9,000 acres. In each year

that followed, from 1967 to 1974, there was an increase

in acreage over the preceding year, with each succeeding

year respectively seeing the addition,of 648, 715, 748,

951, 1,478, 2,654 and 2,991 acres. In 1974, after an

enormous crop of some 3,750,000 tons statewide, grape 3 prices fell some twenty-five to fifty percent. Inevitably

the pace of the boom somewhat abated. In the next year,

1975, vineyards in Napa County increased their extent by

only 1,076 acres, bringing total bearing and non-bearing

areas to 23,056 acres. By 1979 wine grapes covered about 4 24,500 acres.

Although the increase of vineyard land in the county

has diminished, the wine revolution is continuing. The

greatest evidence of its durability is the large number of

3John Melville and Jefferson Morgan, Guide to Califor­ nia Wines (New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1976), pp. 4-5.

4Moira Johnston, "Napa, California's Valley of the Vine," National Geographic CLV (May, 1979), 705. 24

new wineries, some of which have attained international reputation. 5 Today, there are over one hundred wineries in the county, and more are on the way. A decade ago there were fewer than thirty.

An important aspect of recent development is the part- icipation of large corporations in the wine industry. The list of wineries absorbed by corporate interests include many famous and distinguished names like Beaulieu and 6 Inglenook, both now controlled by R.J. Reynolds Industries.

Many other corporate interests also became involved, a few no doubt with large profits in mind. When the wine revolu- tion slowed following 1974, corporate participation in the wine business narrowed to those companies with patience.

In 1977 Moet & Chandon, one of the largest and most famous champagne producers in France, came to the Napa

Valley. Domaine Chandon, as it is known in the valley, is yet another symbol of international recognition of the

5A famous demonstration of outstanding quality of California table wines occured on May 24, 1976. On that date, a blind tasting of several top California and French table wines was conducted. Judging the event were several top French wine experts. When the judgments were concluded a California Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay had won over their French counterparts. Both of the top winners were products of Napa wineries. Moira Johnston, "The Year California Won the Pennant," New West I (August 2, 1976), pp.BB-89.

6Melville and Morgan, Guide to California Wines, p.5. 25

7 quality of Napa wine.

Despite the presence of large corporate interests in

Napa's wine making industry, it is the small wineries, such as Chappellet, which are owned singly or by a limited number of partners, which have maintained the impetus of the wine revolution.

CHAP PELLET

In 1965, DonnChappellet was a successful executive in an industrial food service company, a wine connoisseur, and a member of a prominent Los Angeles family. That same year, Chappellet decided to give up urban living and do something different, and hopefully more fulfilling, in a location congenial to a large active family. Wine, Cha- ppellet's hobby, seemed the answer. The idea of making wine may have been formulated during a trip made with his wife, Molly,to the wine country of Napa after his gradua- tion from Pomona College. Wine, the hobby, Chappellet decided, would become wine a livelihood.

The project was furthered when Chappellet was intro- duced to winemaker Philip Togni by wine writer Roy Brady, and a search for a suitable vineyard property began.

Eventually 320 acres were found on Pritchard Hill in the

7Michael Topolos and Betty Dopson, Napa Valley Wine Tour (St. Helena, CA: Vintage Image, 1977), p. 87. 26

Howell Mountains east of the valley, but a year-and-a-half 8 elapsed before the sale of the property was completed.

Finally, in late 1967, Donn Chappellet procured his land. A bonus attached to this particular property was the fact that it was already planted in quality varietals of v. vinifera. The benefits of this site for grape growing had not gone unnoticed. Vines were first planted on 9 Pritchard Hill in the l880's. In 1964, 50 acres of Chenin

Blanc, Riesling, Cabernet Sauvignon and Napa Gamay were planted on the future Chappellet property. Philip Togni 10 would have grapes to make wine for the 1968 harvest.

Unfortunately there was still no winery on the property.

That would be the next challenge.

It was decided at the beginning that the winery would be thoroughly modern, capable of producing the finest wines, and also architecturally distinctive. Edward Moses, an artist, and architects Arthur Erickson and Jeffrey Lindsay designed the building. Structural engineer Richard Keith executed the design. During the 1968 harvest, the winery

8 Roy Brady, interview at Mr. Brady's Northridge home, June 1980.

9Robert Benson, Great Winemakers of California (Santa Barbara: Capra Press, 1977), p. 164.

10Ruth Teiser and Catherine Harroun, "Chappellet: A Hilltop Romance," Wine World VIII (March-April, 1979}, 13. 27

was still under constru~tion, but a year later when the imposing structure was complete and ready to handle the 11 1969 harvest, winemaker Phil Togni had a most modern and 12 well equipped facility at his disposa1.

Also in 1969, the Chappellet estate doubled in size from the original 320 acres to the present 640 acres. The additional land would provide room to expand the extent of the vineyards. More land was planted in Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, and some of the existing Napa Gamay was grafted to Chardonnay.

Since the birth of the enterprise there have been many changes at Chappellet: new personnel, steady growth, and,in 1977, financial solvency after only nine years of 13 operation! Throuqhout the succession of winemakers who followed Phil Togni -- Joseph Cafaro, Randy Mason, Anthony

11 The 1969 vintage was the first one made at Chappe­ llet, but the first wine with the Chappellet label was a 1968 Chenin Blanc, made at the Robert Mondavi Winery.

12 Phil Togni brought to Chappellet a varied inter­ national background including many years in Spain, France and Chile, as well as experience in various California wineries. Roy Brady, "Chappellet Winery ... a dream come true," Wine World I (December-January, 1972),22.

13 Nine years is a remarkably short period of time. Success in the wine business is difficult. 28

Soter and now Cathy Corison -- the emphasis at Chappellet

has always remained the same, to produce a relatively small

amount of fine wine. In 1978 the anticipated maximum winery production of 14 25,000 cases per year was achieved. After more than a

decade of consistent growth, new plantings at Chappellet,

the managing of neighboring vineyards, and the processing 15 of their grapes, the winery at last reached capacity.

But growth is still occurring at Chappellet; in spring

of 1980, 20 acres of the estate were prepared for the

planting of Chenin Blanc. Additional small acreages may yet be planted, but whatever growth may occur in the 15 future will be small, and must be manageable. "Bigness and consistent quality just don't go together," Donn

Chappellet maintains. Any future expansion will be made only if qu3lity is not sacrificed. In Chappellet's opinion " perhaps ten California wineries ... produce wines equal to the best of Europe." But he feels that these wineries do not consistently produce exceptional wines,

14 Teiser and Harroun, "Chappel let," 13.

15chappellet (and many other wineries} build their facilities with an over capacity, and an efficient use of the facilities is obtained by tending other vineyards, as well as processing their own wine. 29

16 year after year. His goal and ultimate hope is that his wines achieve excellence comparable to the finest in the world. His dedication, and the striving of many other

California winemakers, is that this goal may become common reality.

16Benson, Great Winemakers of California, p. 166. CHAPTER III

VITICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Vitis vinifera, was carried poleward by Roman legions into ever-restricting environments. Particular varieties survived in the northern environments resulting in a dis- tinction between those of the heartland Mediterranean and 1 mid-latitude Europe. But of the more than five-thousand cultivars and the fewer than one hundred and fifty varie- ties now used in the world today, less than a dozen produce wine of distinction. These select few are almost exclu­ 2 sively of non-Mediterranean evolution.

1 cultivars of Mediterranean origin include: Carignane, Muscat, Nebbiolo, Syrah, Thompson Seedless and Zinfandel. These grape vines thrive best in areas that are suffi­ ciently \varm during the growing season to produce a wine which is high in alcohol. The very warmth of the weather, however contributes to a wine with low acidity and less fruitiness, (non-Mediterranean) origin wines on the other hand have adapted to a cooler growing season. The resul­ tant wines of these grapes are usually lower in alcohol but higher in acidity and more fruity. Low alcohol in these wines is sometimes a problem, but the higher acidity and greater fruitiness are beneficial to the taste of the finished product. Philip Wagner, "Wines, Grape Vines and Climate," Scientific American CCXXX (June, 1974), 107.

2 Among the most famous varieties that produce wines of distinction are: Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Riesling, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Sauvignon, Blanc and Semillon; all of which are from temperate Europe. The first five are planted at Chappellet.

30 31

Pushed to its environmental margins in northwestern

Europe, this group is vulnerable to a myriad of environ- mental perils. The most significant of these include low temperatures, precipitation at harvest time, hail and d amag1.ng. w1.n . d-· 3

For the wine growers in northwestern Europe and in much of the world, there is perhaps no more important critical temperature factor than frost. In France and

Germany frosts are common and are particularly destructive when they occur after the vine has leafed out and exposed the vulnerable young leaves to killing cold. At 25° F. 4 or less most varieties of vinifera are affected.

To prevent or lessen the impact of low temperatures, the vines are planted on slopes to make use of air drainage.

Another means of combating frost is aligning the vine rows to achieve the maximum solar exposure. In Germany's Mosel

Valley, the vineyards are placed on an approximate north- south axis, even though that often means the rows point steeply down hill, a situation which causes erosion of the 5 precious slate stone soils.

3 Harm de Blij, Wine, a Geographical Appreciation (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allenheld, 1983), p. 95.

4 A.J. Winkler, General Viticulture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962), p. 422.

5 Frank Johnson, "The Wines of the Mosel: part II'-'. Wine World VII (July-August, 1979), 14. 32

Agricultural technology has made other frost-fighting measures available to the cultivator. In the Napa Valley below Chappellet, the most visible of these are the wind machines. These are nothing more than motor-driven pro- pellers ten to twenty feet above the ground. They mix cold surface air with the warmer air of the temperature inver- sion. Wind machines are generally effective, but they are expensive. Heaters are also used to warm cold surface air, but are equally expensive. Water applied to vines may also prevent cold damage to the shoots and flower clusters. 6 Sprinklers are cost-effective if the vineyard must otherwise be irrigated, but questionable if used exclusively for frost protection.

Even in areas that experience frosts with regularity, the expense of frost protection devices is often not worth the benefits. Most wine grape varieties will recommence growth with appropriate pruning, even after moderately severe damage. Pruning after a frost, and pruning to delay bud break, even with reduced production, is probably the most economical method. 7 Another temperature factor which affects European vineyards is winter kill. This occurs when the dormant

6When water changes from a solid to a liquid state, 80 calories of heat per gram of water are released.

7Bruce E. Bearden, "Frost Protection uses a Variety of Devices," California Agriculture XXXIV (July, 1980), 38. 33

vine is exposed to temperatures of 0°F. or less,damaging 8 or even killing the vine. European vineyards are subject to these rare winter kills, such as the devastating 1709 and, more recently, the February, 1956 disaster which effectively wiped out vineyards as far south as the Saint 9 Emilion area of Bordeaux. Areas that frequently experi­ 10 ence winter kills grow the vine only with difficulty.

Insufficient heat for proper ripening of grapes is a temperature factor which routinely affects many of the colder districts of France and Germany. The average tern- perature for growth of most cultivars of vinifera is 11 (10 0 C.). If the cumulative heat summation during the growing season is inadequate, grapes will not

8 Maynar d A. Amer1ne. an d Vernon L. S1ng. 1 eton, W1ne: . an Introduction for Americans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), p. 43.

9 Alexis Lichine, Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974~p.34.

10The vine is grown in colder areas, but only with a great deal of ~ffort. In these areas with winter low tem­ peratures of 0 F. or below, V. vinifera vines are buried for the winter beneath loose d1rt or saw dust, as is done in the Soviet Union. ibid., p. 34.

11Enological regions in California have beenclassified on a scale of "degree-days," a measure of heat summation which registers the length of time the temperature remains above 50 F. between April 1st and October 3lst0 Thus if the mean temperature over a five-day period was 70 F, the "summation" of heat would be (70-50=20)x5=100 degree days. Region I 2,500 degree days or less Region II 2,500 3,000 degree days Region III 3,000 3,500 degree days Region IV 3,500 4,000 degree days Region v More than 4,000 degree days 34

have enough sugar to make a sound,natural wine. In

Germany, for example, sugar is often added to crushed 12 grapes to raise alcohol content. Cloud cover and fog clearly affect heat summation by a reduction of hours of sunshine.

Adequate precipitation is needed by the vine to successfully grow, but when it comes during the harvest season it can be a major hazard. The vineyards of mid- latitude Europe, unlike those of the Mediterranean and California, receive precipitation in the summer and early autumn. Precipitation during the period of maturation will 13 reduce acid and sugar in the grape. Wet weather also 14 promotes fungus diseases which will reduce the harvest.

Hail, although infrequent in Europe and California, can be devastating to the vine. When a hailstorm occurs it can virtually destroy the harvest potential, as was the case in Souterne, France in 1951, 1952 and 1973. Hail also 15 damaged California vineyards in Mendocino County in 1982.

12Alec H. Gold, ed., Wines and Spirits of the World (Chicago: Follett Publish1ng Company, 1972), p. 229.

13For a comparison of monthly precipitation totals between various California and European stations, see Table 3, p.l4 below.

14Lichine, New Encyclopedia of Wines, p. 34

15 d e Bl'1J, · w·1ne, p. 97 . 35

Winds are a local problem of some districts and vineyards, due to the fragile nature of vine shoots; 16 Bordeaux, for instance, is subjected to high winds, while 17 the Cote d'Or in Burgundy is relatively free of them.

ENVIRONMENTAL PERILS AT CHAPPELLET

While growing grapes on Pritchard Hill is not subject to as many hazards as in Europe, it is not without problems.

Unlike France and Germany, Chappellet has very few tempe- rature-related hazards. Spring frost is not only rare, but restricted to a few pockets. No other temperature factor is critical for grape growing, but some others do 18 affect grape quality. The only other significant weather variable at Chappellet is the rare occurrence of tropical cyclones which spread northward as tropical storms and bring rain at harvest time. When this occurs, they can be as injurious as fall rains in Europe. Other hazards at

Chappel let result from growing the vine in the difficult environment of Pritchard Hill. Among these are animal pest~

16 L1c' h'1ne, Encyc 1 ope d'1a o f rN1nes, ' p. 35 .

17 d e Bl'1J, · w·1ne, p. 98 .

18Among the temperature factors which influence grape quality are total degree days affecting sugar, night-time temperatures which govern acidity,and chilling in dormancy. 36

the steep terrain and the risk of fire.

Animal pests are a problem at many vineyards, but

at Chappellet, located in a relatively wild area, they

are more than a nuisance. Deer fences and other measures

are employed to combat them. 19 (Figs. 6 and 7 pp. 49, 51)

The most obvious difficulty of the environment is

the terrain itself. Growing the vine on steep slopes

involves leveling land. It also means that all the routine

tasks of vineyard cultivation, such as weeding, pruning

and harvesting, are more difficult and costly. Lower yields of grapes are another cost of hillside viticulture.

All varieties at Chappellet, excepting Chenin Blanc,

average about two tons per acre, which is one-half the 20 yield achieved on the floor of Napa Valley.

Still another hazard at Chappellet is fire, but

fortunately, it remains only potential. Fire in California

is usually accompanied by hot, dry winds. In September

1982, an extensive fire reached the edges of some northern

Napa Valley vineyards, but none of these were damaged by 21 the conflagration.

19 For more on animal pests see p.68 above.

20 Tony Soter, interview at Chappellet, April 1980.

21 d e B1'l.J · , w·1.ne, p. 99 . 37

In summary, Chappellet is relatively blessed environ­ mentally, and this permits the utilization of a variety of quality cultivars from the more restrictive environments of northwestern Europe. 38

Cattle guard and deer fence

Fig. 1 3 9 , .

40 I '

The Chappellet Winery.

Fig. 2 , . 42

Grape crusher.

Fig. 3 43 44

Fermentation tanks.

Fig. 4 , 46

Vineyards and Lake Hennessey.

Fig. 5 47 # . 48

Chappellet Winery behind deer fence.

Fig. 6 49 50

Deer fence, vineyards and winery

Fig. 7 r::: .. ) .:. 52

Fermentation Tanks

Fig. 8 .53 54

Wooden barrels.

Fig. 9 , . 55 CHAPTER IV

VITICULTURAL TECHNIQUES

Viticultural practices are not determined exclusively by the weather. For instance, many techniques are specific to the variety of vinifera being cultivated.

Others may be responses to the challenges of the environ­ ment, such as pests and diseases. Still others are funda­ mental facets of the art and science of practical grape­ growing in the field. No act of viticulture is more basic than the establishment of a vineyard, and by following the actual procedures of preparing a vineyard, the observer may discern the basic operations of vine culture.

In early 1980 an additional vineyard was planted in the rolling uplands of the Chappellet estate. Carved from a previously unfarmed saddle of land perched between two hilltops, twenty acres planned for future cultivation lay isolated from the main fields some half rr.ile to the north.

The land looked bleak in April of that year, the earth naked -- stripped of its vegetative clothing. Weeks before the first step in preparing the land, all that followed was made possible the removal of all trees, shrubs and rocks. (See Map 3 for Chappellet Vineyard Map p. 57).

On very steep surfaces, the land is often leveled.

But- this was not necessary here as the slope was only moderate. It was decided that the soil would not be

56 57 r-----1 Map 3' I I I I I I l __ ------

---- 1 CHAP PELLET WINERY VINEYARD

MAP N VINEYARDS l PROPERTY LINE

0 400 • --====---===:!J meters 0-==-=--=====/000 feet

Scale 1: 10,800 LYB3 58

fumigated at Chappellet, even though this is usually done to eliminate nematodes and oak root fungus, two maladies 1 which often afflict crops grown in untreated soil.

Once the soil was in an acceptable condition, the actual laying out of the vine rows was begun. Although the ground was moderately sloping, erosion was a concern.

Other considerations in laying out the vine rows included solar exposure and potential wind damage. Therefore rows were not set on a true contour, but though actually straight, they did follow the general contour of the slope.

The rows were oriented approximately north-south, thereby achieving excellent exposure to the sun, and this align- ment, at Chappellet, also happened to be satisfactory for reducing wind-caused injury.

Before the vines could be planted, a deer fence was erected to surround the entire vineyard. This was absolu- tely essential: all the vineyards at Chappellet are pro- tected by deer fencing. In the Howell Mountains, the deer 2 and racoon are injurious to the vine and its fruit.

1Personal correspondence from Tony Soter, wine maker at Chappellet Vineyards, California, April 1981.

2see page 66 above for more on animal pests at Chappellet. 59

The remaining steps involved actually planting the vines and then installing the necessary posts and trellis wires. After the posts were placed and the trellis wire strung, the vines were planted. The rows were placed ten feet apart, and the vines spaced every seven feet. A pattern expressed as "7xl0" spacing. All the remaining vineyards at Chappellet were spaced at "8xl2" which is standard for many dry-farmed vineyards in the North Coast area. The new Chenin Blanc plantings were, of course, irrigated. This permitted the vines to be grown closer together. The proper spacing of vines allowed them enough room to flourish, permitting ample access to farm imple- ments used for cultivation and harvesting, and yet was dense enough to provide for an adequate and profitable 3 crop level.

The rootstock used was AxR No. 1, virus free and heat treated. The scion which was grafted to the rootstock was Chenin Blanc. The vines were trained to quadrilateral cordons, a costly and time consuming training method 4 which required extensive trellising. Lastly a drip irrigation system was installed. No other Chappellet vine- yard was irrigated, but these twenty acres of new Chenin

3Personal correspondence, Tony Soter, April 1981.

4see page 63 above for a discussion of cordon training systems. 60

$ '

Blanc were provided with water by the very efficient drip 5 irrigation method. It was anticipated that about five years after planting, between 2.5 and 3.5 tons per acre of

Chenin Blanc grapes would be harvested.

One variation in creating a new vineyard involves only the changing of one variety of vine for another, in which case, grafting is the major viticultural act. The change may be radical, involving the uprooting of the whole vine, rootstock and all, but if the rootstocks are healthy and of the desired type, only the scions are replaced with the new variety. At Chappellet grafting has been used to replace both individual vines and whole plots, as when

Gamay scions were exchanged with Chardonnay ones. The changing of the scion may necessitate a retraining of the vine. The success of the vineyard may, in fact, depend upon the correct selection and implementation of a training system. 6

5 Personal correspondence, Tony Soter, April 1981.

6 Lucie T. Horton,"On Selecting Training Systems," Wines & Vines LXI (February, 1980), '42. 61

TRAINING

Training is essential to the growing of all the culti-

vated species of the genus Vitis (vinifera, labrusca,

rupestris and others). All these species need support to

climb above the ground, to where they can flower and fruit.

Over many centuries of viticulture many systems of training have evolved, but only a few are of major consequence.

Among the most basic, still used in some of the Mediterra- nean countries, is the practice of encouraging the vines to grow among and even in trees, the system called cultura 7 promiscua in Italy. Other training techniques, however, require supports to lift the vine.

These are essentially divided into temporary and permanent. The former are meant only to uphold the young vine until it is large enough to maintain itself upright, but permanent supports are to be used by the vine for its lifetime. 8

One support and training system, used commontly throughout the world but not at Chappellet, is called

Gobelet. Vines so trained are tied to a stake for support

7D.B. Grigg, The Agricultural Systems of the World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), p. 127.

8 A.J. Winkler, J.A. Cook, W.M. Kliewer and L.A. Lider, General Viticulture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), p. 254. 62

until they are thick enough to grow on their own. The type of sup~ort dictates the training system used, and the type of training in turn affects the pruning. In fact, the whole complex of support, training and pruning can be thought of as a complete system. So the Gobelet, for instance, utilizes temporary support and head-training, the pruning is done to the vine spur. The spur is a cane

(mature one-year-old wood) that is cut back almost to the trunk, leaving a short stub of wood only a few inches long. In vines which are head-trained and spur-pruned, several spurs are left on the upper part of the trunk.

This system is easy to establish, but it is not always the most efficient, and it is not commonly used in the 9 north coast counties of California.

At Chappellet, several systems all use permanent supports. There are two main types: Head-trained and cane-pruned on the one hand; and cordon-trained, spur- pruned on the other. Both systems have many nuances, and both are extensively utilized in California. Permanent stakes and trellises, usually composed of wire strung between stakes, are required for vines which are head- trained and cane-pruned, as well as those which are cordon- trained and spur-pruned.

The former is like Gobelet,except that the canes, each

9Alexis Lichine, Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974~ p.33. 63

several feet long and one or more in number, are strung along supporting, horizontal wire. The latter method is cordon training. This means that trunk is grown to the level of a supporting wire( or, rarely a true trellis).

At that point, the trunk may be trained to grow horizon­ tally, supported by the wire. This is called a unilateral cordon. If the trunk is trained into two opposite branches, then that is called a bilateral cordon. If four branches are desired, then a quadrilateral cordon is needed. This last system is used in the new twenty-acre Chenin Blanc field at Chappellet. Cordons are usually, although not always, spur-pruned, that is, with canes cut back almost to the horizontal trunk branches. Both of these systems are well suited to many of the fine varieties of vinifera.

But usually one is more appropriate for one given variety than for others. At Chappellet, for example, only the

Chenin Blanc are cordon-trained. The 22 acres on the main vineyard have bilateral cordons. The new vineyard has quadrilateral cordons. The cordon is used in these cases because the Chenin Blanc is a variety which produces large grape clusters, and the cordon spreads the clusters out along the entire length of the plant, allowing them room to develop properly. So even though cordon training is relatively difficult to establish and maintain, it is used for the Chenin Blanc at Chappellet because it is the 64

10 best system for that variety.

Head-training and cane-pruning (often simply called

"cane-pruning" because head-training is implied) , is easier to establish than cordon-training: it is suitable for most of the fine varieties of vinifera. At Chappellet,

Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Riesling and Merlot are all cane-pruned because these varieties have small 11 clusters of grapes and the added expense of cordon- training is unneeded. Training,which forces the vine into the desired shape, also facilitates the harvesting of the grapes. The correct system is especially crucial for mechanical harvesting, for the training system must be compatible with the harvesting machine. Yet, at Chappellet this is scarcely a consideration: all the harvesting is done by hand.

PRUNING AND CROP CONTROL

The essential form of a young vine is created by training. The maintenance of that form is pruning. The vine, were it not pruned,would probably overproduce in most years. There are other ways to control the quantity

10Personal correspondence, Tony Soter, April 1981.

11A.N. Kasimatis, B.E. Bearden and Keith Bowers, Wine Grape Varieties of the North Coast Counties of California (Berkeley: Division of Agricultural Science, University of California, sale publication 4069, 1977). 65

of grapes produced, some of them more effective and better for the quality of the crop. However, pruning is a univer- sal method of crop control due to its relative simplicity and cost.

Pruning eliminates both leaf area and fruit. Suffi- cient leaf area must be present for the grapes to mature and ripen properly. The best ratio of leaf to fruit may not be always accurately attained by pruning. The vine is pruned when dormant. At that time it may be difficult to precisely gauge the amount of growth in the spring.

Pruning also depresses growth of the vine, and it can make 12 the vine vulnerable to certain diseases. It is, for these reasons, not the ideal means of crop control, although pruning is still necessary for sustaining vine form. In contrast to pruning, another method called thinning applies after dormancy, and affects the fruit alone. Thinning involves removal of some flower clusters and immature berries. As a result, the ratio of leaf to fruit is superior to that obtained where pruning is the only means of crop control, and the resultant fruit is of b e tter qua l 1't y. 13

12 A.J. Winkler et. al., General Viticulture (1974),p. 28&

13w.M. Kliewer and R.J. Weaver, "Effect of Crop Level and Leaf Area on Growth, Composition, and Coloration of 'Tokay' Grapes," American Journal of Enology and Viticul­ ture XXII (1971), l72. 66 0 '

Despite its role as an excellent crop control tech­ nique, thinning is not practiced at Chappellet: the reason is that crop yields, owing to mountainous terrain and soil conditions, are already low. Further decreasing the crop level, which average only two tons per acre for all vari­ eties except Chenin Blanc, would not be practical.

Although thinning is not practiced at Chappellet, another means besides dormant pruning is employed for crop control.

Crown or head suckering, which is the removal of undesired vegetativegrowth when budding has ceased, is utilized at

Chappellet. Like winter pruning, it affects both fruit 14 and leaf area. There are some advantages of crown­ suckering over pruning. Firstly, it does not depress the vine; it may also make for better and healthier growth and it is less expensive than removing canes in dormancy.

PESTS AND DISEASES

Pests and diseases have accompanied vine growing since pre-history. Pests are members of the animal kingdom directly injuring the vine, and diseases are caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses. Pests can be grouped into four categories: insects, nematodes, mammals and birds.

14Personal correspondence, Tony Soter, April 1981. 67

Insects offer a good introduction to a survey of pests.

As a whole, these have struck more fear into the hearts of the wine producers than any other single group of pests.

Among many harmful insects, the most infamous are phylloxera, white fly, cutworms, grasshoppers, mealy bugs, mites, and leaf hoppers. Naturally, not all afflict all vineyards. At Chappellet, only a few are troublesome.

Even though it is not present, phylloxera {Dactylasphaera vitifoliae),aroot attacking aphid, is so devastating that it is feared. The almost universal defense against it is to graft the vinifera scion to a phylloxera-resistant root­ stock, such as Vitis rupestris. All the vines at Chappellet are grafted to the St. George No. 2 rootstock, probably the most commonly used rootstock in the state. The new twenty-acre Chenin Blanc vineyard is, as has been seen, using a different and also widely employed resistant root­ stock called AxR No. 1. Both rootstocks effectively protect the vine scion without adversely affecting the character of its fruit.

The only other significant insect pests at Chappellet are the white fly {Trialeurodes vittatus) and the cutworm of which there are several species including Agrotis ypsilon and Orthodes rufula. The white fly secretes a substance which engenders the growth of a mold on grape clusters. Although some chemical insecticides are margi­ nally successful, at Chappellet the white fly is controlled 68

by eliminating its winter habitat. Cutworms are the other major pest of the Pritchard Hill vineyards: they eat young

buds and shoots in spring. The insecticide Sevin 80 is 15 therefore sprayed when spring growth starts.

Nematodes are not a problem at Chappellet. Neverthe-

less, they are very damaging in many California vineyards.

These small worms, the most significant of which is the root knot (Meloidogyne incognita) enter into the vine root and injure and perhaps even kill the vine. The soil of infested vineyards may be fumigated with a nematocide, but the use of nematode-resistant rootstocks is also an effec- 16 tive means to combat this pest.

There are many other organisms that endanger the vine, but at Chappellet the remaining pests are mammals and birds. The deer (Odocoileus hemionus) would be a major problem were it not for the deer fences that surround every vineyard. These ar~ of course, very expensive, and racoons (Procyor lotor) and gophers (Thomomys bottae) take little account of deer fences. So other controls are instituted. The racoon is fond of grapes, and the gopher damages the vine beneath the ground, so both of these

15 ibid

16A.J. Winkler et. al., General Viticulture (1974) p. 543. ' 69

animals are trapped, and, when necessary, shot. Birds of several species also eat the fruit of the vine: these are cur b e d b y b a1te. d po1sons. . 17

Beside pests, the other major onslaught on the vine is from disease. There are many diseases in several major categories. Basically, there are diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, or virus: they are really too numerous to list here. Some like Pierce's disease and powdery mildew have caused wide-spread devastation. At Chappellet, fortunately only the fungal-caused Eutypa and Oak-Root fungus are of major consequence. Eutypa is a disease that attacks the wounds of freshly spring-pruned wood. It can be controlled by pruning in February when the fungi are less virulent.

It can also be combated by applying a fungicide such as 18 Benlate (at the enormous cost of $90/acre for the material 19 alone).~ Oak-Root can also be treated with chemicals.

But at Chappellet,due to the difficult terrain and the sub- sequent cost, no centro 1 o f t h 1s. f ungus 1s . rna d e. 20

17 Personal correspondence, Tony Soter, April 1981.

18.b'd1 1 •

19william J. Moller, "Wine Grape Day at Davis Drew Record Crowd: Marketing, Vine Diseases Covered," Wine and Vines LXII (April, 1981), 20.

20 Personal correspondence, Tony Soter, April 1981. 70

0 •

THE HARVEST

Every action the viticulturalist takes is targeted, directly or indirectly, for the harvest, the most exciting,

important and rewarding time. Once the determination of time is made, the harvest proceeds. It begins at a different time almost every year, but at Chappellet, it usually commences in early September, when the first variety, usually Chardonnay, is picked. After the begin­ ning of Chardonnay harvest, the mid-season varieties at

Chappellet are continually monitored,and before the end of Chardonnay picking other varieties may be ready for harvest. The Chenin Blanc and Riesling are normally the next varieties to ripen, and these in turn may overlap into the harvest of the Merlot. An average of six weeks after the first Chardonnay is picked, the last of the

Cabernet Sauvignon grape clusters are removed from the vine.

When a winemaker desires to make a wine with a lesser or greater fraction of acid or sugar that is less than or more than standard, then the harvest may be shortened or delayed. Hence, the famous "late harvest" wines of

Germany. In such regions as Mosel and Rheingau, the

Riesling grape is allowed to stay on the vine past the normal harvest period.

The grapes are individually picked, sometimes many weeks after the usual harvest, and made into lusciously 71

21 sweet, and very expensive, Trockenbeerenauslese. In

California, many fine wine growers harvest their grapes late: at Chappellet, a late harvest Riesling has been made. Any late harvest, of course, entails the potential damage of inclement weather. The grapes may also be picked early to preserve acid, as is sometimes done in the hot

Central Valley. But, when no special late or early pickings are made, the harvest begins when the early ripening varie- ties are ready and ends when the last of the late ripening varieties are harvested.

Among the other major concerns of harvest time is the availability of labor to pick the grapes. At Chappellet, as few as seven to eight seasonal pickers together with about six to seven permanent employees can harvest, with a great deal of effort, the entire crop. In some cases, 22 as many as 30 seasonal workers have been used at harvest.

If fewer are employed, the individual plots can be conti- nually picked as they ripen. With a larger workforce the harvest of the grapes may be quicker, but some plots may not be ready for picking. A vintage cannot be rushed, and the timing of acquiring a seasonal workforce must there- fore be precise.

21 Alexander Dorzynski and Bibine Bell, The Wine Book (New York: Golden Press, 1969~ p. 171.

22 Personal correspondence, Tony Soter, April 1981. CHAPTER V

WINE MAKING

The essential process of making wine is fermentation.

For centuries its workings were the subject of conjecture.

At the time when the French scientist Louis Pasteur began investigating the problem, fermentation was thought to be a purely chemical phenomenon. But with a methodical approach, Pasteur correctly identified the event as pre- dominantly microbiological. He also studied the causes of wine "diseases" in a similarly scientific manner. Follow- ing Pasteur's treatise on fermentation in 1859 and his other extensive wine-related studies which culminated with the 1866 publishing of Wine and its Maladies, enology . 1 b ecame a scl.ence.

Although procedures and techniques may vary from one winery to another, the fundamental steps for making stand- ard table wine are universal. Through the passing years, most of the components of wine have been isolated and iden­ tified, and better methods developed.2 The main character-

lpasteur Vallery-Radot, Louis Pasteur - A Great Life in Brief, trans. Alfred Joseph (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 19 58 ), pp., 55 ' 81.

2vernon L. Singleton et al., "A Century of Wine and Grape Research," California Agriculture XXXIV (July, 1980), 4.

72 73

istic of modern winemaking is not a new or better tech- nique, although there are many. Rather, it is the better understanding of the processes at work and how to in- fluence, direct or even control them. As a result, wine- making in California is as diverse as the state itself.

Wine is made in tiny "boutique" wineries, as well as in immense multi-million gallon (and dollar) operations.

Somewhere between these two extremes are the relatively small-to-moderate size establishments such as Chappellet that emphasize the production of premium wines.

Chappellet winery is a small, modern winery that is typical of many similar premium producers. A common theme at these wineries is that the utilization of modern equip- ment and skills does not come at the expense of quality.

Experience with innovations has shown that quality is not necessarily sacrificed with their implementation. To the contrary, the selective use of new and tested tools and methods has proven helpful in producing prestigious wines.

Indeed a willingness to experiment with, and ultimately to adopt, new information, is a feature of the California winemaker.3

Yet with the availability of extensive knowledge, up- to-date implements, and the freedom to use them, many premium winemakers choose to use such traditional old world

3Philip E. Hiaring, "In Old Blighty, California Wines are the New Wave, .. Wines & Vines LXII (May, 1981), 25. 74

techniques as aging wine in small, expensive, oak wood con- tainers. Wood aging is used at the small Chappellet operation as well as at the large Robert Mondavi Winery, the nineteenth largest winery in the u.s. 4 Premium wine production in California, therefore, involves a mixture of old and new tools and techniques. The basics of converting grapes into wine are essentially universal, and steps taken in producing standard table wines are virtually the same at

Chappellet as at other California wineries.

The first step is the crushing of the grape. The grapes ripen slowly over four or more months, but making grapes into wine opens with an intense and violent act.

After the grapes are harvested and brought to the winery, they are crushed. 5 The object is to release the juice from the skin, seeds and pulp, without breaking the seeds. Very often, the sterns are removed from the grape clusters at the same time, as with the crusher-sternrner at Chappellet, a

Garolla type, which employs a cylindrically shaped, perfo­ rated tube with blades rotating inside.6 A second crusher,

4"Gallo Still Leads Top 100," Wines & Vines LXIII (July, 1982), 50.

5on very large vineyards, although not·at Chappellet, large mobile crushers are taken to the field and crush the grapes immediately after harvesting. Zelma R. Long, "White Table Wine Production In California's North Coast Region," in Wine Production Technology, ed. Maynard A. Amerine (Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1981), p. 38.

6The crusher that also stems is manufactured by Hillburg. 75

a Demoshier, does not stem and is often used with the

Chenin Blanc variety. 7 (See Fig. No.3). The mixture of crushed grape material, called the "must," is at this stage very vulnerable to infection by undesirable micro- organisms,and to oxidation. A small amount of sulfur di- oxide is therefore added to both red and white wine musts.

In the next step, both are inoculated with a pure wine yeast "starter." This consists of a mixture of sterilized must and a pure yeast culture.8 This is necessary because the application of S02 destroys the naturally occurring yeasts. Many yeast strains are employed by the enologists.

Each has certain characteristics which make its use appro- priate for specific types and varieties of wine, and stages of fermentation. The Champagne yeast variety is noted for easy clarification after fermentation. Riesling strains, which are sometimes used at Chappellet, cool slowly.9 Some strains are apparently better for high alcohol (when fermentation is nearly complete) , others for lower alcohol. In short, winemakers have a wide diversity of yeasts to assist them in making exactly the wine they desire. 10

7 Interview with Cathy Corison, winemaker at Chappellet Winery, Chappellet Winery, St. Helena, California, May 1982.

8Maynard A. Amerine et al., The Technology of Wine Making, 4th ed. (Westport: AVI Publishing Co., 1980),p.273

9Interview, Cathy Corison, May, 1982. lOJulius Fessler, "Fessler's Winemaking Notebook," Wines & Vines" LV (December, 1974), 29. 76

FERMENTATION

The addition of the starter to the must marks the beginning of the central act at Chappellet. Fermentation occurs when the wine is actually "made" by the conversion of sugar (crushed grapes) into alcohol (wine). This tur- bulent process occurs within the confines of the fermenta- tion vessels of varying sizes and different materials.

These may be anything from a small cask of several gallons to building-sized containers holding tens of thousands of 11 gallons. The traditional material for fermentation vessels is wood. Oak casks are still used in many European and some

California operations: redwood is fairly commonly used in

California. Other materials include porcelain-lined iron.

But the new standard in fermenter construction is stainless steel. This versatile and inert substance has been fashioned by the Moeller Co. of Springfield, MO. into twenty-six variously sized fermenters for the Chappellet winery (Table 4; Fig. 8).

llThe importance of the size of the vessel is its relationship with fermentation temperatures. The larger the vessel, the smaller is the ratio of surface area (of the container) to volume (of its contents). This means that small vessels need less auxiliary cooling, due to large area-to-volume ratio, than do larger receptacles. Gino Zepponi, "Gino on Permenter Sizes," Wine & Vines LIV (September, 1973), 69. 77

I' .

Table 4. Fermenting vessels at the Chappellet Winery

Size of tank Number of tanks total gallons

7,800 gallons 4 31,200 3,800 6 22,800 2,600 3 7,800 1,300 5 6,500 900 6 5,400 500 2 1,000

Total 26 74,700

The 7,800 gallon tanks have doors at the bottom of the con- tainers and are used for red wine making. At Chappellet, despite the modern equipment, wine is sometimes made in small 60 gallon French oak casks.l2

RED WINES

In the making of red wines, temperatures can range up

to 85°F (29°C).l3 More commonly, reds are made between the temperatures of 70° and 80°F. These relatively high levels

are necessary for the color to be extracted from the skins of the grapes. Not only is the color of red wines derived from the skins, but much of the flavor is also.l4

12A Chenin Blanc made recently at Chappellet was fer­ mented in 60 gallon French oak casks. Interview, Cathy Corison, May 1982. 13Amerine et al., Technology of Wine Making, p. 211. 14cornelius s. Ough, "Vineyard and Fermentation Prac­ tices affecting Wine," California Agriculture XXXIV (July, 1980), 18. 78

Another aspect, peculiar to making reds, is the

forcing of the skins and other grape solids to the surface

of the fermentation vessel by the release of C02 gas. This causes the formation of a "cap."l5 This cap must be over-

come. At Chappellet this is done by "pumping over." The

cap must not be allowed to remain, lest it hinder proper

fermentation. For this reason, the cap and the must below

should be mixed together several times a day. This may be done by punching the cap down, or by recirculating the must back on top of the cap, as is done at Chappellet.l6

All red wines are initially fermented with the skins.

But, quite often, the liquid is "drawn off", or removed,

from the solids after a few days and allowed to complete

fermentation separately. The longer the liquid is kept with the solids or "pomace", the more tannic and generally more slower-aging is the resultant wine. 17 Chappellet winery produces slow aging, tannic wines, as well as wines ready for consumption.

15Philip M. Wagner, Grapes into Wine (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), p. 123.

16rnterview, Cathy Corison, May 1982.

17Louis P. Martini, "Red Wine Production in the Coastal Counties of California, 1960-1980," in Wine Pro­ duction Technology, ed. Maynard A. Amerine (Wash1ngton: American Chemical Society, 1981), p. 69. 79

Red table wines are usually fermented until "dry," that is, until all the fermentable sugar has been converted into alcohol. The initial amount of sugar in the grapes at crush time determines the ultimate quantity of alcohol in the wine. The volume of dissolved glucose (sugar) in the must is commonly measured by an instrument called a hydro- meter, using a calibration called "Brix" or "Balling," both having the same values. The sugar in the pre-fermented must is expressed as degrees Brix (or Balling), and it is ordinarily in the 20° to 24° range. The total alcohol in a completely fermented wine will be about 55 percent of the total volume of the must. Thus a must of 22° Brix will ferment dry to 12.1 percent alcohol. 1 8

MALO-LACTIC FERMENTATION

When yeast activity ceases, or is stopped by the wine- maker to leave residual sugar, the must can at last be called a wine. But this does not mean that all fermenta- tion is over. At Chappellet and at other premium wineries, an additional fermentation is attempted for some red wines.

Towards the end of alcoholic fermentation, or sometime thereafter, bacteria in the developing wine convert malic acid into lactic acid. Chappellet and other like oper-

18Maynard A. Amerine and Vernon L. Singleton, Wine, an Introduction for Americans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 972)1 p. 94. 80

ations usually attempt to induce malo-lactic fermentation in many of their red wines. It would be desirable to have malo-lactic conversion in white wines also, but that is extremely difficult to accomplish. Indeed, even for reds the conditions for this process are difficult to meet. The wine should have a high malic acid content, the yeast should be sufficiently present, and an excess of S02 avoided because it can prevent the entire process. The reason for all this extra effort is that red wines which have undergone malo-lactic conversion have certain quali- ties in flavor, bouquet, and complexity that can make a good wine into a potentially great one.l9 But as in every other step of modern enology, this type of fermenta­ tion should be controlled.20 One way to control this process is to carefully introduce the bacteria which transform malic into lactic acid. At Chappellet, the organism Leuconstoc oenos (ML-34) is frequently employed to achieve this goa1. 21

19 A. Dinsmoor Webb, "Technology has Improved Wine Quality," California Agriculture XXXIV (July, 1980), 7. 20Amerine & Singleton, Wine, p. 62. 21Interview, Cathy Corison, May 1982. 81

WHITE WINES

Whites, after being treated with so2 , are "pressed." This involves separating the juice from-the remainder of the must. There are several kinds of presses,but at

Chappellet the bladder type {manufactured by Valley

Foundry of Fresno, CA.) is used. Before pressing, some winemakers may keep the must in a holding tank from 2 to

36 hours. This is called "skin contact" and it generally makes for a richer and more aromatic wine. 22 After press- ing, the must may be clarified. This can be accomplished by keeping the liquid at 45° to 59°F for 12 to 48 hours and letting the solids precipitate to the bottom of the container. The solids are called the "lees." This method is called settling.23 Centrifugation is another common clarification technique whose main advantage is speed.

After pressing, a second application of S02 prevents oxi- dation and infection. Another difference in the production of white wine, rather than that of red, is that most California wine- makers (including Chappellet) "cool ferment" their whites.

During fermentation, the juice is kept cooler than normal,

22Long, "White Table Wine Production," p. 39.

23Robert Gorman, Gorman on California Premium Wines (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1975), p. 63. 82

thus prolonging the time it takes to convert sugar into alcohol. Basically, the lower the temperature, the longer the fermentation. A recently made Riesling wine at Chap­ pellet had major fermentation completed after three weeks at S0°-SS°F. 2 4 The practice of keeping the temperatures low usually results in fruitier, "fresher" wines~

White wines are occasionally made with residual sugar.

This is accomplished by stopping fermentation before all the sugar is converted to alcohol. This leaves residual sugar, making the finished product sweeter. This may be achieved by cooling the fermenting juice to under 41°F, thereby halting yeast activity. The total sugar left will be determined by·the time when fermentation is ceased.

Grapes with high initial sugar are preferable because there will be more alcohol left when fermentation is stopped.

CLARIFICATION

After all fermentation activity ceases, solids in both red and white wines are allowed to set.tle to the bottom of the fermentation vessel. The liquid is then drawn off, without disturbing the lees. The wine is then transferred to other containers, a process called "rack­ ing"; indeed, it may undergo several rackings. The object

24Interview, Cathy Corison, May, 1982.

25Long, "White Table Wine Production,u p. 45. 83

of this procedure is to obtain a clearer wine.26 Racking

occurs simultaneously with a second procedure called

aging. Many wineries do not rack at all, but do use

other clarification methods such as centrifugation.27

Racking is expensive and time-consuming but it is effec-

tive,and it is used by most of the premium wine makers

including Chappellet.

An additional step for white wines only is stabiliza-

tion. This procedure treats the wine so that once it is bottled, it will not acquire a "haze" or form deposits.

At Chappellet, bentonite is added to the wine. 28 This material removed heat-sensitive proteins, which may cause

appearance defects in the finished wine.29

After a wine has been clarified, it is ready for blending, final "adjustment" with more S02 if necessary,

filtering if desired, and finally bottling. But most premium wines go through a lengthy, very expensive, and

important interim step - aging.

26"The Great Wine Revolution;' NOVA transcript 1978, written and produced by Dominic Flessati, WGBH Boston, p.4.

27Julius Fessler, "Fessler's Wine Making Notebook," Wines & Vines LII (November, 1971), 27.

28rnterview, Cathy Corison, May 1982.

29Julius Fessler, "Fessler's Winemaking Notebook," Wines & Vines LV (November, 1974), 57. 84

AGING

Aging is simply the holding of a wine in a container

for further maturation. The container may be of several materials and sizes, but experience has shown that the most satisfactory vessel is the wooden barrel. Oak is by

far the preferred wood, in the size range of 100 to 300

liters (26.4 to 79.2 gallons). Aging in oak barrels pro- duces three effects: a slow, controlled contact between wine and oxygen, evaporation of alcohol through the walls of the vessel, and an absorption of certain ingredients

from the wood into the wine.30 The slow evaporation of

alcohol requires "topping", that is, adding new wine. This also prevents excess oxygen from contacting the wine in the

"ullage" or headspace. Nevertheless, a slow oxidation does occur, because the barrel is not impervious. This oxidation can, however, be beneficial when carefully con- trolled.

The last effect of oak aging is the imparting of flavor by the wood to the wine. There are several kinds of oaks used for barrels, but American white oak.and several varieties of European oaks, especially those from

France, predominate. Both types produce very similar

30vernon L. Singleton, "Some Aspects of the Wooden Container as a Factor in Wine Maturation," in Chemistry of Winemaking, ed. A. Dinsmoor Webb (Washington: American Chemical Society, 1974) p. 266. 85

results. 31 At Chappellet, French oak barrels are used exclusively. There are a thousand 60 gallon barrels from

Tonneliere Demptos, Bordeaux, and from Tonneliere

Ludonnaise, Ludon. Different wines receive varying amounts of aging. ·Cabernet Sauvignon, for example, is kept in barrels for two years at Chappellet,32 while other varieties may be matured for several weeks to more than a year.

Aging is an expensive proposition. The barrels them- selves are costly and have limited lifetimes of usefulness.

There is considerable labor involved in the racking-aging process, and the barrels occupy most of the floorspace of the Chappellet winery. Yet despite these drawbacks, this traditional, old world practice is still maintained at the most modern California wineries, because it makes for better wines. 33 (Fig. 9).

BLENDING AND BOTTLING

The last step before bottling is "blending". This consists of mixing various lots of the same·variety and maybe two or more varieties into a single wine. The "art" of enology is still important during this step. For the

31Julius Fessler, "Fessler's Winernaking Notebook," Wines & Vine$ LIV (March, 1973), 39.

32Interview, Cathy Corison, May, 1982.

33"Great Wine Revolution," NOVA p. 16. 86

careful blending of different lots requires a sensory

evaluation. Appearance, odor and taste can be determined

only by the experienced senses of a winemaker. The finished wine is a product not only of scientific methods, but also of a subjective assessment.34

The long journey from grape to wine ends in the

bottle. Bottling is a largely mechanized procedure at a modern winery. With contemporary equipment it is fast, and aeration is held to a minimum. At Chappellet, 1,200

cases (14,400 bottles) per day can be processed using a

German made Seitz Werke bottler. 35 Aside from speed,

reliability and cost, the main consideration for any bot-

tler is to hold contact with air to a minimum. The bottles

are then corked or, for lesser wines, capped, then sealed and labeled. The quality wine producer will customarily store any wines which can benefit from bottle aging before

shipping them to distributors,· and many varieties do im- prove with such aging of several months or more.

Of course, the making of wine is not the whole story. After it leaves the winery, it awaits its ultimate judge- ment in the palates of the wine drinkers. Their approval depends on the weather and environmental conditions in the year the grapes were harvested, the relative soundness of

34Maynard A. Amerine and Edward B. Roesller, Wines, their Sensory Evaluation (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1976 ), p. 11. 35rnterview, Cathy Corison, May, 1982. 87

the grapes and the routine of the harvest, and whether or not the winemakers made the right decisions as to how much

S02 to add, as to the temperature and duration of fermenta­

tion, and as to the yeast strain used. The wine connois­

seur will detect any off-taste that might have been derived

from sanitation problems, and the nuances in flavor brought

from malo-lactic fermentation. The effort and expense of wood and bottle aging will be appreciated by those of dis­ cerning judgement. Ultimately, the procedures and process­ es in making wine are linked. Weakness in any one link will be reflected in the finished product. Despite the antiquity of wine making, and the thorough familiarity of its practices, it remains a precarious task. CONCLUSION

Though the elerrtent of precariousness implicit in the idiosyncrasies of the consumer may fall outside this thesis, the central goal remains: present the reader with a case study of Chappellet Winery, as well as a comparison with conditions and techniques of wine making in other and wider regions of the world, particularly those of France and Germany which grow the same varieties (among others) as Chappellet.

It becomes evident that despite diverse social and environmental conditions both European areas and Chappe­ llet can produce very similar wines. This is possible because the most important variable is neither historical tradition, nor environment: it is people. It is the approach and attitude of the wine growers of California that make fine wine production possible.

For the environments of both California and Europe are heterogeneous, and the fine varieties of Vitis vinifera are tolerant of a wide spectrum of conditions. So even though the two regions differ, physically they are both within the range of tolerances of these varieties. As for historical differences, these scarcely affect the Califor­ nia producer. History, after all, simply gives a time­ frame for experiment.

It is the versatility of the California vis-a-vis the

88 89

conservative, traditional European wine grower which makes it possible to develop such similar products. Where conditions in climate or soil differ, there are compensa­ tingly numerous viticultural options open to the grower.

If the temperatures are generally higher in some California vineyards than in German ones, for instance, the vine rows can be aligned to receive less sun, and the plants can be trained differently to achieve a cooler micro-climate. In similar fashion, enological techniques can be employed to make almost any style of wine.

The willingness and ability to experiment are not traits unique to California wine making: Europeans can, and sometimes do, embrace innovations. Nevertheless, in

California experimentation is largely responsible for the outstanding success of its wine industry. At Chappellet, for instance, a variety like Cabernet Sauvignon, which in

Europe is cultivated in southwest France, is grown side­ by-side with the Riesling of Germany's Rhine and Mosel valleys. There is no strong convention inhibiting Donn

Chappellet or other California growers from such combi­ nations. And yet, if correctly grown, harvested at the right time, and made with the appropriate enological tech­ niques, the finished wines of Chappellet can bear astriking resemblance to those grown half way around the world.

Important as environment and tradition may be, their significance is matched by the imagination, experimentation and determination of grower and wine maker. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Adams, Leon D. The Wines of America. San Francisco: San Francisco Book Co., Houghton M1fflin, 1973.

Amerine, Maynard A., Berg, H. W., Cruess, N. V., and Joslyn, M.A. The Technology of Wine Making. 4th Edition. Westport: AVI Publishing Co., 1980.

Amerine, Maynard A., and Roesller, Edward B. Wines, their Sensory Evaluation. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1976.

Amerine, Maynard A., and Singleton, Vernon L. Wine, an Introduction for Americans. Berkeley: Un1vers1ty of California Press, 1972.

Aubin, H. "Medieval Agrarian Society in its Prime: The Lands East of the Elbe and German Colonization East­ wards," in The Cambridge Economic History of Europe. Edited by M.M. Postan. London: Cambr1dge Un1vers1ty Press, 1966.

Benson, Robert. Great Winemakers of California. Santa Barbara: Capra Press, 1977.

Blumberg, Roberts., and Hannum, Hurst. The Fine Wines of California. rev. ed. Garden City, N.Y.: Dolph1n Books, 1973.

Browne, Geoffrey S., ed. The Atlas of Europe: a Profile of Western Europe. Edinburgh: John Bartholomew, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974.

Cato, Marcus Porcious. De Agricultura. Translated by William Davis Hooper. Cambr1dge: Harvard University Press, 1934. Carosso, Vincent P. The California Wine Industry: 1830-1895 Berkeley, University of Californ1a Press, 1951.

Columella, Lucious Junius Moderatus. On Agriculture. Translated by Harrison Boyd Ash. Cambr1dge: Harvard University Press, 1960. de Blij, Harm. Wine, a Geographical Appreciation. Totowa, N.J.: Howman & Allenheld, 1983.

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Dorozynski, Alexander, and Bell, Bibiane. The Wine Book. New York: Golden Press, 1969.

Felton, Ernest L. California's Many Climates. Palo Alto, CA: Pacific Books, 1965.

Gold, Alec H., ed. Wines and Spirits of the World. Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, 1972.

Gorman, Robert. Gorman on California Premium Wines. Berkeley:Ten Speed Press, 1975.

Grigg, D.B. The Agricultural Systems of the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974.

Hesiod. Work and Days. Edited by T.A. Sindain. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1966.

Hyams, Edward. Dionysus: a Social History of the Wine Vine. New York: Macm1llan Co., 1965.

Johnson, Hugh. The World Atlas of Wines. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971.

Kasimatis, A.N., Bearden, Bruce E., and Bowers, Keith. Wine Grape Varieties in the North Coast Counties of California. Berkeley: Division of Agricultural Sciences, University of California, sale publication 4069, 1977.

Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974.

Lichine, Alexis, and Massee, William E. Wines of France. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972.

Long, Zelma R. "White Table Wine Production in California's North Coast Region," in Wine Production Technology. Edited by Maynard A. Amerine. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1981.

Martini, Louis P. "Red Wine Production.in the Coastal Counties of California 1960-1980," in Wine Production Technology. Edited by Maynard A. Amerine. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1981.

Melville, John, and Morgan, Jefferson. Guide to California Wines. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1976. 92

Russel, Walter E. Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. lOth ed. London: Longman, 1973.

Schoonmaker, Frank. Frank Schoonmaker's Encyclopedia of Wine. New York: Hastings House, 1975.

Secundus, Philius. Naturalis Historia. Translated by H. Rackharn. Carnbr1dge: Harvard University Press, 1949.

Singleton, Vernon L. "Some Aspects of the Wooden Container as a Factor in Wine Maturation," in Chemistry of Wine­ making. Edited by A. Dinsrnoor Webb. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1974.

Topolos, Michael, Dopson, Betty, and Caldeway, Jeffrey. Napa Valley Wine Tour. St. Helena, CA: Vintage Image, 1977.

Vallery-Radot, Pasteur. Louis Pasteur - a Great Life in Brief. Translated by Alfred Joseph. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958.

Wagner, Philip M. Grapes into Wine. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976.

A Wine Grower's Guide. 2nd ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973. Winkler, A.J. General Viticulture. Berkeley: University of Californ1a Press, 1962.

Winkler, A.J., Cook, J.A., Kliewer, W.M., and Lider, L.A. General Viticulture. Berkeley: University of Cali­ fornia Press, 1974.

PERIODICALS

Amerine, Maynard A. "The Search for Good Wine." Science CLIV (December, 1966 ), 1621-1628.

Bearden, Bruce E. "Frost Protection Uses a Variety of Devices." California Agriculture XXXIV (July, 1980), 38-39.

Brady, Roy. "Chappel1et Winery ... A Dream Corne True." Wine World I (December-January, 1972), 22-26.

"The Swallow that carne From Capistrano." New West IV (September 24, 1979), 55-60. 93

Fessler, Julius "Fessler's Winemaking Notebook." Wines & Vines LII (November, 1971), 27.

"Fessler's Wine Making Notebook. II Wines & Vines (March, 1973), 39.

"Fessler's Wine Making Notebook.n 'Wines & Vines (November, 1974), 57.

"Fessler's Wine Making Notebook. " Wines & Vines (December, 197 4) , 29.

"Gallo Still Leads Top 100." Wines & Vines LXIII (July 1982), 50.

Gill, Mark Allen. "Mayacamas Winery·~" Wine World VII (May-June 1978), 2D-22.

Hiaring, Philip E. "In Old B1ighty, California Wines are the New Wave.·" Wines & Vines LXII (May 1981), 24-30.

Howard, Julia. "Breeding a Vine for All Seasons." Science 80 I (September-October, 1980), 102-104.

Johnson, Frank. "The Wines of the Mosel: Part II." Wine World VIII (July-August 1979), 12-13.

Johnson, Moira. "Napa, California's Valley of the Vine." National Geographic CLV (May, 1979), 695-716.

"The Year California Won the Pennant." New West I (August 2, 1976), 88- 89.

Kliewer, W.M. "Berry Composition of Some Vitis vinifera Cultivars as influenced by Photo and Nycto-temperatures during Maturation." American Society for Horticultural Science XCVIII (June, 1973), 153-161.

"Effect of Temperature on the Composition of Grapes grown under Field and Controlled Conditions." Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science XCIII (December, 1968), 797-806.

"Influence of Environment on Metabolism of Organic Acids and Carbohydrates on Vitis vinifera." Plant Physiology XXXIX (November 1964), 869-880.

Kliewer, W.M. and Weaver, R.J. "Effect of Crop Level and Leaf Area on Growth, Composition, and Coloration of 'Tokay' Grapes." American Journal of Enology and Viticulture XXII (1971), 672-680. 94

Morton, Lucie T. "On Selecting Training Systems. •1 Wines & Vines LXI (February, 1980), 40-42.

Ough, Cornelius S. "Vineyard and Fermentation Practices Affecting Wine." California Agriculture XXXIV (July, 1980), 17-18.

Samish, R.H. "Dormancy in Woody Plants.'! Annual Review of Plant Physiology V (1954), 183-204.

Sigleton, B.L., Berg, H.W., Boulton, R.B., and Webb, A.D. "A Century of Wine and Grape Research." California Aariculture XXXIV (July, 1980), 4-5.

Teiser, Ruth and Harroun, Catherine. "Chappellet: a Hilltop Romance." Wine World VIII (March-April, 1979) 13-15; 42- 43.

Thompson, C.R., Hensel, E., and Kats, G. "Effect of Photochemical Air Pollution on Zinfandel Grapes." Hortscience IV (June 1969), 222-231.

Wagner, Philip M. "Wines, Grapevines and Climate." Scientific American CCXXX (June, 1974), 107-115.

\vebb, A. Dinsmoor. "Technology Has Improved Wine Quality." California Agriculture XXXIV (July, 1980),6-7.

"Wine Grape Day at Davis Drew a Record Crowd: Marketing, Vine Diseases Covered." Wines & Vines LXII (April, 1981), 20-22.

Zepponi, Gino. "Gino on ... Permenter Sizes." Wines & Vines LV (December, 1974), 29.

PUBLIC DOCUMENTS

United States Department of Agriculture. Soil Conservation Service with University of California Agricultural Experiment Station. Soil Survey of Napa County, California. Berkeley, 1978.

United States Department of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Center. World Weather Records 1961-1970 Vol. 2. Europe. Ashville, N.C., 1979. 95

United States Department of Commerce. u.s. weather Bureau. The Climate of Napa County, by c. Robert Elford. San Francisco, 1972.

INTERVIEWS

Brady, Roy. Northridge, California. Interview, June, 1980.

Corison, Cathy. Chappellet Winery. Interview, May 1982.

Soter, Tony. Chappellet Winery. Interview, April, 1980.

PERSONAL CORRESPONDENCE

Soter, Tony. Correspondence to Lee Yassinski, April, 1981.

TELEVISION PROGRAM TRANSCRIPT

"The Great Wine Revolution." Nova transcript. Written and produced by Dominic Flessati WGBH Boston, 1978. APPENDIX A

A Wine Chronology

8000 B.C. It is believed the first vines were domesticated in present-day Georgia, U.S.S.R.

1500 B.C. Wine was being made in Egypt and Meso­ potamia.

700 B.C. Winemaking was well under way in Greece, as evidenced by Hesiod's Work and Days, a description of contemporary agr1cul­ tural practices.

500 B.C.-400 A.D. During the Pax Romana, wine making achieved unprecedented heights.

400 -1400 A.D. In medieval times wine making in Europe was maintained by the Church. At this time grapes were being grown in such unlikely places as northern Poland.

1632 The vinifera vine was brought to Mass­ achusetts colony by Governor Winthrop. The experiment failed since the vine / could not be successfully grown.

1778 The vine was introduced to Alta Califor­ nia at Mission San Juan Capistrano.

1824 The first commercial vineyard in Califor­ nia was established by Joseph Chapman in Los Angeles.

1848 Agoston Haraszthy, known as the "father of the California wine industry," came to California from Hungary. He eventually brought thousands of vine cuttings from Europe. Also before that year other important wine growers included Louis Vignes and the Wolfskill brothers.

1850 -1900 Many great and famous winemen came to Napa including Gustav Niebaum (of Ingle­ nook), the Beringer brothers, Charles Kru~ and Jacob Schram.

96 97

1890 1900 Napa Valley became infested with the Phylloxera root louse. By 1900, only 3,000 of the 18,000 acres existing in 1890 remained.

1899 Georges de Latour, founder of Beaulieu Winery, arrived in the Napa Valley.

1919 The 18th Arnendrnent,establishing prohibition, was passed. Many growers switched from fine wine to coarse­ skinned varieties so they could ship their grapes to the eastern U.S.A. This had a lasting and damaging effect on the wine industry.

1933 Prohibition was repealed.

1938 Andre Tchelistcheff carne to work at Beaulieu. Subs~quently, he became a teacher and consultant to many of the state's winernakers.

1940 1945 During World Way II many winernakers, including Louis Martini and Cesare Modavi, carne to the Napa Valley.

1967 Donn Chappellet purchased vineyard property on Pritchard Hill, east of the Napa Valley.