geosciences

Article A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Study of the Temple of Athena in Poseidonia-Paestum (Southern Italy): New Geomorphological, Geophysical and Archaeological Data

Marilena Cozzolino 1,2,* , Fausto Longo 3 , Natascia Pizzano 4, Maria Luigia Rizzo 3, Ottavia Voza 3 and Vincenzo Amato 3,5 1 Department of Social, Human and Educational Science, University of Molise, Via De Sanctis, 86100 Campobasso, Italy 2 Industry Training Authority of British Columbia, Institute of Technologies Applied to Cultural Heritage, CNR, Area Della Ricerca Roma 1, Via Salaria Km. 29,300, 00016 Montelibretti, Italy 3 Department of Cultural Heritage (Dispac), University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132-84084 Fisciano (Salerno), Italy 4 Independent Researcher, Mercogliano, 83013 Avellino, Italy 5 Department of Bioscience and Territory, University of Molise, Fonte Lappone, 86090 Pesche, Italy * Correspondence: [email protected]



Received: 11 June 2019; Accepted: 16 July 2019; Published: 24 July 2019


Abstract: The Temple of Athena is one of the main sacred areas of the Greek–Roman settlement of Poseidonia-Paestum (southern Italy). Several archaeological excavations were carried out here between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Unfortunately, the locations of these excavations are only approximately known, as are the geomorphology and stratigraphy of the temple area. A multidisciplinary study, including stratigraphic, geomorphological, archaeological, and sedimentological investigations, remote sensing, and electromagnetic and geoelectrical tests, was therefore carried out, shedding new light on the geomorphology and stratigraphy of the SW and W temple sectors. The geophysical data obtained revealed anomalies in the subsoil that probably correspond to ancient structures and the cutting of the travertine deposits around the temple. The position and extension of the trenches of the early archaeological excavations were also established.

Keywords: Poseidonia-Paestum; Temple of Athena; geomorphological survey; GPR; ERT; archaeological excavation

1. Introduction The Greek–Roman settlement of Poseidonia-Paestum is one of the most important archaeological sites of southern Italy. It was founded by Greek settlers at the end of the seventh century BCE along the Tyrrhenian seacoast, in the southern part of the alluvial-coastal plain of the Sele river (Figure1a). The settlement was strategically located close to the sea and on a travertine platform rising slightly above the coastal plain. It was enclosed by a wall circuit, rectangular-trapezoid in plan (Figure1b). The Greek city prospered from its foundation until the second half of the fifth century BCE, when it was taken over by the Lucani. Later, in 273 BCE, a Roman colony was established at Lucanian Poseidonia, which was thence forward known as Paestum. In the sixth-seventh century CE, the city was abandoned. During the Roman period (post 273 BCE), the city underwent a major transformation, which drastically altered the Greek built landscape, especially in the forum area. The history of the city and of its urban and social transformations have been the object of a long series of investigations and excavations within the city limits of Poseidonia and in its territory [1–9].

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324; doi:10.3390/geosciences9080324 www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 25

273 BCE), the city underwent a major transformation, which drastically altered the Greek built landscape, especially in the forum area. Geosciences 2019The, history9, 324 of the city and of its urban and social transformations have been the object of a long2 of 25 series of investigations and excavations within the city limits of Poseidonia and in its territory [1–9].

FigureFigure 1. (a 1.) Location(a) Location of of Greek–Roman Greek–Roman Poseidonia-Paestum;Poseidonia-Paestum; (b ()b location) location of the of theTemple Temple of Athena of Athena withinwithin the perimeterthe perimeter of theof the city city walls; walls; (c ()c) view view ofof thethe Temple of of Athena Athena from from the the southwest. southwest.

The ruinsThe ruins of Paestum of Paestum are are mostly mostly famous famous forfor theirtheir three three exceptionally exceptionally preserved preserved ancient ancient Greek Greek temples built in the Doric order, with dates between ca. 600 and ca. 470/450 BCE. One of these three temples built in the Doric order, with dates between ca. 600 and ca. 470/450 BCE. One of these three temples, known as the Temple of Athena or Temple of Ceres (c. 500 BCE) (Figure 1c), built of large temples,blocks known of travertine, as the Templeis thought of Athenato have orbeen Temple dedicated of Ceres to Athena (c. 500 on BCE) the basis (Figure of the1c), numerous built of large blocksterracotta of travertine, statuettes is thought depicting to havethis deity been recovered dedicated here, to Athena along with on the some basis in ofscriptions the numerous namingterracotta her. statuettesThe temple depicting must this have deity replaced recovered an earlier here, alongone whose with someexistence inscriptions is evidenced naming by architectural her. The temple mustdecoration have replaced dated anto 580–560 earlier oneBCE whose[10]. existence is evidenced by architectural decoration dated to 580–560 BCESeveral [10 ].archaeological excavations were carried out between the late nineteenth and early Severaltwentieth archaeological century, but excavationsunfortunately were their carried locations out betweenare only theapproximately late nineteenth known, and earlyas are twentieth the century,landform but unfortunately and stratigraphical their features locations of the are area only where approximately the temple known,lies. Recently, as are several the landform research and teams have studied the archaeological materials from old excavation trenches in the area of the stratigraphical features of the area where the temple lies. Recently, several research teams have studied Temple of Athena [9,11–15]. Their studies led to the hypothesis that an archaic predecessor of the the archaeological materials from old excavation trenches in the area of the Temple of Athena [9,11–15]. current temple stood here. Their studies led to the hypothesis that an archaic predecessor of the current temple stood here. From 2018 until the present day, our research team, composed of archaeologists, topographers, geologists and geophysicists, performed additional multidisciplinary analyses, including stratigraphic, geomorphological, archaeological and sedimentological tests, as well as remote sensing and electromagnetic and geoelectrical testing. The focus of these new studies was the ancient morphology of the temple site, the location and architecture of the archaic predecessor of the current temple, and the major transformations the area surrounding the temple has gone through as a result of archaeological digging and other human actions. Our investigations have led to new hypotheses about the history of Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 3 of 25 the temple, especially as regards the history of the first generations of colonists in the sixth century BCE and the layout of the city at that time. Starting from the new acquired data, especially those from geomorphological, archaeo-stratigraphical and geophysical investigations, new hypotheses about the building of the temple and its subsequent modifications have been put forward. In particular, the local landform appears to be the key to understanding the choice of the location of the sacred area. In addition, the new data allowed us to accurately determine where to dig new trials, both those already dug in 2018 and those planned for the coming years.

2. Previous Knowledge

2.1. Historical and Archaeological Background The Temple of Athena is located in the northern part of Poseidonia-Paestum (Figure1b), in the sector between the north-south and east-west plateiai (main roads with larger size) (Figure2). Its area was excavated during the last century [16], while the eastward extension of the sacred area has not been investigated because it is covered by the modern road running through the site (Strada Statale or S.S. 18, Figure2), built in 1827–1828 [ 17]. The first excavations near the temple were carried out in the early nineteenth century [18]. They were followed by extensive digging in the early 1900s [19]. These investigations yielded objects and inscriptions that allowed the temple to be attributed to Athena [16]. The exact location of the archaeological trenches by these early diggers is not known. A study of available old photos and documents allowed us to preliminary trace their original position (Figure2). The north trench ran parallel to the crepidoma, the stepped platform on which of the temple was built. The western trench was dug in the central intercolumnium (space between column axes), trench A between the first and third intercolumnia starting from the SE side, trench B between the fourth and the sixth, trench C between the sixth (or seventh) and the thirteenth, and a trench was dug into the foundations between the third and fourth intercolumnia [12,19]. It is hard to estimate the depth attained by these trenches, but some preliminary considerations suggest a range between 2.5 and 4.5 m. From the old photographs, it appears that the trenches were deeper near the crepidoma of the temple. An important feature of the stratigraphy of the trenches dug by Maiuri [19] was the presence of a thin-burnt layer containing several metal objects and other materials damaged by a fire [12]. In particular, Maiuri reports the presence of a grayish soil layer at a depth of ca. 2.20 m containing stones and bronze objects. Underneath this layer some antefixes, sherds of Corinthian vases (sixth century BCE) and a female statuette of Archaic age (sixth century BCE) [19] were found. These data were recently confirmed by a study of the metal objects from the temple, nowadays held at the Paestum Museum [12–15,19,20], which shows evident traces of fire. These burnt archaeological materials suggest that a destructive event affected the temple between the sixth and the fifth century BCE [10–14,20]. During the 1930s, further excavations were carried out in the southeastern part of the temple and between the east front of the building and the modern boundary fence running along the road (S.S. 18). They brought to light a large altar, coeval with the preserved temple, and other structures whose function remains uncertain to this day [21]. Not long thereafter, in the 1940s, the German architect Krauss reopened one of Maiuri’s trenches to study the foundations of the temple. He exposed the stereobate of the temple, which consists of seven rows of travertine blocks [22]. From the 1950s onwards, no more excavations were undertaken inside the temple area. All the more recent structures had already been demolished during the nineteenth century [16,20]. Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 25

Geosciences 2019From, 9 ,the 324 1950s onwards, no more excavations were undertaken inside the temple area. All the4 of 25 more recent structures had already been demolished during the nineteenth century [16,20].

FigureFigure 2. Location 2. Location of archaeologicalof archaeological trenches trenches andand bore boreholesholes dug dug during during the the last last century century around around the the Temple of Athena, superimposed on a GoogleEarthTM satellite image. Temple of Athena, superimposed on a GoogleEarthTM satellite image.

2.2. Geological2.2. Geological and and Geomorphological Geomorphological Context Context The archaeological area of Poseidonia-Paestum is located in the southern sector of the The archaeological area of Poseidonia-Paestum is located in the southern sector of the alluvial-coastal plain of the Sele River, ca. 1 km from the current shoreline, between the Capodifiume alluvial-coastaland Fiumarello plain rivers, of the on Selepluri-lobate River, ca. and 1 terraced km from deposits the current forming shoreline, a travertine between platform, the known Capodifiume as and Fiumarello“Paestum Travertine” rivers, on (Figure pluri-lobate 3) [23–25]. and terraced These terraces deposits are forming composed a travertine of several platform, multiphasic known as “Paestumgenerations Travertine” of travertine (Figure deposits3)[ derived23–25 ].from These in situ terraces carbonate are encrustation composed of of vegetables several multiphasic and/or generationsby the action of travertine of river water deposits on the derived lithified from phytoc inlasts. situ They carbonate were generated encrustation by waters of vegetables with a high and /or by thecontent action of of calcium river water carbonate on the coming lithified from phytoclasts. the springs located They were at the generated base of Mount by waters Soprano with and a high contentMount of calciumSottano, and carbonate by fluvial coming incrustations from the of the springs Capodifiume located River. at the The base lithofacies of Mount associations Soprano and Mount(stromatolitic, Sottano, and microhermal, by fluvial incrustationsphytohermal, ofphytoclastic the Capodifiume and calcareous River.The tufa) lithofacies of the Paestum associations (stromatolitic,Travertine microhermal,depositional system phytohermal, was the phytoclastic result of fluvial-marshy and calcareous and tufa)marshy of the conditions, Paestum which Travertine favored the emergence of an extensive plateau of travertine rising above the surrounding plain [26]. depositional system was the result of fluvial-marshy and marshy conditions, which favored the Recently, Amatoet al. [23,24] provided a detailed chronological reconstruction of the various stages emergenceof the Paestum of an extensive depositional plateau system, of based travertine on radi risingometric above dating, the archeo-tephro-stratigraphic surrounding plain [26]. data, Recently, Amatoetand geomorphological al. [23,24] provided constraints a detailed (Figure chronological 3). They have reconstruction thus been able of to the distinguish various stagesbetween of the PaestumLower depositional Paestum Travertine system, units based (LPT) on and radiometric Upper Paestum dating, Travertine archeo-tephro-stratigraphic units (UPT). In summary, data, the and geomorphologicaldeposition was constraintsactive during (Figure the Middle-Late3). They havePleistocene thus been (Cafasso able and to distinguish Gaudo travertine between units), Lower Paestumduring Travertine the Late unitsPleistocene–Early (LPT) and Upper Holocene Paestum (Paestum Travertine travertine units unit), (UPT). and Inin historical summary, times, the deposition near was activeand around during the the Paestum Middle-Late archaeological Pleistocene area (Cafasso(Linora, Fossa and GaudoLupata travertineand Licinella units), Unit), during covering the Late Pleistocene–Earlymuch of the ancient Holocene city under (Paestum sediments. travertine The unit),LPT was and thus in historicalformed for times, the foundations near and aroundof the the Paestumpublic archaeological and private buildings area (Linora, and also Fossa provided Lupata the andmain Licinella building material Unit), covering for their muchconstruction. of the ancient The travertine deposits (LPT and UPT), maximum thickness of ca. 20 m, can be divided in two city under sediments. The LPT was thus formed for the foundations of the public and private buildings main groups of lithofacies following D’Argenio and Ferreri’s textural classification [27]: (a) in situ and alsocarbonate provided incrustations the main buildingmade up material of undulating, for their construction.millimeter-thick layers, mostly due to Thecyanobacterial travertine activity deposits (stromatolitic (LPT and UPT),travertine maximums), centimeter-size thickness dome-shaped of ca. 20 m, canstructures be divided derived in two mainfrom groups carbonate of lithofacies precipitation following on small D’Argenio size vegetation, and Ferreri’s mainly textural mosses classificationand algae (microhermal [27]: (a) in situ carbonate incrustations made up of undulating, millimeter-thick layers, mostly due to cyanobacterial activity (stromatolitic travertines), centimeter-size dome-shaped structures derived from carbonate precipitation on small size vegetation, mainly mosses and algae (microhermal travertines), centimeter to meter-size “biostromal” and “biohermal” structures derived from carbonate precipitation on large plants, mainly reeds and rushes (phytohermal travertines); (b) carbonate grains formed by the accumulation of fragments of incrustations (phytoclastic travertines and phytoclastic sands). These Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25 Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 5 of 25 travertines), centimeter to meter-size ‘‘biostromal’’ and ‘‘biohermal’’ structures derived from carbonate precipitation on large plants, mainly reeds and rushes (phytohermal travertines); (b) depositscarbonate are characterized grains formed by the a clastic accumulation texture of with fragments a grain of sizeincrus rangingtations (phytoclastic from a few travertines millimeters to a coupleand phytoclastic of centimeters. sands). It isThese worth deposits noting are that characterized this lithofacies by a hasclastic generated texture with several a grain depositional size featuresranging (lamination, from a few grain millimeters orientation, to a couple clino-stratification, of centimeters. It is etc.) worth and noting geometries that this lithofacies (mounds, has ramps, generated several depositional features (lamination, grain orientation, clino-stratification, etc.) and scarps), which provide evidence for the hydrodynamics (direction and flow power) of the original geometries (mounds, ramps, scarps), which provide evidence for the hydrodynamics (direction and sedimentary environments. flow power) of the original sedimentary environments.

Figure 3. Schematic geological map of the southern sector of the Sele river alluvial-coastal plain Figure 3. Schematic geological map of the southern sector of the Sele river alluvial-coastal plain (from (from Amato et al., 2013, modified). A: modern beach; B: fluvial deposits (Holocene); C: Sandy dunal Amato et al., 2013, modified). A: modern beach; B: fluvial deposits (Holocene); C: Sandy dunal ridge ridge (Late Holocene); D: Sandy dunal ridge (Early Holocene); E: Sandy dunal ridge (Upper (Late Holocene); D: Sandy dunal ridge (Early Holocene); E: Sandy dunal ridge (Upper Pleistocene, Pleistocene, MIS5); F: Clay and silt of retro-dunal depression (Upper Pleistocene–Holocene); G: MIS5);Marshy F: Clay deposits and silt (Holocene); of retro-dunal H: Lower depression Paestum (UpperTravertine Pleistocene–Holocene); (Upper Pleistocene–Early G: Holocene), Marshy deposits (1) (Holocene);Cafasso H:Unit Lower (Middle-Late Paestum Pleistocene, Travertine (Upperbefore 50 Pleistocene–Early ka BP), (2) Gaudo Holocene), Unit (late (1) CafassoMiddle Unit (Middle-LatePleistocene–Late Pleistocene, Pleistocene), before (3) 50 Paestum ka BP), (2)Unit Gaudo (Late Pleistocene–Early Unit (late Middle Holocene), Pleistocene–Late (4) Mancone Pleistocene), Unit (3) Paestum(Middle UnitHolocene), (Late Pleistocene–Early (5) Arcione Unit Holocene),(Middle Ho (4)locene: Mancone before Unit 2.5 (Middleka BP), Holocene),(6) Spinazzo (5) Unit Arcione Unit (Middle Holocene: before 2.5 ka BP), (6) Spinazzo Unit (Holocene: 2.5–1.7 ka BP); I: Upper Paestum Travertine (Late Holocene), (7) Linora and Fossa Lupata Unit (Holocene: after 1.7 ka BP), (8) Licinella Unit (Holocene: Middle Age-Present); J: Porta Marina palaeocliff (Early Holocene); K: Paestum city walls; L: Athena temple. Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 6 of 25

The bottom of the travertines the ancient town of Paestum is built upon lies between 7 and 4 m below the present sea level, and overlies sandy levels most likely ascribable to the Gromola dune ridge of the Last Interglacial Period (MIS 5) [28,29]. In the coastal sector in front of the Paestum archaeological area, at the toe of the raised travertine plateau, a continuous sandy dune ridge (max 6 m a.s.l.) runs close to the modern beach. This belt stands behind a depressed area (max 3 m a.s.l.) (the Fossa Lupata back-ridge depression identified by Amato et al. [25]), only recently reclaimed by a complex manmade drainage system. Amato et al. [25] proposed that a coastal lagoon had already been established after the maximum sea transgression occurred at ca. 6.8 ka. During the Classical period (2.5 ka BP) there was only a small lagoon here (a natural pond or an artificially preserved one), open to the sea, which evolved progressively during historical times as palustrine and marshy environments and finally as reclaimed earth.

3. Material and Methods Our work was based on a multidisciplinary approach involving five distinct steps: (1) acquisition and processing of previous archaeological and geological knowledge; (2) geomorphological study of preexisting topographic maps and aerial photos, supported by new topographical surveys and field geomorphology; (3) stratigraphic analysis by means of boreholes, archaeo-stratigraphical excavations and field geology; (4) ground penetrating radar (GPR) and geoelectrical testing; and, (5) archaeological excavation to verify the acquired data. The first three steps encompassed the entire archaeological area of Poseidonia-Paestum within the walls, while the last two regarded the southern and western sectors of the area of the Temple of Athena.

3.1. Geomorphological Approach A detailed geomorphological survey of the area within the walls of Paestum was carried out using a topographic map with contour lines spaced 1 m apart. The contour lines were derived from interpolation and digitalization techniques in a Geographic Information System (GIS) (by means of the 3D Analyst tool of the software Arcgis 9.3) of the altimetric points (above sea level) indicated in the available topographic maps (Carta Tecnica Regionale (CTR) 1:5000 of the Campania Region, 2004; map 1:5000 of the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno (CASMEZ), 1984; Capaccio Plan 1:2000 of the municipality of Capaccio, 2000). For the sector surrounding the Temple of Athena, new topographical measurements were collected directly in the field using an optical level. The contour line map thus obtained was then analyzed in order to distinguish the main features of the landforms and landscape of the archaeological area. Simultaneously, aerial photo interpretation (1:18,000, 1944 and 1:39,000, 1954) was carried out, mainly in order to identify water and moisture traces, useful for the mapping of the more depressed areas within and around the archaeological area. A detailed geological field survey was also carried out in order to identify the travertine outcrops still visible within the archaeological area. In addition to this, and in order to produce a detailed geological model, various stratigraphic data from archaeological excavations and boreholes were acquired and interpreted.

3.2. Geophysical Approach The probable type, dimensions and depth of the buried structures, the logistics of the investigated area, and the geological and geomorphological features were taken into account in carrying out GPR and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) tests. The main objectives of the geophysical investigations were obtaining a description of the profile of the top of the travertine in proximity of the temple and determining the location of the old excavation trenches in order to recover still-intact archaeological levels. For these purposes, a superficial high-resolution GPR investigation was carried out in June 2018, followed by two campaigns of ERT investigations (August 2018 and April 2019) aimed at acquiring information relative to the deeper strata of the temple area. Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 7 of 25

3.2.1. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) An IDS RIS K2 Georadar (IDS GeoRadar s.r.l., Pisa, Italy), equipped with a multi-frequency TRMF (Time-Reversal Matched Filter) antenna (600-200 MHz), was used for data acquisition. A total of 61 profiles were acquired in the survey grid as shown in Figure4a. Radar reflections on each line were 1 recorded at 25 scan s− (1 scan approximately corresponds to 0.025 m) as 16-bit data and 512 samples per radar scan. Bi-dimensional radargrams relative to single lines were processed through the IdsGred [30] and the GPR-SLICE7.0 software [31]. The raw GPR data files were filtered by applying a band-pass filter (low cutoff: 99 MHz; upper cutoff: 992 MHz), background removal, wobble removal and manual gain in order to remove the high- and low-frequency anomalies that occurred during data acquisition, normalize amplification, and remove reflections generated by noise due to different signal attenuation [32,33]. In the examined context, assuming a soil in which the wave spreads with a mean velocity v of 0.1 m/ns, the depth h of the reflectors could be approximately derived from the equation h = vt/2 (where t is the time in which the electromagnetic wave completes its passage from the transmitter antenna through the discontinuity to the receiver antenna). Four radargrams are shown in Figure5 in order to give an idea of the detected bi-dimensional anomalies, which are highlighted by means of arrows. Thus, the whole dataset, composed of a three-dimensional matrix of averaged square wave amplitudes of the return reflection, was used to extract time slices for various time windows. The time slices were overlapped by 0.2 m. The data were gridded using the inverse distance algorithm, which includes a search for all data within a fixed radius of 0.75 m of the desired point to be interpolated on the grid, and a smoothing factor of two. Grid cell size was set to 0.01 m to produce high-resolution images.

3.2.2. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) To collect an apparent resistivity dataset along a profile, we used a four-electrode device, the ElmesADD-01 Resistivimeter. It consists of two separated portable boxes—the measuring/control unit and the current generator—interconnected via a wireless radio frequency device. Designed primarily for archaeological investigation, it is characterized by a 50 W low power generator. A current sine wave was generated using a frequency equal to 33 Hz and an intensity of the exciting current of 20 mA. The acquisition board is equipped with a bandpass filter in order to eliminate unwanted noise. The ERT survey was conducted over two large areas located at the southern and the western sides of the Temple of Athena, respectively named Area 1 and Area 2. A total of 24 dipole–dipole (DD) profiles was acquired (Figure4b). In both of the investigated areas, the distance between the profiles was fixed at 2 m. Profiles 01 and 02 (in red in Figure4b) were acquired in August 2018 and were followed by archaeological excavation. The remaining ones were acquired in April 2019. In Figure6 only four apparent resistivity pseudosections are shown, two for each zone, in order to give an idea of the nature of the input data. The sections are contoured at constant (logarithmic) intervals and are simply a graphical representation of the %a dataset, where the vertical scale is a function of the array spacing and not of the depth. Although distorted by some repeated dragging effects that are typical of the DD array, due to the presence of strong resistivity inhomogeneities close to the current or potential dipole, a transition from lower to higher %a values characterizes the pseudosections. In complex geological models, and in cases of even a single vertical contact between dissimilar resistivities like the present one, the pseudosections do not have an intuitive relationship with the actual model. Thus, in order to remove corrupting effects and model the survey targets as accurately as possible, a numerical inversion is needed to convert the apparent resistivity distributed along a pseudosection to real electrical resistivity values displayed as a function of depth below surface. In our case, we applied the probability-based ERT inversion (PERTI) method [34], derived directly from the principles of probability tomography [35,36]. As outlined in previous applications [37–41], the PERTI method can be considered a self-sufficient procedure, useful as a means of determining the location and shape of the most probable sources of the anomalies detected on the ground surface. Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 25

directly from the principles of probability tomography [35,36]. As outlined in previous applications [37–41], the PERTI method can be considered a self-sufficient procedure, useful as a means of Geosciencesdetermining2019, 9 ,the 324 location and shape of the most probable sources of the anomalies detected on the8 of 25 ground surface.

Figure 4. The location of the ground penetrating radar (GPR) (a) and electrical resistivity Figure 4. The location of the ground penetrating radar (GPR) (a) and electrical resistivity tomography tomography (ERT) surveys (b). (ERT) surveys (b).

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 9 of 25 Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 25

FigureFigure 5. 5. GPRGPR radargramsradargrams acrossacross lineslines 03,03, 09,09, 1515 andand 23,23, drawndrawn inin Figure Figure4a, 4a, showing showing shallow shallow sub-horizontalsub-horizontal layers layers (green (green arrows) arrows) and and deep deep steeper steeper layers layers (pink (pink arrows). arrows).

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 10 of 25

Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25

FigureFigure 6. Geoelectrical 6. Geoelectrical pseudosections pseudosections acrossacross prof profilesiles 07, 07, 17, 17, 18 18 and and 24, 24, drawn drawn in Figure in Figure 4a. 4a.

3.3. Archaeo-Stratigraphical3.3. Archaeo-Stratigraphical Surveys Surveys TwoTwo archaeo–stratigraphical archaeo–stratigraphical excavations excavations werewere du dugg during during the the 2018 2018 and and 2019 2019 surveys. surveys. In the In the frameworkframework of a of 3-year a 3-year research research program program (2018–2020), (2018–2020), their their purpose purpose was was to toreconstruct reconstruct the ancient the ancient landscapelandscape features features of theof the northern northern sacred sacred area area inin didifferentfferent periods, periods, especially especially at the at thebeginning beginning of the of the history of the ancient city. In particular, since the area was strongly affected by old archaeological history of the ancient city. In particular, since the area was strongly affected by old archaeological excavations and other anthropogenic changes (as briefly illustrated in the above sections), the aim of excavationsthe new andarchaeological other anthropogenic excavations changeswas to identify (as briefly the traces illustrated and edges in theof the above old trenches sections), (A, the B, C aim of the newand archaeological between A and excavations B), mainly was in tothe identify southern the se tracesctor of and the edges temple of the(Figure old trenches2). In addition, (A, B, C and betweenstratigraphic A and B), studies mainly were in thecarried southern out of sectorthe new of ar thechaeological temple (Figure excavations,2). In addition,in order to stratigraphic identify studiesarchaeological were carried layers out that of the had new not archaeologicalbeen disturbed excavations,by previous excavations in order to and identify could archaeologicalthus yield layersinformation that had not about been the disturbed archaeological by previous stratigraphy excavations of the sacred and could area thusin the yield sixth information century BCE about (ca. the archaeological600–510 BCE). stratigraphy The location of theof the sacred two areastratigraphical in the sixth excavations, century BCE designated (ca. 600–510 as 242 BCE). and 243, The was location of thechosen two stratigraphicalon the basis of the excavations, preliminary designated results of the as geophysical 242 and 243, surveys, was chosenparticularly on thetaking basis into of the account the anomalies inferred by the GPR and ERT profile surveys. The first archeo-stratigraphical preliminary results of the geophysical surveys, particularly taking into account the anomalies inferred excavation (survey 242), oriented N–S and measuring 2 × 5 m, was located ca. 24 m south of the by the GPR and ERT profile surveys. The first archeo-stratigraphical excavation (survey 242), oriented temple, exactly above a geophysical anomaly corresponding to Maiuri’s Trench C [19], between the N–S and measuring 2 5 m, was located ca. 24 m south of the temple, exactly above a geophysical sixth and eighth column.× The second archaeo-stratigraphical excavation (survey 243), oriented N–S anomalyand measuring corresponding 3 × 6 m, to was Maiuri’s located Trench above Cthe [19 square], between GPR anomaly. the sixth and eighth column. The second archaeo-stratigraphicalAll the layers identified excavation during (survey the excavations 243), oriented were N–S recorded and measuringas distinct SUs 3 (stratigraphic6 m, was located × abovesnits), thesquare numbered GPR from anomaly. top to bottom, down to the travertine bedrock. Only part of stratigraphical Allsurvey the number layers identified 242 reached during down the to excavationsthe bedrock, weredifferently recorded from as the distinct 243 survey, SUs (stratigraphicwhich attained snits), numberedthe bedrock from topa few to bottom,decimeters down from to the the surface. travertine Each bedrock. stratigraphic Only unit part was of stratigraphicaldescribed from surveya numbergeological 242 reached and sedimentological down to the bedrock, point of diview,fferently and its from chronology the 243 was survey, established which on attained the basis the of bedrock its archaeological contents (pottery classes, potsherds, metal objects, etc.). a few decimeters from the surface. Each stratigraphic unit was described from a geological and sedimentological point of view, and its chronology was established on the basis of its archaeological contents (pottery classes, potsherds, metal objects, etc.). Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 11 of 25

4. ResultsGeosciences and 2019 Discussion, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 25 4. Results and Discussion 4.1. Geomorphological and Geological Features of the Site The4.1. Geomorphological contour line map and showsGeological that Features the archaeological of the Site area of Poseidonia-Paestum within the city walls liesThe between contour 20 line and map 10 m shows above that sea the level archaeological (Figure7a). area In theof Poseidonia-Paestum northern and southern within sectors the city of the city arewalls two lies elongated between 20 dome-shaped and 10 m above mounds, sea level approximately (Figure 7a). In oriented the northern E–W and and southern sloping downsectors fromof ca. 20 tothe ca. city 15 m are a.s.l. two The elongated northern dome-shaped mound has mounds, an elaborate approximately morphology, oriented featuring E–W and at least sloping two down elongated lobesfrom of travertine. ca. 20 to ca. The 15 m first, a.s.l. extending The northern SSE–NNW, mound has lies an inelaborate the NE morphology, sector of the featuring city and at isleast bordered two to the NEelongated by a deep lobes incision, of travertine. probably The first, the bed extending of an ancientSSE–NNW, watercourse, lies in the thatNE sector was partof the of city an articulatedand is networkbordered of rivers to the (the NE paleocoursesby a deep incision, of the probably Fiumarello the bed river) of an extending ancient watercourse, across the areathat was just part outside of the an articulated network of rivers (the paleocourses of the Fiumarello river) extending across the area N walls. On the SW side of this lobe, there are traces of a surface water flow that seems to originate just outside the N walls. On the SW side of this lobe, there are traces of a surface water flow that fromseems it. The to second originate lobe, from higher it. The and second broader, lobe, oriented higher approximatelyand broader, oriented E–W (precisely, approximately N105◦ ),E–W extends from(precisely, the E city N105°), wall (20 extends m a.s.l.) from to thethe centralE city wall part (20 of m the a.s.l.) city to (15 the m central a.s.l.). part It is of bordered the city (15 to m the a.s.l.). N by the sameIt trace is bordered of surface to the water N by flowthe same detected trace of in surfac the previouse water flow lobe, detected and to in the the S previous by a deep lobe, and and extensive to depressedthe S by area a deep interpretable and extensive as depressed a paleoriver area course, interpretable where as the a paleoriver Roman Forumcourse, where and several the Roman pools lie. BothForum watercourses and several flow pools within lie. the Both present-day watercourses Lupata flow spring within and the convergepresent-day in whatLupata is believedspring and to be a workshopconverge quarter in what [42 is]. believed Both to to the be Na workshop and to S, quarter the lobe [42]. shows Both 1.5to the m N steep and scarps,to S, the whilelobe shows to the 1.5 W the moundm steep slopes scarps, slightly while away. to the The W Templethe mound of Athenaslopes sl liesightly on away. the northernmost The Temple of part Athena of this lies lobe. on the northernmost part of this lobe.

Figure 7. Geomorphological map of the Paestum archaeological area with 1 m contour lines (a), showing the main landforms, superimposed on a Google EarthTM satellite image, and travertine outcrops map close the Athena temple (b). Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 25

Figure 7. Geomorphological map of the Paestum archaeological area with 1 m contour lines (a), showing the main landforms, superimposed on a Google EarthTMsatellite image, and travertine Geosciencesoutcrops2019, 9map, 324 close the Athena temple (b). 12 of 25

The southern mound, like the northern one, extends from the E city wall (20 m a.s.l.) to the The southern mound, like the northern one, extends from the E city wall (20 m a.s.l.) to the central central part of the city (15 m a.s.l.), with 1.5 m steep scarps to the N, and southward to the S city wall part of the city (15 m a.s.l.), with 1.5 m steep scarps to the N, and southward to the S city wall and and the Capodifiume river. On this mound are the ruins of the other two major temples of the city, the Capodifiume river. On this mound are the ruins of the other two major temples of the city, which which stand in the area known as the “southern sanctuary”. stand in the area known as the “southern sanctuary”. Both the mounds are constituted by travertine deposits (Paestum Travertine Unit, Figure 3), Both the mounds are constituted by travertine deposits (Paestum Travertine Unit, Figure3), some some outcrops of which are still visible (indicated by yellow polygons in Figure 7b). Some of these outcrops of which are still visible (indicated by yellow polygons in Figure7b). Some of these outcrops outcrops show signs of quarrying. Outcrops of historical travertine deposition (Upper Paestum show signs of quarrying. Outcrops of historical travertine deposition (Upper Paestum Travertine) Travertine) can also be seen in the depressed areas between the mounds and the W sectors of the can also be seen in the depressed areas between the mounds and the W sectors of the city, both in city, both in archaeological trenches and at ground level. The largest outcrops of this historical archaeological trenches and at ground level. The largest outcrops of this historical deposition are deposition are visible at Porta Marina, along the southern walls and the streets. The mounds where visible at Porta Marina, along the southern walls and the streets. The mounds where the temples lie are the temples lie are the most elevated areas in the city, the one of the Temple of Athena being higher the most elevated areas in the city, the one of the Temple of Athena being higher than the southern one. than the southern one. The landform of the top of the travertine bed is neither uniform nor planar, presenting mounds The landform of the top of the travertine bed is neither uniform nor planar, presenting mounds and dome-shaped structures interspersed with numerous depressed areas of different widths and and dome-shaped structures interspersed with numerous depressed areas of different widths and extensions, and by fluvial incisions of different depth and width (Figure7a). extensions, and by fluvial incisions of different depth and width (Figure 7a). Also in the sector of the Temple of Athena, the top of the travertine surface is not uniform, as Also in the sector of the Temple of Athena, the top of the travertine surface is not uniform, as borne out by core samples from six boreholes dug in 1988 to investigate the geotechnical features of borne out by core samples from six boreholes dug in 1988 to investigate the geotechnical features of the foundations layers of the temple (Figure8)[ 43]. The boreholes were dug around the temple, about the foundations layers of the temple (Figure 8) [43,44]. The boreholes were dug around the temple, 3 m from the stylobate. They revealed stratigraphies composed of (from top to bottom) (Figure4): (a) about 3 m from the stylobate. They revealed stratigraphies composed of (from top to bottom) (Figure 2.50–4.50 m of anthropogenic deposits; (b) travertine deposits, ca. 6–7 m thick; (c) silt and sand layers, 4): (a) 2.50–4.50 m of anthropogenic deposits; (b) travertine deposits, ca. 6–7 m thick; (c) silt and sand 1–5 m thick; and, (d) travertine and calcareous sand layers. This hypothesis is confirmed by field data layers, 1–5 m thick; and, (d) travertine and calcareous sand layers. This hypothesis is confirmed by indicating the presence of travertine only a few cm below the present ground level (Figure7b). In field data indicating the presence of travertine only a few cm below the present ground level (Figure conclusion, Maiuri’s [19] data relative to the foundations of the temple (made of at least six courses of 7b). In conclusion, Maiuri’s [19] data relative to the foundations of the temple (made of at least six travertine blocks, one block being ca. 70 cm high) seems to indicate that the travertine bedrock was cut courses of travertine blocks, one block being ca. 70 cm high) seems to indicate that the travertine all around the temple. bedrock was cut all around the temple.

.

FigureFigure 8.8. Schematic stratigraphic logs of the boreholes carried out close to the Temple of Athena,Athena, modifiedmodified andand redrawnredrawn byby PescatorePescatore andand ViggianiViggiani [ 43[44].].

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 13 of 25

4.2. Geophysical Results

4.2.1. GPR As mentioned above (see Section 3.2.1), there is evidence of layers in the investigated soil portion (Figure5). A shallow sub-horizontal layer, indicated with green arrows, is recorded at the origin of lines 03 and 09. All four radargrams show a level, indicated by pink arrows, that is visible at depths decreasing from 2 m (the origin of the lines is about 6 m from the temple) to the surface on the southern side, and probably corresponds to the top of the travertine bedrock. Figure9 shows the horizontal slices relative to the depth ranges of 0.2–0.4 m (a), 1–1.2 m (b), and 2–2.20 m (c). In the images, low variations in amplitude express small reflections indicating the presence of fairly homogeneous sediments. High amplitudes instead denote relevant discontinuities in the investigated surface. In the most superficial portion (0.2–0.4 m), we note some high-amplitude anomalies indicating the probable presence of buried modern utilities (indicated with arrows 1–3). Worthy of note is the superficial rectangular anomaly (4 m 2 m), whose center is located 15 m south of the crepidoma × of the temple and 16 m from its west corner (A in Figure9a). Elsewhere, low-amplitude anomalies indicate the presence of humus and high amplitudes attest to the presence of travertine. The rock outcrop around the archaic temple confirms this (see Figure7b). At greater depths, the medium-high amplitudes are presumably attributable to the presence of travertine in the subsoil. The mostly irregular and undulating shape of the anomalies suggests that most of the detected bodies are not manmade. In the immediate vicinity of the temple, there is an area with very low values, about 15 m wide; this is where the filling of old trenches is hypothesized to lie (in Figure9a they are indicated with the letters A, B and C). Anomaly D could indicate the southern limit of the excavation, which presumably did not extend beyond this point, both because of the hardness of the bedrock and because there would have been no interest in expanding the dig in that direction. All these readings are relative to the soil down to a depth of about 2 m.

4.2.2. ERT Table1 lists the minimum, maximum, and average apparent resistivity along each profile acquired as reported in Figure4b. Profiles 1–17 (Area 1) are very heterogeneous and show values of resistivity in the 55–4448 Ωm range, with a mean resistivity of 665Ωm. It is worthy of note that apparent resistivities increase as the measurements move away from the temple toward the south, where the highest values are detected. Profiles 18–24 (Area 2), instead, appear to be quite homogeneous, showing values of resistivity in the 100–978 Ωm range, with a mean resistivity of about 400 Ωm. Figure 10 shows the results of ERT 01 and ERT 02, acquired in August 2018. The images confirm the results of the GPR surveys. The zones with values above the measured mean resistivity are attributable to the presence of hard rocks (ERT 02) and travertine blocks mixed with sands (ERT 01). The conductive zone with values lower than the measured mean resistivity most likely corresponds to fillings and soil. In particular, in the eastern part of ERT 01 and in the central part of ERT 02, it could correspond to the backfills of past excavations. The shallow highly resistive anomaly visible at the crossing point of the sections coincides with the rectangular anomaly detected in the GPR depth-slice (Figure9a), indicated with the letter A. Because of these results, an excavation was suggested at the point indicated with a red arrow in order to verify the presence of travertine and the probable southern limits of trench C. Figure 11 shows the results of the three-dimensional probability tomography applied to the whole resistivity dataset from all of the profiles acquired in April 2019 in the southern and western sector of the temple. A perspective view of the tomospace from 1 m to 5 m in depth is given, using three different drawing styles of calculated resistivity. In Figure 11a, the whole volumes are imaged, whereas in Figure 11b,c the representation is limited to anomalies including values greater or lower than 398 Ωm, respectively. In Figures 12 and 13, the location and shape of the anomaly sources are Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 14 of 25

Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 25 rendered as a sequence of vertical tomographic sections oriented, respectively, E–W and N–S. Finally, two high-resolutionrendered as a sequence horizontal of vertical maps relative tomographi to depthsc sections of 1 oriented, m and 2 mrespectively, have been E–W extracted and N–S. from the tomospaceFinally, (Figure two high-resolutio 14). n horizontal maps relative to depths of 1 m and 2 m have been extracted from the tomospace (Figure 14).

FigureFigure 9. GPR 9. GPR horizontal horizontal slices slices superimposed superimposed onon a Google Earth EarthTMTM satellitesatellite image; image; the slices the slices are are relativerelative to the to depththe depth ranges ranges 0.2–0.4 0.2–0.4 m m (a (),a), 1–1.2 1–1.2 mm ((bb)) and 2–2.20 2–2.20 m m (c ().c ).

Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 25

Table 1. Maximum and mean apparent resistivities in Ωm along the profiles. Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 15 of 25 Area Profile ρa, Min ρa, Max ρa, Mean 1 01 89.72 1246.45 583.35 Table 1. Maximum1 and02 mean apparent55.84 resistivities2886.83 in Ω1296.42m along the profiles.

Area Profile1 03 %a,215.09 Min 1342.13%a, Max525.23 %a, Mean 1 04 116.23 774.08 386.52 1 01 89.72 1246.45 583.35 11 02 05 55.8485.76 604.75 2886.83 343.01 1296.42 11 03 06 215.0958.05 718.79 1342.13 332.50 525.23 11 04 07 116.23123.75 671.18 774.08 364.03 386.52 11 05 08 85.7682.10 856.77 604.75 434.46 343.01 1 06 58.05 718.79 332.50 1 09 89.84 1023.57 516.03 1 07 123.75 671.18 364.03 11 08 10 82.10213.00 1837.72 856.77 691.69 434.46 11 09 11 89.84188.91 2603.75 1023.57 708.92 516.03 11 10 12 213.00296.77 3421.57 1837.72 747.52 691.69 11 11 13 188.91200.55 4448.58 2603.75 747.27 708.92 1 12 296.77 3421.57 747.52 11 13 14 200.55345.07 2094.18 4448.58 841.12 747.27 11 14 15 345.07346.03 1683.64 2094.18 860.03 841.12 11 15 16 346.03406.33 1749.84 1683.64 946.32 860.03 11 16 17 406.33333.61 2186.82 1749.84 995.31 946.32 12 17 18 333.61203.78 840.94 2186.82 407.26 995.31 2 18 203.78 840.94 407.26 22 19 19 200.43200.43 829.80 829.80 396.37 396.37 22 20 20 200.56200.56 743.30 743.30 414.36 414.36 22 21 21 191.32191.32 810.94 810.94 418.76 418.76 22 22 22 181.20181.20 760.47 760.47 407.63 407.63 22 23 23 182.52182.52 773.87 773.87 393.24 393.24 2 24 100.21 977.64 373.25 2 24 100.21 977.64 373.25

Figure 10. Three-dimensionalThree-dimensional view of ERT 01 and 02 and their spatial relationship with the temple.

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 16 of 25

Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25

Figure 11. Three-dimensional view of the probability-based ERT (a) and representations limited to Figure 11. Three-dimensional view of the probability-based ERT (a) and representations limited to the the anomalies including values greater (b) or lower (c) than 398 Ωm. anomalies including values greater (b) or lower (c) than 398 Ωm.

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 17 of 25

GeosciencesGeosciences 2019 2019, ,9 9, ,x x FOR FOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW 1717 ofof 2525

FigureFigure 12. 12. SequenceSequence ofof verticalvertical tomography tomography sections sections oriented oriented in in the the N–S N–S direction. direction.

Figure 13. Sequence of vertical tomography sections oriented in the W–E direction. FigureFigure 13. 13. SequenceSequence of of vertical vertical tomography tomography sections sections oriented oriented in in the the W–E W–E direction. direction.

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 18 of 25

Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 25

FigureFigure 14. Horizontal 14. Horizontal tomography tomography sections sections relative relative to the to depths the depths of 1 m of (a )1 and m 2(a m) and (b), superimposed2 m (b), TM on a Googlesuperimposed Earth TMon asatellite Google image.Earth satellite image.

TwoTwo distinct distinct resistivity resistivity environments environments cancan bebe assumed. The The one one with with high high resistivity resistivity values values is is relative to the travertine bank, while the one with low resistivity values, close to the temple, is relative to the travertine bank, while the one with low resistivity values, close to the temple, is relative relative to the fillings. While the southern portion of the temple area was already expected to be to the fillings. While the southern portion of the temple area was already expected to be altered by altered by previous excavation work (the anomalies A, B, C and D in Figure 14a do indeed previouscorrespond excavation to trenches work (thevisible anomalies in pictures A, published B, C and by D inMaiuri Figure [19]; 14 aFigure do indeed 15a,c), correspondthe measurements to trenches visiblemade in pictures to the west published reveal a hitherto by Maiuri unknown [19]; Figure aspect 15 ofa,c), the ancient the measurements landscape that made could to be the related west to reveal a hitherto unknown aspect of the ancient landscape that could be related to the construction of the sacred building and with the ancient street grid. With the exception of a very low resistivity anomaly attributable to a modern path, a 15-m wide area (designated as G and H) with low resistivity values is Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 19 of 25 Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25 highlightedthe construction at a depth of ofthe 1m. sacred Since building it is parallel and with to thethe ancient western street side grid. of the With temple the exception and lies alongof a very the axis extendinglow resistivity between anomaly the northern attributable and southern to a modern entrances path, toa 15-m the city, wide it area could (designated be tentatively as G identifiedand H) as a road.with In low the southernresistivity area,values between is highlighted the fourth at a depth and sixth of 1m. intercolumnia, Since it is parallel two highto the resistivity western side anomalies of the temple and lies along the axis extending between the northern and southern entrances to the city, bound the filling of Trench B of Maiuri at a depth of 1 m (E and F anomalies in Figure 14). Traces of it could be tentatively identified as a road. In the southern area, between the fourth and sixth a structureintercolumnia, can be seentwo high here resistivity in an old anomalies sketch of bound the temple the filling area of Trench (E and B F of in Maiuri Figure at 15 a b)depth [19 ],of but1 no descriptionm (E and of F it anomalies is given. in Figure 14). Traces of a structure can be seen here in an old sketch of the Astemple to the area results ((E and of F in the Figure deeper 15b) measurements [19], but no description (Figures of 11 it –is14 given.b), a viable hypothesis is that, to build theAs temple to the at results the top of ofthe the deeper mound, measurements a large pit (Figures was dug 11–14b), in the travertinea viable hypothesis outcrop, quarryingis that, to the buildingbuild blocks the temple of the at the temple top of in the the mound, process; a large once pitthe was foundations dug in the travertine had been outcrop, built, quarrying the pit was the then backfilledbuilding with blocks other of material. the temple The in presencethe process; of once travertine the foundations outcrops, had the resultsbeen built, ofcore the pit drilling, was then and the resultsbackfilled of the geophysical with other material. tests performed The presence around of trav theertine temple outcrops, support the the results hypothesis of core drilling, that the and hill was the results of the geophysical tests performed around the temple support the hypothesis that the hill naturally formed and not artificially built. was naturally formed and not artificially built.

Figure 15. The southeast side of the temple with the trench between the first and third columns Figure 15. The southeast side of the temple with the trench between the first and third columns (Trench (Trench A) ((a): photo E. Samaritani, 1937), dug during the excavations carried out between 1928 and A) ((a): photo E. Samaritani, 1937), dug during the excavations carried out between 1928 and 1939 ((b): 1939 ((b): a sketch of Maiuri’s excavations), and excavation along the foundations of the south side a sketch(Trench of Maiuri’s C) ((c): photo excavations), E. Samaritani, and 1937). excavation along the foundations of the south side (Trench C) ((c): photo E. Samaritani, 1937). 4.3. Archaeological Data from New Trenches 4.3. Archaeological Data from New Trenches 4.3.1. Stratigraphic Survey No. 242 4.3.1. Stratigraphic Survey No. 242 As mentioned above, stratigraphic excavation revealed Maiuri’s Trench C [19] about 30–40 cm Asfrom mentioned the surface, above, under stratigraphica thin layer of excavationmodern soil revealed and two thin Maiuri’s disturbed Trench layers, C [19 SUs] about 2 and 30–403 in cm fromFigure the surface, 16). In this under old trench, a thin layerthree main of modern layers (S soilUs 7, and 9 and two 10) thin were disturbed identified (Figure layers, 16b,c). SUs 2 SU and 7 3 in Figureconsisted 16). In thisof calcareous old trench, sands three and main silts layerscontaining (SUs heterometric 7, 9 and 10) and were loose identified travertine (Figure stones 16 andb,c). SU 7 consistedpottery sherds. of calcareous It covered sands a second and layer silts (SU containing 9) made exclusively heterometric of large and travertine loose travertine blocks, not stones well and potterylithified, sherds. probably It covered chipped a secondand piled layer on each (SU other, 9) made interpretable exclusively as scraps of large from travertine the processing blocks, of not well lithified, probably chipped and piled on each other, interpretable as scraps from the processing of building blocks (Figure 16c). The lower part of the fill (SU 10) consisted of non-lithified, dusty travertine sands, probably also from the processing of the travertine blocks. All three layers contained Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 25 buildingGeosciences 2019blocks, 9, 324 (Figure 16c). The lower part of the fill (SU 10) consisted of non-lithified, 20dusty of 25 travertine sands, probably also from the processing of the travertine blocks. All three layers contained archaeological remains chronologically related to archaic and Roman age; these were mixedarchaeological with modern remains material chronologically such as glass related and rubber, to archaic which and allowed Roman the age; layers these to werebe interpreted mixed with as themodern backfill material of Maiuri’s such as trenches glass and [19]. rubber, South which of the allowed edge theof the layers old to trench, be interpreted the new as archaeological the backfill of excavationMaiuri’s trenches was deepened [19]. South by ofopening the edge a pit of themeasur old trench,ing ca. the1 × new2 m. archaeological Here, under the excavation same layers was deepened by opening a pit measuring ca. 1 2 m. Here, under the same layers described above, described above, was a thick layer (SU 8, 0.7 m)× of travertine sands containing travertine sherds and wasblocks, a thick as well layer as (SUarchaeological 8, 0.7 m) of remains travertine dating sands to containingthe archaic travertineperiod (late sherds sixth–early and blocks, fifth century as well BCE).as archaeological The more recent remains levels, dating from to the the late archaic sixth period century (late BCE, sixth–early had evidently fifth century already BCE). been Theremoved more byrecent the levels,excavations from theof the late 1930s. sixth centurySU 8 covered BCE, hada thin evidently layer (SU already 12) ofbeen dark removed gray loose by sand the excavations and sandy silts,of the rich 1930s. in burnt SU 8 woods covered and a thin ashes, layer also (SU containi 12) of darkng potsherds gray loose of sandthe sixth and century sandy silts, BCE, rich Corinthian in burnt woodsand Attic and artifacts, ashes, alsominiature containing pots, potsherdsand bronze of fragments the sixth centuryshowing BCE, traces Corinthian of burning. and SU Attic 12 covered artifacts, a thinminiature layer pots,(SU and15), bronzeextending fragments over the showing whole tracessurface, of burning.consisting SU of 12 an covered accumulation a thin layer of (SUarchaic 15), materialsextending probably over the wholerelative surface, to a collapsed consisting roof, of an which accumulation was disturbed of archaic by later materials digging probably (Figure relative 16c). Thisto a collapsedlayer also roof, contained which also was disturbedan antefix byof laterthe a diggingcorna(horned) (Figure type, 16c). with This red-painted layer also contained edges, from also thean antefixsame set of of the roofa corna tiles(horned) found in type, Maiuri’s with red-paintedexcavations edges,[19] and from presently the same on setdisplay of roof in tilesthe Paestum found in MuseumMaiuri’s excavations[11]. [19] and presently on display in the Paestum Museum [11]. These archaeological materials were scattered across a beaten-earth floor floor (SU 17), which sloped slightly towards the south-west (Figure 16d).16d). This This is is probably probably the original floor floor level of the archaic sanctuary, since it is here that the remains were found of the roof of the sixth century BCE building recently identified identified by Rescigno [[11]11] as the oldest temple of Athena. The thick layers that cover these remains seemsseems toto be be the the result result of of the the demolishing demolishin ofg this of this early early temple temple to make to make way for way the for new the temple new templeof Athena of Athena between between the late the sixth late and sixth early and fifth early century fifth century BCE. BCE.

Figure 16. Photos of stratigraphical survey No. 242. 242. ( (aa)) The The southern southern border border of of Maiuri’s Maiuri’s trench trench C (1986), which came to light only a few decimeters from the surface; ( (b)) the the cut of trench C and its subsequent backfillbackfill withwith travertinetravertine chips chips and and blocks; blocks; (c )(c the) the stratigraphy stratigraphy of theof the east east part part of trench of trench 242; 242;(d) the (d) beaten-earth the beaten-earth floor floor strewn strewn with wi remainsth remains of the of collapsed the collapsed roof. roof.

4.3.2. Stratigraphic Survey No. 243

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 21 of 25

Geosciences 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 25 4.3.2. Stratigraphic Survey No. 243 As mentioned above, the aim of stratigraphic excavation number 243 was to investigate the meaningAs mentioned of the GPR above, anomaly the and, aim more of stratigraphic in general, excavationto detect the number southern 243 limit was of to the investigate temple area the andmeaning the northern of the GPR sector anomaly of the and, plateia more (ancient in general, street) to dividing detect the the southern sacred limitarea from of the the temple ancient area agora and (mainthe northern square). sector This of important the plateia axis(ancient crossing street) the dividing ancient the city sacred from area east from to west the ancient had alreadyagora (main been identifiedsquare). This during important archaeological axis crossing excavations the ancient conducted city from by an east Italian-French to west had alreadyteam [45,46]. been identified duringThe archaeological stratigraphic excavationsdata from stratigraphical conducted by exca an Italian-Frenchvation number team 243 were [44,45 unsatisfactory,]. because the layersThe stratigraphic were disturbed data fromin several stratigraphical places by excavation the planting number and 243 subsequent were unsatisfactory, removal of because a rowthe of cypresseslayers were planted disturbed around in several the temple places byin the1950 planting [20]. The and hollow subsequent left by removal the roots of aof row a cypress of cypresses was plantedrecognized around in the the excavation, temple in 1950as well [20 ].as The traces hollow of a left furrow by the housing roots of an a cypresselectric wascable recognized (Figure 17). in Despitethe excavation, this, the aspit well yielded as traces two important of a furrow items housing of information: an electric (1) cable the (FigureGPR anomaly 17). Despite was due this, to the pitpresence yielded of twothe importantelectric cable; items (2) of the information: travertine be (1)drock the GPR in this anomaly sector wasis very due high, to the lying presence only ofa few the decimeterselectric cable; below (2) the the travertine present-day bedrock surface. in thisThis sector last datum is very confirms high, lying the onlynon-uniformity a few decimeters of the belowtop of the present-daytravertine bedrock surface. Thisin the last area datum of confirmsthe temple the non-uniformityof Athena, already of the topsuggested of the travertine by our geomorphologicalbedrock in the area tests. of the temple of Athena, already suggested by our geomorphological tests. In spite of the laterlater disturbances,disturbances, some in situ archaeological remains were detected along the southern sector of the trench. They They consisted consisted of of Roman-period Roman-period pottery, pottery, mainly mainly amphorae amphorae and and bricks, bricks, evidence of some kind of activity that today we can only guessguess at.at.

Figure 17. Photo of the stratigraphical surv surveyey No. 243 trench excavation.

5. Conclusions Conclusions and Implications for Future Studies Although the archaeological data collected so far only allow for preliminary hypotheses and indications for future research to be put forward, the geophysical and geological investigations have highlighted specific specific features of the local bedrock and landforms that certainly must be taken into consideration for the detection of the ancient topographical surfaces.surfaces. Our geomorphologicalgeomorphological study study highlighted highlighted the the presence presence of two of travertinetwo travertine mounds mounds precisely precisely where wherethe sacred the areassacred lie areas (Figure lie (Figure18a). Between 18a). Between them, there them, is athere depressed is a depressed area where area the where southern the southern sector of sectorthe agora of the of agora the late of archaic,the late classicalarchaic, classical and proto-Hellenistic and proto-Hellenistic ages (510–273 ages (510–273 BCE) was BCE) located. was located. It thus Itappears thus appears likely that likely both that sacred both areas sacred were areas established were established on the higher on the reaches higher of reaches the city. of It isthe interesting city. It is interestingto note that to the note two that mounds the two of travertinemounds of are trav orientedertine are approximately oriented approximately SSE–NNW andSSE–NNW dip towards and dip the towards the NNW; this matches the orientation of the temples and of the hypothetical N–S road east

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 22 of 25

NNW; this matches the orientation of the temples and of the hypothetical N–S road east of the temple of Athena,Geosciences suggesting 2019, 9, x FOR that PEER the REVIEW plan of the archaic city (ca. 600–510 BCE) may have been aligned22 of 25 with the preexisting landforms. Theof the combined temple of Athena, results suggesting of the geophysical that the plan (GPR of the andarchaic ERT) city and(ca. 600–510 morpho-stratigraphic BCE) may have been studies indicatealigned that with the the top preexisting of the travertine landforms. bedrock is not uniform in the southern and western sectors The combined results of the geophysical (GPR and ERT) and morpho-stratigraphic studies of the area of the Temple of Athena (Figure 18), where the travertine forms a dome-shaped mound. indicate that the top of the travertine bedrock is not uniform in the southern and western sectors of All around the temple, at least in its southern and western sectors, the travertine surface shows sudden the area of the Temple of Athena (Figure 18), where the travertine forms a dome-shaped mound. All dropsaround that are the nottemple, explainable at least in asits naturalsouthern landforms and western (Figure sectors, 18 theb). travertine These sheer surface scarps shows must sudden be due to anthropogenicdrops that are cutting,not explainable probably as natural to quarry landforms the blocks (Figure used 18b). for These the constructionsheer scarps must of the be due temple, to as is alsoanthropogenic documented cutting, from theprobably occurrence to quarry of scrapsthe blocks and used crushed for the travertine construction fragments of the temple, in the as layers is of stratigraphicalalso documented excavation from the No. occurrence 242. This of suggestsscraps an thatd crushed the area travertine around frag thements temple in the was layers excavated of to quarrystratigraphical the blocks excavation for the temple No. 242. foundations This suggests and that subsequently the area around backfilled. the temple Further was excavated archeological to excavationsquarry willthe blocks hopefully for the yield temple chrono-stratigraphic foundations and datasubsequently that will backfilled help to determine. Further whenarcheological this cutting and fillingexcavations was carried will hopefully out. yield chrono-stratigraphic data that will help to determine when this cutting and filling was carried out.

Figure 18. (a) Conceptual geomorphological and geological models of Paestum travertine mounds Figure 18. (a) Conceptual geomorphological and geological models of Paestum travertine mounds and and (b) ERT data. (b) ERT data. The GPR and ERT data were also very useful for the identification of the pits of archaeological The GPR and ERT data were also very useful for the identification of the pits of archaeological excavation carried out several decades ago, and for deciding where exactly to dig the new excavationarchaeo-stratigraphical carried out several excavations. decades They ago,will also and be foruseful deciding for future where archaeological exactly excavations to dig the of new archaeo-stratigraphicalthe sectors that potentially excavations. still preserve They undisturbed will also be stratigraphies. useful for future In addition, archaeological the ERT tests excavations in the of the sectorswestern that sector potentially of the temple still preserve suggest undisturbedthe presence stratigraphies.of a 15 m wide In area addition, characterized the ERT by tests low in the westernresistivity sector values of the at temple ca. 1 m suggest of depth. the This presence anomaly of runs a 15 parallel m wide to area the west characterized side of the bytemple low and resistivity is

Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 23 of 25 values at ca. 1 m of depth. This anomaly runs parallel to the west side of the temple and is located along the axis joining the north and south gates of the city (Porta Aurea and Porta della Giustizia). In the southern area, between the fourth and sixth intercolumnia, two high resistivity anomalies bound the filling of trench B at a depth of 1 m. They are interpretable as trace of a building, perhaps the same one recognizable in a sketch made during the excavations carried out in the 1930s. In both cases, only archaeological excavation can confirm these hypotheses. The results obtained allow some preliminary considerations, which future research may help to flesh out. The most important data comes from stratigraphical excavation number 242. The results of this excavation suggest that strata pertaining to the archaic sacred area of the Temple of Athena may still be preserved in the subsoil, despite the digging work carried out in the southern sector of the temple area during the last centuries. These stratigraphies will be further explored in archaeological excavations scheduled in 2019 and 2020 in order to reconstruct the early history of the sanctuary. The discovery of the architectural antefix of the big temple of 580–560 BCE within the layer of destruction and rearrangement of the temenos (sacred area) at the end of the sixth century BCE may be regarded as evidence of a sudden and traumatic event that affected the sanctuary, such as a fire. It is likely that after this event the sanctuary was rebuilt and reorganized, along with a large part of the archaic city. This is the only possible explanation for the absence of remains of the city predating the refurbishment of this area at the end of the sixth century BC, whose surviving relics include the streets, the residential blocks with a house, the heroon (place of heroic worship), and the “new” temple of Athena. The available data provide no evidence for the appearance of the city during the first century of its life, but the finding of early votive materials (ca. 600–510 BCE) confirms that the sacred areas of the two archaic temples were located in the same position as the later temples. The buildings of the archaic agora probably stood in the same area as those of the agora of the fifth century, between the two sacred areas. No data are available about the urban plan of the early sixth century BCE. The assumption that the orientation of the streets and houses was the same as that of the still-standing temples is intriguing, but so far unconfirmed. Likewise, the hypothesis that an archaic street ran from north to south in the western sector of the temple area, with the same orientation as the temple building (Figure 14a), as suggested by the ERT surveys, will need further archaeological investigation to be confirmed.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.L., V.A. and M.C.; Methodology; F.L., V.A. and M.C.; Software, V.A. and M.C.; Validation, F.L., V.A. and M.C.; Formal analysis, F.L., V.A. and M.C.; Investigation, all the authors; Resources, F.L.; Data curation, all the authors.; Writing—original draft preparation, F.L., V.A. and M.C.; Writing, revising and editing, F.L., V.A. and M.C.; Visualization, F.L., V.A. and M.C.; Supervision, F.L., V.A. and M.C.; Project administration, F.L.; Funding acquisition, F.L. Funding: The archaeological researches were financed by the School of Specialization in Archaeological Heritage of the University of Salerno. Publication costs were incurred through external financing. Acknowledgments: Special thanks to the director Gabriel Zuchtriegel and Dott. Gianni Avagliano of the Archaeological Park of Paestum for assisting us in our research. The authors wish also to express their gratitude to the two anonymous referees for their valuable suggestions, which have helped to improve the manuscript. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1. Greco, E.; Theodorescou, D. Poseidonia-Paestum I. La Curia; École française de Rome: Rome, Italy, 1980; p. (a)86. (In Italian and French) 2. Greco, E.; Theodorescou, D. Poseidonia-Paestum II. L’Agorà; École française de Rome: Rome, Italy, 1983; pp. 1–256. (In Italian and French) 3. Greco, E.; Theodorescou, D. Poseidonia-Paestum III. Forum Nord; École française de Rome: Rome, Italy, 1987; pp. 1–294. (In Italian and French) 4. Greco, E.; Theodorescou, D. Poseidonia-Paestum IV. Forum Ovest-sudest; École française de Rome: Rome, Italy, 1999; pp. 1–237. (In Italian and French) 5. Bragantini, I.V.; Fe Bonis, R.; Lemaire, A.; Robert, R. Poseidonia-Paestum V. Le Maisons Romaines De L’ilot Nord; École française de Rome: Rome, Italy, 2008. (In Italian and French) Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 24 of 25

6. Greco, E.; Longo, F. (Eds.) Paestum. Studi, Scavi E Ricerche. Bilancio Di Un Decennio. 1988–1998; Pandemos: Paestum, Italy, 2000. (In Italian and French) 7. Guy, M. Le Rivage Marittime et la «Lagune» de Poseidonia-Paestum. In Volcanologie et Archeologie; Albore Livadie, C., Widemann, F., Eds.; PACT 25 Volcanologie et Archeologie: Ravello, Italy, 1990; pp. 257–270. (In Italian) 8. Longo, F. Poseidonia. Istituzioni, Società e Forme Urbane. In La Città; Greco, E., Ed.; Donzelli: Roma, Italy, 1999; pp. 365–384. (In French) 9. Longo, F. Poseidonia. La CittàLucana e Romana: Continuità e Trasformazioni. In Immaginando Città. Racconti di Fondazione Mitiche, Forma e Funzioni Delle Città Campane; Rescigno, C., Sirano, F., Eds.; Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici di Salerno, Avellino, Benevento e Caserta prismi editrice politecnica srl: Napoli, Italy, 2014; pp. 254–257. (In Italian) 10. Longo, F. Alcune riflessioni su Poseidonia in Età Arcaica: Il Teichos dei sibariti e l’apoikia Trafondazioni e rifondazioni. In Percorsi. Scritti di e per Angela Pontrandolfo; De Caro, S., Longo, F., Scafuro, M., Serritella, A., Eds.; Pandemos: Paestum, Italy, 2017; pp. 199–214. (In Italian) 11. Rescigno, C. Il Santuario Di Athena: Il tempio e Le Sue Fasidi Vita. In Learmi di Athena, Graellsi; Fabregat, R., Longo, F., Zuchtriegel, G., Eds.; Arte’m: Napoli, Italy, 2017; pp. 45–51. (In Italian) 12. Graells, R.; Longo, F.; Zuchtriegel, G. Le armi di Athena. Il SantuarioSettentrionale di Paestum; Arte’m: Napoli, Italy, 2017. (In Italian) 13. Longo, F. Le Armi di ATena. I dati Dall’athenaion Di Poseidonia tra Greci e Lucani. In ArmivotIVeiN Magna Grecia; GRaellS, R., Longo, F., Eds.; RGZM: Mainz, Italy, 2018; pp. 25–42. (In Italian) 14. Longo, F. From Poseidonia to Poseidonia. Reflections on the Origins and Early Decades in the Life of the Achaean Apoikia. In Gli Achei in Grecia e in Magna Grecia: Nuove Scoperte e Nuove Prospettive; Greco, E., Rizakis, A.D., Eds.; Annuario della Scuola di Atene, Monografie; All’insegna del Giglio: Firenze, Italy, 2019. 15. Longo, F.; D’Antonio, A. I Materiali in Metallo Dell’athenaion di Paestum: Un Quadro di SintesiPreliminare. In Atti del II Convegno Internazionale di Studi—Dialoghi sull’Archeologia Della Magna Grecia e del Mediterraneo; Pandemos: Paestum, Italy, 2018; pp. 755–765. (In Italian) 16. Longo, F.; Pontrandolfo, A. Da Cerere ad Athena: Per Una Storia Della Ricerca del Santuario Settentrionale. In Le armi di Athena. Il santuariosettentrionale di Paestum, GraellsiFabregat, Longo, Zuchtriegel; Arte’m: Napoli, Italy, 2017; pp. 31–44. (In Italian) 17. Longo, F. Le Mura di Paestum.Antologia di Testi, Dipinti, Stampe grafiche e Fotografiche dal Cinquecento Agli Anni Trenta del Novecento, (Tekmeria 12); Pandemos: Paestum, Italy, 2012. (In Italian) 18. Bamonte, G. Le Antichità Pestane; Stamperia della Biblioteca Analitica: Napoli, Italy, 1819. (In Italian) 19. Maiuri, A. Dieci Anni di Scavo a Paestum (1929–1939). In I PrimiScavi di Paestum; Aurigemma, S., Spinazzola, V., Maiuri, A., Eds.; Ente alle Antichità e ai Monumenti della Provincia di Salerno: Salerno, Italy, 1986; pp. 35–80. (In Italian) 20. Longo, F.; D’Antonio, A. I Metalli del Santuario Urbano Settentrionale di Poseidonia; Pandemos: Paestum, Italy, 2019. (In Italian) 21. Brandonisio, M. Il Santuario Settentrionale di Poseidonia-Paestum: I monumenti. In Le Armi di Athena Greciai; GraellsiFabregat, R., Longo, F., Zuchtriegel, G., Eds.; Arte’m: Napoli, Italy, 2017; pp. 23–30. (In Italian) 22. Krauss, F. Die Tempel von Paestum. I. der Athena Tempel und di Sogenante Basilika. 1Lieferung; Der Athena tempel: Berlin, Germany, 1959. (In German) 23. Amato, V.; Aucelli, P.P.C.; Ciampo, G.; Cinque, A.; Di Donato, V.; Pappone, G.; Petrosino, P.; Romano, P.; Rosskopf, C.; Russo Ermolli, E. Relative sea level changes and paleogeographical evolution of the southern Sele plain (Italy) during the Holocene. Quat. Int. 2013, 288, 112–128. [CrossRef] 24. Amato, V.; Anzalone, E.; Aucelli, P.P.C.; D’argenio, B.; Ferreri, V.; Rosskopf, C.M. Sedimentology and depositional history of the travertine outcropping in the Poseidonia-Paestum archaeological area. Rend. LinceiSci. Fis. 2012, 23, 61–68. [CrossRef] 25. Amato, V.; Aucelli, P.P.C.; D’Argenio, B.; Daprato, S.; Ferraro, L.; Pappone, G.; Petrosino, P.; Rosskopf, C.M.; Russo Ermolli, E. Holocene environmental evolution of the coastal sector in front of the Poseidonia-Paestum archaeological area (Sele plain, Southern Italy). Rend. Lincei Sci. Fis. 2012, 23, 45–60. [CrossRef] 26. Guy, M. La Costa, La Laguna e L’insediamento di Poseidonia-Paestum. In Paestum e La città e Il Territorio; Quaderno di Documentazione Dell’istituto Della Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani: Roma, Italy, 1990; pp. 67–77. (In Italian) Geosciences 2019, 9, 324 25 of 25

27. D’Argenio, B.; Ferreri, V. Travertines as self regulating carbonate systems. Evolutionary trends and classification. FoldtaniKozlony 2004, 1343, 209–218. 28. Budillon, F.; Pescatore, T.; Senatore, M.R. Cicli deposizionali del Pleistocene superiore-Olocene sulla piattaforma continentale del Golfo di Salerno (Tirreno meridionale). Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. 1994, 113, 303–316. (In Italian) 29. Aiello, G.; Barra, D.; De Pippo, T.; Donadio, C. Pleistocene Foraminiferida and Ostracoda from the Island of Procida (Bay of Naples, Italy). Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. 2012, 51, 49–62. 30. IdsGred Software. Available online: https://idsgeoradar.com/products/ground-penetrating-radar (accessed on 21 July 2019). 31. GPR-SLICE7.0 Software. Available online: https://gpr-survey.com/ (accessed on 21 July 2019). 32. Conyers, L.B.; Goodman, D. Ground Penetrating Radar: An Introduction for Archaeologists; AltaMira Press: Walnut Creek, CA, USA, 1997. 33. Goodman, D.; Piro, S. GPR Remote Sensing in Archaeology; Geotechnologies and the Environment; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2013. 34. Mauriello, P.; Patella, D. A data-adaptive probability based fast ERT inversion method. Prog. Electromagn. Res. 2009, 97, 275–290. [CrossRef] 35. Patella, D. Introduction to ground surface selfpotential tomography. Geophys. Prospect. 1997, 45, 653–681. [CrossRef] 36. Mauriello, P.; Patella, D. Resistivity anomaly imaging by probability tomography. Geophys. Prospect. 1999, 47, 411–429. [CrossRef] 37. Amato, V.; Cozzolino, M.; De Benedittis, G.; Di Paola, G.; Gentile, V.; Giordano, C.; Marino, P.; Rosskopf, C.M.; Valente, E. An integrated quantitative approach to assess the archaeological heritage in highly anthropized areas: the case study of Aesernia (southern Italy). ACTA IMECO 2016, 5, 33–43. [CrossRef] 38. Compare, V.; Cozzolino, M.; Mauriello, P.; Patella, D. Resistivity probability tomography at the Castle of Zena (Italy). EURASIP J. Image Video 2009, 2009, 693274. [CrossRef] 39. Cozzolino, M.; Di Giovanni, E.; Mauriello, P.; Vanni Desideri, A.; Patella, D. Resistivity tomography in the Park of Pratolino at Vaglia (Florence, Italy). Archaeol. Prospect. 2012, 19, 253–260. [CrossRef] 40. Cozzolino, M.; Mauriello, P.; Patella, D. Resistivity Tomography Imaging of the substratum of the Bedestan Monumental Complex at Nicosia, Cyprus. Archaeometry 2014, 56, 331–350. [CrossRef] 41. Rose, D.; Cozzolino, M.; Mauriello, P. Preliminary notes of the research on the Roman aqueduct of Alba Fucens (AQ) in Italy. The geophysical prospecting in the study of the free-flowing channel and the inverted siphon. Babesch 2015, 27, 107–112. 42. Rizzo, M. Aree e Quartieri Artigianali in Magna Grecia; Pandemos: Paestum, Italy, forthcoming 2020. (In Italian) 43. Pescatore, T.S.; Viggiani, C. La geologia della Piana dei Sele e caratteri del sottosuolo dell’area di Paestum. PACT 1989, 32, 29–42. (In Italian) 44. Carando, E.; De Bonis, R.; Ficuciello, L. IndaginiStratigrafiche Sulla Plateia B: Il LatoOvest. In Paestum. Scavi, Studi, Ricerche. Bilancio di un Decennio (1988–1998); Greco, E., Longo, F., Eds.; Pandemos: Paestum, Italy, 2000; pp. 177–180. (In Italian) 45. Jannelli, L. Il Settore Nord-Orientale. In Paestum Scavi, Studi, Ricerche. Bilancio di un Decennio (1988–1998); Greco, E., Longo, F., Eds.; Pandemos: Paestum, Italy, 2000; pp. 91–96. (In Italian)

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).