Running Head: NARCISSISM, SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-WORTH AND AGGRESSION NARCISSISM, SELF-ESTEEM, AND SELF-WORTH AS PREDICTORS OF AGGRESSION A Thesis Presented for the Master of Science Degree The University of Tennessee, Chattanooga Grisel M. García August 2009 ii Copyright © 2009 by Grisel M. García All rights reserved. iii Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Pedro M. García and Grisel Ramírez, for their unconditional support, and their trust on following my own path. iv Acknowledgments Thanks to all who have helped me in one way or another to complete my Master of Science degree in Research Psychology. Thanks to my friends and family, for their words of encouragement and understanding. Thanks to Dr. O’Leary, for his support, and help throughout this process. Thanks to Dr. Cunningham, for his help and statistical guidance. And special thanks to Dr. Watson, for accepting to be my advisor, for his patience, understanding, and encouragement, especially this last year, and pushing me towards becoming a better researcher. v Abstract Previous research has shown a relationship between narcissism and aggression, and between narcissism and self-esteem. Indeed, aspects of narcissism predict both adjusted and maladjusted forms of functioning. Therefore, narcissism appears to be both adaptive and maladaptive. In the present study, maladjusted narcissism was directly correlated with aggression, while self-esteem was inversely correlated with aggression. Another objective of this research was to relate narcissism and aggression with contingencies of self-worth. Contingencies of self-worth consisted of two relational contingencies: internal and external. Most of the external contingencies of self-worth were related to aggression, lower self-esteem, and maladaptive narcissism. In contrast internal contingencies of self-worth were related to less self-reported aggression, greater self-esteem, and adaptive narcissism. Also, the contingencies of self-worth involving appearance and virtue partially mediated the relationship between narcissism and aggression. vi Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction.…………………………………………………………….……...1 Self-esteem, Threatened Egotism, and Aggression.…………..…………………..…...2 Narcissism.…………………………………………………...……..…………………7 Self-reported Narcissism and the Continuum of Self-Functioning.…..…….......…….13 Contingencies of Self-Worth...…………………………………………….....………19 Chapter 2 Method....…………….……………………………………………….……....24 Participants………...…………………………………………………………...……..24 Materials…………..………………………………………………….……..…..........24 Procedure...………………………………………………………………….…….….27 Data Analysis...…………………………………………………………….………....28 Chapter 3 Results......……………………………………………………….…………....29 Chapter 4 Discussion......………………………………………………….……………..35 Limits and Future Research…………………………………………………………..42 List of References.....…………………………………………………….……………....44 Appendix……………………...……………………………………….……….…….......50 Curriculum Vitae...………………………………………………………………………72 vii List of Tables Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for all Scale ……………………….…………………….51 Table 2. Zero-Order Correlations among Scales ……..……...………………….………52 Table 3. Partial Correlations for study variables Controlling for Maladaptive Narcissism …………….……………………………………………53 Table 4. Partial Correlations for study variables Controlling for Adaptive Narcissism ...............................................................................................54 Table 5. Hierarchical Regression results for Aggression predicted by Adaptive Narcissism and Self-Esteem ...…………………..……..……………….…55 Table 6. Hierarchical Regression results for Aggression predicted by Maladaptive Narcissism and Self-Esteem …...………………………………...…….56 Table 7. Multiple Mediation results for Adaptive Narcissism Predicting Aggression through Multiple CSW ...…………..…………..…………….57 Table 8. Multiple Mediation results for Maladaptive Narcissism Predicting Aggression through Multiple CSW ...…………………………………….58 Narcissism, self-esteem, self-worth, and aggression 1 Narcissism, Self-Esteem, and Self-Worth as Predictors of Aggression Why do some people act aggressively while others do not? Previous research has tried to answer this question. It has been proposed that levels of self-esteem, either low or high, and the stability of self-esteem are likely to determine aggressive behavior (Kernis, Grannemann, & Barclay, 1989; Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993). Other researchers believe the variable that influences aggressive behavior is threatened egotism (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998; Baumeister, Bushman, & Campbell, 2000; Baumeister, Smart & Boden, 1996). In short, there are different assumptions about the relationships of self-esteem and narcissism with aggressive behavior, but the specific association has not yet been determined. The purpose of the present research was not to give the ultimate answer to this problem, but to further help explain how self-functioning might be related to aggressive behavior. Further explanation of aggressive behavior based upon self-esteem and narcissism may require consideration of contingencies of self-worth (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). The importance of contingencies of self-worth in light of this research may be their close relation to self-esteem; so, these contingencies could help clarify aggressive behavior. Besides analyzing the direct relationship of the contingencies of self-worth to aggression, this project also considered if contingencies of self-worth might serve as mediators between narcissism and aggression. Also considered was the possibility that self-esteem functions as a moderator between the relationship between narcissism and aggression. In sum, the main purpose of the present study was to analyze the relationship relationships between narcissism, self-esteem, and contingencies of self-worth, and of these variables with aggression. Narcissism, self-esteem, self-worth, and aggression 2 Self-esteem, Threatened Egotism and Aggression One of the explanations researchers have analyzed in order to explain why people are likely to act aggressively, while others do not, are their levels of self-esteem: whether they have either high self-esteem or low self-esteem. Often the views of self-esteem and aggression are contradictory. Some research has demonstrated that a relationship does exist between low self-esteem and aggressive behavior (Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2005; Trzesniewski, Donnellan, Moffitt, Robins, Poulton, & Caspi, 2006). These authors propose that negative behavior, such as delinquency and criminal behavior are related to low self-esteem. In contrast, research by Kernis et al. (1989, 1993) proposed high and unstable self-esteem to be a better predictor of aggressive behavior. Thus, clearly, there has not been a consensus on the influence self- esteem has on aggressive behavior. Before explaining the relationship between self-esteem and aggression, it is important to clarify the definition of aggression in the present study. Anderson and Bushman (2002) define human aggression as “behavior directed toward another individual that is carried out with the … intent to cause harm” (p. 28). These authors also define hostile aggression “as being impulsive, thoughtless (i.e., unplanned), driven by anger, having the ultimate motive of harming the target, and occurring as a reaction to some perceived provocation” (p. 29). In the present study, aggression is defined in terms of this Anderson and Bushman description of hostile aggression. As previously mentioned, Donnellan et al. (2005), as well as Trzesniewski et al. (2006), have proposed that low self-esteem is one possible explanation for aggressive behavior. In the studies by Donnellan et al. (2005), results revealed an inverse correlation Narcissism, self-esteem, self-worth, and aggression 3 between self-esteem and aggression, based on the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. They also found that self-esteem and narcissism related to aggression independently from one another. In sum, Donnellan et al. found that low self-esteem was related to aggression. Similar to Donnellan et al., Trzesniewski et al. (2006) found that low self- esteem can indicate negative outcomes, such as criminal behavior. These authors also found other negative outcomes of low self-esteem, such as poorer mental and physical health. These studies suggest that one cannot ignore the relationship of low self-esteem to aggression even as other possible explanations for aggression are considered. In contrast to the hypothesis that low self-esteem is related to aggression, research by Kernis et al. (1989, 1993) proposes that high self-esteem is positively related to aggressive behavior. Kernis et al. (1989) suggested that the combination of stability of self-esteem and level of self-esteem serve as predictors for aggression. The authors referred to the stability of self-esteem as “short-term fluctuations in one’s global self- evaluation” (p. 1013). The results showed that individuals with an unstable high self- esteem were more likely to experience anger, whereas individuals with stable high self- esteem were less likely to experience anger. Individuals with low self-esteem, either stable or unstable, fall between those with unstable high self-esteem and stable high self- esteem. Similarly, Kernis et al. (1993) suggested that individuals with unstable high self- esteem were more likely to act defensively when faced with negative feedback. The opposite happened for individuals with unstable low self-esteem. They were more likely to perceive negative feedback