)

;

I]ZhVcYnhXgdaa"WVghVgdjcYi]ZXdcÓjZcXZd[i]Z8j^idideVcYD`VkVc\dWZadl!aZ[iG^kZghgZbV^cVhbVg`Zghid h]dl]dli]Z8j^id]Vhh]^[iZYVXgdhhi]^haVcYhXVeZ#DcVed^cid[aVWZah!6c\daVchXVaai]ZD`VkVc\di]Z8jWVc\d VahdheZaaZY@jWVc\djehigZVbd[i]ZXdcÓjZcXZ!l]^aZhdbZCVb^W^VchegZ[ZgidXVaai]Zl]daZg^kZgi]Z@VkVc\d# D`VkVc\d9ZaiV/;addYhd[A^[Z 8]VeiZg) q D`VkVc\dG^kZg/[adld[Va^[Za^cZ

However, there is another part to the Okavango collecting significant runoff, and then the Delta that should enjoy equal fame. This is the Okavango ;^\jgZ &%. The northern area lies entirely in River’s catchment, much of which consists of tens Angola and receives much higher rainfall than <_]kh[ ''  q Flows down of thousands of square kilometres of the most the middle zone, which is in southern Angola the Cubango sub-basin are pristine wilderness in an area once appropriately and Namibia. In addition to the differences in rapid, peaking at the end of known in Angola as terras do fim do mundo – the rainfall, there are also substantial changes in the summer rains, while the land at the end of the earth. Moreover, the wealth the use of land, demography and recent history of the Delta depends largely on the health of the across the whole Basin. All these aspects have slower flows down the Cuito catchment. The future of the Okavango Delta is direct or indirect bearings on the Delta. only reach its confluence with thus rooted in the future of the Okavango River! the Cubango/Okavango two The northern catchment spans an area of about or three months later. The The whole Okavango River Basin is divided 400 kilometres from east to west and 500 figures are average volumes into three zones: the northern catchment from kilometres from north to south, and is divided into of river water passing Rundu which water actively drains, the middle-reaches two sub-catchments. The western, or Cubango (above the Cuito confluence) through which the Okavango River flows without sub-catchment is relatively hilly and characterised and Dirico just before the Cuito joins the Okavango.

Cuito active catchment area 1,300 Kuito L Lungué-Bungo Cuanza Cubango active catchment area 1,200 L Cu Tchicala

Huamboambobo Cuchi

Inactive catchment area b ango Tcholohanga Ephemeral and fossil rivers 1,100 ChitemboC L Cuito 1,000 Panhandle Cucuchi Cuebe L Cangamba

Cuanavala Alluvial fan Cutato

Other perennial rivers 900 Kubango Ceve L Zambiabia L MMeneennongnonguen nguengng e Cuiriri Cuelei 800

Longa Kwando

L Cuito Cuanavale Cueio

Luassinga 700 Cubango/Okavango CaCaiCaiundo L Mavinga L Zambezi Kunene Cubango Angolagolaa Cuatir Lu L Nankova iana <_]kh['& q The major zones Cuito and catchment areas that make I]ZD`VkVc\dG^kZghiVgih^ih_djgcZnid9ZaiV_jhidjih^YZi]ZhbVaaidlcd[IX]^XVaVIX]dad]Vc\Vdci]ZeaVcVaid up the Okavango River Basin, Katima Mulilolo ]^\]aVcYhd[=jVbWdEgdk^cXZ!6c\daV#GZbVg`VWan!i]ZhbVaa]^aal]ZgZi]ZidlclVhWj^ai^hVahdi]ZhdjgXZ L and average annual rainfall in Nkurenkuru L d[i]gZZdi]ZgbV_dgg^kZgh#I]ZhZ!VcYi]ZD`VkVc\dÓdl^cfj^iZhZeVgViZY^gZXi^dch/i]Z@jcZcZG^kZgidi]Z Ondangwa 1 Dirico Ok 600 L L av hdji]"lZhiVcY^ihZkZcijVabdji]^ci]Z6iaVci^XDXZVc!i]Z8ZkZcdgi]"lZhiid^ihbdji]ViEdgi6bWd^bdc and around the Basin. L an Rundu go

Mohembobo L i]Z6iaVci^X!i]ZD`VkVc\dhdji]"ZVhiidi]Z9ZaiV!VcYi]Z8jiVidVbV_dgig^WjiVgnd[i]Z8jVcoVcdgi]"ZVhi 500 VcYi]ZclZhilVgYhidi]Z6iaVci^X_jhihdji]d[AjVcYV#I]Zg^kZgWVh^chVhhdX^ViZYl^i]i]Z[djgi^cnig^WjiVg^Zh [Vcc^c\dji[gdbhbVaa]^aaViIX]^XVaVIX]dad]Vc\Vi]jhXdkZg]jcYgZYhd[i]djhVcYhd[hfjVgZ`^adbZiZghd[ 6c\daV!CVb^W^VVcY7dihlVcV#

Grootfonteinn Gumarema L L

L Maun aammibia 400

L Sehithwa by outcrops of granites, ferasol soils and Kalahari sands, Those flows coming off the western, higher areas are while the eastern, Cuito sub-catchment consists almost more rapid and aggressive, water running downstream Botswana entirely of Kalahari sands that blanket a flat landscape. soon after rain has fallen. Sharper increases in inflow to 300 Ghanzi Respectively, the two sub-catchments contribute about the Delta are therefore mainly of water coming from the L 55% and 45% of all the water that flows to the Delta, Cubango and its major tributaries: the Cutato, Cuchi, but their flow regimes are quite different ;^\jgZ&&. Cacuchi, Cuebe and Cueio Rivers.

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>bV\ZhaZ[i d[ CVb^W^V/ I]Z lZaa"lddYZY ^haVcYh Vi 6cYVgV]VkZcdiWZZcXaZVgZYWZXVjhZi]ZnVgZi]Z igVY^i^dcVaWjg^Va\gdjcYhd[=VbWj`jh]jX]^Z[hide ! Wji bdhi g^kZg^cZ kZ\ZiVi^dc ]Vh WZZc XaZVgZY [dgXgdehZahZl]ZgZb^YYaZaZ[i#I]ZD`VkVc\dÓdlh Vadc\VcVggdl!hiZZe"h^YZYkVaaZn^chdbZhigZiX]Zh! l]^aZZahZl]ZgZ^ibZVcYZghVXgdhhWgdVYÓddYeaV^ch WdiidbaZ[i#Bdhiidjg^hiadY\Zhideg^\]iVgZcZVg GjcYjdgl^i]^c*%`^adbZigZhd[Bd]ZbWd#

>bV\Zhd[6c\daV/BVcng^kZghVgZÓVc`ZYWnl^YZ \gVhhn ÓddYeaV^ch ide aZ[i ! l]^aZ i]Z^g bZVcYZgh aZ[i VgZd[iZchdWgdVYi]Vii]ZXgnhiVa"XaZVglViZghÓdl h^YZlVnhVhbjX]Vhi]ZnYdYdlchigZVbWdiidb #=jcYgZYhd[`^adbZiZghd[kVaaZnbVgh]aVcYh VgZYdb^cViZYWneVengjhl]^X]ÒaiZghdjicjig^Zcih! XaVnh VcY hVcYn hZY^bZcih ide g^\]i # BV^oZ! XVhhVkV!WVcVcVhVcYkVg^djhkZ\ZiVWaZhVgZ\gdlcg^\]i ^cdcV`VÒZaYhVadc\i^cnig^WjiVg^Zh'cY[gdbide !l]^aZg^kZghegdk^YZi]ZdcanlViZg[dgbdhi k^aaV\ZghidlVh]i]Z^gXadi]Zh(gY[gdbideg^\]i # GZbcVcihd[i]ZX^k^alVg!l]^X]ZcYZY^c'%%'!VgZ hXViiZgZYVXgdhhi]ZXViX]bZciWdiidbg^\]i#

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By contrast, flows from the Cuito sub-catchment River water in both sub-basins is generally crystal provide a more sustained input of water to the clear. Very few suspended particles and dissolved Delta, since much of the water entering the Cuito substances – including nutrients – are carried and its major tributaries – the Longa, Cuanavale in the water. Much of the purity is due to the and Luassinga Rivers – is slow seepage from the substrate of Kalahari sand, which consists mainly surrounding Kalahari sands. Moreover, the Cuito of grains of quartz. Little can be dissolved from and its tributaries meander across broad valleys the inert quartz and the sands have been leached that have only the slightest gradient. For example, by relatively abundant rain over millions of years. the Cuito River drops just 85 metres over a Very few clay particles are therefore available to straight-line distance of about 270 kilometres be washed into the river water. The paucity of from Cuito Cuanavale to Dirico. And the flow of suspended clay in the flow off the catchment water is further slowed as it percolates through is fundamental in maintaining the permeability the broad floodplains of grasses, reeds and sedges of the Delta’s substrate and its fresh water (see that line the main channels of these rivers. page 55).4

But there is another, less obvious reason for the clear, nutrient-deficient waters. This is the effect of the same vegetation that slows the speed of <_]kh['( q The density of people throughout the Basin and water. Many of the nutrients and suspended clay in Angola, Namibia and Botswana.3 particles that do get into the water are filtered out by the plants. The floodplains are especially broad in the Cuito sub-catchment, but lots of the valleys in the Cubango sub-catchment are likewise congested with dense beds of reeds, as Peo shown in the photographs on page 30.

Luanda 0EOPLEPER
Rainfall averages over 1,300 millimetres per SQUAREKILOMETRE year in parts of the catchment furthest to the    north-west. From there it steadily declines as   the river moves southward, until it averages 450
Luena   Huambo
Kuito millimetres in the lowest reaches of the Delta 9ZchZ![V^ganiVaa7gVX]nhiZ\^Vdgb^dbWdlddYaVcYhXdkZg\ZciaZ]^aahd[gZY@VaV]Vg^hVcY^ci]ZjeeZgXViX]bZcid[
 ;^\jgZ&%. Almost all the rain falls during the i]Z8j^idG^kZgVcY^ihbV_dgig^WjiVg^Zh#KZgn[ZleZdeaZa^kZ^ci]^hWgdVYZmeVchZd[6c\daV# summer months between October and April, Lubango
Menongue with the highest falls in December and January in
most areas. However, in the most northerly areas, rain often falls in two peaks, one in November- waters their livestock and vegetable gardens and provides While most households in both the upper catchment Katima Mulilo Rundu
December and the other in February-March. As fish, reeds for houses and pastures for cattle. No other and the middle reaches practise some kind of
Ondangwa
a result, there are often two peak periods of flow permanent surface water is available in the area, and so agriculture, a great many families do not depend into the Delta (see page 41). the value of the river for local residents is particularly on agriculture as a main source of income. Instead,
Grootfontein
Maun high. This dependency on waters of the Okavango is additional incomes from wages, small businesses, Average rainfall in the middle reaches ranges quite different from conditions in the upper catchment pensions and remittances provide for most cash and
Francistown
Ghanzi between 500 and 600 millimetres per year. This where abundant rain means that people are less reliant food needs. The apparent paradox of rural, farming

zone also consists of Kalahari sand into which on water from the thousands of tiny streams that feed households relying on non-farming income is a Windhoek rain readily percolates and so there is almost no the Okavango. Evaporation rates are also lowest in the consequence of two fundamental features throughout run-off, even after very heavy thunderstorms. The upper catchment, and rain is therefore more effective much of the Okavango River Basin.
Gaborone Okavango River thus functions as a conduit in the in supplying the moisture needs of crops and pastures middle reaches, channeling water from its upstream than downstream. Indeed, aridity further south is as The first is that conditions are poorly suited to Angolan sources to Botswana and the Delta. much a consequence of very high rates of evaporation agriculture: soils have low fertility; rainfall varies too 0 500 km as it is of low rainfall. For example, evaporation per year much to produce good yields from such rain-fed crops The river is very much a lifeline for many people in the middle reaches and around the Delta is about as maize, cassava (manioc), sorghum and pearl millet; living along this channel in the middle reaches. It three to four times higher than average annual rainfall. and pastures can not support large numbers of livestock.

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Livestock diseases and crop pests also limit production, and so most families battle to harvest enough to meet their need for staples, let alone surpluses that might be sold to provide for their cash needs.5

Secondly, the scope for commercial production is limited by much of the Okavango River Basin being far from markets where occasional produce might be sold. Most people in all three countries are concentrated elsewhere in Angola, Namibia and Botswana, either in places better suited to farming or, increasingly, in towns and cities ;^\jgZ&', and see page 71 in Chapter 7. For example, less than 3% of the total Angolan population is in the Basin, while equivalent proportions for Namibia and Botswana are also small, respectively 7% and 5%.

Nevertheless, the highest densities in the northern parts of the Basin are indeed a consequence of the relatively good farming conditions there, at least compared to areas further south. Densities elsewhere in the Basin Bdhi]dbZhVgZXajhiZgZY^ck^aaV\ZhdghbVaaidlch^ci]Z are generally low and there are large areas where there 6c\daVc]ZVYlViZghdeedh^iZeV\ZideVcYYdlchigZVb are no, or just a handful of people. Menongue, Rundu VgdjcY i]Z 9ZaiV VWdkZ! l]ZgZVh ]djhZ]daYh VgZ and Maun are the only major urban areas in the whole \ZcZgVaanhegZVYVhhda^iVgn]dbZhVadc\i]Zg^kZgkVaaZn Basin. Rundu and Maun each have populations of over ^ci]Zb^YYaZgZVX]Zhdeedh^iZeV\ZWdiidb# 50,000, while Menongue probably has between 30,000 and 40,000 people. All other towns and villages are very small, most having between several hundred and a few services in Windhoek and Walvis Bay, and tourism thousand inhabitants. in western Namibia. As for Botswana, services are concentrated in and around Gaborone, while exports The comparatively high population densities on the of diamonds and beef are mainly from the central and southern banks of the Okavango River in Namibia are southern regions.6 a consequence of unusual circumstances. Perhaps more than half of this population was born in Angola or was These factors – small populations, remoteness and other born in Namibia of immigrants from Angola who moved economic interests – mean that the Basin enjoys less south to escape the Angolan civil war, particularly interest than it should. For Angola, much of the catchment during the 1980s and mid 1990s. Many Angolans remains inaccessible as the terras do fim do mundo. Plans were also attracted by the relatively better economic for hydroelectric and large-scale irrigation schemes have opportunities and social services in Namibia. often been suggested, but none has materialized. There are no dams of any significance on any of the Okavango’s A consequence of the comparatively small proportions tributaries in Angola. of the Angolan, Namibian and Botswana populations is that each government pays less attention to services and There are also no dams in Namibia. Despite the development in the Okavango Basin than elsewhere. Okavango’s poor soils and isolation from markets, the The centres of government in each country – Luanda, Namibian government’s main interest in the river is for Windhoek and Gaborone – are also all remote from irrigation. This use is often justified with the assumption the Basin and its needs. With the notable exception that Okavango water can be used to create Namibia’s of tourism to the Delta (see page 81), enterprises and breadbasket. Although there have been dozens of resources that generate significant revenue are also agricultural development projects in recent decades, far from the Basin: for example, services in Luanda, farming remains unproductive and irrigation projects offshore oil, and diamonds in the Lunda provinces in only function with substantial subsidies of public funds. Angola; and coastal fish and diamonds in Namibia, There have also been plans to pipe Okavango water

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most attractive as an oasis downstream, and nutrient resources that support wildlife are most plentiful in the Delta. The downstream Delta is the part of the Basin managed most effectively for conservation, but it is at the mercy of activities in the upstream Basin where incentives for environmental management have yet to develop. Creating incentives to manage the whole Basin wisely is one of the greatest challenges for people who value the Delta.

A;OFE?DJI &#6ii]ZiZgb^cjhd[i]ZD`VkVc\dG^kZg7Vh^c!  i]Z 9ZaiV YZeZcYh dc i]Z ]ZVai]n Ódl d[ lViZg[gdb^ihXViX]bZci^c6c\daVVcYi]Z hV[Z eVhhV\Z d[ lViZg i]gdj\] CVb^W^V# L]Vi ^h XVaaZY i]Z D`VkVc\d ^h i]ZgZ[dgZ bjX]bdgZi]Vci]Z9ZaiV# '#6Wdji]Va[d[i]Z9ZaiVÉh^cÓdlXdbZh[gdb at the expense of poorer folk who subsist entirely on i]Z 8jWVc\d hjW"XViX]bZci VcY i]Z di]Zg farming. A lack of control over commonages also leads ]Va[ [gdb i]Z 8j^id VcY ^ih ig^WjiVg^Zh ^c to excessive clearing of virgin land (some of which is 6c\daV# ;adlh Ydlc i]Z 8jWVc\d VgZ fj^iZ never used for cropping), run-away fires, and logging. gVe^Y! l]ZgZVh hadlZg gjc"d[[h Ydlc i]Z 8j^idgZVX]i]Z9ZaiVaViZg# Recent history has treated residents of the Basin in (#LViZg Ódl ^h hadlZY VcY ÒaiZgZY Wn aVg\Z the three countries quite differently. Angola recently ZmeVchZhd[gZZYhVcYÓddYeaV^c\gVhhaVcYh ;^gZh d[iZc Wjgc dkZg hdji]"ZVhiZgc 6c\daV! Vh h]dlc hd XaZVgan ^c i]Z e]did\gVe] dc i]Z XdkZg# IVaa emerged from a long period of strife that began with i]Via^cZi]ZbV_dgig^WjiVg^ZhVcYg^kZgh^c hVkVccVlddYaVcYhVgZWZ^c\gZYjXZYidh]gjWaVcY^cbVcnVgZVh!Wdi]Wn[gZfjZci!^ciZchZÒgZhVcYWn its war of independence from 1961 to 1975 which was 6c\daV# jcXdcigdaaZYad\\^c\# then followed by a civil war from 1976 to 2002. And )#6ai]dj\]gjgVa]djhZ]daYh[Vgbl^i]Xgdeh before those 41 years of turmoil, Angolans suffered VcYa^kZhidX`!d[["[Vgb^cXdbZh[gdblV\Zh! from centuries of forced labour and slave trading. Wjh^cZhhZVgc^c\h!gZb^iiVcXZhVcYeZch^dch to the central regions of the country and to use more in Namibia, and then a substantial tourism Namibia has had an easier, calmer past, although it too jhjVaan egdk^YZ [dg bdhi d[ i]Z^g a^kZa^]ddY the water for hydropower, but these have not industry in Botswana (see page 81). endured several decades of armed struggle for liberation cZZYh# been implemented. In summary, the Namibia from South African administration, which ended with *#HbVaa egdedgi^dch d[ Vaa eZdeaZ ^c 6c\daV! government mainly sees the river water as a Almost all land in the Basin is formally owned independence in 1990. Botswana has had the most CVb^W^VVcY7dihlVcVa^kZ^ci]ZD`VkVc\d passing resource to be harvested before it is lost by the state, and except for national parks, tranquil history, being the first to gain its independence G^kZg 7Vh^c! VcY ZVX] XdjcignÉh \gZViZhi at Mohembo.7 government and private farms, formal urban in 1966 and having never had a war. Its government has ZXdcdb^X VcY eda^i^XVa ^ciZgZhih a^Z djih^YZ areas and concessions areas, most land is settled been stable, and has enjoyed a reputation for service i]Z7Vh^c# Although some areas were proclaimed as hunting and used as communal land. Access to this land delivery and respect for human rights. +#6ai]dj\]  V\g^XjaijgVa VcY ]nYgd"edlZg reserves by the Portuguese administration, no is largely controlled by traditional authorities in YZkZadebZcih VgZ d[iZc egdedhZY ^c i]Z land within the Angolan catchment is now Angola and Namibia where neither the state nor People in the upper catchment have thus endured the 6c\daVc XViX]bZci! bjX] d[ ^i gZbV^ch managed for environmental conservation. One traditional authorities place effective limits on most violence, the highest levels of insecurity and the jcYZkZadeZY VcY eg^h^i^cZ# CVb^W^V d[iZc small conservancy and the Bwabwata National the use of commonage resources. In Botswana, poorest public services. Moving downstream, history has hZZh i]Z D`VkVc\dÉh lViZgh Vh V igVch^Zci Park, which includes a stretch of about 20 access to land is controlled by land boards, and been kinder in Namibia, and even gentler in Botswana. gZhdjgXZidWZ]VgkZhiZYWZ[dgZZciZg^c\i]Z kilometres of the Okavango River, are the only the use of commonage resources is controlled to Together with these differences, the value of water 9ZaiV# conservation areas in Namibia. In Botswana, some extent in designated wildlife management increases downstream from Angola to Namibia and ,#LViZgh d[ i]Z D`VkVc\d \V^c ^cXgZVh^c\ by contrast, most land in and around the Delta areas. Nevertheless, it is generally in everyone’s Botswana as the Okavango River enters environments kVajZVhi]ZnÓdlYdlchigZVb#=^hidgn]Vh is under conservation management, either interests to exploit commonages maximally that are progressively drier. Likewise, the value of tourism igZViZY gZh^YZcih d[ i]Z 7Vh^c bdgZ `^cYan in the Moremi Game Reserve or as wildlife throughout the Basin (see page 79). Wealthy and wildlife also increases downstream because each of YdlchigZVb!l]ZgZi]ZlViZgh]VkZ\gZViZhi management areas (see page 79). Likewise, there residents who have lucrative off-farm incomes the three countries has done more to promote tourism kVajZ[dgidjg^hbVcYl^aYa^[Z# is almost no tourism in Angola, significantly graze as many animals as they can manage, often than its upstream neighbour. The Okavango River is

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