CORNELIA G ASKINS HARCUM

i n r eek dleslc o lle e Ins tr uctor G , W y C g

a missertation

SUBMI TT ED TO (TH E B OARD OF UN I VERSI T' STUDIES OF TH E JOHN S HOPKINS UNI VERSIT' I N CONFORM IT' W I TH TH E REQUI REMENTS FOR THE DEG REE OF D OCTOR OF P H I LOSOPH'

1 9 1 3

B A L T I M O R E

J. H . F U R S T C OM P A N '

1914

CONTENTS

P AG E INTRODUCTOR' REMARKS

PT I — Latin fo r C CHA ER . The Word ook

APT II —A f k tc the D v l m n t CH ER . Brie S e h of e e op e of

Co o kin an Ar t Am o n the Ro m an s g as g ,

APT H I E— i n P G r k o r R CH ER Cooks lautus, ee oman

APTE I — o C CH R V . The Nati nality of ooks

APT - CH ER V . Names of Cooks

APT I — c s o s CH ER V . Characteristi of Co k

PT I I — CHA ER V . The Cost of Cooks

PT III —T Mac ll um CHA ER V . he e

PT IX — S P C an d th CHA ER . The ocial osition of ooks e Esteem in Which They Wer e Held

PT X — i C an d His s s a s CHA ER . Ch ef ook A si t nt

PT XI CHA ER . Collegia

BIBL IOG RAPH'

VITA

INTRODUCTOR' REMARKS

Thi s study of Roman cooks m ay be co nsidered a comp anion ’ piece to Edwin Moore Rankin s dissertation which was pub ' li he d C 1907 o n The Ro le o the M a r et o c in the s in hicago, , f y p k I c s hi s ar Life of the An c ien t Gr ee s . have on ulted work p r the o G an d ti cul ar ly on all question s conce ning co k in reece, wish to expres s acknowledgment for the information thus gained . While the Roman cook occupies a far less prominent place

r s G ss was as in literatu e than doe the reek, he doubtle quite

n a s R s importa t factor, at lea t in later oman time , in the daily i s a l fe of the people . The very fact of the carcity of m terial

c u i and onseq ent lack of nformation in regard to him, may be ’ m etr given as the is on d e of the following study .

s r P tus an d P r s s A ide f om lau et oniu , Latin author mention

l ak cooks on y in scattered p assages . While the b er has received

a a s [ has r ther much ttention from modern writer , the cook been

s s comparatively neglected . The mo t comprehen ive study of i P D s s the . a the ubj ect to be found in article by E ottier, in rem

et S a li o Di cti on n ai r e des An ti ui tés r e c ues e t r o berg g , q g q ’ m ai n es co uus s R s s nl , under q , and thi on the oman ide cover o y a page . Other works which devote a small space to the cook ’ are Blii m n e r s T e chn o logi e a n d T er m i n o logi e der Ge wer b e un d

Kiln s te b et Gr ie chen und Rom er n 1912 , Leipzig und Berlin, , ' ’ - — f . 91 92 Rem i s che P r iva t Alter tum er Mu s pp , and his , in ller

Han dbuch I v 2 I I 192 5 94 M Das P r i vatleb en der , , , , , arquardt, ’ Rom er Le 18 8 6 146 De R Di zi o n a r i o , ipzig, , I , ; and uggiero s ’ E i r a co di An tichi td Ro m an e s p g fi , under cocus . The e works,

s a o however, have little to y on the subj ect , and other b oks on

R s r oman private life dismi s the cook with a line, a parag aph, or at most a p age . The following study i s an attempt to bring together as far 5 pr ivate life of Rom an C o o ks 7

CHAPTER I

THE LATIN WORD FOR COOK

’ ’ i s c o uus c s fo r The usual word for cook in Latin q , or ocu , P . s both of thes e spellings are c onstantly found ri cian, how

K Gr am m a ti ci a ti n i 36 s s ever ( eil, L , II, , ay , that apud an ti quo s frequentissime loco cu syllaba quu po n eb atur ‘ ’ ‘ I n s s i s ut co quus pro cocus . inscription cocu m o Thesaur us Lin the com on form , but in literature, to qu te the ’ uae Latin a e co uus utr a ue r o r sus g under q , q forma p promiscue ’ Co uo s s s l habetur . q is al o a form of the nominative ingu ar in

P D Ade l ho e s s . s some manu cripts of lautu onatu on Terence, p ,

42 3 v e te r e s c o uus s e d , says , apud q non per c litteram per q ’ sc r ib eb atur P Aulular i a 346 , and in lautus, , , the nominative i ’ uo u . o plural is q q The pun of Cicer , quoted by Quintilian,

I n s ti tuti on es Or a to r i a e I 3 47 e us e , V , , , se ms to point to a later ’ uo uus s of a nominative singular q q , but this play on word in

a s s s o n E o o the remark ddre ed to the of a cook, g qu que tibi ” fav eb o r o s s c , p bably depend on the imilar pronunciation of M an d u. P Men a ec hm i 141 q ost of the manuscripts of lautus, , , ’ F r give a nominative singular quo cus . o other forms of the ’ ’ P P i n m se e s exic o n lan t u c o uo s . word in lautus Lodge L , under q ’ . I . . 30 78 u ue i In C L XI, , we find a nominative plural q q , and ’ i n O I . . . RN 2 8 5 I 0 . . 7 s . . S 6 85 3 L , , coque L IV, upplement, , ’ a s o . i s V re d c co venit Cocula the diminutive for cook, arro ‘ ’ N n i m 5 o u 31 5 32 . co uin us apud , , By metonymy the adj ective q

s o H s Re ula 8 P a cho m ii may also be u ed for co k, ieronymu , g , ; ,

80 . Fo r s l the co ck s s G s pe ling of word for con ult al o eorge , ’ exiko n der la tei n is chen Wo r t o r m en n co uo s L f , u der q .

c o ue r e i s G e r ea m The verb q derived, like r ek , from the ' e té . Fo r i s The a ti n root p q to cook th s derivation see Lind ay, L

' an ua e 2 91 S z S lz Lateim s he r m m tik L g g , ; tol and chma , c G a a , 8 Ro m an Co o ks

’ u Han dbuch 10 7 10 8 115 V e Gr i e ch M ller s , II, , and ; anic k ,

' - i h Wiir ter b u h 45 5 Cur t m lo is c es c . i s ch Latei n s ches E y o g , p ;

Gr i echis che Et m o l o i e . 45 9 Thes aur us tius, y g , p and ’ D Lati n ae co uus . co uus , under q In the article on q in arem ’ S a li o Di cti o n n a i r e des An ti ui tes r e c ues e t r o berg and g , q g q m ai n es P s G lcv/cdw , ottier give a derivation from the reek verb , but for this he s eem s to stand alone . I n addition to the usual word for cook, several others also ’ R c o uus co cto r P s S a ti r a e are found . arer than q is , etroniu , ,

I 82 3 0 . I 0 . . 6 . . 5 . . 9 . s It is used in L IV, uppl , , and L IV,

165 8 F G s R s . rom the reek the oman took the name of the pro ’ f n m i r h i s s e ss io al cook ag us . In Latin t is u ed chiefly in the h i ’ k word ar c i m ag r us . This term was applied to the chief coo

s o hi s c of a wealthy or imperial hou eh ld, who had under dire t command many other spe cial cooks of a greater or less degree of

r . impo tance We find him in inscriptions and in literature : 0 . I 8 1 I 5 0 . . 45 8 8 0 . . 7 5 . 7 . . . 7 L VI, ; L VI, ; C I L VI , ; Juvenal, 10 9 9 S s s 9 6 . s , ; and idoniu Apollinari , II, , The same per on ’ ' se c o r um C . I . VI e s s o c . ems to have b en called praepo itu , L , 5 P 8 2 . o I 92 6 1 7 a s s a s 0 1 . . a s d erh p the upr c co in L VI, , l o hel

- the s o s . T e stam en tum P o r ce lli ame p ition In the , the ill fated ’ M i - s s a r us . s pig peak of g , cocus The word is also post cla sical,

an d Lam r idius He li o abalus 10 5 S cr i tor e occurs in p , g , , , p s His t i A o r a e u us ta e . 2 10 . m a i r i sc i a s g , p The word g i applied to tiny figures of cooks on a celebrated piec e of work by the P P N H a . . 15 . r ib n i engraver ythe s, liny, XXXIII, 7 In Sc o us ’ Lar us 2 30 Cu hn ar n s g , , seem to be used for the cook s subor ’ di n i ates . s s O I . . 3 3 . C. 7 . It found al o in L IV, , and I L . XII, 4470 , I 9 ' Rom a n C o o ks

CHAPTER II

A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF COOKING AS AN ART

I s t may be interesting before considering cook in particular, to look briefly at the gradual gr owth in importance of the art R R . of cooking among the omans In the city of ome, and in

I the R taly, in the good old days of very early epublic, the

utmost simplicity prevailed in the preparation of food . The

cooking was done by the slaves, or the women of the family, in ’ the atrium, where all the simple life of the family was lived .

s as The large focu placed there served both an altar, and for 2 S 7 6 . s the cooking of food, ervius on The Aeneid, I, The tock dish of the Romans at this time was a kind of porridge called ’ e s puls, which certainly did not r quire any great kill in the art

i D i a ti ts . V e n ua n a of cooking for prep aration, cf arro, L g L ,

10 5 . 2 4 s 7 . V, Athenaeu , VI, f contrasts this early simplicity

R s e of the oman with their later extravaganc , and says that in former times the inhabitants of Italy were so easily contented

as r P s who he lea ned from osidonius, that even tho e were in very easy c ircumstance s accustomed their sons to drink as much

as ne . water possible, and to eat whatever happe d to be at hand

e s s And v ry often, he continue , the father and mother a ked their

so n s whether he wished pears or walnuts for his upper, and

s when he had eaten ome of these things he went content to bed,

as The o o m us the s but now, says Athenaeus , p p tells us in fir t

b hi s cr a m m ed i s ook of , there no one who is even moderately

o ff has well who does not provide a sumptuous table, and who

s an d o s not cook , a great many more attendants, and who d e n o t spend more on hi s daily living than men were formerly wont to spend on their festivals and sacrifices . The e ar l v simplicity of the Romans naturally prevailed

much longer in the country districts than in the city of Rome . 10 Ro man ' Co cks

There by the time of Plautus considerable progress seems to

e as i n a 764 M o s te llar ia 1 P er sae have be n made, for in C , ; , ; ,

6 31 Tr uculen tus 6 15 s ; and , , a culina is mentioned, thus how ing that a special room for the preparation of meals had been

added to the house by this time . In the following century

V N o n ius 7 8 s arro, , page , recommend placing the kitchen in 1 s the posterior part of the hou e . While the plain everyday cooking of the family was still attended to doubtless by the

m atr o n ae or slaves, they were not sufficiently skilled in the art

s e c s r o fe s to prepare meal for sp cial o casion , and therefore a p si o n al c o c k the was hired from forum for banquets , dinner t parties, bir hday entertainments , and wedding feasts . Up to this time, however, there was probably no slave even in the

s was . household of the wealthy, whose only duty it to cook That the slave who cooked had many othe r duties to perform

i s s P s M er cato r 413IL also, shown by a p a sage from lautu , , , in which Dem ipho says that the kind of maid the y nee d i s

r s o a lusty one who can g ind, pin, be cudgeled, and c ok

nn : -o f the di er for the family in a word, a general maid — h . t e M ena echm i P s C lin dr us c o all work In of lautu , y , the o k,

Er o tium but s is the private slave of the courtesan , thi is the only instance of a private slave as a professional cook in Plau

es . tus, and even he may have had other duti to attend to

o M en a e chm i We kn w at least that he did the marketing from ,

2 73. P N H Indeed, we have a direct statement from liny, . .

18 10 8 R s , , that the ancient omans did not have cook as slaves, but - hired them from the market place .

After the war with Antiochus, when the army return e d from O R the East, riental luxury invaded ome, bringing with it a s s e c M mong other thing dainty di h s and ooks from Asia inor .

1 ’ Fo r u n a se e Bl fi m n er Rem is che P r v a -Alt u er t m er . 46 a n d 47 c li , i t , pp , ’ i n Mfi l l e r s Han db u h der K as s s he n A er um s w s s en s ha V 2 I I c l i c lt t i c ft, I , , ; ’ ' Be ke r s G a lus 2 31 Da r em b er an d S a l i o Di on n a r e de An ui c l , II, ; g g , cti i s tiq té s r e ues e t r o m a n es 15 80 i n th e a r e b Po e un n g cq i , II, , ticl y tti r der culi a

' a n d Pau -Wi s s o wa Rea - n c c l o cidi e der Cl as s i s c hen m ly , l E y p Al ter tu s wis s en 2 e s ha IV 174 . Cf. a so C r o Ad Fa m a r es XV 18 Ho r a e a r es c ft, , l ic , ili , , ; c , S ti , I 5 73 II 5 80 an d Lu l us a ud N o n iu 1 m . 2 7 2 0 , , ; , , , ci i p , p , . Ro m a n Co o ks 11

as 6 s t um co uus Vili ss im um Then, Livy, XXXIX, , put it, q anti

s e t aestim atio n e e t r etio s e t qui mancipium, , usu in p es e, quod f ’ ue r at ar s e coe t a . ministerium , hab ri p Then scientific cooking

M r e . His to o Ro m 12 2 began to prevail ommsen in his y f , III, , says : Hitherto without exception the Romans had partaken of

s hot dishe only once a day, now hot dishes were frequently ’ s r an dium produced at the econd meal, the p , and for the princi pal meal the t wo courses formerly i n use were no longer suffi

. N s s cient o doubt, hortly after the war with Antiochu there was a was e - — a speci l slave who cook in very well to do family, but culinary ar rangeme nts were much simpler than in later

s . e time The luxury of the table cannot have b en very great,

N H 10 Pi r e R P . 7 sto s a for liny, XVIII, , says , om e non fuere

P l L XXX ad ersic um usque be lum annis ab urbe condita supe r n .

I faci eb an t m uli e r um ue s psi panem Quirites, q id opus erat ieut ’ l r i m i e u s 16 1 . tiam nunc in p gentium, and in B C . the fattening of hens aroused gr e at indignation and was forbidden by the F ’ P N H 1 . 39. Lex annia, liny, . X, From this time on luxury and high living continually

G e e s increased at Rome . luttony b cam the style ; emetic were

e s taken to incr a e the enjoyment of the palate, the cook became a more and more important factor in society, and large sums were paid for s killed members of hi s calling . Even in the country the early s implicity of former times finally gave way . In late Republican and early Imperial days there may have been some who would have enjoyed a dinner like that at which

i a Ad Atti cum 5 2 C cero entertained C esar, , XIII , , of which the entertainer implies that the convers ation was quite as enjoyable a feature as the cooking . ' et large sums were now spent for

i o P ucull XL I s s . us elab rate dinners lutarch, L , , tell us that thi epicur e enter tained Pompey and Cicero in one of hi s ban quet rooms, the Apollo , at a cost of fifty thousand drachmas .

An ton P t In his y, XXVIII, lutarch also tells another s ory relative P r s . to the luxu iou folly of the triumvir Antony, says lutarch , went to Alexandria with Cleopatra and there they had a kind i o f m n s st company of inimitable gour a d , and daily fea ed one 12 Ro m a n Co o ks

P s another. Now hilota of Amphissa, he continues , used to was say that he became acquainted with one of the cooks, and persuaded by him to View the costliness of the preparation for

He w the table . as introduced into the kitchen, where he saw

e everything in abundance, and eight wild boars w re roasting

e sts . whol , which made him wonder at the number of gue H ereupon the cook laughed, and said that the party at supper

e was only twelv , but that it was necessary that everything should be served in pe rfection which a moment of time might ' ” ' An d s . poil , said he, maybe Antony will sup just now, maybe not for an hour ; hence it i s that not one but many sup ” pers must be in readiness . As an example of extreme extravagance Seneca in his Di a

le ues 8 9 s s s g , XII, X, and , give the tory of the gourmand Apiciu ,

h o n s r ii i w o s pent e hundred million este on h s appetite . Then

w hi s o hen he balanced accounts, and disc vered that he had only

s s ten million estertii left, despairing of being able to sati fy

t sum the cravings of hunger and thirs with so paltry a , he took M 2 2 as s s o . s a la t draught a do e of p ison artial, III, , tell the

same story . This author also informs us that not only were the Romans

i ts lavish in their expenditure for food, and careful about

s e e preparation, but ome of them w r even fastidious about the M 6 3 c . r s s personal appearance of their ooks artial add e se X, , ’ Th m a o e e o o us . w s s to a b autiful youth , p p Who , says he,

- The o o m us as hard hearted, p p , to make you a cook, to defile such

as s h a face your with the smut of the kitchen, to pollute suc locks with greasy soot ? If this is the destiny of such brilliant ’ l e t G . s beauty, Jove make a cook of anymede Again the ame

64 o hi author tells us , XII, , that Cinna appointed as c ok one of s

s ss s ro y attendants, who surpa ed all the re t in beauty of features

and hair .

o f e The rich the Empire truly lived to eat, and inter sting

s be xu tories could told of the lu rious propensities of Nero, H s . Lam r i Caligula , and eliogabalu The latter, according to p

dius H e li o ab alus 2 0 was as , g , , content only with such dainties Ro m a n Co o ks 1

the s s co s t s s heels of camel , comb of live ck , ongue of peacock

s s s . and nightingale , and other imilar article of food This same emperor al iquan do autem tribus m ilib us s estertium c en av it ’ su ut ati s a i m e n dit Lam r i dius He li o ab a lus omnibus pp qu e p , p , g , 24 . To cater to such connoiss eurs in the ar t of eating a very

was ss e M 2 2 0 expert cook nece arily r quired, and artial, XIV, ,

s us hi s tell that in day,

Non s atis est ar s s ola coco ; servir e palatum

: s r Nolo cocu domini debet habe e gulam .

’ Another part of the cooks art consisted in disguis ing arti cles of food so as to make them appear entirely different from M 31 what they really were . Compare artial, XI, , where deli cacies of various kinds are s aid to have be en prepared fr om

s ffi common gourds . The s tories which have been told are u cient to show how great the numbe r of cooks must have been to pro

t nm t vide for the elabora e entertai ents of the Empire, and tha

s s a divi ion of their work was absolutely necessary . Thi divi s s he ion was actually made, for in the hou e of t emperor and ’ ar c him a i r us the establishments of the wealthy, we find an g , whose business it was to superintend the host of subordinates

Of su e r in who made ready the meals for their lords . this p tendent and his assistants we shall have more to say later on .

- O The Romans as well as the G reeks had cook books . nly one

s s A i ci of these has come down to us entire . Thi bear the title p

’ i r i X st who Ca e lt de r e c o uin a r ia l b . q , A famous ga ronome

e s s liv d in the time of Tiberius bear the name of Apiciu , and because of his unusual extravagance and gluttony the name seems to have become a synonym for foolish expenditure and

o was as abnormal high living . S famous this character a gour f t ae 2 94 . us mand that Athen us, VII, , , tells that Apion wro e a

hi s e book on s luxurious living . Countles an cdotes were current

so about him , and many of his recipes were famous that they

- r hi See a s . he a s . 7 a name Athen eu , I, , The cook book which we possess is not, however, the work of this gastronome , for M G li . M . a i u Cae us his name was v s Apicius and not oreover, 14 Ro m a n Co o ks

s ome of the recipes which it contain s are a proof of a later

e 20 5 i s am fo r m m o s . date ; for exampl , n ed the Emperor Co du

I i s t then probably a late work of about the third century, which was compiled from numerous Greek manuals on the

a i subjec t of cooking . It i s prob ble that it s not the work of an

s all a a Caelius e um Apiciu at , but th t certain collect d a n ber of

s recipes for cooking under the name of Apiciu , and that the

ae A i ci us de r e c o uina r i a original title of the work was C li p q , ’ after the model of Cicero s Cato de s en ectute . This is the view

S z hi s Ré m is che Litter a twr —Ges chi chte taken by chan in , in ’ Mu Han dbuch der klas s ’is chen Alter tum s wi ssen s cha t ller s f ,

2 . 50 6 . i s a G VIII, II, , p The work in ten books , each with reek

s e s s s name, and contain recip for preparing and dre sing all kind

s s s of flesh, fish, and fowls, for compounding auce , baking cake ,

r s a s an d s . i s prese ving weetme t , flavoring wine It full of

G s e ar t reek term , a proof, if one were n eded, that the of cook

ing had attained the highest development in G reece . Ro m an Co o ks l 5

CHAPTER III

G OR M N ? COOKS IN PLAUTUS . REEK RO A

I n our study of Roman cooks the first s ource to which we

r n i s P s s e tu naturally lautu , for he give more xamples of fol

c o n lowers of this vo cation than any other author . When we

I n P s sider cooks lautu , however, we are at once puzzled by the following problem : to what extent is that author describing

e R actual members of the culinary prof ssion in ome, and how far does he por tray the calling as found in G reek Comedy ?

I s P s t may be impos ible to unravel the puzzle fully, for lautu ,

i s ts ss R as we know, in many respec a hopele tangle of oman and G reek elements . The s cene of hi s plays is always laid in a

G s e s reek town, and yet he frequently refer to definite plac in ’ ‘ R as M F the city of ome, such the acellum, the orum with i H ts s R s . i s money changer , and well known oman temple

h r G R s s s . c a acter have reek name , but often oman characteristic

s f R While laws and the name of o ficials are usually oman, and

R e s the gods have their oman names , mon y and uten ils seem to be G reek . Even the lowest slaves are quite familiar with the G old stories of reek mythology . Customs referred to are often R R s . So oman, and oman fe tivals are frequently mentioned ' i . e t s the mixture runs , as may be seen at once, while there so i G P s much that s reek in lautu , he is nowhere a slavish imi

as F P lauti n i s che tator of his originals , and riedrich Leo, ‘ Po r s chun en 8 5 s H r g , , say , Aber andlung und Charakte ,

Co stum Sc en e r i e de s G e und riechen, die er beib hielt mit ' ’ so uv e r an e r F z reiheit u behandeln hatte er von N aev ius gelernt . It is then very difficult to separate the Roman and the G reek

e e P s s a s features in the com di s of lautu , and to y ju t how far hi s s t character are direc ly taken from, or exact imitations of

hi s G s those found in reek original , and how much they are 16 Ro m a n Co o ks

modi fied by actual conditions existing in the city of Rome .

I i s us s h t , however, important for to con ider t is question in

s we our tudy of cooks, in order to decide to what extent may

P es draw on lautus, who gives us more exampl of cooks than

s R any other author, for the characteristic of purely oman mem

bers of that profession .

s b e s We may at lea t ure that there were cooks in Italy, and

P F r R as . o in ome, early as the days of lautus this assumption

we find ev idence both in inscriptions and in literature . C . I . L .

3078 s a was XI, tates th t a gift given to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva by a collegium of Faliscan cooks who were in S ar

dinia . It reads :

I un o n ei Mi n er v ai Fal esce S ni a s Iovei, , , quei in ardi unt,

i i K n de der un t m a str e s . L tr iu F l e donum ; g L a s . . C . Sa v [ ] a

o i r e r n . Voltai F. c av o t Co n l egium quod e st aciptum aetate i

O i ar um a d v e it am uo lun dam fe s to s ue s p p [ ' q q die , Quei s oveis a [rg] uti e i s o pidque Vo lgan i Co n de co r an t s ai [pi] sume co m vi v i a l o ido s que

u uei de de r u n t i n e r ato r ib us sum m ei s Q q huc [ ] [ ] p ,

Ute i se sed l ub en t e s i o v e n O tan i [ ] [be] ne t p t s .

This inscription may be dated with certainty as far back as P F the time of lautus . alerii was destroye d by the Romans 241 in the year B . C . At this time the Faliscans were driven

out of their city and compelled to settle elsewhere . As this was just about the time of the occupation of Sardinia by the

R F s omans, a colony of ali cans may have been placed on that

island, hence the inscription which cannot b e earlier than 2 41

. . s B C If we examine the language of the in cription, we find b there a undant evidence of an early date . Gemination of s 18 9 consonant began about B . C . That this document stands at the transition period between the single and the double con sonant is shown by the fact that there i s a double consonant ’ sum m e is aci tum in but not in p . Other s pelling would

e n l o ido s ue seem to point to ve an earlier date, for example, q

18 Ro m an Co o ks

t R s was hat, at ome in early time , the regular daily cooking done by some comm on slave b elonging to the household ; but

G e c r that, just as in re e up to Alexand ian times, the ordinary house slaves were not able to meet the requirements for the

s R preparation of feast and great dinners , so in ome for special F ’ occasions an expert cook was hired from the orum . This h ff P i s exactly t e condition of a airs found in lautus . In the

Me r ca to r 390 ff s e e as e , , we that cooking as well various oth r

e s duties was performed by ordinary slav s of the hou ehold . Dem ipho asks Char i n us if he has n o t brought a slave from

Char in R . us hodes to wait upon his mother replies that he has ,

D em i ho i s s but p objects that her person too delicate, and say

use that a maid is of no to them who cannot weave, grind, cut

s s a wood, spin, weep the hou e, take whipping, and cook the daily

On h . t e s meals for the family the contrary, cook for a pecial

: occasion wedding feast, dinner party, or birthday entertain

was F Aulular ia 2 80 Me r ca ment hired from the orum as , P 8 ff to r 6 97 s e udo lus 7 9 s . , and , , how The only exception to

t s M en ae chm i as s hi general rule is in the , where, already tated, the courtes an Er o tium is sufficiently wealthy to have a special

cook as one of her slaves . Even if we were to admit that there were no professional

' R P cooks at ome before the time of lautus, we must remem ’ ber that the p eriod of that author s greatest productivity lay 04 18 2 4 . C . s between and B , and that the latter part of thi period coincides wi th the time when Livy tells us that cookery

a . became an art, and the cook became a person of import nce

Fo r P i s s s this reason, then, if lautus not de cribing condition existi ng in Rome before his own day when he says that cooks

for special occasions were hired from the market place, he is at least giving a custom which was just then being introduced R G into ome from reece, with which his audience was thor

oughly familiar . On e reason for believing that Plautus is describing Roman rather than G reek cooks is that in Gree k Comedy the p r o fe s

si o n al i s s as s a e cook never repre ented a l ve, xcept in a play of Ro m an C o o ks 19

5 8 R nk hi s ss r t a P o i i I 6 . s d us . s pp , cf Athenaeu , X V, f a in in di e

f i n the i e o the An ci en t tion on The Ro le o f the Mdyetpm. L f f

Gr e ek 2 0 wa a s . s s s , p , think that even thi cook not slave but an

df o e s apprentice or understudy to a higher u yei p s . Ath naeu continues in the passage just cited that the introduction of s M c laves as cooks took place first among the a edonians, but ’ P s G s b e lautu s cooks , if purely reek, would mo t probably

f G k C an d r d taken rom ree omedy, there they are not port aye

he s i n h . P s t a slavis condition In lautu , on contrary, cook

A C li n dr us s s . s eem alway to be slaves has been said, y , the

k Men a e chm i coo in the , is the private slave of the courtesan

Er o i m A Z r 30 i t u . u uZa ia 9 s n , , shows that the two cook that

a ar e e o f f ; pl y slaves , for they sp ak purchasing their reedom The treatment of cooks in Plautus would also i n dicate that ff A l r 4 . . u ula i a 3 5 s they were slaves In the , , one of the cook

be the says , If any thing missing they will say cooks have

s s tolen it, seize them, flog them, and thru t them into the dun ’ A l l r ia 40 . u u a 9 s geon Again, , , Congrio , the cook, ays, They

so I have pounded me , poor wretch, and my pupils, too, that

e e b am sore all ov r, so lustily has that old fellow belabor d me y ’ M i ; s . C lin dr us e n a e chrn 2 75 a s way of exerci e y , , , fe ring puni h i ’ s s V . I G ment becau e he late , says, ae tergo meo n reek

Comedy, on the other hand, cooks usually received treatment

s worthy of free men, and even a certain amount of re pect,

R s r cf . ankin in the dis ertation refer ed to above, in the chap

i a l S ta t aff o 11ff S o c tus o he M et c . . ter on the f y p , p The fact that the cooks in the comedies of Plautus have in general the same personal characteristics as those in G reek Comedy may seem to indicate that his co oks were taken directly

G P s e 0 . b udo lus 7 9 from the reek The long scene eginning , , in

b m s t i which the cook oasts of his accomplish ent , is really yp G B l i F e . a l o cally r ek , upon his return from the orum Coqui ’ e e r num, says, W re I on my oath I could not find a gr ate

rascal than this cook whom I bring, a prating, boastful, silly, ’ worthless fellow . Later the chef lives up to his bragging

843tf s s reputation, and says , . , that Jupiter up daily on the 2 0 Ro m an C o o ks

s a s s odors from his aucep n , and that when he doe not cook, the

s r . I s 8 5 0 ff king of gods goe hung y to bed n thi play, too, . , we e v s s are reminded of the thi ish propen itie of cooks . Other examples of the characteristics of cooks will b e given in a later

sufli ci en t s chapter, but these are to how that in the main they s s G agree with those of member of the ame calling in reece .

hi s T , however, may prove nothing more than that cooks the w s orld over, and for all time, have the ame besetting sins, for

R a s if we compare om n cooks with tho e of our own time, we shall find a startling s imilarity in their thievish and other p rope nsities . — To sum up what has b ee n s aid in this chapter We have both inscriptional and literary evidence for cooks in Rome as early as the time of Plautus ; we know that he was writing at the very time when luxur y and professional cooks were brought in from the E ast ° the cooks in Plautus are slaves and not free as e G hi s G they w re in reek Comedy from which cooks, if reek,

h r r i would most probably be taken . The fact that the c a acte s

r h tics o f G reek an d Roman cooks a e t e s ame proves nothing .

H P s ence we may conclude that lautu , while undoubtedly de

e hi s G s pending to some ext nt on reek original , is nevertheless largely describing culinary artists as he actually s aw them i n the city of Rome . 2 ‘ Ro m a n Co o ks 1

CHAPTER IV

THE NATIONALIT' OF COOKS

R w s P s The oman cook a a slave from the time of lautu , and

a s a even e rlier, until the chef became of ufficient import nce at

R as ome to gain his freedom, either a gift for some especially

happy work of genius, or to purchase it by savings from the M s . . enormous sum which were paid him in later days Bang,

' Di e H er ka u t der Rom is chen Skla ven in f , published in the

R rn M t n 24 o i che i t hei lu en . 7 s g , p , says that the slave land

par excellence for all times was Syria . The ancients thought

S s s . that the yrian were born and predestined to lavery Cicero,

de P r o vin cii s Co n sular i bus 5 10 s I s , , , say , am vero publicano m i s er o s t r adi di t se r v itutem I udae i s e t S r i s in y , ’ i ib r i i n at o n us s s e v tut . s nati With thi compare also Livy, XXXV,

49 8 X 17 5 S e t s G r aec i , , and X XVI, , , yri A iatici

i s ho m i n um et s er vi tuti a P s Vil s ima genera nata and lso lautu ,

Tr i n um m us 542 S rr o r um s o atie n ti sum um s t , , y , genu qu d p s ’ h m i n um S h G o . With the yrians and the Jews t e reeks of Asi a

M a inor shared this doubtful fame s nations born to slavery.

s s s a P The exportation of lave flouri hed especi lly in hrygia,

a c . Bithynia, Capp do ia and Cilicia

ss P s M e r cato r 413- 416 s s The pa age in lautu , , , uggest that eve n at that e arly date Syrian slaves were regarded as espe ci all y fitted for performing the menial tasks of the household,

ego emero matri tuae

An cill am Vi r a i n em al i uam a g q non malam, form mala,

Ut m atr e m adde ce t S r am Ae ti am familias, aut y aut gyp ;

n fi i n r ue c o c et s i se tur fla o . Ea molet, coq t, pen um , p g

As slaves were often given the name of the country from which

ake . I . 6 338 they came, the b r C L . VI, , 2 2 Ro m an Co o ks

Prima Sura l P ’ A exandri L . ist .

was S . s 112 us no doubt a yrian Athenaeu , III, , tells that the

c P most elebrated bakers were from Lydia, hoenicia, and Cap H 1 ado ci a . s s 5 p Croesu , according to erodotu , I, , honored the

r ib n i woman who made his bread with a statue of gold . Sc o us P a I s S . s Larg s, II , mention yrian cooks erhap , however, the strongest evidence we have that cooks came from Asia is to be

- 6 found in the oft quoted passage from Livy, XXXIX, , that afte

us as u ur was u to the war with Antioch , e tern l x y bro ght in

R e ul a i s ae e e sum tu ome . Then p e quoque p t cura t p maiore ’ ar ar i o D s app c ep tae . oubtle s the cooks who prepared these ‘ e ul ae s p were tho e brought with the army from Asia, who

ad e o h b en trained to c ncoct dainty dishes in their own country, and who later instructed the ordinary Roman cook in the trade

N H 140 s . P was s . . s which oon to become an art liny, X, , ay , ’ that Dedere e t P ar thi coeis suos mores . The belief that m any cooks came from Asia and Asia Minor

s s e r s s as i tr ngthened by thei name , which in everal c es point to

92 6 3 i s . I . . s . the Ea t Adrastus , the name of a cook C L VI, ,

s M clearly an A ia inor name, as will be shown in a later chap 6 2 46 er s . s o . . . t on name Ero , the name of a c ok C I L VI, , and

s 87 5 3 the s . . . al o VI, , and the cognomen of cook C I L VI,

38 38 an d . I. . 92 70 o a 3 , C L VI, , alth ugh a common n me of ’ M a s slaves and freedmen, seems, according to . B ng list in the

. I . . a a . rticle quoted above, to suggest C ppadocia Compare C L ’

6 5 10 1118 8 an d 8 64 . . . . 8 75 2 s s VI, , , XI C I L VI , give a cook ’ M M c o n o . B i t . s name, Aurelius omm en makes the full g b M h P . Bi i s t n us . men Bit us affei uggests y c According to ape ,

' Wor ter buch der r i e chi s chen Ei en na m en b was g g , one Bit us the

so n s to a of Zeu , from whom the Bithynians are said h ve been

n M i ts amed, another the son of ars , from whom Bithynia took ‘ B h i ’ . it u s Bith n cus name Either cognomen, or y , points to

M . I. . s . Bithynia in A ia inor, which supplied many slaves C L ’ ’ A ax 92 6 6 r . c o s s A a s VI, , cus uggest the p fn , a river in

’ ‘ ’ An i Tuscus . r I 5 2 11 lo di us t o c . a. . . . a s . C A meni C L X, re d , L Ro m a n C o o ks 2 3

’ An io S a as a n The cognomen t c . may indicate yri the n tive la d

s s s either of this cook or of his ance tor , for Antiochu was the name of several kings of Syria from the family of the ‘ M s . 446 8 we . S . . . eleucidae In C I L XII, have a cook, Egnatiu ’ M iu P s s Al rm s . Lug s . ape ay that the a were a people in y ia

o b e s s s s M re will aid about the e name in a later chapter, but thi i s sufli ci e n t to show that the names of s everal cooks s eem to

M G s s s fo r point to Asia inor . That the reeks al o u ed A iatics

i s w s s cooks, sho n by the fact that many di he mentioned in

Athenaeus come from Lydia .

u S as as The most famo s cooks were, however, from icily, p

F r s s ages from G reek Comedy and Athenaeus testify. o the e

' R Th R l o th M a f et O i n the i e o the . e o e e L cf ankin, f y p L f f k 0 n i en t r s 4 . S A c G e e . s was s , p The icilian Labdacu repre ented,

M Fr a m en ta C o m i co r um Gr ae co r um 45 9 eineke, g IV, , and

K Fr a m en ta C o m i c o r um Atti c o r um 2 96 as ock, g III, , the

df ei m P G o r i as 5 18 s teacher of other famous u y p . lato, g , b, refer

e S Mi thae cus s to a tr atise on icilian cookery by , and Athenaeu ,

10 1 10 2 Ar h r s c est atus G a . III, and , mention a work of of el

’ - Ew en /d; Tp a vr e ga was a proverbial phrase for a table furn ished F s u s . o r s . O profu ely and lux riou ly this expre sion, cf tto, ' ' ' ’ S r i chwor tc r e r R m r i l d o e S cu us . R s p , under That the oman also especially esteemed Sicilian cooks is shown by their use o f ’ s Si cul ae t o a imilar phrase, dapes, designate peculiarly

z shes . H ar m i n a 1 18 appeti ing di Compare orace, C , III, , ,

Si cul ae s dul c e m e l ab o r ab un t s a o r e m M s Non dape p acrobiu ,

S a tur n . 5 2 4 M sui o ten s et VII, , , odum vero servat qui p est in

S s c Tus cul an Di s uta ti o n s mensa icula vel A iana Ci ero , p , v, 35 P R e a s ud n s 5 3. l utu , ,

I n fi t lenoni suadere ut secum simul

Si cili am : l Eat in ibi es se homines v o uptar i o s .

D ss fi r i i m eum e ite . icit, pote e ibi d v

The luxurious life at the court of the tyr ants of Syracuse was probably not without influence on the origin of the proverb . 2 4 Ro m a n Co o ks

On e cook from Syr acuse s o disguise d a herring that Domitian

thought it was a lamprey .

M R s G s a as r any oman cook were reek l ves, their names bea

s i s le witnes , but it often impossib to find out from what part G of reec e they or their ancestors came . That s ome were of the s ame nationality as the s ervants in

s S i s i Ma 39 our own unny outhland the ev dence of rtial, VI, ,

6 : Hi c r t c r I n e M i n c e dit sub o l em fate tur qui reto o aurus , ’ esse s e coci S antrac . An other African cook is the C atto sus ’ s s hi s bene Christianu , an anomaly among cook because of

e H u s honesty, who liv d in ippo and of whom A gustinus tell in Hi D e i vita te D ei 8 . s s : C , XXII, strange tory runs as follows

t H Fl o r en tiu s There was a cer ain old man of ippo, , who was

H hi s n o s . e s o t religi u but poor lo t coat, and had the money

so with which to buy another, he prayed in a loud voice to the

r . twenty marty s A little later, while walking silently by the

He s . e hore, he found a huge fish panting on the sand pick d it

Catto sus was up and s old it to a cook, , who a Christian, then went o ff to buy the wool from which his wife might make a fi h . e t s coat for him But the cook , in the m antime cut ing the ,

ss found in it a gold ring, and moved by compa ion and terrified

Fl o r en ti us by his religious fear, he gave it to , saying, Behold ’ how the twenty martyrs have clothed you . It is possible that the Romans may have derived s ome of their t able custo ms and p r obably their co oks also from the

. P s s s Etruscans o idoniu in his hi tory, book II, is quoted by

us 15 3 as s Athenae , IV, , d, saying that among the Etruscan

' l uxur i o us tabl e s a were spre d twice a day, that they had couches

s embroidered with flowers , and ilver drinking cups of every

s . I 2 11 l o dius 5 . C ort The cognomen of the cook C . . L . X, , L ’ An i t o c . Tuscus , may imply that he was of Etruscan origin, although the double cognomen here complicates the question an d makes us uncertain whether to look to Syria or to Etruria ’ o for this co k s ancestors . The cognomen Tusc us is often found 1 8 10 . . s in inscriptions of Etruria, C . I . L XI, , and other

Ro m an C o o ks

fi i n u Co r n u c a s . . 5 s . 8 3. Ero ( ) , C I L VI, 7 F s . I . . 92 6 1. austu Eros, C L VI, P 5 1 s . . . 9 . irmu , C I L VI, 7

Fufi ius I . c . . 92 70 . Marcus Eros, C L VI,

G n i ili D G e c us s s . . 92 1 . 7 . aius ome ticu , C I L VI,

H hae s i o s M e tam r ho s s 2 e t o e . p , Apuleiu , p , IX, H . . . 92 67 . erma, C I L VI,

H B r b i 2 a an us . . . V 6 47 . ilarus , C I L I, i G I ul u . s s s I . . 3 838 aiu Ero , C L VI, 3 .

L r i . . 30 8 . . at us . 7 L , C I L XI,

Mac hae r i o P Aulular i a 398 . , lautus, , M F I s s s 3938 . arciu au tu , C . . L . IX,

Me n o en es P N H 54 g , liny, . . VII, . Mi ll M 5 0 1 st o s s . y , artial, I, , (fictitiou )

hil r r I P a u us . . . 2 8 9 6 . g , C L VI, h il P r . . 248 6 . e o s . ( ) , C I L VI,

P e i n . S a us . 8 54 c st . . 7 hoti C I L VI, i Pl Or lli 2 2 I . . o t us e 7 7 . . . L , Compare C L

P r o tus . . . 2 875 . , C I L XIV,

R . 5 C . . 2 8 . odo, I L XIV, 7 0 l n a . . . 3 8 . . S a v e 7 C [ ] , C I L XI, M 39 S 7 . antra, artial, VI, ,

S G s I 33 6 . s . . . 7 7 eleucu ermanicu , C L VI, S 6 1 s s s . osia , Au oniu , IV, ,

Suelli us Or elli 722 7 . , S h m o r us . I. . 875 1. y p ( ) , C L VI,

T ar ll ata a r 5 0 2 i i us . , Ma tial, I, , (fict t o ) s s I 5 19 Ta u C . . L . VI, 7 .

Theo o m us r a 6 6 p p , Ma ti l, X, . I . . . 92 69. Tyrannus, C L VI,

s V I 5 4 . O . 2 4 tatus . . Marcu alerius p , C L V,

. I . . 6249. Zena, C L VI,

s . I. . 8 5 5 . Zethu , C L VI, 7

To thi s list may be adde d the names of s ome cooks of Roman

s G s r s a r an d t r at r : time found in reek in c iption , p py i , li e u e Ro m an ” Co o ks 2 7

’ ’ Ar a 9wv I G . I 15 62 y , . VI , .

Ditten b e r e r Pur o ld Di e Ins chr i ten v o n g und g , f Ol m ia 64 y p , .

r h h P a 11 Ox n c us . . 8 y y p , I, No .

’ ' ti Ur kru en d K n i M eu o Ae s che n d aus en o e . Be ein . us B s, gyp g

B i G r i h r ku . 1 er l n ec . U n d 6 . , , , No . ‘ ’ I f o i o s P a i r i Gr e ci E i zii . pn y p , p g , II

Fi o r n ti n i 1 e , 6 6 .

A18v o s I 5 8 5 9 . . G . u , XII, , ' Awcm o o s h n h P 118 Ox r c us a . . . p , y y p , I, No

Ditten b e r e r Pur o ld Di e In s chr i ten g und g , f

Ol m ia 4 . c on . 7 y p , No ’ ’ Ezzr co P t wa i 863 ar 1 o m v Mo r a li a we v s 1 . p , lutarch, , p w yfi , , B ’ Z evm o s is h r k K i z Ae t c e U u a d n o en . Mus . u , gyp nden us e g

B li n G r i n 2 r k d 3 3 . e e ch . Ur 9 u . . , , No i h P t o Cr cc . a i m Mus eum es O er hessis chen Ges Z . d b s, p

hi ht r ei e u G 10 1 e i e s en n H 3 . c c s u n s s . . , Ba d I, eft , No

S - Z a o i o I . G . 6 17 . u s, XIV,

’ A is ch Ur k i M B er Io e t e un den a d n K en us . cu gyp us e o g.

li n G r i h r n 1 1 e c U ku d. . 5 , . I, No .

d a Am h r t P a 12 s e s . . 7 . , p II, No ' l a wv G 5 54 . I . . . p , I XII, , No ’ Ho kkwv 36 Gr e ek P a r i i n the B r i tis h Mus eum I . 2 , py , II , p , 12 5 4 N o . .

I G . I 5 646 . . XI , ,

2 é v'r o Ditte n b e r e r Pur o ld Di e In schr i ten vo n [ ] p q , g und g , f O m ia l . 87 . y p , No

- Seventy nine in all .

NAM E S I N LIT ERAT URE

The majority of the names of c ooks found in Latin lite ratur e

r e s as a i r at . a u ed for comic effect, or indic tive of the occup ion

I n s as e e s thi class , might be xp cted, may be placed the name

n e of arly all the cooks in Plautus .

In the Aulular ia the cooks are Congrio an d Anthrax. Con 2 8 Ro m a n Co o ks

’ n s e a ss a grio is der ived from co ger, eel, and may po ibly h ve

s s been given to the cook as a te timony of the lippery, thievish

s his s o r propens ities belonging to the follower of profe sion,

e lse b ecause it was the name of an article of food . Somewhat ’w Similar names ar e found in G reek Comedy. B o i 8i v is the K 14 ’ S s I . 3 M o a i a w name of a cook in o ip ater . ock, II, p ; and x 4 5 2 . i s s o of another, Athenaeus, XII, f The latter al the

K 8 - a s s o . 3 3. F t name of para ite, Alexi , ck, II, p ick Bech el,

i P r n m n 314 ff h i e ch s he s o n e n a e . a Gr c e . s a s , pp , ection devoted M h m ’ to Tiernamen als e ns c en n a en .

the s o Anthrax, the name of another cook in ame c medy,

s c a n d s s mean oal, thi sugge ts at once the calling to which he

s c i s e s s belongs, in e it with the lement of fire that cook are mo t

e ss i ll ngaged . The a ociation of cooks with Vulcan s not at a

H i Fa . e s o s sc s unusual menti ned in the in cription of li an cook ,

0 i P is t r o . 8 I m i e t P e . . 3 7 . n di c u o c o is tae C I L XI, In the C , ‘ M a tin i i n or es B aehr en s 379 V i s . I L , , IV, , ulcan the judge n

M e hm i 32 9f na ec . s the , , the cook say ,

I b m eli ust te t accum be r e re erele interim a que ,

D m n l n i i l n i am u ego h ae c adp o o ad Vo c a V o e t .

A I ulular ia 35 9 . o s ess n the , ff the foll wing word are addr ed to the cook :

2 I m ur ate V e s Quid p , quamquam olcano tude , Cen ae ne caus a aut tuae m er ce di s gratia N o s nostras ae di s postulas comburere 2

’ ’ Fo r Av0 a m o v as a a F p the name of a female Sl ve, comp re ick i 3 B o t . 3 0 . . c . a s echtel, p , pp f The name Anthr x i not found 4 se t . I 6 0 5 el where in litera ure It occurs , however C . . L . VI, , ‘ ’ So i an u I 2 82 s s . . . 3 s s Anthrax ( ) hic, and C L X, , thu howing i that it s not purely fictitious .

Aul la r i 398 f u a . a s t wo a In the , , we get l o n mes belonging ’ s s a i s probably to a cook attendant or pprentices . Anthrax

v hi He gi ing s orders . s ays : Rom an Co o ks 2 9

D s s Machae r i o romo, desquama pi ci ; tu ,

Co n r um m ur e n am do r sua . g , ex quantum potest

’ D G e A o co u z : romo, r ek p u a runner, is a rather common name f 644 G c . 377 in reek Comedy, Athenaeus, XIV, , e ; IX, , d ; VI,

240 I x 40 9 . I t i s D s s , d ; , , e the name of a cook in iony iu , i t 38 1 . R s a quo ed by Athenaeus, IX, , d Among the omans it ’ s S a . o s as lave n me, and a cognomen of freedmen It ccur the 4 99 . . . . s latter C I L V, , and elsewhere It is the name of a lave i n P A i m r i a 441 c An dr i a 8 60 lautus, s , ; and also in Teren e, , ;

H a to Ti r m n Ade l ho e 37 6 e n n m o u e o s 249. s m p , and , Thi na e and that of the cook in the Mi les Glo r i o s us are the only ones connected with the culinary profess ion in Plautus which ar e f ’ not used for comic e fe ct and to suggest the owner s o ccupation .

Machae r i o Aulular i a 398 s s wa , , , ugge ts an implement which s

e much used by cooks . Compare the convers ation be tw en Eu

Aulular ia 416 ff clio and the cook, , .

tr i i r def r m m Eue . sv o s e a Quia ad iam ego no e n tuom .

Cong . Quam ob rem 2

l r m Eue . c u t u s . . u de cet Quia habe Cong Coc m .

I Tr uculen tus 6 15 Cuam us s n the , , say ,

i b ell at r s lueo S o c . tu legioni clue , at ego in culina

62 7 s s Str ato han es And in he ays again to the oldier p ,

C a ti o st : s m ach aer am l o n i o r em s a t p i tam g habe quam h ec e s .

Mi les 1397 In the , the following command is addressed to the ’ P i : . en a Tr i m a lchi on s cook, Cario culter probe In etronius, C , 49 e hi o s s s . s , the c ok seiz s knife and Sla he the hog Apuleiu ,

Me tam o r ho s es 31 o s hi p , VIII, , the c ok begins harpening s

. I M h e r ass . . . 7 67 ac a a knives to Slay an n C I L IX, , b, i M i s . T es tam e n tum P o r c e lli a r us co a cognomen In the , g ’ s f c ultr um ut hun c cus said, Tran i puer af er mihi de cocina ’ ’ o r e llum fa i am r ue n m M a a i twu i s p c c c tu . x p the name of a 30 Ro m a n C o o ks

G P a s . physician in alen, of the man who killed Epaminond s, au K I 11 5 . S Gr i e chis che P er VI I, , arl chmidt in an article on

' s o n en n am en b ei P la utus Her m es 37 196 s s Der Tr ai e r , , , , ay , g des Namens ist nach dem Mes s er benannt das er zu handhaben ’ st P ivr o s F ne . ver eht, wie p nach dem ischer tze

s a ul s Citr i o h In the Ca ina the n me of the c inary arti t is , whic

' i s Xv T a n r probably derived from p , meani g an ea then pot or G kettle for boiling . Similar names in reek Comedy are I[ a m

' ’ m mv s 16 9 Aa v m wv , the name of a cook, Athenaeu , IV, , e ; and y

r f Ad vvo s 5 84 . rom y s, the name of a parasite, Athenaeu , XIII, , f

I Men a e chm i C lin dr us e s n the , too, the cook, y , probably g t hi s name from the utensil which he frequently uses in making S pastry, namely the rolling pin . chmidt, however, in the

er m s 3 D r a e H e 7 . s s e rticle pr viously mentioned ( p ay , M ’ Name bezeichnet das Aussehen des annes . ’ G Ka i wv Mi les 1397 G Cario, reek p , , is found in reek Com

e d an d i s s . e s es y, a common name for slave Compar Ari tophan , P l t 1100 ft o u us . , It is the name of a cook in Euphori n, quoted

e I X 377 . i s by Athena us, , , d In Latin it also found as the i 1 P s S a t r a e 7 5 . I s as name of a slave in etroniu , , , t occur a ‘ ’ 1 5 8 1 8 9. I . . . 7 cognomen in C I L V, , and II, t is derived ' a F - f m Ka an d L w s ee e o . ci t. ro p , is a formation in , ick B chtel, p , i F r 342 s s s . o p . , hence mean a little Carian or contemptuou

n o a s es Ko I 48 1 meani g c mp re al o the following lin , ck, II,

’ 3 r ' ' Av Bo i aro u o i 6 157 6 0 0 1. 8 Ai é lr r wi np , 1 y

' ' r p i r m 8s wdvr wv Kcipes

s s ks P s s s Beside the name of coo in lautu , everal of the other

s s c ff c as i n found in literature eem to be u ed for comi e e t, or

di c ativ e . Pe s en a Tr im a lchi o n i of the calling In troniu , C s ,

70 Tr im al chi o fi ttin l his D , g y named cook aedalus , for accord ’ i n g to his master s story he could make a fi sh from the paunch

o of a pig, a wood pige n from fat bacon, a turtle dove from a

b . D ham, and a fowl from the knuckle one aedalus is always t m the name of an ar ist of so e kind , and here it i s a kitchen

. P s s 3 2 D s I expert In au ania , IX, , , aedalu the father of carus Ro m a n C o o ks 31 i s mentioned from whom a line of artists in Athens an d Crete H . Il 5 92 He s I bore the name Cf . omer, XVIII, rodotu , V I, 1 0 X 7 M em o r ab i li a 2 33. I a e es i s ; enophon, , IV, , n l t r tim it d n s s . the name of a Bithy ian artist, and of other al o In eed, the name se ems to have passe d almost into a proverb for one

w s H Tr im al hi D s . who a s killed . ence c o called his cook aedalu

' A G e k u d ei o 2 93 . r e y p s bears this name in Athenaeus, VII, , a

P l n K 9 i t See s hi o ste ha us 3 3. S o . c . al o p , ock, III, chmidt, p ’ T n l r 18 5 s e s so ause dkiin st e . p . , ays, Bedeutet viel wie

M e tam o r ho s s 9 2 He haes ti o us In Apuleius, p e , , , p reminds once more of the frequent as so ciation of cooks with the god

An of fire . Fo r this compare the pas sages referred to under

S caen i ca e Ro m an o r um P o es is Fr a m e n ta thrax, and also g ,

N ae vi us F , ragmenta Incerta, XIV

N e tun um Ce r e r em Cocus edit p , ,

Et V e x e r tam Vo l c an o m Lib er um ue o b s o r b uit enerem p , , q

P ariter .

I M r a 5 0 s s Mi st l n a ti l, I, , we get two fanciful name for cook , y

r ll s los and T a ata a . The e come from a meaningless pun on 4 42 8 62 . 0 d. 4 Il . l 5 . H . 6 omer, I I, Compare also II, , and III, ’ i s D P o r Another cook s name recorded in literature ama , ’ 1 i ’ h r i o n Ho s S a ti r es . 0 1. s s p y on race , I, l It a Slave name

P s s 7 6 an d H S a ti r es 6 38 5 also in er iu , V, ; orace, , I, , ; II, ,

8 1 1 5 4 D i o n 1 0 7 . a s s a and ; and II, , A certain am the of

M 39 11 i s a s baker, artial, VI, , and the name l o found in

M 1 D i n a r 17 0 . s e a tial, XII, Another ama a conviva at the C

Tr im l hi on i s P 41 A i a c s . S s , etroniu , the context in which it

i - s s . found shows, the name u ually a slave name - Me n o n e P H 4 e s N . V M . 5 s g , liny, VII, , and alerius aximu , IX,

14 2 P o m e ius S . R n s , , is the cook of p trabo Among the oma i this too s a name of slaves and a cognomen of freedmen . Com 391 C 3 95 9 E em . E r . . . . h i . pare C . I L III, ; . I L XIV, ; p p g V, \ 2 M n o e n e 5 5 139. 8 e s p . , In Martial, XII, , g is the name of

V M x 9 145 i r . a . s as a famous parasite, and in al , , refer ed to

the name of an actor . 32 Rom a n Co o ks

s s as The name of cook in literature are, we may judge from

s . s f these example , in the main fanciful They are u ed o r

f s s . comic e fect, and often ugge t the occupation of the owner ’ a n s G e They are often t ke from slaves name in re k Comedy,

e m and are in several cas s the sa e as those of cooks found there.

s s We can draw few if any conclu ion from them, because of

On ul . their fancif nature the contrary, when we consider

ne ar e t u names on sto we sure that we are dealing with ac al fact . Thes e old Roman cooks whom the Latin authors usuall y con s ide r e d of too little importance to give passing mentio n have left in the inscriptions a tru thful record both of their o wn

s s e s s . name , and al o of certain memb r of their familie

NAM E S I N I N S ORI P T I ON S

Let u s consider first thos e n ames on stone which are indica m tive of nationality . It was, as we know, a com on custom for

a slave to bear the name of the country from which he came . ’ While we have n o cook s name which tells us dire ctly the land

of his origin, there are several that indicate nationality in as

r much as they are freque ntly found in certain localities . Fo 92 3 . V 6 example, Adrastus, C . I . L I, , is undoubtedly an Asia

Am er i can Jo ur n a l o Ar cha eo lo 1912 M . inor name f gy , XVI, ,

i ti o n r o m S ar de Mr H k n s r . 2 9 Gr e e c s s . . p . , I p f by W Buckler

M ns . D . . R and Prof . obi on To quote from this article Adrastus i s especially common in Phrygia and is known in

On s P A r Lydia . coin of hrygia and Lydia we find d aste i a

H Hi t r . . s o i a N um m o r um nursing the infant Zeus Cf ead, ,

- S o 5 8 8 A 6 60 6 67 . dr aste i a pp . trab , mentions a place, in K M s was t . H s y ia, which named from ing Adras us erodotu , 35 s the P r d I, , tell story of a h ygian nobleman A rastus who came

was . P s 6 6 9 to Croesus and purified by him ausania , VII, , , ,

mentions a Lydian Adrastus . An Adrastus i s found also on R Carian coins . Among the omans Adrastus was a name of Sl aves and a cognomen of fre edmen from the be ginni ng of I m

s . I . I . . 6 337 a s perial time n C L VI, , we find baker with thi

34 Ro m an Co o ks

’ a ti n i ta tis On o m as ti con L , under the word Antiochus, for their O l e . s C o m m a e n e fami y tr e ther king from g , a northern pro

S he ar s . c , a . r a Vince of yria, also thi name Antio hia, city of Sy i

O s was near the ronte river, no doubt named for one of thes e P t . S e e 0 . ci S kings ape, p for many famous yrian s who ’ ' were called Antiochus . Among the Romans the name occurs rather frequently as a name of Slaves and a cognomen of freed

. Thes aur us i n ua e La ti n a e un f r men, cf the L g der the word o

m M L i ’ s u us . I . 446 8 The na e . Egnatiu g , C L . XII, , may also

M P Au wt e o point to Asia inor, for ape says that the g/ were a p M D M C 6 5 . . 7 le s . v s p of ysia, as , ommsen, howe er, suggest

a o w s n ther cognomen, and ould emend the in cription i H i 2 us . Ug us (i . e . yg ) S G ’ ’ eleucus ermanicus, if this is really the cook s name in

I . 33 6 s S C. . 7 7 e a L VI, , calls to mind once mor the famou yri n

family of the Seleucidae . ’ C the P s Mi les Glo r i os us ario, the name of cook in lautu , ,

’ 1397 G Ka i wv r dim i n u is the reek p , de ived from d with the

ca n he m a s s was . tive ending , nce y uggest that thi cook a Carian

i s as s s This , however, doubtful, Cario in thi ca e is probably a

- s lave name which is taken fro m comedy.

Z o ti cus e Aure lius , who had such influenc in the days of

Di o s L 16 3 s Heliogabalus , was a cook, and as Ca sius, XXIX, , , tell ' f o us so n S a ei s . , the of a myrnean n y p From this cons ideration of names we may draw the conclu sion that many cooks or their ancestors came from Asia Minor

or the East . Let us next consider the names of coo ks which contain the ’ was hi nomina of Roman gentes . When a slave freed by s ’ master s good will , or when he purchased his freedom, he took as hi s nomen the nomen of hi s master ; s ometimes he to ok ’ Fo r also the praenomen . his third name or cognomen he — R kept hi s own slave name . As in late epublican and in Impe rial times coo ks were doubtless i n the posses sion of many fami

s e s lie , and as they were often fr ed for their excellent service Ro m an Co o ks

or e d i n a s s bought their ind pen ence, we find the n me of the e ’ free dmen those of the Roman gentes . ‘ n s The ge s Aelia is represented by two cook , who probably ’ d H Aelius E h r o ditus belonge to the household of adrian, p p , ‘ ’ P r im i i s 8 5 0 2 . e t . 7 92 6 vu . . C . I . L . VI, ; and T Aclin , C I L VI,

745 8 . s R s and This family then, which count in oman hi tory a

' r s s g eat number of illu trious repre entatives , and from which the A two ntonines sprang, holds among its humbler claimants our

co c ks m entioned above . ’ The gens Aurelia, of plebeian origin, which was consecrated

e from all antiquity to the s rvice of the gods, particularly to the

sun M s s s a o cult of the , from which arcu Aureliu pr ng, is repr M sented by an imperial cook, arcus Aurelius 2 . . 8 75 . C . I L VI, , who was doubtless very proud of his name

’ The gens Ar r un ti a of Etru scan origin is represented by ’ A n i H 0 38 . s r r u t u s . . . 5 Luciu ilario, C I L XI, ’ F Ca ili F e c us e . . : rom the gens Caecilia we have lix, C I L 4 i h ‘ 7 33. s t e VI, Thi family was of plebeian or gin, but after d he : third century B . C . it always occupie a brilliant place i n t Th R s . e epublic, and its member forged a mythological origin y

’ C ae culus pretended to be descended from , the legendary founder

” P o n V r a e s . o e r t of raen ste, who was called the of ulcan An th ’ s s dition gave them as an ancestor Caecu , one of the companion f o Aeneas . ’ ’ F s C atius H rom the gen Catia comes Quintus erma,

0 ‘ 44 . . . . 7 C I L XII, This family is known both from Latin

' n Writers and inscriptions . In the latter it occurs freque tly in

s Cisalpine G aul and Narbonensis . The in cription 'ust cited

’ i Z r G hi a tei n h . S u es c cht is r s Se e . e l c e from Narbo W chulze,

Ei en n am en P -Wi wa Rea l-E lo iidi d r . 7 sso n c c e e g , p 6 ; auly , y p

c las i s chen Alte r t m wi s ha t 1 2 s u s s en s c 79 . f , III, ’

e Cl o dius An tio c . The g ns Clodia, from which comes Lucius ’

T u . usc s . . 5 2 11 the , C I L X, , was originally of countr y of the

Sabines . It contained a numbe r of illustrious representatives

who posed as champions of the patricians . The dece mvir Appius

as s s Claudius comes from this family, did al o the emperor 36 Rom an Co o ks

. c un war b Tiberius and Claudius It o ted little for men of , ut Cf D r s c . rendered immens e s e vices to cien e and literat ure . e

V On o m as ti co n . it, ’ ’ D i s n s i s r e r s The india, which a very ancient ge , p e ented ’ Di n ius . . 2 8 5 d . I I 7 . by Artemo , C L X V, M ’ s E n ati a s . s Lu i us From the gen g come Egnatiu g ,

4 8 w s I I S . L 46 . a C . I . . XI , This originally from amnium t

was established at Rome and admitted to the senate . M F i ’ F fi i i ufi u . . f s u c a s c s I. O the gen arcus Eros, C L VI , ’ 0 s s to s Fufi a 92 7 . This eem have been derived from the gen

Fufi a was a n by adding a syllable . The very old plebeia

gens of Campanian origin . ’ s G e n i c ili a h as G a s G eni cilius D s us The gen iu ome tic , I 2 1 i l . 9 7 . s s C . . L VI, Thi family probably known on y from

F b r e i 2 5 2 11. ns i s . See a tt . 6 . i cr ption , p , n ’ G li I 338 38 was s I u us s . . . aiu Ero , C L VI, belongs to what

r egarded as the mos t illustrious of the patrician famil ies . The

s s n members gave them elve divi e origin, and claimed to be

s s s s o n V s se . de cended from A caniu , the of enu and Anchi s ’ s i s s s Latr ius The gen Latria repre ented by Luciu ,

I i n r i 30 8 . sc . . . 7 s s C L XI, This family eem to be known from p

tions only. ’ F ns M s s F rom the patrician ge arcia come Marciu austus, I 38 T . . . 39 he s C L IX, . member of this family boasted counting among their ancestors the kings Numa Pompilius and An cus M arcius . ‘ ’ Or e lli 72 2 7 the s Plo ti a According to , , from gen we have ‘ ’ ~ Pl i F Pl o tiu o t us . s Lucius rom the time of C . who obtained

the Pl o ii fli 35 8 . t o c es consulship in B . C the occupied high in R ’ the epublic . Lucius i s o n e of their regular praenomina . M ’ 2 44 V s . O tatu . . 5 s arcus alerius p , C I L V, , belong to the ’ gens Valeria . Thi s was one of the most an cient and most s s s F 2 45 illu triou familie . rom B . C . to the end of the Imperial

R S ev period it occupied a prominent place in oman history. a e s d er l mperor were escended from it . In addition to the above Roman gentes which we may be

s ss s s h sure pos e ed cook , becau e t eir names are found as the nom Rom an C o oks 37

s s a s e c o n o ina of cook , ever l other familie are giv n in the g ss mina of men of the s ame calling . When a slave pa ed from one lib er t us master to another by s ale or inheritance, or a from

a was one p tron to another, he received a cognomen which formed of the name of hi s previous master or patron com

s i s a s pounded with anus to Show whence he came . Thi lmo t the only clas s of cognomina of whos e origin we c an be c er

' ai s s H Rom is che E i r a hik t n, ay Emil ubner in his article on p g p , ’ n V 15 . r e H h . 5 S s e Miil l e r s a dbuc . r , ol I, p everal familie are p

r n ufi ci a sented thus in the names of our cooks . The gens Co I 5 3 n s s a . 87 S ha s . . s Ero C L VI, ; the ge e ti , ’ i i - 8 54 Pho t o Sest an uS . . . 7 s , C I L VI, ; and the gen Barbia, ’ H n 6 24 B r i a s . . s a b u . 7 ilaru , C I L VI, The study of the gentes which our cooks represent and by l s se ss . I b e whose member they were fre ed may be u le t wil noted,

s s e o ar s however, that the familie repre ent d ab ve e u ually the R ’ more prominent of the oman gentes . While members of the

s s o r s s se s a more ob cure familie of c u e had cook , it em prob ble

r s s as s that they were gene ally lave , and that freedmen cook

o o s s usually ccur in the m re di tinguished or imperial familie , ’ a s es . lthough they, too, had both lav and liberti It is probable

th s s ks fo at prominent familie had more killed coo , men who r

this reason were better able to purchas e or win their freedom .

ADDIT IONAL OB SERVAT ION S ON NAM ES

’ Cooks names wi th few exceptions ar e originally Greek ’ n a . Of s the lib e r tus mes cour e, when cook was a , his nomen ’ R hi s s and praenomen are oman, but cognomen, which show hi s G ~ e . co n o original name, was nearly always re k Latin g ’ D s s F s s F O tat us P r im itivus mina are ome ticu , au tu , elix, p , , ’ Tuscus . G and All the rest are reek . In cases where the

was s Fi r m uS an d cook a lave, hence had only one name, S 2 antra are the only Latin ones . The cognomina of cooks as we find them i n inscriptions may be classed under thre e o r four heads — 1 s a o s Bie . Tho e which may indicate nation lity Anti chu ,

o h e th was r 2 . Th se which show w enc e cook p ocured

B r b i an us Co r n ufi i an us Sesti an us a , c ( ) , ; ’ s s e 3. Tho e which eem to r fer to the cooks occupation or

- D s s F s s F O tatus P character ome ticu , au tu , elix, p , and rimi tivus 4 O . s s . ther cognomina, Er o , Epaphroditu

338 38 o I uliu . . G s s s a In C . I L VI, , we find a c ok aiu Ero ,

P G s I uliu P i lib e r tus of olybius . aiu s o lybius s a common

. I I 0 8 33 14 6 5 2 3 am P s . . . 1 1 n e at ompeii t occur in C L IV, , , , ,

=It i s possible that this cook was freed in Pompeu by his

as a r a e to R k m ter, and, fter gaining his f eedom tr vel d ome, too u hi h p s abode there and died t ere . Ro m a n Co o ks 39

CHAPTER VI

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF COOKS

As a rule cooks in ancient Rome appear to have the s ame general characteristics as their more or less direct prototypes in

is Greek Comedy. This what we should naturally expect in P lautus , for while there were no doubt professional cooks in

R e hi s s r e om in day, and while he to a certain extent de c ib d the

as hi s i s members of this calling he saw them in own city, it no less certainly true; that in this as in all els e he dre w largely on his Greek originals . R A G s . s depicted in comedy, reek cooks were boa tful ankin h s te . 77 s t t e in the work previou ly ci d, p , ays tha along with ’ a r et o s s ee physicians of ancient times, the u y p , appear to have b n ’ H the sau n a par excellence . e boasts of skill in many sciences

s e ar chitec be ides his own, nam ly, astronomy, military tactics,

a s s ture, geometry, p inting, and medicine ; and ay that the train

hi s i s t s ing in own art not a mat er of two Short year , but of a

H hi l s . e s lifetime boasts, too, of ability to p ea e men of all

a s to st s s n tionalitie , and claims study not only the ta e but al o

t s . On e t s s he temperaments of his guest member of he profe ion,

s 169 s s Athenaeu , IV, , d, make thi claim for his skill that when s ojourning in Italy he learned to cook with such dexterity that at tim es he made all the guests eagerly l ay hold of the dishes

. 2 90 s as with their teeth Athenaeus, VII, , c, quote another s i m e n I ay ng, When return from funerals take the lids from . s s h my aucepan , and the weeping p artake rs t ereof I clothe with smiling faces . I have known many who becaus e of me have ’ G i s eaten their whole estates . That the reek cook was thievish ’ shown by the speec h of a cook to hi s pupils in Di o n y sius s drama ' ’ O i c6vv 0 i I x 38 1 Fo r / u , quoted Athenaeus, , , d, , says he ’ ’ s e . They ll count the j oint they giv you, and they ll watch you Ro m an C o o ks

Many other pass ages might be cited to Show the rivalry among

ssi e t members of the profe on, the pride in their art, and the r spec

e s consider d due it, for one claim that civilization arose from ‘ ’ M 5 K a ei i m r e v . 5 7 . 36 9. O i p y p ; x n, , IV, , III, ther qualit es G e which reek cooks possessed wer ingenuity, wit, ability to

es s s adapt themselv to variou ituations, curiosity, and skill in the preparation of special dishes ; but as we are concerned

R s chiefly with oman cooks , what has been aid about their proto

b Fo r h s ul types will e sufficient . fuller details on t i point, cons t R u s e ankin in the work previo sly cited, e p cially chapter XI, Char a cter i s ti cs o f the M dryei po v Let us consider now the qualitie s which Roman cooks pos A G i s . s s essed in reek culinary artists, the boastful tendency ’ B lli P s l 0 char acte r i s st . a o eudo u 79 . s s ill found , s , fl um up the tics o f members of this profession as follows

F co ui n um v o can t s tulte v o c an t orum q qui ,

c o ui n um st fur in um st . Nam non q , verum forum Nam ego Si i ur at us p ei o r em hominem quae r er em Co qum non p o tui quam hun c quem duco duce r e

M r i n l m i il m ultil o cum l o i o sum su su n ut e . , g , , Quin ob eam rem Orcus r e cip er e ad se hun c n o l uit Ut esset hic qui m o r tui c e n am c o quat ;

Here we find gl o r io sum one of the p rominent char acter i s

s . s u hi s 82 8 {f. s s tic The cook live p to reputation, , when he ay ,

Audacte r di cito ; N amvel ducen o s an n o s p o ter un t Vi vere

M sitab un n i er o eas qui e s t escas quas co d v . Nam ego c o c il en dr um quando in patinas i n didi

c e o l e n dr um m acc idem s auc a tidem Aut p aut aut p ,

Eae s ae s s a fe r v e faciun t ili c o p e e p tinae .

840 ff In . he boasts that Jupiter himself sups on the odors from hi s s a s s aucepans, and th t when he doe not cook the king of god

r goes to bed hung y.

42 Rom a n C o aks

s s s v c hands of gourmands, who for ome pecial er i e rendered their

t s t es s d pala e , permitted the cook to en er the f tive hall , allowe ff a t o hi s him to mimic the tragic actor Ephesus, and to o er bet

s s master that the green would win at the next Show in the circu ,

P T r i m a l hi n is 0 s Cen a c o 7 . cf . etroniu , , The thievish propens ities of cooks are emphasized even more A l i P s G . S s Ba l o in lautu than in reek literature has been aid, ,

Ps eudo lus 790 c o uin um b e , , affirms that the forum q should

s . 8 5 1 called the market of thieve instead In the same play, , the cook admits that stealing is a fault common to men of hi s

a c lling,

An tu invenire postulas que m quam c o quo m Nisi m ilv in i s aut aquilin i s un guli s 2

Their employers we re fully conscious of this defect in their

character , hence took every possible precaution in order to

P do l 8 5 5 B alli o s s s . eu us guard them elves again t it s , give

hi s s e e boy order for k ping a sharp watch on the cook,

u uI s e s e di o Nunc adeo t , q meu , iam c tibi

Ut r o m o li r i hin c nost a pr peres a omnia, Tum ut huius o cul o s in o culi s habeas tuis

uo uo s ec tab i t eo s e c tato Q q hic p , tu p simul ; Si quo hic gr adi e tur , pariter (tu) p r o gr edim in o ;

M Si r o to ll et r o fe r to u anum p , pariter p man m

S si uid m Si n ito uum q su et, id tu sumere ;

Si n l i te e to a tr n s ecus . nostrum sumet, tu

Si t i to : stab it s is e ibit, , astato imul ;

Si c o n uin i s e i i o n i n i i c t st c c u s c to . q , q

t hi s disci uli s I em p privos custodes dabo .

A l lar i a 3 - 3 0 u u 6 3 7 . c s was Note also , Even the lose t watching

u th e not a safeg ard against such clever rogues, according to Eucli o Aulular ia 5 5 1ff words of , , . , Ro m an Co o ks 43

Mihi o m n i s an gulos Fur um im ple v i sti in ae dibus mis ero mihi ; Qui mi i n tr o m i sti in ae dibus qui n gen to s co cos Cum s enis m an ib us genere G e r yo n ace o ;

si s o cul eus to tus Quos Argu servet, qui fuit,

I un o custo dem addidi t Quem quondam Iovi , m I s n u quam s ervet .

s s b e ar a e e t n Thi , however, m u t reg ded as an ex gg rat d sta eme t of the case by a mis er who thought that ever yo ne was looking i A 4 o h s s . u lular i a 3 4 3 5 f r preciou gold In , and 4 , the only con dition s are given under which a cook could refrain fr o m stealing

Quod te scio

F b i r b i am a st n e e s o v st . acile po se, Si nil

n the s s a I hou e of the we lthy, however,

Si e r i er i t ui i am p q pp ,

Di c a ab stul er n t Im r en dite nt, coqui u mp eh ,

V uteum . incite, verberate, in p condite Horum tibi i sti c nil ev e n ie t ; quippe qui

i i s b r i i n il Ub u as e st . qu d p ,

The words of the cook in the Mer ca to r indicate that in ancient ’ days as well as in modern times food from an employer s p antr y ’ i Me r a t 41ff ts s c o r 7 . often found way to the cook larder, , ,

t te actutum s Agi e i , nam mihi amatori eni

Co uen dast : u o m r eco ito q cena Atque , q g ,

c o ue n ast n o n s um us Nobis q d , quoi conducti

r o . Nam qui amat quod amat Si habet, id habet p cibo

Se d n o s o n fi do o n c us to s r editur o s do m um .

P Cooks in lautus were not the only ones who went home loaded,

a to u Me tam o r ho s es ccording a story which is told by Apulei s , p ,

13. The n t e has x , unfortu ate Lucius , in h form of a donkey, 44 Ro m a n Co o ks

' the good luck to b ecome the property of t wo brothers who are i the s lave s of a wealthy personage . On e was a p sto r dulci t arius who made bread and swee meats , the other a cook who

e e dres sed rich stews , which w re season d with the relishing ’ . s juices of pounded herbs and aromatics In the evening, ays

te Lucius, af r the supper, which was always on a magnificent

scale, my masters were in the habit of bringing home to their h little room numerous fragments that were left . T e one brought

large quantities of roast pig, chickens , fish, and other delicate

the s dishes ; other brought bread, pastry, ugar plums , hook ’ k s s . cakes , lizard ca e , and many kinds of honied weetmeats

hi s s When masters were not present, Lucius fea ted upon these S dainties . ince the thievish c ooks did not suppose that a

s donkey relished food of thi kind, naturally each suspected the

other of stealing his booty .

s s s Beside taking large quantitie of food to their home , the

s s s s ho t of cook in the kitchen probably enj oyed ample , the

s ss s s . re ult of their own Skill, before pa ing them on to the gue t

ss Au lular i a 363- 36 8 P tho di Compare the pa age in the , , where y

s a s s a s cus, the l ve who seem to be in charge of the cooks y ,

Ego i n te r v i sam quid faciant coq

u m x m Quos pol t ego hodie servem cura a u ast .

faci am ut s o Nisi unum hoc , in put o enam coquant

I c oc tam s ub d m r li nde ursum s uce us c o b u s .

Si s c o m e de n t si uid co xe r i n t autem deor um , q , S in i cen at s e t r . uperi unt, cenati infe i

s s E hem er is o cus Or di n an di o ui es s Au oniu , p ,VI, L C q , d cribe the gentle pleasure with which the cook tastes the plates of his o wn making,

An vegeto m ade an t condita opsonia gustu

P alle r e n am ue s x r ( q olent) e p e iun do proba .

alm i s v o l v e n tib us Concute ferventes p ollas , Tinge c eler digito s iure c al en te tuo s

V r r e r s ib anti lambat quos umida lingua cu u . Ro m an C o o ks 45

’ H P e r affito s s owever, a omp ian g paint the cook condition

s s s . I . . 1896 under colors le favorable, for it say , C L IV, ,

Ubi pern a co cta e st S i co n vi v ae app o n i tur b m n m o ll am c acc a u . Non gustat p er a . Lingit aut

Another evidence that cooks we re thieves i s found i n Plau ’ Ol m i s s s . t us as i na 72 0 . c s s a s s a , C , ff y p call the cook i tant bri r

Ci tr i o s , the cook, replie ,

Qui vero hi sunt s entis 2

O s s lympio ay ,

te ti e r e i li co r a iun t e as er e tum ili co Quia quod g , p ; Si p ,

s ci n dun t .

uo uo adv en i un t s s Ita q q , ubi unt duplici damno domino

m ultan t .

nl s s a h ss was Not o y did cook te l, but t eir patron godde even

s s P Aulular i a 445 Laverna, the goddes of thieve , for in lautus, , ,

s s Congrio ay ,

I ta me be ne amet Laverna .

P aulus ex Fes to D e P Lave r n i o n e s s us , onor under tell , La v e r n i o n e n di ce b an t sub a Lav e r n ae s fures a tiqui , quod tutel deae ’ n l e s se t . The on y story that we have of an hone st cook is the

D i i t D i n us s e v ta e e 8 . r one told by Aug tinu , C , XXII, A ce tai

C atto sus an ulum i n s cook found an aureum ventriculo pi cis , m i ser ati o n e flexus et r eligi o n s p er te r r itus ho m i n i eum r eddidit fi h who sold him the s .

. . . 49 s s s C I L VI, , give a characteri tic which cooks hould possess . Whether they really conformed to this fitting standard i s another question.

B acchum e t Syl en um sobrios Vides i S c cocum de ce t .

G e s s , s s In reek Com dy, scene which were compo ed of the j e t

c s of ook were frequently introduced . These were Similar to 46 Ro m an Co o ks

6 5 9 s dkw m ' a I 2 . s P s eudo lus , I I, Athenaeus, XIV, , ay , n y p ' ’ f w L o i dr ea o c avcan r ' c i fi v év 7 ve x r u o es . eia ci yo ur a i (se . 33 a q a) p y p k Roman cooks also were fond of jo es, and somewhat given to

'

P M er ca to r 74 8 ff. co o k who puns . In lautus, , , the , has been

hi s s hired by Lysimachus to dress a dinner for weetheart, meets

the e hi s the old gentleman on stre t, with wife, and thoroughly

the di sco m fi tur e to he enjoys which he puts him, as slyly reveals the situation to the j ealous wife : that her husband had

e t employed him to pr pare a dinner for another woman, tha he

as had said that his wife, whom he loathed a serpent, was in the ’ i s s a country . The old man at his wit end and can only s y, 62 7 ,

h I u ite r Ita me ama it pp ,

ut illud n um u am dei xi . Uxor, ego q

I i 76 8 the s n l ne cook slyly remark ,

i i n Nis i m e tu s tu sta c .

M en a e chm i 2 2 0 a In the , , Cylindr s is directed to buy provis H s s . e ions for three gue t inquires who they are, and on being

i s s told that one a parasite, he replie ,

Iam isti sunt decem

Nam p ar asitus octo ho m i n um m un uS facile fun gitur .

s Aulular i a 2 80 s a c k Note al o , , where for the ake of pun the oo

s s d s a s perhap wilfully mi un er t nd ,

S — P o st uam o b s o n av it e r us e t co n duxi t co uo s trobilus q q ,

Tib ici n as ue s e di xit q hase , apud forum, mihi, Ut di sp e r ti r em o b s o n i um hic b ifar i am

s Anthrax the cook replie ,

Me H r i am i quidem e ol e d c palam non d vides .

Si uo o tu I r e VI S m o q tu t m me , opera dab .

Aulular i a 32 5 s his s Congrio, , call colleague in the culinary art

a man of three letters, Ro m an Co o ks 47

Tun tria m litte r ar um homo me Vituperas 2 fur.

I Aulular i a 413 t s r n , , even under trying circums ance , Cong io ’ has se s to as enough n e of humor left play on the word ligna,

m hi s s eaning logs for fire, rather than blow for his back,

us uam r aeb e r I ulcr i us Neque ligna ego q gentium p vidi p ,

I taque o m n i s e xegi t foras me atque hos o n usto s fustib us .

the Mi les Glo r i o sus V wi When cook in the , Act , is called in th

hi s o s s knife to settle the fate of the b astful oldier, he enter

h s e s eartily into the grim humor of the ituation, and wh n advi ed

s ee hi s s 1398 to that knife is Sharp, replie , ,

i am dudum es tit m o echo a dim e r e Quin g hoc abdomen ,

Faci am uti quasi puero in collo p e n de an t cr epun di a .

It will only b e necessary to mention a few of the dishes which

c s ook were credited with concocting, in order to prove that

hr n M was s . Eu o . ingenuity one of their characteri tics p , IV,

494 K. 32 3 So te r i de s ; III, , tells the story of a cook, , who

hi s . was deceived a king by clever cooking It winter, and the

s e a a was s was far way, but the king of Bithynia eized by a

S o e r ide s longing for anchovies . t therefore prepared and cooked

n s es tur ips in uch a way as to imitate the d ired dainties, and ’ R so quenched the king s passion for fish . There were oman

e cooks also who were equally skilled, and when we read of som

do S ca d fo r of their dishes, we not wonder that ene blame them

most of the maladies from which the rich Romans suffered .

He E is tula e ad Luci li um 95 2 3 I n n um e r ab il es s says, p , , , e se ’ m i r a r i M 31 s b e s : s . morbos non coco numera artial, XI, , speak of a cook who prepared gourds so ingeniously that you would w M s a . fancy you lentils and beans on the table oreover, from

fi sh r o them he created sausages , , mush oms, and many other

T r im l hi c o . a c o P s en a 70 things , etroniu , C , , named his ok Daedalus because he was s uch a wonde r worker in the art of s dressing and transforming foods . Cocks and pheasant and ’ s Tr im al chi o 47 s uch bagatelles , says , are job for country 48 Ro m an C o o ks

M s bred cooks . ine are in the habit of ending a calf boiled ’ On e c s whole to the table. of his ooks dre sed a whole boar, in ’ hi s s s ff a re markably Short time, for ma ter banquet, and stu ed

s s s en a 49. t it with puddings and au age , C , When ano her pig

s was s s which had been roa ted in the same kitchen carved, thru he

On flew out about the dining room . e dish which was s erved on ’ Tr im al chi o s table looked at first sight like a fat goose sur

an d s e ar rounded by fish fowls of all s ort , but the master d cl ed, My cook has made all this out of a pig he will make you

fi s h a from the paunch, a wood pigeon from the fat bacon, a ’ turtle dove from the gammon, and a fowl from the shoulder .

s s P s Many of the torie in etroniu are, no doubt, fanciful ; yet

we have only to read the work of Apicius, and the recipes in

c h R s a Martial, to be convin ed t at oman cook were quite c pable

r of such feats of ingenuity. In e arlier times the tragic acto Ae so pus was celebrated for hi s dish of s inging birds which cost

s s P N . II him more than a hundred thousand esterce , liny, 1 1 1 4 6 3. X, ; XXXV,

S s Vi te lli us s s uetoniu , , XIII, tell of a fea t which that em p e r o r gave upon the first u se of a dish which had been made for

a s i ts z him, which bec u e of extraordinary si e he called The

Shield of Minerva . In thi s wonde rful dish there were tossed

s ts together the liver of fish, the brains of pheasan and peacocks,

u flam i n o e s e s with the tong es of g , and the ntrails of lamprey , which had been brought in ships of war as far as from the

e nl m Carpathian Se a . C rtai y no one would ac cuse of lack of i agin ati o n a co ok who could conceive of o r comp o und such a mix _ M . o s s s ture any ther strange di he might be described, but thi i s s ss R not the place to di cu the cookery of the omans . At some later time I hope to work up carefully the whole subject R s . es s of oman dishe At pr ent ju t a few have been mentioned, to Show that ingenuity mus t h ave been one of the characteristics R of the oman cook .

r s an d Noise and turmoil often eigned upreme in the kitchen, cooks were frequently inclined to quarr el about their respective

ts . Aulular i a 40 3 s s meri In the , , Congrio ay ,

was si fo r M i 64 t s us appearance more plea ng, art al, XII, , ell that Cinna appointed as cook one of hi s rosy attendants who

s s s surpas ed all other in beauty of feature and hair, and again,

6 6 t s s TheO o m us a X, , he men ion a hand ome youth, p p , who bec me

a co ok . While many of the characteristics of G reek and Roman cooks

ar e s s he s the ame, although the latter is boa tful, doe not have

e s r i s the same r pect for his art that the forme did, and it probable that cooking was always regarded as a more menial R G calling in ome than in reece . 5 1 Ro m a n Co o ks

CHAPTER VII

THE COST OF COOKS

Be fore the days of Plautus the cost of cooks was probably a matter of very little importance even in the homes of the wealth

R AS e l h ier o mans . has b en a ready said, up to t at time the daily cooking was usually done by the matronas or the ordinar y s Vili ssim um laves, and the cook was, as Livy puts it, manci ’ P s s hi s s pium . Even in the time of lautu , if we can tru t play , when a profes sional cook was hired from the macellum for

was the preparation of an entertainment, the price paid him abnormally small . This seems especially true when we remem ber that he brought with him hi s assistants and the necessary

l a . R i s a Au ul r i a kitchen utensils eference made to the l tter ,

445 s s where the cook ay ,

I ta me bene Laverna (uti) te iam nisi reddi

i b e s i ul o differ am s u s s . Mihi va a , p p te hic ante edi

Mer ca to r 78 1 s s , , the cook, when leaving, ay ,

H m o x i b b aec vass a aut aut cras u e o ab s te peti .

In Plautus the regular price paid a professional cook for the

w M r preparation of an entertainment as a drachma . In the e ca to r 777 s G , , the cook demands his pay, aying, ive me a ’ drachm a The passage following this seems to indicate that it was not always an easy matter for a cook to collect what was

s due him, and that he accepted no promises but ca h alone, for

b e o ff P s eudo l s . he refuses to until he receive his money us , ff 80 8 . al so , Shows that the price paid to the average cook was a i drachma, but that there were spec al artists in the profession who valued their servi c es more highly and who charged a ’ R s . hi s e Mo s te llar ia P nummu amsay, in dition of the of lau 5 2

4 es i s l s tus . 7 , p 2 prov that this term a mo t always used by that

m . B alli o P s eudo lus 800 s s author to mean a didrach a , , , a k the ’ cook whom he has jus t hi red from the for um c o qui n um why

l n e s o as i s an he was eft Sitti g ther long ; if, he claims, he i ’ t . s s c exper The cook replie that this due to man s avari e, not H 8 04 ti hi s . e s s . to lack of genius ay , ,

Quo m extem pl o v en i un t c o n ductum c o quo m Nemo illum quaer it qui o ptum us e t c ar i ssum ust ;

m n duc un o ti us i li ssum ust Ill u co t p qui V .

‘ Ho c e go fui hodie s olus obs essor fori . Illi dr achum i ssen t miseri : me nemo potest

M i u m u r am b i r inoris qu s q a nummo t s u g su ge e .

o a co n dio ut i Non ego item en m al i coqui,

c atin i s r o fe r un t Qui mihi ondita prata in p p ,

s as faciun t her b as ue o er un t Bove qui conviv q gg ,

r i u ~ n di Eas herbas he b s al s porro co un t .

’ s s s a i s 847 Thi ame cook p y mentioned again in line ,

B allio s a s y ,

I in malam c r u c em .

‘ I stacin e caussa tibi hodie n um m um d abo 2

s The cook replie ,

Fate o r e quidem e ss e me c o quo m c ar i ssum um ; Verum pro p r e ti o facio ut opera app ar e at

n i Me a quo conductus v e o .

’ Ballio s next remark may explain in part why the hire of a cook

was e so cheap , for ev n if you place the purchasing power of a

the drachma or a didrachma at highest limit possible, it still

sum t seems a rather small o pay for the preparation of a dinn er . ’ ‘ B s P s eudo lus 8 5 0 fur an dum allio s word , however, , , Ad qui ’ em e b d , imply that this r gular stipend was supplemented y pur lo in i n g on the p art of the cook of anything he could l ay hi s ’ r 8 1 f a s . The o k s r t 5 s sts the s a e a o r h nd on c o eto , , ugge m ide , ' An tu inveni re postulas quem quam co quo m Nisi m ilvi n i s aut aquili n i s un guli s 2

I was as e as a s the t true, no doubt, that then w ll in l ter time ’ cook took away from hi s employer s hous e much more than the M hi s s es . II actual money paid for ervic Compare artial, XI ,

5 2 : o nl the Let a duck be br ught to the table whole, but o y

R ur breast an d the neck are worth eating. et n the res t to the ’ i s s e a Aulular i a 448 cook . The amount paid a cook tat d ag in , , w r has s the here Cong io the cook, who been everely cudgeled by

s s old mi er, observe

m m i m m r e di Num o s u conductus ; plus a medico e c st opus .

Aulular i a 309 s s s s e , indicate that cook ometime r ceived from

i s s h r a their patrons additional compensat on be ide t eir regula p y,

a s s for Anthr x ay ,

Ce nsen tal en tum magnum exo r ar i potis

i sto c ut fi am us 2 Ab sene, det qui liberi

i s P s s f e a There , then, in lautu u ficient vidence to Show that

C was a a ook paid drachma, or at most a didrachm for the

n the a preparation of a dinner or e tertainment . To settle ex ct purchasing value of this amount i s a more difficult question.

R M o s tel la r ia 241ff the a Ter m s William amsay, , , in rticle on

Em lo ed Wi th Re e r en c e to Mo n e s s e x l a p y f y, give the cleare t p

' o f H P s . e s nation money in lautu ays , In the works of the Latin dramatists all computations in G reek money must b e r eferred to the Attic standard and wherever moderate sums ar e named we Shall not commit any grave error if we cons ider the c t e r value of the Atti drachma 9d . sterling . We know tha th e

' was a close relatio n be tween the G r e ek drachma and the Roman ’ denari us and Friedrich Hultsch in hi s Gr i e chis che un d

‘ B iim is che M e tr o lo i e 149 in R me . s r s g , p , say that in late time o instead of the dr achr n a wurde der Den ar gebraucht un d de r ' ’ a D b r r n N me rachme auf diesen ii e t age .

was a i s as a s e It just fter the war w th Antiochu , we h ve e n; XX I c o uu li m aes tim ? Livy, X X, that q s Vi ssi um mancipium e t a 5 4 Ro m a n C o o ks

’ s tione e t usu in p r e ti o esse . After this time intere ting s tories s s are found of the amount paid for cook , and of the valuable pre ents made them as a reward for tickling the palate of their m as

P An to n I s ter or employer . lutarch, y, XX V, ays that Antony M presented to his cook the house of a c itizen of agnesia . In

P en a T r i m alchi o n is 5 0 o ti o n e ho etronius, C , , nec non cocus p

s e st e t o cul um ue ac ce i t noratu , argentea corona, p q in lance p Corinthia fo r a happy device which met with the approval of

hi s . 70 sa master Again, in paragraph of the me work, Tr im alchi o s ays that since hi s cook Daedalus i s a clever fellow i he brought him from Rome a pres ent of Noric steel . Cato s

s G ellius 2 5 as s a E uo s quoted by Aulu , XI, , , ying that q carius , ’ c o uo s e m eb an t s i s quam q , but the price of cook soon outgrew th

R s limit . In the time of the first oman emperors, when the plea

the s ures of the table were carried to extreme, we find enormou P H s . price paid for cooks orphyrion, commenting on orace,

S a ti r es 1 10 1 s C ss N o m e n t an us , I, , , say that a ius , adeo sine r e sp e ctu c al cul o r um suo r um prodigus ut s estertium s e ptuagi e s

im n r i H iu li er um D u ac e de t . u s b t a g lae libidini p , am m nomine, cocum Sallustius Crispus hi sto r i ar um scriptor fe r tur ce n te n i s m h i ’ ilib us an n ui s c o n ductum ab u sse . Compare with this the

s S Bae llum Iu ur thi n um 8 5 39 ak s tatement of allust, g , , , who m e Marius s ay that he i s called stingy and i n cultus m o r ib us h li ’ because he as no cook who i s of gr eater value than a Vi cus .

S o r di dum e t i n cultus m o r ib us ai un t s me , quia parum eite con

Vi v ium hi str i o n em lur i s exorno , neque ullum, neque p preti ’ cocum quam Vili cum habs o . ’ Even in Varro s day Skilled bakers were purch ased at a

e c as s s a a 7r e l gr at pri e, one ee from a fr gment of his S tire p ’ - éSea a vmv s G ellius 19 Si t u e s n , Aulu , XV, , quan m opera ump

s ut t uus i sto r face r et a s duo decim am isti, p bonum p nem, eiu

hilo so hi ae de di sses s us i am r i dem ss s . p p , ip e bon p e es factu Nunc

illum n o r un t v o lun t m ilib us ui o t qui emere centum, te q n vi ’ n i nemo ce tus s s . N H P . . 67 es t s m m r the liny, IX, mak an in ere ting co enta y on r ise i n the value of cooks and the increase in luxury in Impe

” r H A i i ar s . e s s a s n us a s ial time ay th t Celer, man of con ul Rom an Co o ks 5 5

r k a fi sh R r i a an , bought in ome du ng the reign of Caligul for

s s . s s which he paid se terce A reflection, ays he, upon uch a fact as this will at once lead us to turn our thoughts to thos e

who u , making loud complaints against l xury, used to lament

c s s that a single cook ost more than a hor e, while at the pre ent day a c ook is only to be obtained for the s ame sum that a tri

s an d se a umph would co t, a fish is only to be purcha d at wh t i was . e s formerly the price of a cook Inde d, there hardly any one held in higher esteem than the man who understands how ’ in the most scientific fashion to get rid of his master s property.

n l S ti r e 184 tf n uv e a a s . the was co J , , VII, , implies that cook

s ide r e d was of more importance for a household than, and ’ e procured at the expens of, a son s education, for he s ays ,

uan ti c um ue v e n i et u fe r cul a Q q domus , q i docte

Co n o n at v e n i e t ulm e n tar i a p , qui p condit .

Ho s sum tus inter p sestertia Quintiliano,

Ut r multum, duo sufficient ; es nulla minoris

Co n stab it fi li patri quam us .

s D e An i m a 33 s s In later day Tertullian, , , peaks of coco ’ r e ti o si s s im o s H s E is tula e 10 0 6 5 a p , and ieronymu , p , , , re ds ’ r i magni p e t i cocos . After Plautus it i s difficult to tell the exact cost of cooks in later generations . A brief glance at a few of the successive s s R n s hi umptuary law of the oma , w ch endeavore d to regulate

e us e the exp nses of the table, will give som idea of the way in

s which luxury and high living con tantly grew, and consequently s u of the gradual increase in the co t and val e of cooks, although ’ s s . Or chi a Ma they are not mentioned in the e law The lex , cr o b i S t us a ur n . 17 2 181 I . C . a , II , , B , w s perhaps the earliest ' s of the e laws, and regulated the number of guests . The Fan M S s a tur n . 1 4 ti G 7 . s ellius nian law, acrobiu , III, , Aulu , II, 24 1 1 6 . C . the , B , fixed maximum expe nditure for a dinner on s festal day at one hundred asses . On other days the amount to be expended was set at a limit of thirty asses for ten days of the ss s I month, and ten a e for the res t . t forbade having more

u s s k s than five g e t on mar et day , and more than three other days . 5 6 Ro m a n C o o ks

I e as s he n t prohibited the s rving of any fowl at rep t except a ,

an d this was not to be fattened. s re s The lux ury of the day oon outg w thi law, and the need

for a new regulation made its elf fe lt . Consequently eighteen

B D was Mac ye ars afte r the annian law the lex idia passed, h r o b ius S atur n . I 17 6 . s t e u , II, Thi extended reg lations of the s previous law to the whole of Italy, wherea the Italians claimed R that it had applied previously t o ome alone .

M r n 0 e S a tu . 1 . . In 7 B C the lex Licinia follow d, acrobius,

I 17 8 G ellius 2 4 7 . the e s II, ; Aulus , II, , It fixed exp n e of a repast at one hundred asses for festal days and days of public

s t wo e e s ceremonie , at hundred asses for w dding f ast , and at

thirty as s es for ordinary days . It limited to three pounds the

amount of meat to be consumed daily. ’ S a t r n I 1 11 S u . 7 a By the lex Cornelia, Macrobius, II, , ull placed a limit of thre e se sterces on the expenditure for the

s s e table for usual day , but allowed thi to be str tched to thirty K s the s an d s s . for the None , Ide the alend , and also for feast day He s et a high price on the dainties which gourmands p ar ti cu

l r . l ar y desired . Even the o iginator of this law violate d it

r h Luxu ious living was t e vogue in the time of Lucullus . This

d s t r s ten ency explain the multitude of sump ua y law in his day, but luxury increased just as the number of laws designed to ’ r S es train it did . ulla s law had di scouraged so little the s ale ’ s 9 7 . of taxed food that a little after B C the lex Aemilia,

s Ge llius 2 4 12 Aulu , II, , , endeavored to regulate not only the

the i price, but kind of food and the manner of ts preparation .

s l aw as i we was Thi , well as the lex Antia wh ch follo d it, not

s - observed, con equently the would be reformers relaxed their

f an d it ef orts somewhat, luxury continued s ravage s undisturbed u ntil the time of Julius Caes ar . ’ G ellius 24 14 By the lex Iulia, Aulus , II, , , he fixed the maximum expenditure for the table at two hundred ses terces

e Fo r for ordinary days , and at thre hundred for feast days .

s o n e the h the wedding fea t, and the on following day one t ou s s es e s and terc might be s pe nt . Caes ar placed guards in the m a k s . h a the r et who were c rged with execution of his l aw.

5 8 Ro m a n Co oks

CHAP TER VIII

THE ‘ MAC‘ELLUM ’

If we are correct in saying that the Romans hired their cooks

as G n e ce s for special entertainments did the reeks, there must s ar ily have been in Rome as in Athens some definite place whe re the se ar tists could be found when their s ervice s were

F R k r e o r s c . an desired . the haunt of Greek ooks, cf in, work p

l 42 ff A r P vi o us . . s has s a y cited, pp been al eady t ted, liny, N H 10 8 R m . . XVIII, tells us that the early o ans hired their ’ the . P as cooks from macellum lautus, too , in several p

i n s s m s sages his plays , peaks of hiring cook for entertain ent , e and sometim s he tells us where they were procured . In the

Aulular ia 2 8 0 S s s , , trobilu , a slave, ays

P o st u am o b so n av it e r us e t c o n duxit c o uo s q , q

Ti i n h b i c as que asce apud forum .

Mer ca to r 6 97 s , , Lysimachus say ,

E o m e t c o n dux i co uo m g q ,

m i r r i r m Se d e um de o non venire ut usse a .

P e I s udo lus 7 90 ff. B alli o hi s s n the , , , returning home with cook , says :

F co ui n um v o c an t stulte v o c an t orum q qui ,

i n um e f r i co u st u n um st . Nam non q , v rum forum

s 798 Compare also the word of the cook ,

Si me ar b itr ab ar e isto pacto ut p r ae di c as Cur co n duceb as ?

’ s And Ballio reply, 5 9

Inopia : alius non erat

eb as si s co uo s Se d cur sed in foro, era q , Tu s olus praeter alios ?

I s 8 04- 80 6 s s s n line al o, the cook peaks of the cu tom of hiring i s members of his profe ssion . The s ame custom referred to in

e e Eun uchus 2 5 5 T renc , ,

D m l o uim ur i n te r e a c u haec q , lo i ad macellum ubi

adv e n t am u s

C o n cur r un t laeti mihi obvi am cupp e di n ar u omnes ;

Ce tar ii l an ii far to r e s i sc ato r e s , , coqui, , p f r m Quibus e t re salva et perdita p r o ue a .

e s e s— P s According, th n, to the e thr e author lautu , Terence, and Pliny— professional cooks took their stand in the macel ’ i te s lum, and probably wa d there with their uten ils and their l e t . s e s pupils to be hired They were, as it e m , slaves who were

. P s as s s out by their masters lautu , we have een, ays also that ’ e the s e cooks w re hired from forum, but in this ca he is per haps s peaking generally and does not designate the special part F of the foru m from which they were to be obtained. orum ’ c o uin um P s eudo lus 790 e q , , , is merely anoth r term for macel ’ as T o o r a hi c der S tadt Ro m 2 434 lum, Jordan, p g p , I, , ; and ’ R T o o r a hi c der S tadt Ro m Mu s Han dbuch ichter, p g p , ller , III , ’ 3 2 310 n Bl n r P i —Al r m r s t . iim e r te tii e u , , , hi k , vat , in M ller ‘ ’ Han db uch 2 192 e ui n um . co , IV, , II, p , sugg sts that forum q may be merely a translation of the Greek .

e was Let us now consider what the mac llum was, where it

7 wh s r s . located, y cook reso ted there, and omething of its history

I was s s - fi sh s t alway a provi ion market in which , fowl , m eat, vegetables, and other edibles could be purchased . As proof of

e m a e P Rudens 979. this statem nt y be quot d lautus, ,

uo m extem l o 111 um sc r o l ati s Quippe q p macell pi es p ient, Nemo em at ;

P s eudo lus 16 9 , ,

e o I n ut i scium ui d ui d ib i st r etio Ego macellum, p q q p 60 Ro m a n C o o ks

r ia 373a an d Aulula , ,

s s nd a Ve ni o ad macellum, rogito pi oe ; i ic nt

s : a n i n am b ub ul am Caro g caram, caram ,

Vitul in am cetum o r ci n am a a ' , , p , c ra omni

Atque eo fuer un t car ios a aes non erat .

V D e i n ua a ti n a 146 147 s s : F b o a arro, L g L , V, and , ay orum r ium o lito r i m i sc ar i um c u e di n i s , u , p pp haec omnia postea quam contracta in unum locum quae ad v i c tum p e r ti n eb an t e t ’ H e difi c atus s a e ll atum c u . o a locu , pp ma ell m C mpare also orace,

S ati r es 3 2 2 9 E is tula e 15 31 P e r n i cie s e t tem es tas , II, , ; p , I, , , p b ar athr um ue uid uid u ae si e r at do n ab at q macelli , q q q ventri

M r t 5 9 D s e t s e st i n str ucta avaro a ial, x , , ive omni po ita 95 x1 9 macello cena tibi Juvenal, V, , and , ,

Multos es se e elusus ad s m porro Vid , quos ep ip u

d i n tr o itum s e x ectar e Cre itor olet p macelli,

Et quibus in s olo Vive ndi caus a palato est .

- s ee a c u was s . We , then, th t the ma ell m a provi ion market Naturally enough the most opportune place for professional

s to s was be s o cook take their tand where food could procured, that the old Roman might at the sam e time buy food for hi s

a e t party, eng ge his cater r, and then turn his at ention to other ’ . s was k matters Thi place the macellum, and here coo s really

s s s P s e and did re ort, according to the witne of lautu , Ter nce P liny . The history of the macellum in br ief i s about as follows In c onsequence of the rapid gr owth of Rome after the downfall

G s of the might of Etruria , the conqueror of the Latins aiu M 338 . C . r t s a aenius, consul B , emoved the bu cher and veget ble ’ e a d lers from the crowds of tradespeople in the forum . Their

' w n - place as take by the nobler trade of the money changers . ‘ Many of the p as sages in Plautus which refer to the forum o h - 1 F l i t e s . 9 . v us C . M u menti n money changer there In 7 B . ’ No b ili o r s i built a market hou e, the macellum, nto which the

r a k ts br s r r diffe ent m r e were ought together . This t uctu e con Ro m a n Co o ks 61

s s s isted of an open quare surrounded by hops, in the center of ’ was s t . s which there a circular truc ure, the tholus Thi

M M s e the acellum agnum di appear d in course of time, to give

s the F P as R place to other building , orum of eace, ichter thinks, an d after the firs t century of the Empire we find no mention of it . We may be cer t ain at least that it was situated on the ’ n F R a orth s ide of the orum . emains of m cella which were R P probably modeled after the oman are found in ompeii ,

P M Li n S tddt er walt s s . eb e am ev uteoli , and citie of A ia inor, cf ,

' un 13 r bm is ch Kais r r i h 16 1 m en e e c e . . g , p 6 2 Ro in an Co o ks

CHAP TER I X‘

THE SOCIAL POSITION OF COOKS AND THE ES TEEM IN WHICH THE' WERE HELD

ss s r e The profe ion of cooking, and the cook him elf, were

e te e te s garded with more s em, and tr a d with greater re pect in

G R . as s e reece than in ome In the former country, we have en,

was as s o s the cook never represented a lave in comedy, with p

f R o i l i t. s b o . . c y the exception of one author, ankin, p , in the ' chapter on The S o cia l S ta tus o f the M a fyei p m ; nor have we any other e vidence for be lieving that he was a slave until Mace hi do n i an s . e s time The respect with which he was treat d, varied

hi s s c hi s knowledge, and own pride and re pe t for art, the public honor s conferred on the ndy ei p o s would lead us to beli eve that

300 . a s s . I before B C . he did not occupy ervile po ition n the

Hi to r o Atti ca Clidem us Athe first book of his s y f , , quoted by

n s 6 60 s s was e o s e aeu , XIV, , a, ay that there a trib of c ok who wer

s was ss s ee entitled to public honor , and that it their busine to

that the sacrific e was performed with due regularity. An

s H H Gr e ek Hi s to r i ca l n s cr i ti o n s in cription in icks and ill, I p ,

- 0 404 40 3 C . 8 . s a No , date B , hows th t a cook received the honor

3 0 . x rv 6 5 9 z r 0 . s . of citi en hip Afte B C we have Athenaeus , , , a,

as ss a ns an d s a s witne of ch nged conditio , the t tu of the cook in G reece agre es more nearly with what we find in Rome . ’ as P s M o r a lia ua es ti o n e Ro m ana e A p sage in lutarch , Q s, ,

2 84 F s R s , , implie that in ome from the earliest time the act of H ’ preparing food was regarde d as menial . e s ays : m a w T he ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ f v va Z/ca s ct M i v ciwu o zir (ix o vr m eiv 7 5 wa k a wv r d y , p ?

’ G w e /ca ? St a v o veé o vr es its évr o z a a vr o 710 6 7 0 9 Ea i vo v n u nu , fi 7 9 9 B s

’ ' ’ e7r el y ap fipv ma' a v fivy a r epa s a ti 'r é w elr a wo keufia a vr es‘

’ ' ’' ’ ’ ' ’ Si kkdf a a v ev r a is ct h ka i s o o Xo r La i s k a i T o fir é a r n yn , u y yp q ufi ’ ’ ° cz e cwS i Pco a tc f vva l/ca r e a et efiew k i v p u p y mi p y p . In Plautus the cook i s always depicted as in a servile condi Ro m an Co o ks 63

M - s . I the o tellar ia 1 5 i s a s tion n s , , the cook not profe ional, but

I n Me n a e chm i one of the common house hold slaves . the the courte san Er o ti um se ems to have had a professio nal cook as a ’ P - . a s slave The cook s n me in lautus is alway a slave name,

Mi les 13 7 Citr i o asi n a 744 Aulula r i a Cario, , 9 ; , C , Congrio, ,

2 8 5 Au lular i a 2 8 7 310 the Aulular ia ; and Anthrax, , Line in

s the al o shows that cook was a slave, for he speaks of purchasing hi e s . s freedom In the ame play, the treatment accord d to mem bers of the culinary profes sion would indicate a servile condi

A l la r ia 409f 344 . u R C e u . . e tion ompar , , and An arly epubli

s t . . . 2 8 7 5 us s can in crip ion, C I L XIV, , gives the name of four cooks who we re slaves .

R s In early times , then, at ome, day of plain living and high

was s thinking, the cook not only a lave, but a slave of low ‘ — ili im m ’ order v ss u mancipium . Under the Empire in pro portion as luxury increased the cook o ccupied a pos ition more and more important . Several passage s may be quoted from

s wh Cicero, however, which will how in at esteem he held the

. P r o B o s ci o 134 M hasce t calling In , , he says, itto ar es vul ’ s i sto r e l e i r i o D i s ct c a s . e O i c is 42 15 0 s garis , coco , p , fi , I, , , place

n es o cooking amo g the sordid trad and pr fessions, and those not e M . i n i m e ue e ae r o b an dae b coming a gentleman q artes p , quae m i n i s tr ae s v o lu tatum : o e t ar ii l an ii far to r e s s unt p , , coqui , , pi ca

T r n i ut e e t us . hue s i un uen t ar i o s tores , ait Adde , placet, g , l ’ s a tato r e s to tum ue l udum t al ar i um . , q But even with hi s di s a C dain for the occup tion, icero realized that civilized man could

s fo r not live without cook , in a solicitous letter to Tiro, a favor Ad Fam i li ar es 15 2 I ite slave, , XVI, , , he says , have sent you

Ae ta s i s gyp to tay with you, because he not a bad companion, ’

m a . H and with him a cook whom you y find useful owever, ’ even in Cicero s time the son of a coo k could become a person of

ss as some importance in the city, and could canva for an office,

I n s ti tuti o n 3 4 es 7 s . the pun quoted by Quintilian, , VI, , show

Ut c an didatus fi lius hab eb a ur dixit (Cicero) cum is qui coci t , coram e o s uffr agium ab alio p e ter e t ; Ego quoque tib i f b ” av e o . 64 Ro m an C o o ks

‘ I n Impe r ial times the cook was bo th a more impo rtant and a more infamous perso nage according to the poi nt of View from ’ H n i s a . e i s s s a d which he reg rded now found both as a ervu , ’ lib e r tus as r s i t ss . P as a , insc iption bear w ne robably there were not many cooks who were libe r ti until the days of the

s e as s a ar s e emperor , but th n the incre e in l ie which they receiv d and the gre ater value placed upon their s ervices enabled many

e s t either to purchas their freedom from their avings, or to ob ain it a s a gift for s ome particularly pleasing s ervice which they

rendered to their masters . Inscriptions tell us of cooks who form a part of the imperial hous ehold for coci ex familia

5 0 - 5 5 0 I VI 8 8 5 l 4 8 6 6 . s s . . . 7 7 a s 7 9 Augu ta unt in C L , , o , and a

A r s s uch they to ok the names of member s of the impe ial family.

5 0 Ae li P r im i i u r him a i r s 0 . . . 8 7 s . us t v s a c u I L VI, , read , T g

5 M A r lu B h s s n d . . . 87 2 a s u e s it u s a C I L VI, , rcu ( ) praepo itu ’ i o co r um . . I. . 8 5 1 s a o C L VI, 7 , on a monument which an rchi m a i r us h s n d hi s s a g made for im elf a wive , Aelia Agrippin ’ n -c a d Iulia Cleopatra . These impe ri al cooks form d collegi a a s s l mong them elves of which we shall peak ater .

s Not only did cook gain their own freedom under the Empire, but some of them acquired s uffici ent prope rty to own slaves of

2 48 Ph i l r o i . as . . . 6 s s : s e t s their own, C I L VI, , how Nireu ( ) L Coci Some of them may even have chan ged their

s M 16 s calling after ecuring their freedom, for artial, VIII, , say , ‘ ' o u s who e s an d , Cy eru , w re long a baker now plead cause , p , ’ ar e o s seeking to gain tw hundred thousand sesterce . Under

e n P en a Tr im a lchi o n is 70 the Empir , accordi g to etronius, C , , even the co oks who we re slaves seem to have been allowed more ’ i Tr im al chi o s s priv leges than formerly, for cook is ufficiently important to come into the dining room and not only to recline

l b a e s s at the tab e but to egin to imit t Ephe u the tragedian, and to offer his master a bet that in the next chariot race s the greens

wi n . e t o ena e r will The tr a ment of the c ok in the C , howev , proves nothing except that he was dependent upo n the caprice of hi s ast t fe he was m er, for on account of a pet y of nce called into

stal a r e a h the fe h ll, stripped and th atened with flogging, whic

n he es caped only through the entreaties of the guests . O

6 6 Ro m a n C o o ks

‘ ’ rings and a toga praetexta . The right of wearing the former

r o fli ce was not extended beyond the yea of , but the official robe might be used at the feasts of the emperor even after the termi f n o . e a ation this period They w re llowed two lictors , and the

o f usi n ‘ the the c right g bisellium during year of offi e, and

c were also given a pla e of honor at the games and in processions .

ar e P s They found only in one author, etronius, but the numerou h honorary and sepulchral inscriptions devoted to t em, give us many facts concerning their order . On one the insignia of the

dec ur i o n e s s the s were be towed, for another admi sion fee to

ev i r ate the s was remitted, a third had the title of the first of the ’ Augustales . The Augustales were for the most part ‘ ’ liberti , especially tradesmen and artisans , craftsmen and mer c r hants, who had amassed a considerable fo tune by their busi ness , and who, by their generosity to the people, endeavored to ’ r i n surpass i n popularity and influence even the de cu o e s . P etronius gives us an intere sting picture of a Sevir Augus

i T r im al hi o hi s en a T r i m a l chi o n s . c e talis in C , a w althy freed P Of e . man, h ld this position in uteoli his riches we may judge c by the elaborate banquet which he gave , of the importan e which he attached to the office of sevir Augustal is by the directions H . e which he l e ft . fo r the erection of his tomb wi shed to be ’ i s s es s represented as sitting on a judicial bench , in mag trate dr ,

i s . with five gold r ng , and scattering bounty among the people ’ F r I o you know, he says, gave a public banquet and a gift of ’ H h hi s two shillings to e veryone . e wished t e inscription on

m G P o m e ius T r im al chi o M aec en ati an u s s to b to say, aius p lie

He e e R e e here . could have be n in any d cury in om , but pr ferred

D - s e . n o t to b evout, courageous and loyal, he started with mall

e e n a m eans and left a quart r of a million, and never list ed to ’

P e . philosopher . eace to his ashes and peace to th e The above ’ i l o n i 2 e s e n a Tr m a chi s 7 . i s taken from Low translation of the C , 1 What we have said about the o ffice of Sevir August ali s i s

1 ‘ F r S ev i r i Au u s a e s s e e Fr e d an de r P e r o n us I n r o du o n . o g t l i l , t i , t cti , pp 6 ff De Ru e r o D z o n a r o E i r a c o un de r Au u s a e s Da r e m b e r 3 . ; ggi , i i i p g fi , g t l g ’ ‘ n d S a l i o D o n n a r e de s An ti ui t e s r e ues e t r o m a in es un de r Au us a g , icti i q g cq g Rom an Co o ks 6 7 sufficient to indicate to what a prominent p os ition o ur cook ’ I 3938 . F . . M s . arcius austu , C L IX, , had risen Because of the e minence to which cooks were rais ed by luxur i o o s u m R s ab stem i us empe r r and go r ands, the oman of the more o us ss s fo r s R es cla , who ighed the implicity of early oman tim ,

S c r s protes ted . ene a particularly w ote against all minister of

H E i stula e ad Luci li um 8 8 18 e u . e s lux ry say , p , , , Non nim a duc o r u n um e r um r e c i i am d t in liberalium artium pictores p ,

a am statuar io s m ar m o r ari o s ce te r o s non m gis qu aut , aut luxu

s ae ue luctato r es e t to tam co n stan te m ri e ministros, q oleo ac luto sci en ti am e xp ello e x his studii s lib e r alib us ; aut e t un gue n tar i o s

r e c i i am e t o e t ce te r o s v o lu tatib us n o str i s ni p , coc s, p inge a ’ H ac c o m o dan te s sua . e characterizes the cook again in Epist .

Luc ili um 8 7 17 e st Vi r s e s n ihil o m i n us ad , , Qui non bonu pot t

e s t u n r am m ati cus medicus s e, po est g ber ator, potest g , tam me ’ P Go r ias 5 00 l s . hercu e quam cocus Like lato, g , B , and E ,

e w s . he associat d cooks ith doctors , or at least with disea es Com

s S en ten tia e 42 10 O s an im ae pare al o Isidorus , , II, , , mne virtu

i i i i r un r e dac t at s V t o des t u tu . e st e t s tes Inde , quod princep co quo r um muros Je r us alem s ubvert it ; quia et venter cui servi ’ i i r u n im a r i c o u s V t te s a e de st u t . tur a q ,

As has e e o s already b en said, cooks w re b th ervi and ’

. s s . I liberti Inscription give examples of both cla se s C . . L .

2 8 7 5 s ns s R XIV, , records a collegium of coque atrie e of epub ‘ m a i str i i s lican times of which the g were four slaves . It I 624 . . 6 expressly stated that the cook was a slave in C . L VI, , P i di i ’ o s s . . . Eros cocus pp ser (vus) hic situ est ; C I L VI, ‘ 8 5 4 D M Ph i n i r i . . r i F 7 o t o Caes a s . v c Se s t an o , N se o co o abia f M F ’ r r i . I 2 4 l at . . . . AQm i . . 9 6 i Iulia B C L VI, , Alexandr L . i ’ Er o n s . . ser cocus The name indicate s that he was a slave . ’ ‘ . 6 2 4 . V 9 Fi . . 5 19 r m u e C; . . 7 s C I L I, Z na cocus ; I L VI, , ’ 0 2 ‘ ’ . . V 6 . 7 cocus , Tasus cocus ; C I L I , , Acas (tus) cocus ; ‘ . I . . 8 7 5 3 5 5 s . . . 87 C L VI, , Ero C I L VI, , Zethus

’ a es P a u -Wi s s o wa Re a -En c c l o a di e de r c l a s s i s che n A er um s t l ; ly . l y p lt t w s s en s ha un de r th e s am r n n h ul Os a e wo d a d . 5 1 i T e C s o i c ft pp t f ti , d s se a t n b L Ro s s T a B r n M awr 1912 a r o o r . i t i y ily yl , y , 6 8 Ro m an o o ks , C

’ I . 92 6 5 s s I 2 . . . . . 9 6 6 c ocus C L VI, , Apolloniu cocu ; C L VI, , 92 H . I. . 67 c Ar ax . s . . . cocu C L VI, , ermae oco C I L VI,

92 6 8 Phil ar ur us . . . 92 6 9 , g cocus C I L VI, , Tyrannus 2 3 i ’ I . 8 6 s c o cto r . c ocus C . . L IV, , April The m agi str i of the collegium of cooks mentioned in ’ 30 78 e . o r . . . i n sc i C I L XI, , are two ing nii In the foll wing p ’ b r t 2 4 : . . . 5 M V s 4 . l s tion the cooks are li e i C I L v, , a eriu

O atu c s . . . 43 B uci n ae . t s 7 3 P . . L p co u C I L VI, , Caccili L

92 62 D M l r i i i i . Va ae E o n Fel c s . . . . S . e c e coci C I L VI, , p con ’ M F hr i r d tus s o c m . . . . E o c o u . . 92 63 ingi B . Ael p criba C I L VI, , I 0 M i l r tus s . . 92 Fufi M ib e . . c u . as s 7 s . Adr tu cocu C L VI, , L

3 38 Hali ci u M F . 9 s s r Eros C . I . L IX, , arcio au to Libe to

5 2 11 ‘ l i d . . T I . . o I C us c o . u c s . s u . . . C . L X, , L L L Anti C L XI,

n H 44 8 M 8 50 Ar r i L. . 3 . u t us . . 6 . , L L ilario C I L . XII, , L i 338 3 I uli P l i s u us s . . . 8 . us o b Egnatiu g cocu C I L VI, , C y

I 8 50 D M n ib u A li . s o s . . . 7 u s a s . e us L Ero c cu C L VI, , T Aug .

L - r i i i r hi m i r 8 5 1 D M i P m us a u . I b t v a c s . . . . 7 . g C L VI, , ( A) ug h D M S m 8 2 . . o r us . . 75 . Lib y p ( C I . L VI, ,

M b r m . co co u Aurelius Aug . Lib . Bit ( us) praepositus and

C . 4 . . 7 5 8 . I L VI,

o was Ro as hi s The c ok originally a slave in me, but calling assumed greater importance some times gained hi s freedom so that in Imperial times many liberti are numbered among men o f hi t s callin g . Ro m an Co o ks 6 9

CHAP TER X

THE CHIEF COOK AND HI S ASSISTANTS

I R s ar t n ome in the olden day , even after cooking became an , there is little doubt that mode st households wer e satisfied with

s . On one cook, who probably cared for the baking al o special

s s o was e the - a occa ion , when the c ok hir d from market pl ce, he

w nl s s s o n e brought ith him not o y his uten il , but al o or more G assis tants or pupils . There are frequent allusions in re ek ’ e s o s di sci uli a ez o z Com dy to the ub rdinate and p of the p y p ,

376 s Po sidi us hi s Xo ev o fia a i Athenaeus, IX, , e, quote pp , who in p r epresents a cook as making a speech to his pupils : My pupil

s so Leucon and the rest of you, fellow servant when a cook with helpers and attendants come s to some stranger and h ’ D s i s . s s hi s bring pupils iony iu also, in Athe n

’ s IX 38 1 s h a r ei o acu , , , d, give the speech of anot er n y p s to his ’ s . He e s O D I pupil b gin , Come now, romon . m leading ’ ’ s . s 403 you into an enemy country Note too, Athenaeu , IX, , e , w a s a s here cook y ,

’ ‘ ' ’ ’ 2 64m m A/ca pvcw fea t Po 8ws Aa uo fevo s‘

a r y Q a a f 9 0 129 e a vr wv a v a fl r a i 7 7 9 T e u s e up n 7 x n , ’ ’ S e Stda a /ce 8 d ur o z) Em eMo ' Ad Sa /co ‘ ? ms B s .

. l s Dam o x n M I v 5 30 e us . Cf a so the fragment quoted from , , ; K . 349 An ti han e M s . 12 5 K 0 5 , . 1 R III and p , III, II, , by ankin , v s e 6 F . 7 . o r work pre iou ly cit d, Chapter VIII, pp f all spe cial

s s G dr ez o c e s occa ion reek n y p had their subordinat , and several s a P pas ges in lautus show that Roman coo ks he ld to the s ame

’ ‘ s s meaning the cook thievish assistant , under their s tandards

P s eudo lus 8 5 5 Balli o ‘ , gives hiS b o y directions for watching 70 Ro m an Co o ks the s s 8 6 5 I his di sci ul i s s sto s cook, then ay , , tem p privo cu de ’ H 8 8 5 - 8 8 8 d . e to c o abo says the o k also, ,

uae so he r cl e uo i u am c o n v iv ae s Q , prius quam q q dabi ,

G s t u e t di sci ul is u tato te prius p dato,

r r i r f r fi Ut p ae o dat s v o st as u ti c as manus .

lar i ff wo s b Aulu a 398 . o s t In the , , a co k gives order to laves, pro

s ls ably assistant or pupi ,

D s : M achae r i o romo, desquama pi cis tu,

Co n r um m ur en am e xdo r sua st. g , quantum pote

C Aulular ia 40 9 s m i se r um et eo s s ongrio, , , say , Ita me m di ci ’ fustib us c o n tude r un t . a 5 5 3 pulos male In the same pl y, , the

i s Eucli o s s in tr o m i s i s aedi s uin en to s m er ay , Qui mi [ ] ti in q g ’ c o uo s . s q Even if we allow omething for his exaggeration, he

s a s would hardly y five hundred cook , if only the one whom we have mentioned by name was in hi s hous e . The command in

M er ca to r 74 1 ss b his ss s t s the , , is addre ed y a cook to a i tan s mo t

as i s h 779f. : probably, also t at in

Agite app o n ite

Opsonium i stuc ante p edes illi s eni .

Although whe n pro fessional cooks were first numbered among the h s s was s ou ehold slave one in a family ufficient, in later

s s t the e ks time , in the e tablishmen s of great, the numb r of coo ’ Vi a e e . I increas d n a columbarium on the Appia, n ar the

the S e i s r es tomb of cipios, ther a g av tone of a principal dis ’ e n s ato r G Lu dun e n si s e b . . . p of allia g , a slav of Ti erius , C I L

5 1 I was e to hi s s a 97 . VI, t rected him by sixteen of l ves , ’ c hi s r R w r e Vicarii , who a companied him on retu n to ome, he

S s o f s z he died . uch a retinue give a perspective the i e of hi s w s s s he s hole hou ehold, and al o of the number of cook mu t

had a t wo oo s . have , for in it there were one physici n and c k

' S e he e E is tu eneca r fers to t numb r of cooks in Imperial times , p

la e ad Luci li um 114 2 6 s s culi n as s as e t co n cur san , , , A pic no tr Ro m an C o o ks 1

ti s s o s : Vide r i c ui inter tot igne coc unum putas ventrem, tanto ’ m r a ur c ib us E is tulae ad I/ uci li urn 95 2 3 tum ul tu co p a t p , , ,

u i n E is tula e ad Luci li um 12 2 16 Quam celebres c l ae sunt p , , ,

luce m di scur r itur ue r i v o c an tur c el ar i i t Circa , p , , coqui umul ’ n r the so was t ua tu . In imperial house great the number of ’ e s coo ks that they formed a collegium among th mselve , of which we shall speak later . To this multiplicity of cooks is due

a also a kind of hierarchy of the culin ry art, at the head of

G r was ar chim a which, according to eek custom, placed an ’ i r us co uo r um s g or princeps q , under who e supervision and

. I . 45 8 . t . . 7 direc ion the other cooks worked C L VI, , reads , T

A l P r im iti vus ar chim a i r us e t . . e ius Aug . Lib . g Aelia Aug Lib

ib e r b o r i u l a u s . ste s e Tyche c o n iun x fe c e r un t s ibi e t suis Lib . t q p q ’ I 8 5 0 o M c . . . . 7 s orum C L VI, , is much like this that ommsen thinks it may have been o n the othe r s ide of the same monu Dii M . s ment, and may refer to the same person It reads, ani

A li r m i r hi m i r e us . . P i it u a bus T . Aug Lib v s a c g us fecit Aelia

e t e t Ae li ae T r an n idi e t lib e r tis e Tyche sibi, y coniugi, lib r ’ Ae li T r n n i t ab usq meis vel . ae y a yd s p o ste r i sque e o r um etc .

ar chim a i r us i I 1 Dii s . . . 8 75 s Another g found in C L VI, , (

n ib h m us . S m r r hi m i a . o us a c a r us A) ug Lib y p ( ) g ( ) (fecit sibi ,

e t Ael i ae A r i i n ae e t I uli ae Cle o atr ae o ) g ( pp ) , ( ) p , (m) arita bene m e r e n tib us e t (Ae ) liae Agr i ppn ae N e p o ti suae libe r t (i s ) ’ lib r b us ue r i s e ta os te ue o . q p q c rum In literature, also , the

ar hi m i i c a r u s s . J 10 9 s g mentioned uvenal, IX, , say that he

n lib ar ius will go to the inn early in the mor ing, and with the and c ar pto r e s re gale the inn-kee per with lies about his m as

ter, to revenge himself for the s trappings he had re c eived .

S he was i uch treatment would indicate that a slave in th s case, whereas in each of the inscriptions quoted above hi s pos ition

. S s o E i s tula e 2 was that of a freedman idoniu Ap llinaris , p , ,

9 6 s s e t ar chim a ir o n i n , , ay , Ecce ab g adv e tan s qui tempus ’ cur an di o m n H i ne o e r e t . s ua es t o s stare corp ra ieronymu , Q H el m G e n . 37 36 ar chim a i r us h , in , calls the g t e prince of

s as e H t 1 12 1 136 . s s ua st . e . 7 cook , does Augustinu al o , Q p , ; , Inste ad of ar chim agir us this princeps co c o r um i s given in 7 2 Ro m an C o o ks

i sc o a s us oo c o r um . I . . one n ripti n the title pr epo it , ’ C L VI, M M D . . . . 8 7 5 2 . s co , Aurelius Aug Lib Bit (bus) , praepo itus ’ ‘ ’ s s s S s corum . Compare with thi praepo itu cubiculo, uetoniu ,

D m i tian 16 . i s t o , In still another inscription he designa ed ‘ ’ 2 1 ‘ Hi c s . I . . 9 6 c s s F s supra co o , C L VI, , o sa ita sunt au ti ’ r n i s s . I 3954 i E o s . . . s Vicari upra coco In C L VI, , there a ‘ ’ ub i l r i 44 9 s c cu a us . . 3 upra , and another C I L . VI, . In the

B ulle ti n o della o m m i ss i o n e Ar che o lo i ca o m un a le di Ro m a C g C , 4 6 et ae da o u s s . VIII, p . , we g a supra p g g( ) in an in cription

I s 2 6 3 s s s . n the ame j ournal, XV, , upra cur ore are found The gre at number of cooks in the kitchens of the emperors and of the wealthy brought about a division and specialization

o wa of labor . There f re there s under the direction of the

ar chi m a i r us s s s g a great ho t of assistant , each with his pecial f i i . s b the o c ar task to perform In thi num er were found , for n ac ar ii o b s o n ato r e s far t o r es culi n ar ii , , , and perhaps the pis ’ fo r i i tores of various kinds . The c a were the scullions who

Di es ta 9 performed the common drudgery of the kitchen, g , IV, ,

1 XXXI I r 12 5 t 3 ul a te 5 7 P S en . 6 7 V , ; , , , ; aulus, III, , ; g , I,

R e 1 a s 8 3. t g , , They probably had some hing to do with taking

o r us Gl o ssar i o r um a ti n o r um 5 5 7 care of the fire, for C p L , II, , ’ fo c ar ius uko xo wo explains by f s . ‘ ’ es fo c ar ii fo r n ac ar n s B ides the there were also the , who e

wa Di ta Iv 9 1 5 2 d s . es 27 uty it to tend the furnace, cf g , , , , IX, , ,

9 X X 7 12 5 . the s s ; X III, , , This name is applie d also to lave who attended to the furnace at the baths . ’ o b so n ato r e s r h m i The did the marketing for the a c i ag r us .

P a ti vi 474 was lautus in the C p , , says that this once the duty of G ’ the parasite . natho doe s the marketing in Terence s Eun u chus 25 P M . 8 . i les Glo r i o sus 6 67 V , cf line lautus, , , reads, el ’ r im ar ium ar asitum o o n r m p p atque p s ato e o ptum um . In the

M en a echm i 2 2 0 C li n dr us i s do , , the cook y ordered to the mar keting, but in wealthy families there were no doubt special; slave s who performed this task under the supe rvision of the

o . s S E i s tula e a d Luci li um chief c ok A pa sage from eneca, p ,

47 8 s s o b so n ato r es Adi ce o b , indicate how killed the we re ,

74 Ro m a n Co o ks

3 2 2 9. I i h s s , n the imper al ou e they con tituted a part of the

’ ‘ o s the e s o host wh se duty was to upply emp ror s table, and hi m ’ ar i r . c a us . . . would come under the sway of the g C I L VI, ‘ ’ 8 848 8 849 far to r es and give us two ex familia Augusta .

8 848 s D Cae s ar i s f o r read , Antigonus rusi avium ar t prim . fecit ’ ’ 8 849 Ci n n am u C e r i f r r s . a s a a . coniugi , and , Ti s to avium

~ . . . V 62 8 6 O hili o far to r n s cr i Note also C I L I, , p and an i p

e M I 432 O u r um . . 9 s s a tion of Ca sarea in auretania, C L . VIII, , ’ ’ Vitli far r i f r r to s . The a to see ms to have had two distinct

— fi r st a functions that of saus ge maker, and second that of

D E n hus w s . s e u uc raiser and fattener of fo l onatu on Ter nce, , ’ 2 5 F r r n i i f r i m f 7 a to es i s c a e t a c i n a ac iun t . s , s ays qui Thi

a P T r uculen ta s 10 7 . was probably lso their function in lautus, , That they fattened fowls is shown by two of the inscriptions

. D Re . 8 848 8 849 e just noted, C . I . L VI, and Columella,

Rus ti ca 7 P c allin am , VIII, , says too, inguem quoque fa ere g ’ i f r r i ffi i m P u am v s a to s s o c u . q non ru tici fit According to liny,

N H 1 F n n i n r e e . 39 a a . X , , the Law must have inte fer d som ’ s s o f far t o r e s s ss us what with thi ide the bu ine , for he tells ,

G D c o e e r e s o i m as allinas saginare eliaci p , unde p esti exorta p

r n i Ho c avis e t s uo p te corpore un ctas de v o a d . primum anti i F quis c e n ar um i n te r di cti s e xe e ptum i n v en o iam lege C . anni

P un i cum e n e v o lucr e Co s . XI annis ante tertium b llum quid

o n e r etur t allin am altili s p prae er unam g , quae non esset , quod i l i ’ dei n de caput tr an sl atum per o m n s leges amb u av t . The rel ation of the cook to the baker is an intere sting ques i . O s tion riginally the two were the same, as shown by a frag

S a e n i ca e Rom an o r um P o esis Fr a N ae v ius . c ment from , cf g m en ta N aev i us F XI v : , , ragmenta Incerta,

o s N e tun um C er er em C cu edit p , , Et Venerem e xp e r tam Vo l c an o m Lib e r um que o b so r b uit

P r arite .

1 ss P aulus ex Fes to De P . 4 , onor , p , says that from this pa age it i s that we learn cocum et pi sto r em apud an tiquo s eundem Rom an C o o ks 7 5

- ’ Ne tun um s V a . . Co r panem, per p pisce , per enerem holer Cf

us Glo ssar i o r um a ti n o r um V 5 2 1 5 6 5 s p L , , , , where the pa sage is

e as : m v item xplained follows Ceres fru entum vel panem, Liber

V V lib idin e m N e tun us i s vel inum, enus vel holera, p aquam vel p

c es V i n em o o b so r b uit e st , ulcanus g vel s lem significant , id

co m edi t s e t e t c o cta i n e m e t cocus pisce , panem, olera ad g , ’ P i R Vinum pariter bibit . liny also says that in anc ent ome the

N H 10 8 P i r e s was s . . . sto cook al o the baker of bread XVIII, , Romae n o n fuere ad Persicum us que be llum annis ab urbe

f i b n r s e DL . I ac e a t condita up r XXX psi panem Qui ites , mulier

um ue s s e lur im i s m . q , id opu erat , i ut etiam nunc in p gentiu Ce r tum que fit Atei Capito n i s s ententia cocos tum panem l auti o r ib us c o ue r e s o li to s i sto r es ue e o s se q , p q tantum qui far pi

i h b b n e r itii o ue n o m n ato s . a e a t s v s e s bant Nec cocos vero in , q ’ ex Macello co n duc eb an t . The profess ional cook then was in tr o duc e d t R s an d in o ome earlier than the profes ional baker, eithe r he or the women of the family attended to the baking in

A lul r i 400 a s . u a a o early time In the , , Anthr x, a cook, g es next

ar to ta . door to borrow an p from Congrio , another cook

Pi sto r P t a . in lau ine language me ns a miller, not a baker

V D Vi ta P o uli Ro m an i . . s e Cf also a pa sage from arro , p , Lib ‘ 2 3 i sto r i s I, quoted by Nonius , p . 2 , Nec p nomen erat nisi

e o in sun t e ius qui ruri far pi n seb at . Nominati ita quod p

C . P s R o 173 . rofessional baker were introduced into ome ab ut B , but in the country even later baking was the business of women Di t 12 5 s es a 7 . s and slaves, g , XXXIII, , , After thi time baker

r a e o ften mentioned in clos e connection with c oo ks . Compare

D e Re Rus ti ca 4 2 s s . Columella, , XII, , , and many other pa sage

I An tho lo ia ti 1 199 Ve ae I udi a n a t . s n the g L I, p , , p , there is a

oi um o ci e t Pi s tor is V i o s . C , of which ulcan the judge The c ok th and e baker contend as to which i s more powerful . The

s ff s latter say that bread is the sta of life, and without thi there i F s nothing . inally Vulcan dismisses them and bids them agree

in future .

s s There were public bakers, but in ome establishment the

i n m as s s bread making was done the ho e, oven and mill which 7 6 Rom an C o o ks

r P a s s e have been found in ce tain ompei n hou es te tify. Wh re

h s was s as was the t i the ca e, it probably in imperial hous e an d

es in the wealthier private hom , bakers of bread may have been ’ s s ar chim a i r us as s under the up ervi ion of the g , were al o their

as s l ace n tar ii aids the p try and weetmeat makers ; the p , dul

c i ar i i an chr e star ii sc r iblitar i i c r ustul ar ii b o tul ar ii l actar ii , p , , , , ’ lib r i and a i . ’ ’ dul c i ar i us dul ci ar ius i sto r The , or p , made various kinds

we s s a . M e ta of etmeat and c kes, of flour and honey Apuleius ,

m o r ho s e s 13 70 1 s s i sto r dul ci ar ius s p , X, , , de cribe a p qui pane i ’ e t mellita co n c n n ab at edulia . At night he brought home as

hi s ar t c r ustul a lucun cul o s specimens of panes, , , hamos, lac ’ l lur i m en m e r tu o s e t a sc ta ta . s , p ellita Compare Isidoru ,

Or i i n es 2 18 D s isto r i i g , XX, , , ulcia unt genera p operis a sopore

M - m n fi i ad su u tur . s es t u r dicta . elle enim sperso Cru ta s pe c es ’ ’ M 2 22 i r ul i r i s . s s sto d c a us p ani artial, XIV, , ay of the p , That hand will construct for you a tho us and swe et figures of ’ Lam r i i us b s . d art ; for it the frugal bee principally la or p ,

He li o a b a lus 2 7 e s s s t g , sp aks of killed weetmeat maker in tha ’ s Dul ci ar i o s e t l actar i o s ut emperor s hou ehold, tales habuit

uae cum ue di v er si s e dulib us e xhib ui ssen t s tr uc q q coqui de , vel

o m ar ii dul ci i s l actar ii s tores, vel p , illi modo de modo de ’ L 1 40 8 34 Glo t. 2 6 3 3 hi n o r us ss . a e x b e r e t . t s No e al o C p II, , ; , , ’ 1 dul c i r ius Tr eb ellius P laudi us 14 1 . a and ollio, C , , The is ‘ 3 4 s . I 9 s s o s s . . . 7 found in in cripti n al o C L VI, , read , Locu ‘ I 338 54 s i dul ci ar i . . . Leopardi , and C L VI, , Locu C ce ’ l i r i An tho lo ia a ti n a Ve s ae I udi cium s du c a . roui , cf also g L , p , ,

0 Ve e tius D e Re Mi li tar i 7 Co ci e t Pis to r i s 1 199 . 5 , I, , , l ; g , , I,

i Ta i t Vo scus c us 6 . p , , ’ ’ l ace n tar ius e was s o The p , from plac nta, a pa try co k who

e s M 39 3 M H b l ae i s made a kind of che e cake, artial, v , , , isi y ’ m adidas th m i s a s s s y placent s, which were often ent as pre ent

m i n i ste r e a c on tin en tur during the Saturnalia . Inter urbana

l ac en tar ii s P s S e n ten tia 6 72 . . s p , say aulu , , III, , Cf al o

r us Glo ss ar i o r um atin o r um 40 8 . Co p L , II, ’ was sc r ibli tar ius . Another pastry cook the , a tart baker ’ Sc r iblita o' r e Xei v was s e , from p B , a twist or tart of pa try mad Ro m an Co o ks 7 7

ee s an d s e s a s of ch e, flour, and honey, e m to h ve been erved hot,

1 P P o en ulus 43 Martial, III, XVII, . lautus, , , says, Nunc dum ’ r i ili e n t r i P a S at. 6 6 sc b t e a stua o ccu r te . s v , etroniu , howe er, , ’ i a r i li . P t . f s sc b ta . s S . 35 peaks of frigida Cf also etroniu , A ra

’ ‘ s 191 P — nius , quoted in Noniu , , says, istori nubat ; cur non ’ ’ cr ib ilitar i o ? Ut m i a fr a r i fi li l u un c ul o S s tt t t s o c s . ee also

S c en i e R m a n r m P o i Fr a m en t R 2 a ca o o u es s a e c 18 . g , ibb k, II, p .

an c hr est ar ius was f The p a con ectioner, and is mentioned

Ar n i Adv er Gen tes 38 . o b us . sus in , II,

O s s l actar ii Lam r idi us He li o a ther a sistant were the , p , g ’ ba lus 2 7 3. lib ar i us , , An inscription of a too was found at ’ 1 i r P i . 8 V r un n u l b i . . 76 e e c s a us . ompe , C I L IV, , hic cc 7 8 Ro m an Co o ks

CHAP TER XI

COLLEGIA OF COOKS

We now come to a fact in regard to cooks of which we should be entirely ignorant were it not for the e vidence which we find

r ~ in inscriptions . The autho s do not deem it of sufficient impor tance to mention that co oks formed collegia both i n Republi

can and Imperial times . Industrial guilds of various kinds existed at Rome under the

R s epublic, and although the enate had the right to abolish them

b so as if it thought est to do , it did not exercise this right long

n as they ob s erved the laws and were not troublesome . Co se quently we fi n d artisans and tradesmen of various kinds r e pr e

sented in the collegia of that city. There were corporations of

makers of rings , of fullers, of gold workers , of potters , of car

e n te r s t s s flute- s p , of bu cher , of poets, of actor , of player , and of v various other occupations . We have no e idence of a col ’ l e i um c o c o r um t R R s g in the ci y of ome during epublican day , Ve t there i s little doubt that s uch an organization actually did

P s h S ar exist there ; for we find one at raene te, and anot er in

s s R as dinia, and the smaller town of cour e took ome their

s s n d e model . We have previou ly given the content a discuss d the date of the earlies t known i nscription of a collegium ’ m . 30 8 h m a i s r i co co r u . . 7 t e t , C I L XI, , which says that g of

F s S a guild of ali can cooks in ardinia gave a gift to Jupiter,

M a s I un o n e i Min er v ai Juno, and inerva . It re d , Jovei, , ,

Fal e sc e S t de de r un t m a i str e i s . quei in ardinia sun , donum ; g L ’ i K l n F i n F a v e o . o r r o n . O r . S a V c av e Lat us . . t , C [ ] , ltai the

s co nl e i um es t ac i tum other side are found the word , g quod p aetate i Opip ar um a [d] v e itam quo lun dam fes

t o s ue c s a r uti e i s o id ue Vo l an i co n dec o q dies , quei sou i [ g] p q g rant s ai [pi] sume c o m v iv i a l o ido sque quque i huc de de r u [ n t] Rom a n Co o ks 7 9

i n e r ato r ib us sum m ei s ute i sesed lube n t es n e I o v en t [ ] p , [ ] [be]

5 1540 has r e R . 2 87 C . I . L XIV, I, , refe ence to anoth r epub M . s lican collegium of cooks : Coques atriens is (f . p . d . d ) agi

A li n r i s R Or c eui D . . S . o a s s tre odo ( Artemo, ind Q , p ( ) P r o tus Ae (m ili This was probably a dedication to Fo r P P tuna rimigenia , who was worshipped at raeneste, and whose name is often found in inscriptions of that town : C . I . L . 2 874 2 8 7 6 2 87 8 2 8 80 2 8 8 1 2 8 84 2 8 8 6 2 8 8 5 2 8 8 8 XIV, , , , , , , , , ,

e and others . It is not clear why these cooks w re called ’ ’ M e b t atriensis, but ommsen s conj ecture se ms to be the est, tha the coqui P r aen e s ti n i had their station in the atrium of s ome F ’ P n P . o r tu a . . temple, probably that of rimigenia herself J Waltzing in hi s Etude His to r i que s ur l es C o r p o r a ti on s P r o fes si o n n e lles chez les Ro m ai n s 34 6 ly , I, , says that this was probab ’ a domestic collegium . ’ Collegia Domestica were very numer ous from the time of

e c o Augustus on . The imp rial household and ri h families p s sessed legions of slaves and freedme n . These slaves and freed ’ o f m s men the sa e house often formed collegia, whose member

’ ’ s s s worshipped the Lare of their ma ter, to who e liberality

they owed a place of shelter during life . The object of the

association was to procure a fitting burial for the m embers . The slaves of a wealthy family or of an emperor were often

e divided according to their trad s into families , and each family ’ i u fi wh ch was s f ciently numerous perhaps formed a collegium . Of ’ a . V 8 5 0 r e . . 7 this kind the collegia found C I L I, , and

74 5 8 oo H , in which the c ks of the Emperor adrian founded a ’ c o c o r m A li P r im i i u . e u . t us collegium T . s Aug Lib . v archi

m a i r us e C n i un x fe e r un t e t g t Aelia Aug . Lib . Tyche o c sibi

l ib r b e ta us u r i r m . suis Lib . q ( e ) p o ste sque e o u Custodia moni menti i n hab itan di n e quis i n ter di ce r e v e llit quod si nemo de

e xtite r i t debe b it hac memoria nostra , pertinere ad collegium i i l i c o co r um . c o n s s t t P a at o Aug N, quod in , quod neque donari

n i r r i i i m m i . e v e e tt us s c s . s n que p , quod si quis contra legem

f r i i r i n m H e ce t deb eb t c o o r i s stat o e S . , dare p qui unt in hac 80 Ro m an C o o ks

” ’ 8 0 ‘ D M . . . 5 n M n i o . 7 s a b u i . s e N I L VI, , reads, T Aclin

P r im i ti v us ar chim a i r us e t Aug . Lib . g fecit Aelia Tyche sibi

T r n n i i li e r ti li r b e t Ae li ae y a d coniugi e t b s be ta usq. meis vel Ae li ae Ty r an n i di s p o ster i s que c orum Custodia moni (m) enti

i n h ab itan di n e i n te r di ce r e v elit uo ts i quis , q nemo de N memoria

e xs tite r i t e r ti n eb i t c o c o r u m Cae s ar i s , p ad collegium ( ) N . quot v e n i r i do n ar i v e v e tam us s i adversus ea quis fe ce r i t poo nac

r m H i co c o u M: . r nomine feret arcae S . L N Ate ex usu s e o r um ’ l b r r e tu uo . . c e e suo . q q anno The se two inscriptions are s o much alike that Mommsen thinks that they were originally plac ed on different sides of the 3 4 4 s s . . . 7 5 8 ame monument, and that line and of C I L were originally 4 and 5 of 8 7 5 0 ; but that after the death of Aelia

Aelius Ae s . e 4 Tyche, Titus married lia Tyranni Then lin s 5 8 50 I . 7 . . . s s and , cf , in C L were era ed and the in cription

o in ‘ i n - s utt es 4 7 . changed as to include her, by p g lin Each collegium had i ts arca which i s mentioned in the

two ins criptions just quoted . Fo r the funds of collegia com

10 2 3 36 5 9 V 935 4 044 . . . 7 9 pare also C I L VI, ; XIV, ; I, ; VI, ;

10 348 14413 16 8 2 962 6 2 102 2 2 99. VI, ; VI, ; VI, ; VI, ; II, ; XIV, ’ R s c evenues came into the arca from variou sour es , of which 0 4 A li I 8 5 5 8 . e us i . . . 7 7 s one smentioned in C L VI, , and Titu ’ P r im i i ar him a i r us s t v us c g con tructed a family sepulcher, which he wished to re main the prope rty of his descendants .

hi s was If, however, family became extinct, the tomb to pass h s to an imperial collegium of cooks . W oever should tran gress the lex monumenti must pay s esterces to this s ame college . We find another example of a fine which was to

. . . 948 5 . s b e paid to a corporation in C I L VI, By means of the e penalties the owners hoped to frighten thos e who would wish

. S s s s W to pro fane the tomb uch fine , ay altzing, in the work

e 4 6 8 previously cit d, I, , were rarely paid, and contributed ’ little to the budge t of the collegium .

I I 92 62 f the i s n C . . L . VI, , one of the o ficials of collegia

l i a i o n M . Va er e E c e . F D . . S . . . given, p coniugi B M Ael Eph ’ o r Ae liu h r o dit us p r o ditus scriba coc um . This s Ep p or Ep a

e candidates . A great many of th se belong to professio nal

i sto r es lib ar ii ful guilds , for example, the caupones, p , and ’ 3 s . s s e . . . I v 73 lone The cook also are repre ent d in C I L , ‘ ’ i u i m i r D P 2 S e t t u V . R. . O. F r e d o an t . ( p ) ium ( ) II . culinari g

G ar r u cc i f Or elli 72 2 7 however and ollowing him read this, L . Pl o tium et Suelli um II Vi r dign um re publica oro vos faci at i s ’

r o an t . s s culinari g Whatever the name may be, thi inscription, which was s cratched on an old Po mpeian wall shows that the c e was ooks of that city were unit d, even if their corporation not

recognized . Although in the face of a formal prohibition of ’ e u h Tiberius they did not dar to take the name collegi m, t ey nevertheless played an active part in the election of 7 9 and a sked votes for their candidates . Ro m an Co o ks 83

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3 18 8 1. She r n July , received her prelimina y trai ing at home P S 1 0 s . Se 9 4 and in the ublic chool of Baltimore In ptember, , she G C e was e r entered oucher olleg , and graduat d with the deg ee

- e s 1907 . F 190 1910 she was of Bach lor of Art in June, rom 7 Sh a teacher in the secondary schools of Baltimore . e spent the years 1910 - 1913 as a graduate s tudent in Johns Ho pkins Uni

se s s r a versity, pursuing cour in Cla sical A ch eology, Latin, and G r Phil o l o l P ss s H . eek, and Comparative gy under rofe or arry L M F D R s K S t s . Wilson, avid . obin on, irby lower mi h, Ba il L

G M M Dur s . . . . ilder leeve, C W E iller, and aurice Bloomfield ing this time she held a res ident fellows hip from Goucher Col lege 1910 -1911 a s cholarship in Latin from the Johns Hopkins , , , 1911- 1912 s shi s University, , and the Univer ity fellow p in Cla si

1 1 - h a 9 2 1913. I 1912 s e e cal Arch eology, n June, , receiv d the degr ee of Master of Arts from the Johns Hopkins University . She wishes to expres s her s incere gr atitude and appreciation to all of the professor s under whom she has studied for the con s s s she has tant intere t, in piration, and help which received from P H them . E specially ar e thanks due to the late rofes s or arry

. s s s s was u L Wil on, at whose ugge tion the preceding tudy beg n,

' P es Da M Ro s P ss K and to rof sor vid . bin on and rofe or irby

F S owho e i ss s a h as o . lower mith, by s k nd a i t nce it been c mpleted