Brill’s Companion to Aphrodite
Edited by Amy C. Smith and Sadie Pickup
LEIDEN • BOSTON 2010 On the cover:AnAtticblack-!gure amphora, featuring Aphrodite and Poseidon, ca. 520"#. London, British Museum B254. Drawing a$er Lenormant, de Witte, Élite des monuments céramographiques. Matériaux pour l’histoire des religions et des moeurs de l’antiquité (Paris, 1844–1861), 3, pl. 15.
%is book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Brill's companion to aphrodite / edited by Amy C. Smith & Sadie Pickup. p. cm. Emerged from a conference at the University of Reading, May 8-10, 2008. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-18003-1 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Aphrodite (Greek deity)–Congresses. I. Smith, Amy Claire, 1966- II. Title.
BL820.V5B74 2010 292.2'114–dc22 2009052569
ISSN 1872-3357 ISBN 978 9004 18003 1
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'()*+,- )* +., *,+.,(/0*-1 CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ...... !" Abbreviations ...... "! List of illustrations ...... "!!!
!#$%&'()$!&# Chapter One Flourishing Aphrodite: An Overview ...... 3 Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge (University of Liège) Chapter Two Budding Aphrodite: Into the Future ...... 17 Sadie Pickup (University of Oxford) and Amy C. Smith (University of Reading)
*+%$ &#, +*-%&'!$,’.!',#$!$/ Chapter 0ree Aphrodite: 0eGoddessofAppearances...... 29 Vered Lev Kenaan (University of Haifa) Chapter Four Oquamtememorem,virgo?InterpretingVenusin Aeneid .– ...... 51 James Burbidge (University of Oxford) Chapter Five Aphrodite Enoplion ...... 79 Stephanie L. Budin (Rutgers University) Chapter Six Rethinking Aphrodite as a Goddess at Work...... 113 Gabriella Pironti (University of Naples) 5! )&#$,#$.
*+%$ $6& +*-%&'!$,’.)&7*+#!&#.+#'%,8+$!&#. Chapter Seven 0eSongofAresandAphrodite:Aˇsertu on Skheria ...... 133 Annette Te!eteller (Concordia University, Montreal) Chapter Eight Father-Daughter Dynamics in the Iliad: 0eRole of Aphrodite in De9ningZeus’Regime ...... 151 Kassandra Jackson (University of Chicago)
*+%$ $-%,, $-, .*%,+' &: +*-%&'!$,’. )(8$. Chapter Nine Images of Cypriot Aphrodite in her Sanctuaries duringtheAgeoftheCity-Kingdoms...... 167 Anja Ulbrich (University of Oxford) Chapter Ten Aphrodite on the Akropolis: Evidence from Attic Pottery...... 195 Elisabetta Pala (University of Cagliari) Chapter Eleven Aphrodite and the Fleet in Classical Athens ...... 217 Chryssanthi Papadopoulou (King’s College, University of London) Chapter Twelve Encountering the World of Aphrodite on the WesternGreekMainland ...... 235 Alexander Nagel (University of Michigan) Chapter 0irteen 0e Architectural Setting of the Knidian Aphrodite ...... 251 Sophie Montel (University of Paris Ouest Nanterre—La Défense) Chapter Fourteen Interactive Aphrodite: Greek Responses to the Idea of Aphrodite as Ancestress of the Romans ...... 269 Jenny Wallensten (Swedish Institute, Athens) )&#$,#$. 5!!
*+%$ :&(% $-, %,),*$!&# &: $-, ;&'',.. Chapter Fi
Bibliography ...... 387
PeriodizationofAntiquity...... 421
General Index ...... 423 Geographic Index ...... 433 IndexofPersonalNames ...... 437 Monumenta...... 443 Testimonia ...... 449 ABBREVIATIONS
AA Archäologischer Anzeiger ABV Beazley, John D., Attic Black-Figure Vase-Painters (Oxford, ) AJA AmericanJournalofArchaeology AM Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Athenische Abteilung ARV2 Beazley, John D., Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painters, nd ed. (Oxford, ) BAPD Beazley Archive Pottery Database, Oxford University www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/databases/pottery.htm ! " BCH Bulletin de Correspondence Hellénique BSA Annual of the British School at Athens CHD Güterbock, Hans G., Harry A. Ho'ner, Jr., and (eo P.J. van den Hout, eds., !eHittiteDictionaryoftheOrientalInstituteofthe University of Chicago (Chicago, –) CIG Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (–) CQ Classical Quarterly CVA Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum FHG Müller, C., Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum (–) IG Inscriptiones Graecae (–) IGRom. Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes (–) JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology LIMC Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (Zurich, –) OCD Hornblower, Simon, and Anthony Spawforth, eds., !eOxford Classical Dictionary, rd ed. (Oxford, ) RDAC Report of the Department of Antiquitues, Cyprus SEG Supplementum epigraphicum Graecum (Amsterdam, –) TAPA Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philogical Association
Abbreviations of primary sources follow those given in OCD. ILLUSTRATIONS
. Terracotta from Salamis, Cyprus, fourth century -..London,British Museum, A .Photographby(omas Kiely ©(eTrusteesofthe British Museum. . Drawing of bronze /gurine excavated at Sparta, fourth–third centuries -.. Drawing by Paul C. Butler, a0er Solima, “Era, Artemide e Afrodite,” /g. , used with kind permission. . Marble statue from Epidauros, Roman. Athens, National Archaeological Museum, NM .Photo:Alinari/ArtResource,NewYork. . Gelon Gem, Hellenistic (ca. -.). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, ..Photograph© Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. . Attic black-/gure dinos by Lydos, mid-sixth century -..Drawingby Paul C. Butler, used with kind permission. . Bronze /gurine from building gamma at Gravisca. Tarquinia, Museo Archeologico, /. Drawing by Paul C. Butler, used with kind permission. . Bronze /gurine from building gamma at Gravisca. Tarquinia, Museo Archeologico, /. Drawing by Paul C. Butler, used with kind permission. . Coin of Octavian. From Forum Ancient Coins, www.forumancientcoins.com, used with kind permission. . Bronze mirror back, Roman. Berlin, Staatliche Museen .Imagea0er Flemberg, Venus Armata, /g. . . Plasma intaglio depicting Venus Victrix, /rst century 12.Beazley Archive (formerly Marlborough Collection ). Beazley Archive, Oxford University, www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems. Photograph by Claudia Wagner, used with kind permission. . Marble sculpture of Armed Aphrodite, Roman. Pafos District Museum, FR /. Permission to publish this photograph has been given by kind courtesy of the Director of the Department of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus. . Marble sculpture of Venus Victrix,secondcentury12.Paris,Louvre Museum, MA . Photo: Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource/New York.
. An Attic black-/gure amphora, featuring Aphrodite and Poseidon, ca. -..London,BritishMuseumB.Drawinga0er Lenormant, de Witte, Élite des monuments céramographiques. Matériaux pour l’histoire des religions et des moeurs de l’antiquité (Paris, –), ,pl.. 345 466789:194;<8
. Map of Cyprus with all city-kingdoms and other cult places mentioned in the text. Drawing Anja Ulbrich. . Goddess with upli0ed arms, from Palaepaphos. British Museum, London, .–..Imagea0er Karageorghis, !eCoroplasticArtof Ancient Cyprus, ,pl..,courtesyoftheBritishMuseum,London. . Astarte /gurine, from Amathous. British Museum, London, .– ..Imagea0er Karageorghis, !eCoroplasticArtofAncientCyprus, , pl. .,courtesyoftheBritishMuseum,London. . Dea Tyria gravida, from perhaps Kition. Louvre Museum, Paris. Drawing from Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquité, (Paris, ), p. /g. . . Kourotrophos from Kition. Archaeological District Museum of Larnaca, Kition /,AreaII/.Imagea0er Karageorghis, !eCoroplasticArtofAncientCyprus, ,pl..,courtesyofthe Department of Antiquities, Cyprus. . Goddess with vegetal crown, from Idalion. Berlin Museums, Antiquarium (), inv. M. J. , (in the year ). Image from Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, die Bibel und Homer,pl... . Hathor-capital, from Kition. Louvre Museum, Paris: Department of Oriental Antiquities, AM .Imagea0er Hermary, “Un nouveau chapiteau Hathorique,” p. /g. . . Goddess with lions and turreted crown, from Achna. Present location unknown. Drawing from Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, die Bibel und Homer,pl... . Aphrodite with vegetal Kalathos and Eros, from Golgoi. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, (eCesnolaCollection,Purchasedby subscription, – (..). Image ©Metropolitan Museum of Art.
. Aphrodite with Eros and Himeros, on an Attic black-/gure pinax fragment, ca. -.. Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Akr. . Photo courtesy National Archaeological Museum, Athens. . Procession of gods on an Attic black-/gure kantharos fragment, ca. -.. Athens. National Archaeological Museum, Akr. .Photo courtesy National Archaeological Museum, Athens. . Eros and Aphrodite (?) on an Attic black-/gure kantharos (?) fragment from Naukratis, ca. –-..London,BritishMuseum .. (B .). Photo ©(eTrusteesoftheBritishMuseum. . AduelbetweenAineiasandAchilles,onanAtticblack-/gure amphora fragment, ca. –-.. Athens, National Archaeological Museum Akr. .Drawinga0er Graef and Langlotz, Die Antiken Vasen, , pl. .. . Aphrodite and the Arrephoroi (?), on an Attic red-/gure hydria fragment, attributed to the Kleophon Painter, ca. –-..Tübingen, Universität, Institut für Klassische Archäologie E ,ca.–-.. Courtesy Institut für Klassische Archäologie, Tübingen. . Map showing Aphrodite’s shrines on the Akropolis and its slopes, a0er Travlos, Bildexikon, /g. . 466789:194;<8 35
. Map of the Piraeus peninsula with marked points discussed in this chapter. Map by Cixx design, a0er Garland, !ePiraeus, /g. . . Birth of Aphrodite from the sea, on an Attic red-/gure pyxis attributed to the Wedding Painter, ca. – -..NewYork,(eMetropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, (..a, b). Image ©(e Metropolitan Museum of Art. . Anodos of Aphrodite from the earth, on an Attic red-/gure skyphos attributed to the Penthesilea Painter, ca. -.. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund, ..Photograph© Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. . Aphrodite riding a swan over the sea, on an Attic red-/gure lekythos, ca. -..Oxford,AshmoleanMuseum,AN..ImagebyCixx design, a0er J. Arthur R. Munro, “Excavations in Cyprus: (ird Season’s Work—polis tes Chrysochou,” JHS (), pl. . . Aphrodite riding a shell, on an Attic red-/gure bell krater, ca. – -., acquired in Laurion in .Dresden,StaatlicheKunstsammlungen, Albertinum ZV. Image reproduced with the kindest permission of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden.
. Figurine excavated in cult deposit near Stratos in .Arta, Archaeological Museum, inv. .Photo:author. . Schematic drawing of the /gurine shown in /gure . Drawing: author. .(e western Greek mainland and adjacent areas with the sites mentioned in this chapter: Leukas, Aktion, Kassope, Ambrakia, Stratos, Phystion, Naupaktos, Kalydon. Photo: Franziska Lang and Alexander Nagel.
. Venus Colonna statue, Roman Imperial period, made a0er the Knidian Aphrodite (.m high without the plinth). Rome, Vatican Museum, Museo Pio Clementino no. .Photo:G.Becatti. . Sketches of niches and shelters with back and side walls. Drawing: C. Amourette. . Illustration of the di'erences between a monopteros and a tholos. Drawing: C. Amourette. .(esecond-century-. tholos in Knidos. Photo: Amy C. Smith. .(esecond-century12 round structure of the nymphaeum in Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli. Photo courtesy A. Pollini. . Plan of the round building in Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli, a0er Ortolani, Il padiglione, /g. . . Plan of the tholos in Knidos, a0er Bankel, “Knidos,” /g. .
. Denarius of Julius Caesar showing Venus Genetrix on the reverse, -.. Photo courtesy American Numismatic Society. . Julio-Claudian relief showing pedimental statues from the Temple of Mars Ultor.VillaMedici,Rome,ca.12–.Photocourtesy Forschungsarchiv für Antike Plastik, Cologne. 354 466789:194;<8
. Julio-Claudian relief showing cult statues from the Temple of Mars Ultor,ca.12–.ArchaeologicalMuseum,Carthage.Photocourtesy Forschungsarchiv für Antike Plastik, Cologne. . Sculptural group of Mars and Venus with portrait heads, Ostia, Late Antonine (ca. 12). Rome, Museo delle Terme .Photoa0er G. Moretti, “Ostia,” Notizie degli Scavi, ,pl.. . Frescoed wall of cubiculum B, from the Villa Farnesina, Augustan (ca. –-.). Detail showing Aphrodite with Peitho and Eros. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme). Photo courtesy Scala/Art Resource, NY ART. . Frescoed wall of cubiculum B, from the Villa Farnesina, Augustan (ca. –-.). Detail showing nymph nursing the young Dionysos. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme). Photo by Luciano Romano, courtesy Scala/Art Resource, NY ART.
. Mosaic from (uburbo Maius, illustrating Venus and the spectacles of the amphitheatre. First half of third century. Musée National du Bardo, Tunis .Photo:MatthewNicholls. . Mosaic from Mactar, Maison de Vénus basin, showing Venus, adjusting her sandal, with Erotes. First half of the third century. Museum of Mactar. Photo: author. . Photomontage by René Magritte published in the last issue of La Révolution surréaliste (no. ,December). Photo showing men around a naked woman. ©ADAGP, Paris, and DACS, London .
. Projecta Casket from the Esquiline Treasure, late fourth century. London, British Museum .–..Photo©TrusteesoftheBritish Museum. . Silver statuette of Aphrodite from Kaiseraugst, –.Augst, Römermuseum .. Photo ©Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. . Silver gilt statuette of Aphrodite from Antioch, fourth century. Antakya, Hatay Archaeological Museum. Photo courtesy of Marlia Mundell Mango. . Bone carving of Aphrodite covering her pudenda with a shell, second or third century. Athens, Benaki Museum. Photo © Benaki Museum, Athens. . Circular pyxis, /0h to sixth century. Baltimore, Walters Art Museum ..Photo©(e Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. .(e Veroli Casket, tenth century. London, Victoria and Albert Museum –. Photo ©V&A Images/Victoria and Albert Museum, London. . Aphrodite and lover, detail from the Veroli Casket, tenth century. London, Victoria and Albert Museum –.Photo©V&A Images/Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 466789:194;<8 3544
. Sandro Botticelli, Venus and Mars,ca..Photo©(e National Gallery, London. . Detail of /gure ., showing Venus. Photo ©(e National Gallery, London. . Detail of /gure ., showing Mars. Photo ©(eNationalGallery, London. . Detail of /gure ., showing Pan/Satyr inside the cuirass of Mars. Photo ©(e National Gallery, London. . Datura Stramonium.PencilonpaperdrawingbyDavidBellingham, ,a0er Basilius Besler, .Drawing©DavidBellingham.
. Pierre Bonnard, !eWashStand,or!eMirror(). Photo ©Musée d’Orsay, Paris. !"#$%&' ()(%&&*
AUGUSTAN APHRODITES: THE ALLURE OF GREEK ART IN ROMAN VISUAL CULTURE
R#!"&+ K,-..&'
Hellenized images of Aphrodite /rst began to permeate Roman visual culture in the Augustan era (2!–#3). From the elaborate state- sponsored monuments of the new regime to wall paintings in private homes, the goddess of love featured prominently in works of art whose idealized naturalism was inspired by the achievements of Classical Greece. 6ese images, widely popular in Augustan Rome, marked a dis- tinct break with earlier practice. 6ey replaced the sober and imposing Venus of the Republic—divine ancestress of Rome, and victory-bringing goddess of Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar—with a more elegant, Greek-style deity. In doing so they o7ered a particularly vivid example of a broader cultural phenomenon: Augustan classicism. In recent years, scholars have highlighted the moral and ethical con- notations of classicism in the early empire. Drawing especially on elite literary texts, art historians such as Paul Zanker and Tonio Hölscher have characterized classicism as an elevated style appropriate for the gods, and for the new princeps.1 For them classicism is understood not as an aesthetic choice, but rather as a semiotic one, used to convey mean- ing within the “visual language” of Early Imperial art. 6is extremely in8uential approach has greatly enhanced our understanding of Augus- tan art. Its emphasis on the semiotic character of Roman artistic styles has proven very e7ective in opening up new avenues of inquiry in the /eld. Its exclusive stress on what Zanker has termed “the moral claim of classical forms,” however, seems to me problematic, as it leaves out
1 Tonio Hölscher, !eLanguageofImagesinRomanArt,trans.AnthonySnodgrass and Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass (Cambridge, Eng., ); originally published in Ger- man, as Römische Bildsprache als semantisches System (Heidelberg, ); Paul Zanker, !ePowerofImagesintheAgeofAugustus,trans.AlanShapiro(AnnArbor,), pp. –. #$%&'( )*+,,'# acentralaspectofwhatmadeclassicismsopowerfulinAugustanvisual culture: its sensuous pleasure, and its visual allure.2 Incontrast,thisarticlefocusespreciselyonthevisualattractionofclas- sicism, as exempli-ed by the Hellenized images of Aphrodite so preva- lent in Early Imperial art. I begin by examining the role of these images in major public monuments of the Augustan regime, concentrating on the forum of the new princeps. In the Forum Augustum, these images— generally adaptations of established Greek sculptural types—served to give an authoritative, impressive appearance to the divine ancestress of the Iulii.3 .ey also functioned as propaganda, to signal the attractive qualities of the new imperial system through the metaphor of a beautiful woman’s body, thus contributing very e/ectively to the “organization of opinion,” to borrow a phrase from Ronald Syme.4 Public monuments do not tell the whole story. .is article therefore also includes complementary works of art from the private sphere, with afocusonthewallpaintingsoftheVillaFarnesina.Inthiseliteriverside villa in Trastevere, we see very clearly the self-conscious evocation of ear- lier forms, in rooms whose decorative scheme is patterned on that of a pinacotheca (‘picture gallery’).5 Here Aphrodite appears with her com- panions Peitho and Eros, in a -ctive panel painting whose style recalls that of Athenian white-ground pottery of the -0h century 1%.6 As else- where in domestic decoration, the image functions programmatically, but in a manner very di/erent from that seen in public monuments such as the Forum Augustum. Aphrodite at her toilet, in the Villa Farnesina, speaks of the re-ned pleasures of the senses; in this way, she helps cre- ate the pleasurable ambiance central to the Roman conception of otium (‘pleasurable leisure’). .is research is relevant in our understanding of both Aphrodite and Augustan art. Much of our evidence for the visual representation of the Greek goddess comes from the Roman period. .efamousfourth-
2 Zanker, !ePowerofImagesintheAgeofAugustus,p.. 3 Tonio Hölscher, Monumenti Statali e Pubblico,trans.LuciaScatozzaHörichtand Franz Höricht (Rome, ), pp. –;PaulZanker,Forum Augustum. Das Bildpro- gram (Tübingen, ), pp. –;Zanker,!ePowerofImages,pp.–. 4 Ronald Syme, !eRomanRevolution(Oxford, ), pp. –. 5 Bettina Bergmann, “Greek Masterpieces and Roman Recreative Fictions,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology (), pp. –;IreneBragantiniandMariette de Vos, Le Decorazioni della Villa Romana della Farnesina, , , Museo Nazionale— Romano: Le Pitture (Rome, ), pp. –;ChristopherHallett,“EmulationVersus Replication: Rede-ning Roman Copying,” JRA ,no. (), pp. –. 6 See below, n. . !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)% century 45 Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles, for example, is known almost exclusively from Roman coins, statues, and literary descriptions.7 Our understanding of the goddess’ cult is also fundamentally indebted to Roman authors, such as Strabo and Pausanias, who mention her frequently.8 It is important to recognize, however, the existence and character of this Roman “6lter,” if we are to accurately and critically use these images and authors to reconstruct Greek monuments and cult practices. My examination here of Aphrodites from the Augustan period thus constitutes a contribution to the broader goal of reconstructing the Roman reception of Aphrodite.9 In addition to its signi6cance for the study of Aphrodite, this research has implications for our analysis of Augustan art. As scholars have long acknowledged, a major innovation of the period is its adoption and transformation of Greek styles and visual formats to metropolitan public monuments. 7eprevailingexplanationforthisphenomenon,promoted by Zanker, stresses the moral claim of Classical forms and the control of the visual sphere by the princeps.10 Aphrodite images, from both the public and private spheres, are useful in that they suggest di8erent explanations for this use of Classical forms in Augustan art. What they demonstrate above all is the allure, and not simply the authority, of Greek art for the Romans. 7is understanding may also explain the wide-ranging scope and extraordinary longevity of the Roman embrace of Classical forms, which extended well beyond the state-sponsored monuments of the Augustan metropolis to private and provincial works of art, even in later periods.
!eBackground:AphroditeintheRepublic
Before examining the deployment of Aphrodite images in the Augus- tan period, it is useful to consider 6rst some related material from the Republic. Augustus was by no means the 6rst Roman leader to emphasize
7 Delivorrias et al., in LIMC ,pp.–,s.v.“Aphrodite,”nos.–;Seaman, “Retrieving the Original.” 8 7ese authors are central to, for example, authors such as Pirenne-Delforge, L’Ap h ro - dite grecque. 9 Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture,pp.–;ibid.,“Mythological Portraiture in Antonine Rome: 7ePerformanceofMyth,”AJA (), –. 10 Zanker, !ePowerofImages,pp.–. $%&'() *+,--($ his ties to Venus, or indeed to Aphrodite.11 .eLateRepublicangen- eral Sulla, for example, took as his Latin cognomen Felix (‘Lucky’); it was translated into Greek, !Επα%ρ'διτ+ς (‘Beloved of Aphrodite’), suggest- ing he enjoyed the favor of Aphrodite.12 A/er his victory at Chaironeia, Sulla dedicated his trophy to Aphrodite, Ares, and Nike, proclaiming them the patron deities of his military success.13 He also sent gi/stothe Aphrodite of Aphrodisias, claiming to have seen her in a dream, 0ghting on his side in battle.14 In his relationship to Aphrodite, as in many other respects, Sulla o1ered a useful model for other aspiring generals of the Late Republic. His one-time protégé, Pompey the Great, likewise portrayed himself as under the protection of the goddess, and he dedicated a temple within his impressive theatre complex to Venus Victrix,thatis,Venus‘Victori- ous’.15 In response, Pompey’s rival Caesar insisted upon his own, albeit closer, relationship to this deity. His forum in Rome, initially vowed to Venus Victrix,waseventuallydedicatedtoVenusGenetrix—Venus the ‘Ancestress’—since he was a member of the Julian gens and therefore claimed descent from her via Aeneas and Iulus.16 Caesar also commis- sioned a Greek sculptor, Arkesilaos, to create the statue of Venus to stand in the Julian Forum; he included her extensively on his coins; he also received honors as the son of Aphrodite and Ares from the Greek cities of Asia Minor.17 .us in the highly competitive world of the Late Republic, Roman leaders frequently claimed Venus as a patron deity and used artistic and architectural commissions to commemorate this relationship for a broad public audience. .eir emphasis was on the goddess’ role in war, as an ally bringing them victory and therefore power. .ey highlighted her connection to Ares/Mars, with whom she shared both a concern for warfare and a role as divine ancestor of the Romans. While this emphatic
11 For an overview, see Robert Schilling, La Religion Romaine de Vénus depuis les Origines jusqu’au Temps d’Auguste, nd ed. (Paris, ). 12 App., BCiv. .. 13 Plut., Vit. Sull. .. 14 App., BCiv. .. 15 Plin., HN .; on the theatre, see Ann Kuttner, “Culture and History at Pompey’s Museum,” TAPA (), –,withpreviousbibliography. 16 Victrix:App.,BCiv. ..; Genetrix:Plin.,HN .;onthedescentoftheIulii from Venus, see Stefan Weinstock, Divus Julius (Oxford, ), p. . 17 On the Arkesilaos statue, see Weinstock, Divus Julius,p.;Plin.,HN .;on the coins, ibid., pp. –;theinscriptionisinW.Dittenberger,Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum, rd ed. (Leipzig, –), p. . !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)% association with war might seem, at 4rst glance, out of character for the goddess of love, it is clearly attested in the written and visual sources for the Republican period, and it is best understood as a traditional Roman role for Venus, due to her connection with the military god Mars. 5is goes back at least to the period of the Punic Wars, when the two gods appeared on a couch together at a major religious ceremony in 78.18—and to her status as ancestress of the (very warlike) war-loving Romans. Furthermore, it should be stressed that the Venus of the Republic was by no means equivalent to the Greek Aphrodite.19 While the example of Sulla illustrates how the Romans were aware of Greek Aphrodite cults, and could indeed make use of them for their own purposes, Roman images of Venus, and patterns of worship, were nonetheless distinct from those of her Hellenic predecessor. 5is may be demonstrated, for example, by Caesar’s coins, which show a draped Venus holding a spear, with Victoria alighting on her hand (4gure .).20 5ee:ect is very di:erent from that of contemporary Late Hellenistic Aphrodites, with their sensuous representation of the goddess’ nude ;esh, and attributes such as an apple or mirror.21 It was only in the Augustan period that the representation, and to some extent the divine personality, of Venus started to approximate that of her Greek counterpart. 5is development is well illustrated by the public monuments of the new regime, to which Inowturn.
Aphrodite in the Forum Augustum
Although Augustus was not the 4rst Roman leader to emphasize his ties to Venus and Aphrodite, his approach di:ered from that of his predeces- sors: in the consistency and number of monuments, in taking inspira- tion from Classical prototypes rather than the Hellenistic or Republican
18 Livy ... 19 Schilling, La Religion Romaine,pp.–. 20 Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage,pp.–,no..–, –. 21 On Late Hellenistic Aphrodites, see Delivorrias et al., in LIMC ,pp.– and – ,s.v.“Aphrodite,”nos.– and –;Havelock,!eAphroditeofKnidos;Rachel Kousser, “Creating the Past: 5eVénusDeMiloandtheHellenisticReceptionofClassical Greece,” AJA (), –;WiltrudNeumer-Pfau,Studien zur Ikonographie und gesellscha"lichen Function Hellenistischer Aphrodite-Statuen (Bonn, ); Hans- Hoyer von Prittwitz und Ga:ron, Der Wandel der Aphrodite. Archäologische Studien zu weiblichen halbbekleideten Statuetten des späten Hellenismus (Bonn, ). #$%&'( )*+,,'#
Figure ..DenariusofJuliusCaesarshowingVenusGenetrixonthe reverse, 0%.PhotocourtesyAmericanNumismaticSociety. ones previously favored, and in his emphasis on her embodiment of the bene1ts of peace rather than her patronage of war. 2eAugustan Forum o3ers the most extensive and complex example of the princeps’ programmatic use of Venus and classicism to promote his new regime. Vowed at Philippi in 0%,itwascompletedsomefortyyearslater, making it one of the longest, as well as largest, building projects of the period.22 It is also one of the monuments most closely tied to Augustus; the forum was initiated, designed, and paid for by the ruler.23 It should thus o3er us a clearer idea of how Augustus himself wished to present his ties to Venus and the Classical past, than do the other monuments set up in his honor by di3erent patrons. 2ecomplexfeaturedatitscenterpiecealargeCorinthiantempleto Mars Ultor,setwithinanelaboratetwo-storeyportico.24 Its plan thus emulated that of the Forum of Julius Caesar, immediately contiguous to it; at the same time, as a comparison of the two demonstrates, the Forum of Augustus was considerably larger and more complicated than its pre- decessor.25 Its sculpted decoration was similarly complex and ambitious,
22 Suet., Aug. .;Cass.Dio... 23 Augustus, Res Gestae Divi Augusti . 24 For the architectural ensemble of the forum, see the useful summary in Valentin Kockel, in Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae ,ed.EvaMargareteSteinby(Rome, ), pp. –,s.v.“ForumAugustum.” 25 See Chiara Morselli, in Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae ,ed.EvaMargarete Steinby (Rome, ), pp. –,s.v.“ForumIulium.” !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)% including deliberate citations of earlier Greek works—most famously, the caryatids modeled on those of the Erechtheum—as well as portrait stat- ues of illustrious Romans, from Aeneas and Romulus to Pompey and Caesar.26 4is historicizing iconography suited its role as a showplace of the new regime: it functioned as a meeting place for the Senate, a tri- bunal where the emperor sat in judgment, the depository of the Parthian standards, the setting for the manumission of slaves, and, 5nally, the cul- minating point of festivals.27 Within this large, high-pro5le structure, Venus and Venusian imagery were very prominent. O6cially, the design centered around Mars, and speci5cally the temple vowed to him in his capacity as Ultor (‘Avenger’), in the lead-up to Augustus’ battle with the assassins of Caesar at Philip- pi.28 Venus and her descendents were also extensively honored in the forum. We know the goddess appeared on the pediment of the temple, which is replicated on a relief from the so-called Ara Pietatis Augustae of the Claudian period, !+– (5gure .).29 Imposing and heavily draped, Venus has a scepter and diadem to enhance her regal appear- ance. At the same time, her association with love and beauty is sig- naled by a tiny 5gure of Cupid, who perches on her le: shoulder. Typo- logical analysis is tenuous with so small a 5gure, but the rendering of Venus here recalls mid-5:h-century ;< Greek prototypes. 4etriangu- lar mantle, in particular, resembles those on statues such as the Velletri Athena.30 Other images of Venus from the Forum can be more securely and closely associated with Classical precedents. Whereas the cult statue group from the temple, for example, featured a novel sculpted image of abearded,armedMars,adeityrarelydepictedinClassicalGreece,the Venus in this group followed prototypes of the late 5:hcentury;< (5g- ure .).31 4ebarele: shoulder, seductive hip-shot pose, and seem- ingly transparent drapery of the chiton all 5nd parallels in the art of the Peloponnesian War era; useful comparisons might be the so-called
26 For the forum’s sculpture, the most useful treatment is that of Eugenio La Rocca, “Il Programma Figurativo del Foro di Augusto,” in ILuoghidelConsensoImperiale.IlForo di Augusto, Il Foro di Traiano ,ed.LucreziaUngaro,EugenioLaRocca,andRoberto Meneghini (Rome, ), pp. –. 27 Ibid., pp. –. 28 Suet., Aug. .. 29 Joachim Ganzert and Valentin Kockel, “Augustusforum und Mars-Ultor-Tempel,” in Kaiser Augustus und die verlorene Republik (Mainz, ), pp. –. 30 Pierre Demargne, in LIMC (), p. ,s.v.“Athena,”no.. 31 Zanker, Forum Augustum,pp.–. $%&'() *+,--($
Figure ..Julio-Claudianreliefshowingpedimentalstatuesfrom the Temple of Mars Ultor.VillaMedici,Rome,ca.%0–. Photo courtesy Forschungsarchiv für Antike Plastik, Cologne.
Hera Borghese type, or the Aphrodite in the Gardens from Daphni.32 1ere is no secure evidence that the Roman cult statue replicates precisely aspeci2cClassicaloriginal.Itmayinsteadhavefunctionedasaneclectic fusion of several earlier sculptural types, in order to create a new work of art appropriate to its display context, the princeps’ forum.
32 On the Hera Borghese, see Angelos Delivorrias, “Der Statuarische Typus der soge- nannten Hera Borghese,” in Polykletforschungen,ed.HerbertBeckandPeterBol(Berlin, ); on the Daphni Aphrodite, “Die Kultstatue der Aphrodite von Daphni,” Antike Plas- tik (), –. !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)%
Figure ..Julio-ClaudianreliefshowingcultstatuesfromtheTemple of Mars Ultor,ca.!+–.ArchaeologicalMuseum,Carthage. Photo courtesy Forschungsarchiv für Antike Plastik, Cologne.
7ecultstatueofVenusalsodepartedfromanyClassicalprecedents (all conceived as independent 8gures) in that it formed part of a larger group, which included Cupid and Mars as well.33 Although Mars and Venus are physically isolated from each other and do not touch, they are nonetheless visually connected by the 8gure of Amor, who holds out to his mother the war god’s sword. 7ey also turn and look towards each other in a manner that encourages an allegorical interpretation of the group as a scene of Mars disarmed through his love of Venus.34 Such allegorical scenes were familiar from the late fourth century 9: onwards, as for instance with Aetion’s famous painting of Alexander the Great
33 Hans Günter Martin, “Die Tempelkultbilder,” in Kaiser Augustus und die verlorene Republik (Mainz, ), pp. –;Zanker,Forum Augustum,pp.–;Zanker,!e Power of Images,pp.–. 34 Zanker, !ePowerofImages,pp.–. $%&'() *+,--($ overcome with love of his eastern bride, Roxana.35 In the forum’s cult statue group, the sensuous visual appearance of Venus helps to explain— even to motivate—the allegorical narrative. At the same time, her paci.c, seductive appeal serves to counterbalance the aggressive force of Mars, for an audience all too familiar with the violence and human cost of war, and appreciative of the bene.ts of peace. /emannerinwhichtheVenusianimagesoftheAugustanForum work—both as cultural allusions to the Classical past, and as allegorical representations of the attractive qualities of the new imperial system— is best illustrated by a third sculpture, a group of Mars and Venus set up within the temple (.gure .).36 /eoriginalstatuegroupisonly fragmentarily preserved, but can be reconstructed through comparison with a series of later versions of the type. /ese sculptures, highly consis- tent in their scale and iconography, also provide useful evidence for the reception of Augustan state imagery in the private sphere.37 Indeed, the history of the Mars-Venus group type in the Augustan period and there- a3er o4ers a very e4ective demonstration of how allusion and allegory could be misunderstood, particularly at a time when the visual language of imperial art was still in the process of formation. One should .rst consider the visual format of the original Augustan sculpture. Venus, half-nude, with a mantle draped about her hips, turns towards and embraces Mars, her le3 arm encircling his neck and her right hand on his chest. /ewargodishereayouthfulnude.gure, very di4erent from the cuirassed cult statue; he likewise turns to his consort, gazing at her and receiving her embrace. Both .gures are based on well- established Classical statue types, the late .3h-century Ares Borghese type for Mars, the mid-fourth-century Aphrodite of Capua type for Venus. 38 /egroupthusconstitutesanotherofthoseeclecticfusionsof earlier precedents, as posited above for the cult statue.39 It imbues the
35 Lucian, Her. sive Aetion –;AndrewStewart,Faces of Power (Berkeley, ), pp. –. 36 Hans Peter L’Orange, “Le Statue di Marte e Venere nel Tempio di Marte Ultore sul Foro di Augusto,” Symbolae Osloenses (), –;Zanker,!ePowerofImages, pp. –. 37 Kousser, “Mythological Portraiture.” 38 Paris, Musée du Louvre, inv. ;Naples,MuseoNazionale,inv.. 39 On the Classical precedents for the sculptural group, and Augustan eclecticism, see Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture,pp.–;Zanker,!ePowerofImages, pp. –. !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)%
Figure ..SculpturalgroupofMarsandVenuswithportraitheads, Ostia, Late Antonine (ca. !+). Rome, Museo delle Terme . Photo a9er G. Moretti, “Ostia,” Notizie degli Scavi, ,pl.. $%&'() *+,--($ protagonists—Mars, ancestor of the Roman people by connection with Romulus, and Venus, ancestress of the gens Iulii through Aeneas—with the authority and majesty of Greek art. .esensuousanderoticappearanceofthesculptureisundeniable. .eMars-Venusgroupisasophisticatedclassicizingworkofart,butit is also an appeal to the senses, a visual essay on the delights of seeing and touching. .egodsthemselvesbothgazeandcaress,encouraging the viewer to imagine doing likewise. For the mythologically informed viewer, the group’s narrative background—the love a/air of Ares and Aphrodite, celebrated from Homer’s Odyssey onwards—would heighten the gods’ sensuous appeal.40 .estoryofGreekmythology’smostfamousadultererswaswidely popular in contemporary private art, as in Augustan literature—for ex- ample, works by Propertius and Ovid.41 At least some viewers made the connection between the statue group and the myth, to judge from an intriguing passage from Ovid’s Tristia. In it, the poet imagines a woman visiting the great landmarks of Rome—the Forum Augustum, Circus Maximus, and so on—and interpreting them in a distinctly inappropriate manner: venerit in magni templum, tua munera, Martis, stat Venus Ultori iuncta, vir ante fores. Should she come into that temple of great Mars, your own gi0, Venus stands joined to the Avenger, her husband before the doors. 42 .is is not to suggest that such intimations of adultery would have been perceived by all viewers; nor is it likely that they were intended by the patron or artist. Instead, the seductive visual appearance and Classical form of the sculptures might have been misinterpreted by viewers such as Ovid, who were familiar with the myth of Ares and Aphrodite as represented in Greek literature and in contemporary private art. Instead of reading the statue as an attractive allegorical image of war disarmed by the ancestress of the princeps (as perhaps Augustus intended) they might have read the group in a more literal fashion, as a depiction of erotic love. .ea0erlife of this image, which appeared very infrequently in later public art, but had an extensive career in the private sphere (on gems, objets d’art,andsarcophagi),suggeststhisinterpretation.43
40 Hom., Od. .–. 41 Prop. ..–;Ov.,Am. ..–;ibid.,Ars am. .–. 42 Ov., Tr. .–,trans.author. 43 Kousser, “Mythological Portraiture.” !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)%
In Augustan public spaces like the princeps’ Forum, Greek-style Aphrodite images evoked the attractive qualities of the new regime. 3us they were an important component of Augustus’ public self-representa- tion. 3ese images were liable to misinterpretation precisely because of their sensuous and attractive appearance, especially at a time when the visual language of the principate was new and unfamiliar to viewers. 3e seductive Aphrodite images of the private sphere, which had a very dif- ferent range of functions and meanings, were more familiar to Augustan spectators. 3ese private images thus tended to contaminate, as it were, the interpretation of Augustan public monuments and therefore deserve our scrutiny.
Aphrodite in Augustan Private Art: !ePleasuresoftheSenses
In the wealthy homes of the Hellenistic and Roman worlds, Aphrodite had long been a familiar presence. On Delos and Kos, for example, scores of Aphrodite statuettes were produced for the purposes of domestic decoration; there they might have been seen by Romans as well as Greeks, since both islands had a strong Italian trading presence from the second century 45 onwards.44 So, too, the Aphrodites found in the Mahdia and Antikythera shipwrecks—reduced in scale, and modeled on famous types such as the Aphrodite of Knidos—likewise testify to the popularity of such images as imports to the Roman market in the 6rst century 45.45 While the statuettes of the love goddess from Pompeii and Herculaneum are more di7cult to date closely, it seems likely that some, at least, were made during the pre-Augustan period.46 PriortotheImperialperiod(startingin 45), few painted Aphrodites are preserved in the archaeological record. 3is is not surprising, given that most Republican wall painting is architectural in character. 3at they do occur is surprising: we have, for example, Aphrodite and Eros
44 Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture,pp.–;VassilikiMachaira,Les Groupes Statuaires d’Aphrodite et d’Eros (Athens, ); Jean Marcadé, Au Musée de Délos (Paris, ), pp. –. 45 For the Antikythera statue, see Delivorrias et al., in LIMC ,p.,s.v.“Aphrodite,” no. ;PeterBol,Die Skulpturen des Schi"sfundes von Antikythera (Berlin, ), pp. – ;forMahdia,(MuséeNationalduBardo,Tunis,inv.N.C), see Hans-Hoyer von Prittwitz und Ga@ron, “Die Marmortondi,” in Das Wrack. Der antike Schi"sfund von Mahdia,ed.GiselaHellenkemperSalies(Cologne,), pp. –. 46 Angelika Dierichs, “Auf den Spuren der Venus: Bilder der Liebesgötten aus Pompeji (Teil ),” Antike Welt (), p. , 6g. ;p., 6g. . #$%&'( )*+,,'# peeking out the door of a wall painting of circa .% from the House of M. Fabius Rufus.47 /ey become much more frequent with the advent of mythological imagery in the Augustan era.48 /efrescoesoftheVillaFarnesina,generallydatedinthelastdecades of the 0rst century .%,o1er an early and particularly high-quality exam- ple of the use of Greek-style Aphrodite images in Augustan painting.49 /eir good preservation throughout the decorative ensemble makes them more useful for analysis than the frescoes of many houses at Pom- peii, where the mythological panels were cut out and brought to the Naples Museum. /eVillaFarnesinapaintingsthusallowustoseehow images of Aphrodite functioned within a larger decorative context, use- ful for reconstructing more fully their functions and meanings. As com- parisons with Pompeian houses show, the Farnesina paintings were not unique, but rather exemplify, in a particularly clear and elegant man- ner, the signi0cant role played by Aphrodite in the decoration of Roman homes. An overview of the topographical context and patronage of the Villa Farnesina is warranted. /eriversidevillaboastedanenviablesite,across from the Campus Martius between Trastevere and the Vatican.50 It has frequently been associated with Agrippa, who had large holdings in the area; the presence in its decorative scheme of a stucco image of Mercury that seems to resemble Augustus has encouraged this interpretation.51 Such a hypothesis is di2cult to prove. Rather than insisting upon a precise identi0cation of the patron, we should instead see the house as exemplary of the elite culture of early principate. /epatron’swealthand cultivated tastes are in any case suggested by the paintings: they are of ahighqualityandrefertoarangeofmythologicalandart-historical references. /escaleofthevillaanditsinnovativeandcomplexplanalso suggest wealth and taste. /e site and plan of the Villa Farnesina, furthermore, indicates its purpose as a suburban pleasure villa. It stood well outside the pomerium,
47 Ibid., p. , 0g. . 48 Jürgen Hodske, Mythologische Bildthemen in den Häusern Pompejis (Ruhpolding, ), pp. –. 49 /ebestintroductiontothepaintingsisBragantiniandVos,Le Decorazioni della Villa Romana della Farnesina,withabundantpreviousbibliography;MariaRitaSanzidi Mino, ed., La Villa della Farnesina in Palazzo Massimo alle Terme (Rome, )isalso useful. 50 Bragantini and Vos, Le Decorazioni della Villa Romana della Farnesina,pp.–. 51 On the issue, see the judicious summary in Bergmann, “Greek Masterpieces and Roman Recreative Fictions,” p. . !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)% the ritual boundary of the city; it has a wealth of rooms, which are oriented towards the Tiber River, with views across to the scenic Campus Martius.52 Inthisrespectitismuchclosertothenewseasidevillasaround the Bay of Naples than to the old-fashioned townhouses exempli4ed by, for example, the House of Augustus on the Palatine.53 5e 4ctive pinacothecae,seenintwoofthecubicula (‘bedrooms’), have “antique” panels, elaborate frames, and fantastic stands that are all illusionistically rendered in fresco.54 Especially noteworthy are the white- ground panels, which in style and technique recall the achievements of 46h-century Greek art.55 5e ancient literary sources suggest that a similar style was deployed in monumental Greek wall paintings, although we have no major preserved examples dating to the 46hcentury78;itis more likely that the Villa Farnesina paintings imitated them rather than vases.56 As in the Augustan Forum, here we see the use of earlier styles for expressive purposes. 5edecorationherealsoassumesacultivated viewer, one able to recognize and appreciate these references to earlier styles. In contrast to the Forum, the excellent preservation of this context means that we can observe how carefully these images in classicizing style are presented in the Villa Farnesina as di9erent, set o9 from their surroundings by framing devices. In their display context, these classicizing Aphrodites of the Villa Farnesina di9er from their public counterparts. 5is is suggested, at any rate, by the appearance of the images, as well as their juxtaposition with other motifs. In cubiculum B, where a white-ground painting of Aphrodite, Eros, and Peitho is the central feature of the south wall, the goddess is shown in a very di9erent milieu from that of the Augustan Forum (4gure .). Seated on an impressive throne, with an ornate headdress, Aphrodite gazes downward at a beautifully detailed ;ower
52 For the plan and location, see di Mino, ed., La Villa della Farnesina in Palazzo Massimo alle Terme,pp.–. 53 On the House of Augustus, see Zanker, !ePowerofImages,pp.–;for seaside villas, see Stefano De Caro, “5eSculpturesoftheVillaofPoppaeaatOplontis: APreliminaryReport,”inAncient Roman Villa Gardens,ed.ElisabethMacDougall (Washington, D.C., ), pp. –. 54 Bergmann, “Greek Masterpieces and Roman Recreative Fictions,” pp. –; Hallett, “Emulation Versus Replication,” pp. –. 55 On the panels, see especially Bergmann, “Greek Masterpieces and Roman Recre- ative Fictions,” pp. –. 5eclosestpreservedparallelsareAthenianwhite-ground vases, particularly lekythoi, on which see John Oakley, Picturing Death in Classical Athens: !eEvidenceoftheWhiteLekythoi(Cambridge, Eng., ). 56 Plin., HN .–;Cic.,Brut. .. $%&'() *+,--($
Figure ..Frescoedwallofcubiculum B, from the Villa Farnesina, Augustan (ca. –0&). Detail showing Aphrodite with Peitho and Eros. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme). Photo courtesy Scala/Art Resource, NY ART. in her right hand. Her son, Eros, is a fully formed but petite winged youth, whose intimate connection to his mother is shown as he stands on her footrest, while their legs touch. Peitho, by contrast, is a full-size young woman, whose costume and gesture, as she leans over the back of the throne, assimilate her to the 4gure of an attendant or maid. 5e !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)% ambiance of the scene appears more sensuous than erotic. Its mood and iconography resemble scenes of women’s life from late 34h-century 56 vase paintings, such as red-3gure scenes attributed to the Meidias and Eretria Painters.57 Just as those scenes appear very frequently on vases made for women, so here one might see the decoration as appropriate for awoman’sbedroom.58 Aphrodite is an imposing model for the mistress of the house.59 Other paintings from the room reinforce the culturally sophisticated atmosphere of the cubiculum,aswellasitsemphasisonwomen’slives.On the west wall, several small white-ground panels display scenes of women making music (3gure .). As with the Aphrodite panel, the absence of men seems to locate the depictions within the women’s quarters. Indeed, this was a favorite subject of late 34h-century 56 vase painting; musical soirées were evidently the sort of elegant pastime considered appropriate for the wealthy women of Classical Athens.60 :ecentralpanelofthe west wall likewise depicts a characteristically feminine activity; here we see a nymph nursing the baby Dionysos, perhaps a prototype for the motherly activities of the room’s inhabitant. :epanelconstitutesa stylistic departure from those considered above. Not linear but painterly, it 3nds its best parallels in Late Classical works such as the mourning Demeter 3gure from the Tomb of Persephone at Vergina.61 :esame style is deployed in the other small narrative panels—which show scenes of erotic play and the theatre—and in the single mythological 3gures incorporated into the room’s decorative scheme, which include Isis as well as Venus. :eensembleofwallpaintingsincubiculum Bdrawonarangeofclas- sicizing styles (from the late 34htofourthcenturies56), juxtaposed so as to highlight, not obscure, stylistic contrast. What uni3es the paintings despite these disparate visual choices is, I would argue, their concern with
57 Burn, !eMeidiasPainter; Adrienne Lezzi-Ha4er, Der Eretria-Maler. Werke und Weggefährten.Kerameus (Mainz, ). 58 Rachel Kousser, “:eWorldofAphroditeinLateFi4hCenturyVasePainting,” in Greek Vases: Images, Contexts, and Controversies,ed.ClementeMarconi.Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition (Leiden, ), pp. –.Seealsothecontribution to this volume by Elizabetta Pala, in chapter . 59 Bragantini and Vos, Le Decorazioni della Villa Romana della Farnesina,pp.–. 60 Claude Bérard, “:e Order of Women,”in ACityofImages:IconographyandSociety in Ancient Greece,ed.ClaudeBérardet.al.(Princeton,), p. . 61 J.J. Pollitt, Art in the Hellenistic Age (Cambridge, Eng., ), pp. –;Manolis Andronikos, Vergina : !e“TombofPersephone”(Athens, ), pls. X–XII. $%&'() *+,--($
Figure ..Frescoedwallofcubiculum B, from the Villa Farnesina, Augustan (ca. –2&). Detail showing nymph nursing the young Dionysos. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme). Photo by Luciano Romano, courtesy Scala/Art Resource, NY ART. women’s lives, as the goddesses and mythological 4gures depicted o5er idealized paradigms of behavior for the cubiculum’sinhabitant. Together, they o5er a vision of her experience of sensual pleasure: not only of look- ing, of course, but also of hearing (the musicians), touching (the baby !"#"$%!& !'()*+,%-$: %(- !..")- */ #)--0 !)% nursing), and even scent (the 4ower Aphrodite holds). 5ey move com- fortably between what we might call the literal and allegorical levels of interpretation, as Aphrodite, accompanied by love and persuasion, is put next to scenes of amorous couples. Nor is this juxtaposition unique to the Villa Farnesina. It is found frequently in Pompeii, for example at the House of Caecilius Iucundus, where a scene of erotic play featuring mor- tal protagonists is depicted in close association with a mythological panel of Mars and Venus.62 Given these associations in art from the private sphere, it is perhaps not surprising that viewers of Augustan public art were inclined to read images like the Mars-Venus group literally, having been conditioned to do so by the walls of their own homes.
Conclusions
In this chapter I have examined classicizing images of Aphrodite in Augustan public art, particularly the Forum Augustum, and contrasted them with the similarly classicizing, but otherwise quite di6erent, Aphrodites of the private sphere, exempli7ed here by the Villa Farnesina. My emphasis has been on analyzing the visual form, styles, and contexts of the monuments in order to appreciate more fully what they meant to their 7rst viewers, and to understand their sudden widespread popularity in the Augustan era. In Augustan public art, they served metaphorically to represent the attractions of the principate. In the private sphere, how- ever, they functioned more literally, as alluring, idealized paradigms of behavior for the villa’s inhabitants. 5ese conclusions o6er an implicit challenge to the current general interpretation of Augustan art. Recent scholars have emphasized the control of the visual sphere by the princeps and have tended to assume that his interpretations of images prevailed.63 My sense is that the actual situation was more 4uid, and the princeps’ control less absolute, than this hypothesis suggests. 5is is particularly the case because the hypothesis focuses on the creation, rather than the reception, of images; there is little discussion in such work of the horizon of expectations that viewers brought to these new images, or of the ways they were conditioned
62 John R. Clarke, Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art, #$–%& (Berkeley, ), pp. –. 63 Zanker, )ePowerofImages,pp.–. $%&'() *+,--($ to understand them.64 .epossibilityofviewersmisunderstandingan image is never entertained, but it seems plausible in the case of the Mars- Venus group. Here I have sought to analyze images from the private sphere as autonomous works of art in their own right; this serves as a usefulcorrectivetopreviousinterpretations,wheretheyseemtofunction too much as re/ections of public monuments and symbols of political allegiance.65 My focus on the autonomy of images from the domestic realm, and on the speci0cally private meanings they might have, is also useful for another reason. It helps to explain why classicizing mythological images had such a hold on Roman viewers, so that they 0lled their homes, their gardens, and eventually their tombs with Aphrodite, Dionysos, and other Greek deities. For such viewers, classicism o1ered not simply an impres- sive, politically acceptable visual style, but a seductive and compelling manner with which to represent their hopes and aspirations. Surrounded by these 0gures from Classical mythology, they could imagine themselves leading a more attractive and exalted existence, beyond the realm of the everyday. A history of Augustan classicizing art that focuses on the role of the princeps ignores too much; we need to incorporate these private patrons and viewers who, with their paintings, their statuettes, and their gems and jewels, testify so emphatically to both the power and the allure of the Classical.66
64 On this issue, the critique of Paul Zanker’s !ePowerofImagesby Andrew Wallace- Hadrill, “Rome’s Cultural Revolution,” Journal of Roman Studies (), p. ,is particularly acute. 65 E.g., Paul Zanker, “Augustan Political Symbolism in the Private Sphere,” in Image and Mystery in the Roman World,ed.JanetHuskinson,MaryBeard,andJoyceReynolds (Gloucester, ), pp. –;Zanker,!ePowerofImages,pp.–. 66 For a more extended argument along these lines, see Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture,pp.–. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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